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thgatear3_pptlecture_ch2-05_20181017.pptxChapter 2.5 Architecture
PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Copyright © 2015 Thames & Hudson
Introduction
Architecture is three-dimensional design that surrounds and influences us
Connects us to our history
Suggests feelings of permanence
Produced by architect, interior designer, and landscape architect
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Buildings inevitably have an effect on people who see or enter them, whether or not they are aware of this
Thoughtful design reflects a building’s function and its intended role in the community
The architect is the master planner who creates a building’s overall design
Sometimes an interior designer is responsible for making the space inside appropriate for the building’s intended use
A landscape architect may be employed to organize the outdoor spaces around the building
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Structure, Function, and Form
Architectural engineers work to create a balance between tension and compression (push equals pull)
Each building material resists compression or tension differently
If balanced correctly, a building can stand for thousands of years
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An architect collects information about the planned location of the building, its place in the community, and its purpose
An architect also selects the appropriate building techniques and decides which materials are needed to construct it
Structural integrity dictates some of the design decisions
For example, wood-frame buildings may require waterproof external cladding to protect the timber from damp and rot
The location, or site, influences the design
Artists must consider the availability and cost of building materials
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Artwork: Süleymaniye mosque
2.5.1 Sinan, Süleymaniye
mosque, 1557, Istanbul, Turkey
Süleymaniye mosque
Designed by Turkish architect Sinan
Elaborate architectural space includes dome and half-domes
Perfectly balanced, enduring design (more than 500 years old)
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The Turkish architect Sinan (1489–1588) was chief architect to the Ottoman court under Sultan Süleyman, who commissioned him to design the magnificent Süleimaniye mosque in Istanbul.
5
Artwork: Fumihiko Maki, Sketch of Four World Trade Center
2.5.2 Fumihiko Maki, Sketch of Four World Trade Center, 2006
Fumihiko Maki, Sketch of Four World Trade Center
Maki's complicated buildings begin from the simplicity of drawing
Design for the New World Trade Center in New York City
Shows how his building will fit in with other buildings by continuing a spiral design
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Fumihiko Maki (b. 1928).
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Artwork: Taos Pueblo
2.5.3 Taos Pueblo, New Mexico, pre-1500
Taos Pueblo
In successful architectural work, the structure reflects the community
Buildings made of adobe brick
Character derives from the available materials (sand and clay)
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Artwork: SoHo lofts
2.5.4 SoHo lofts, New York City
SoHo lofts
People have admired the coherent composition of the forms of New York City's skyscrapers and other types of buildings
Resembles a Cubist painting
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Ancient Construction
Ancient cultures derived their building materials from the earth
Stone, wood, and clay must be modified for use in construction
These raw materials can result in architecture that transcends time
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Basic Load-Bearing Construction
This form of construction follows the direct process of piling one stone or brick on top of another
Massive load-bearing works have been built throughout history
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Artwork: Temple I in the Great Plaza
2.5.5 Temple I in the Great Plaza, Maya, c. 300–900 CE, Tikal, Guatemala
Temple I in the Great Plaza
This is one of hundreds of pyramids found in the Guatemalan rain forest
Maya pyramids served as platforms for temples
A carefully organized stack of stones
Required sophisticated engineering and mathematical skills to construct
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Diagram of Maya pyramid
2.5.6 Basic load-bearing architecture: Maya pyramid
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16
Post-and-Lintel Construction
To create an interior space, an architect must create a span, or a distance between two supports
In basic post-and-lintel construction the lintel rests on top of two posts
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Diagram of Post-and-lintel construction
2.5.7 Post-and-lintel construction
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Artwork: Great Court at Temple of Amun-Re
2.5.8 Great Court at Temple of Amun-Re, Middle Kingdom, c. 950–730 BCE, Karnak, Egypt
Great Court at Temple of Amun-Re
Hypostyle hall, a room created by using a series of columns to support a flat ceiling
Used by Egyptian priests for rituals to worship the god Amun-Re
One of the largest religious structures in the world
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Ancient Egyptian architects built the Temple of Amun-Re at Karnak by placing a series of post-and-lintel spans side by side to create a spacious interior.
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2.5.9 Kallikrates, Temple of Athena Nike, c. 421–415 BCE, Acropolis, Athens, Greece
Artwork: Kallikrates, Temple of Athena Nike
Kallikrates, Temple of Athena Nike
This ancient Greek temple was built using post-and-lintel construction
The architects must have been aware of similar majestic structures in the Nile Valley
Ancient Greek architects adapted the systems invented by the Egyptians
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This ancient Greek temple was designed by Kallikrates
Uses thin variant of the Ionic column
The ancient Greeks made a lasting impact on Western traditions in architectural style
Adopted by the Romans
Influenced Renaissance and Baroque
Revived in the 18th century to celebrate the rise of democracy (in the US and France)
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2.5.10 Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian capitals
Details of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian capitals
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian capitals
Ancient Greek architects standardized the basic column, an essential point of compression to support the weight of a building
Column: capital, shaft, and base
Orders: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian
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The Doric order is characterized by a simple, round “pillow” capital, a wide, heavy shaft, and the original form did not have a base
The Ionic order is capped with a scroll-like shape called a volute, and has a thin shaft and an ornate base
The Corinthian order’s showy capital is made up of two rows of acanthus leaves with four volutes that protrude out near the top; columns are thin and have an ornate base
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Portal Artwork: Diagram of the Classical architectural orders
3.1.21 Diagram of the Classical architectural orders
The use of post-and-lintel architecture by the ancient Greeks can be seen in three distinct styles: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.
25
The Acropolis and Parthenon of Athens
(History/Themes)
To explore further the buildings of the Acropolis complex, watch:
Video:
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Arches in Ancient Architecture
In early architecture, lintels could not span large spaces; stone would snap under heavy pressure
Instead, architects used the arch:
Corbeled (Babylonians, Mycenaeans)
Rounded (perfected by the Romans)
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Corbeled Arch
2.5.11 Corbeled arch
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The stepping inward of successive layers of stonework over the doorway allows for the compression created by the weight of the building to be directed outward through cantilevered (secured at only one end) stones, rather than downward
This reduces the pressure on the structure and allows the architect to design and span larger spaces
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Artwork: Treasury of Atreus
2.5.12 Entrance, Treasury of Atreus, c. 1250 bce, Mycenae, Greece
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Entrance, Treasury of Atreus
Early Greek construction using a corbeled arch
Progressive cantilevering of stones above the lintel
Allows more light to enter the chamber
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Early inhabitants of the Greek coastline experimented with ways to open up interior spaces through the use of corbeled arches
The entrance to the Treasury of Atreus (also called the Tomb of Agamemnon), built around 1250 bce, provides a glimpse into ancient construction
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Arch Construction
2.5.13 Arch construction
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The Romans perfected the rounded arch
More efficient way of distributing compressive stress over the whole of the structure by distributing the weight of the building outward along the entire span of the arc
Its efficiency helped the Romans span wider spaces than any previous architects had managed
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Artwork: Pont du Gard
2.5.14 Pont du Gard, first century CE, Nîmes, France
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Pont du Gard, Nîmes
Ancient Roman structure in southern France: an aqueduct and bridge
No mortar; stones perfectly cut to fit
Benefitted the local community and projected Roman imperial power
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The goal of the aqueduct was to create a consistent downhill path for the water: one inch down for every thirty-three inches along
After conquering an area, the Romans often built aqueducts and roads to allow their armies to move quickly around the new territory
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Vaults
A vault is an arch that has been extended like a long hallway to create an open space overhead
Common example: barrel vault
Can span larger areas of interior space
Important during the European Middle Ages
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Roman architects used three important architectural structures: the arch, vault, and dome.
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Barrel Vault
2.5.15 Barrel vault
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The most common type of vault, the barrel vault, consists of a long, semicircular arch.
35
Church of Sainte-Madeleine
2.5.16 Church of Sainte-Madeleine, 12th century.
Vézelay, France
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Church of Sainte-Madeleine
Romanesque church
A stop on a Christian pilgrimage route
Barrel vaults accommodated large numbers of visitors
Required thick walls; windows must be small (dreary interior)
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The Church of Sainte-Madeleine at Vézelay in France was a stop along the Christian pilgrimage route to the holy church Santiago de Compostela in Spain
Vaulted aisles counteract the outward pressure on the walls and support both sides of the central nave
Dark and gloomy interior spaces due to the need for thick supporting walls
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Diagram of Gothic Architectural Features
2.5.17a Gothic architectural features
Diagram of Gothic architectural construction
2.5.17b Gothic architectural construction, showing flying buttresses
Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, France
2.5.18 Elongated stained-glass windows and soaring rib vaults, Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, France
Abbot Suger and the Dynamics of Gothic Architecture
Abbot Suger believed worshipers:
Should be bathed in divine light
Flying buttresses allowed for large stained-glass windows
Should feel lifted up toward heaven
Pointed arches, rib vaults
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Abbot Suger (1081–1151) had the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, near Paris, France, rebuilt from its original Romanesque style to provide a much grander place for worship
The Abbey Church of Saint-Denis was the national church of France; it housed the remains of the country’s patron saint, Saint Denis, and many French kings
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Portal Artwork: Chartres Cathedral
3.2.25 Chartres Cathedral, completed 1260, France
More about Gothic engineering and the role of flying buttresses can be seen the exterior of Chartres Cathedral, France.
42
The Gothic Cathedral of Chartres
Video (History/Themes)
To explore further the features of Gothic architecture, watch:
Video:
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Domes
Structurally, a dome is like an arch rotated 360 degrees on its vertical axis
Very strong structure
Can span large areas because the weight is dispersed outward toward the walls
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Most dome constructions require the support of thick walls or some other system for distributing the weight.
44
Artwork: Hagia Sophia
2.5.19 Hagia Sophia, 532–35 CE, Istanbul, Turkey
Hagia Sophia, Istanbul
Byzantine structure
Impressive, enormous dome roof
Largest interior space of any cathedral for nearly 1,000 years
Illuminated by clerestory windows
Pendentives transfer the load of the circular dome to four massive pillars
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Abbot Suger had said he wanted his church to be more impressive than the Church of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom) in Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey)
The Hagia Sophia is a magnificent Byzantine (late Roman, with Eastern influences) structure that had already been standing for more than 500 years by Suger’s time
Clerestory windows: a row of windows high up in a church to admit light into the nave
Pendentive: a curving triangular surface that links a dome to a square space below
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Portal Artwork: The Pantheon
3.1.35 Pantheon, interior view, c. 118–125 CE, Rome, Italy
The Pantheon is an iconic Roman domed building that influenced similar structures that came after it.
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Pendentives
2.5.20 Pendentives
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Portal Artwork: Hagia Sophia
3.2.6 Hagia Sophia (exterior), 532–35 CE, Istanbul, Turkey
The Hagia Sophia is an architectural marvel that has pendentives to transition from a round dome to a square support.
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Post-and-Beam (Wooden) Architecture
The post-and-beam construction technique has been used to build some of the world’s finest wooden architecture
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Post-and-beam architecture
2.5.21 Post-and-beam architecture
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Horyu-ji (Horyu Temple)
2.5.22 Horyu-ji (Horyu Temple), Kondo and pagoda, c. 7th century, Nara, Japan
Horyu-ji (Horyu Temple), Kondo and pagoda
First temple in the complex built in 607
Example of the durability of well-constructed wooden buildings
Cross-beams and counter-beams create a series of layers supporting the roof
Enabled impressive height
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The construction of the Horyu-ji complex was the idea of the Japanese emperor Yomei, who hoped to gain spiritual favor so he could recover from illness, but died before work started
In 607 Empress Suiko and Crown Prince Shotoku fulfilled the emperor’s dying wish and built the first temple in the complex
The main building of the complex, the Kondo, is almost 61 feet long by 50 feet wide
The Goju-no-To (Five-story Pagoda) is 122 feet tall
The pagoda’s height was designed to impress rather than serve any practical purpose, since it is not possible to enter the top four floors
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View of the Taj Mahal
2.5.23 View of the Taj Mahal from the Yamuna River, Agra, India
Taj Mahal Support Structure
2.5.24 Diagram illustrating the support structure of the Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal Engineering Eternity
Created as a symbol of love
Masterpiece of Islamic symmetry
Built next to the Yamuna River
River levels are dropping, jeopardizing the wooden support structure
Gateway to Art:
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In 1631, the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan’s third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died in childbirth
Jahan’s grief was so profound he dedicated all of his vast resources to the creation of a mausoleum complex in her honor that would endure throughout eternity
The central dome is 58 feet in diameter and 213 feet tall
Four domed chambers emanate from this central dome, balanced on an octagon-shaped platform
Four towers called minarets, each 162 feet high, frame the corners of the large structure
Because the building was so close to the river, which would rise and fall with the seasons, a clever combination of stone filler material and wooden supports was constructed to hold the foundation in place
Many fear that this building, which has so far transcended time, may not be able to survive the realities of the mortal world for ever; the marble is suffering discoloration from polluted air, and cracks are appearing on the surface
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“The Abode of Paradise”: The Taj Mahal
Video:
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Classical Architectural Styles
Greek and Roman architectural styles
Endured the ravages of time
Inspired Western civilization
Renaissance architects
Revived again in the mid-18th century (Neoclassicism)
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Artwork: Tempietto of San Pietro
2.5.25 Donato Bramante,
Tempietto of San Pietro,
c. 1502. Rome, Italy
Donato Bramante, Tempietto of San Pietro
High Renaissance architect
Built a memorial where St. Peter was believed to have been crucified
Centrally planned church in Rome
Reflects influences from ancient Roman domed structures
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One of the great architects of the High Renaissance who drew inspiration from the ancients was Donato Bramante (1444–1514)
The Tempietto (Italian for “small temple”)
Bramante, like many Renaissance architects, particularly sought to design works that used geometric shapes and forms, such as circles, spheres, and cylinders
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Chiswick House
2.5.26 Lord Burlington, Chiswick House, 1729, Chiswick, London, England
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Lord Burlington, Chiswick House
Neoclassicism (mid-18th century)
Reaction against opulent Baroque and Rococo styles
Gives orderly attention to simple geometric shapes and forms
Inspired by Classical styles, but also integrates contemporary elements
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One of the first expressions of Neoclassical architecture was designed by an English aristocrat named Richard Boyle, better known as Lord Burlington
His design for Chiswick House reflects an interest in the historical beginnings of Western architecture combined with the practical concerns of the 18th century (which are in evidence in the chimneys that straddle the domed central roof)
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The Emergence of the Methods and Materials of the Modern World
In the 19th century, iron, steel, and concrete became commonly used
Architects found new ways to control tension and compression
New materials; new types of buildings
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Stick Style house
2.5.27 Stick Style house using balloon framing, Brockville, Ontario, Canada
Stick Style house
Balloon framing, invented in 1832, commonly used in the US today
Lightweight wooden frames support the structure
Fabricated using power saws
The Stick Style: decorative design, asymmetry with steep roofs
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Cast-Iron Architecture
Cast iron has been available since ancient times
Molten iron can be cast in a mold to almost any shape
It was not until the 18th century that it could be smelted in large quantities for building
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Artwork: Crystal Palace
2.5.28 Joseph Paxton, Crystal Palace, 1851, London. 19th-century engraving
Joseph Paxton, Crystal Palace
Designed for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London
Skeletal cast-iron structure supports glass walls and roof
Inspired other architects to work with iron, including Gustave Eiffel
Destroyed by fire in 1936
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An important example of the use of cast iron during the Industrial Revolution was the Crystal Palace, designed by Sir Joseph Paxton (1803–1865)
The building was more than a third of a mile long; it was completed in only 8 months by 2,000 men; and it used 4,500 tons of cast iron and 990,000 square feet of glass
It was eventually dismantled and reassembled in south London, where it became an exhibition center and concert hall
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Steel-Frame Construction
Steel is a material made from iron and a small quantity of carbon
Stronger than pure iron and had even greater potential
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Wainwright Building
2.5.29 Louis Sullivan, Wainwright Building, 1890–91, St. Louis, Missouri
Louis Sullivan, Wainwright Building
Sullivan, the “father of Modernism”, pioneered the use of steel and the creation of skyscrapers
“Form follows function,” versatile interior space
Exterior of the building reflects the elements of a column
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Louis Sullivan (1856–1924) participated in the rebuilding of Chicago after the Great Fire of 1871
Chicago provided fertile ground for creative young architects, and Sullivan pushed the use of steel frame to new heights
Because the steel frame supports the building, and because it is mostly located at its outer edges, the space of the interior can easily be reconfigured to meet the specific needs of the user
The middle and tallest area shows strong vertical emphasis, with its projecting rectangular-section shafts and high, narrow windows.
The lower section (base) shows little ornamentation and reflects ideas of the time about the frivolous nature of ornament.
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Neue Nationalgalerie
2.5.30 Mies van der Rohe, Neue Nationalgalerie, 1968, Berlin, Germany
Mies van der Rohe, Neue Nationalgalerie
Mies van der Rohe: “Less is more”
Because steel frames carry the load of the building, many Modernist architects realized there was no need to use a facing material (stone, brick)
The entire side of the building could be sheathed in glass
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Adrian Smith and Bill Baker, Burj Khalifa
2.5.31 Adrian Smith and
Bill Baker (Skidmore,
Owings & Merrill),
Burj Khalifa, 2010. Dubai,
United Arab Emirates
Burj Khalifa, Dubai
Became the tallest man-made structure when it opened in 2010
Design was derived from the spiraling minarets of Islamic architecture
Structural framing is tubular steel, making the support lighter
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Designed and built by the architecture and engineering firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill under the supervision of American architect Adrian Smith (b. 1944) and engineer Bill Baker (b. 1953).
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Le Corbusier, Villa Savoye
2.5.32 Le Corbusier, Villa Savoye, 1928–31, Poissy, France
Frank Lloyd Wright, Fallingwater
2.5.33 Frank Lloyd Wright, Fallingwater, 1939, Bear Run, Pennsylvania
Contrasting Ideas in Modern Architecture: Villa Savoye and Fallingwater
Le Corbusier (International Style)
Buildings are a “machine for living”
Inexpensive industrial materials
Strong geometry, unadorned
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Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Le Corbusier’s (1887–1965) Villa Savoye
The Villa Savoye in Poissy, France was completed in 1931 as a weekend residence for a family that lived in Paris during the week
Le Corbusier was a Swiss–French architect
The International Style was promoted as a universal aesthetic form that could be built in any geographical or cultural environment relatively inexpensively
Le Corbusier wanted nature to be viewed from a comfortable vantage point, and believed that buildings should be designed around the lifestyle of the occupants
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Contrasting Ideas in Modern Architecture: Villa Savoye and Fallingwater (contd.)
Frank Lloyd Wright believed in the organic relationship between site and building
Location, materials, design
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Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater
American architect Frank Lloyd Wright (1867–1959) was commissioned to build Fallingwater in Bear Run, Pennsylvania, as a weekend getaway for the Kaufmann family
Wright placed the house right on top of a waterfall
Many of the materials collected from the surrounding countryside
The design mimics the layers in the rocks around the site, and the reinforced concrete is colored to fit in as well
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Frank Lloyd Wright and the Guggenheim Museum
(History/Themes)
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Reinforced Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of cement and ground stone
It is reinforced through the use of a fibrous material or steel rods called rebars; to prevent cracking
Widespread use since the nineteenth century
Poured into a “form”
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Architects began to use reinforced concrete as a way of avoiding the hard, right-angled edges of buildings made from blocks or bricks
In architecture, steel rebar is shaped to the architect’s design specifications; builders make a large wooden mold, and then pour the concrete into the “form”
Reinforced concrete gave rise to shell architecture, which is the use of a solid shell that also provides support for the structure
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Artwork: Sydney Opera House
2.5.34 Jørn Utzon, Sydney Opera House, 1973, Sydney, Australia
Jørn Utzon, Sydney Opera House
Testament to the expressive character of reinforced concrete
The rooflines resemble billowing sails
The “sails” were created over precast ribs and then set into place
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When Danish architect Jørn Utzon (1918–2008) designed the Sydney Opera House, overlooking the harbor of Sydney, Australia, he broke away from Modernist rectangular designs
Owing to a succession of technical problems with this innovative building, the project cost fourteen times its intended budget
As controversy surrounding the project escalated, Utzon resigned nine years before its completion
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The Postmodern Reaction to Modernism
Postmodernism was a new approach to architecture that began in the 1980s
Postmodernism combined the hard rectangles of Modernism with unusual materials and features of styles from the past
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Artwork: Humana Building
2.5.35 Michael Graves, Humana Building, 1985, Louisville, Kentucky
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Michael Graves, Humana Building
Mix of historical styles and references:
Greek: implied columns, portico, cornice and triangular glass structure (pediment)
Baroque: curved portion of the upper building
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The Humana Building in downtown Louisville, Kentucky was designed by American Michael Graves (1934–2015)
Color and texture is varied, unlike the simplicity and purity of Modernism
A piece of Modernist architecture would not include influences from Greek or Baroque architecture because the Modernist idea was to create a new style that was not based on the past
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Artwork: Quadracci Pavilion
2.5.36 Santiago Calatrava, Quadracci Pavilion, Milwaukee Art Museum, Wisconsin, 2001
Santiago Calatrava, Quadracci Pavilion
Exhibition space for contemporary art at the Milwaukee Art Museum
Expresses the character of the site (shores of Lake Michigan)
Reminiscent of ships passing by
Kinetic: a moveable sunscreen slowly rises and lowers, like a flapping bird
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In Postmodernist architecture, form no longer follows function
Sometimes the building seems like a huge toy, a playful exploration of what we expect a building to be
Designed by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava (b. 1951)
A cable-suspended bridge over a beautiful expanse of water also connects the museum to downtown Milwaukee
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Model of Contemporary Arts Center, Cincinnati
2.5.37a Zaha Hadid, Contemporary Arts Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. Study model by the architects, experimenting with different structural ideas
Contemporary Arts Center, Cincinnati
2.5.37b Zaha Hadid,
Contemporary Arts Center,
2003, Cincinnati, Ohio
Zaha Hadid: A Building for Exciting Events
Designed the gallery spaces as a three-dimensional “jigsaw puzzle”; offers organizational flexibility
Visitors are drawn in by the dynamic public space
Seen from the street, the building appears weightless and sculptural
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Perspectives on Art:
Zaha Hadid (b. 1950) was born in Iraq and trained as an architect in London
She describes how an architect thinks about a new building for art exhibitions, performances, and installations in downtown Cincinnati, Ohio
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Currents in Architecture
Concerns over limited resources, energy conservation, and sustainability have become important issues that will shape the future of architecture
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Artwork: Michelle Kaufmann, Glide House
2.5.38 Michelle Kaufmann, Glidehouse, 2004. Marin County, California
Michelle Kaufmann, Glide House
Inexpensive alternative to costly California homes
Based on a prefab module made of sustainable wood
Double pane windows, roof solar cells, recyclable materials
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American architect Michelle Kaufmann (b. 1962)
Was Artist-in-Residence at Google where she worked on new company buildings and developed innovative ideas through research and development
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Portal Artwork: Contemporary Architecture
3.9.32 Michael Graves, Portland Public Services Bulding, 1980–82, Portland, Oregon
For more information about the roots of contemporary architecture see: 3.9.16, p.543.
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Architecture
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Ancient Rome: Capital of an Empire
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Architecture Videos
To explore the construction of some more of the greatest buildings in the world, watch:
St. Peter’s Basilica and the Sistine Chapel
Teotihuacan:
Ancient Mexico’s “Place of the Gods”
Video:
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Chapter 2.5 Copyright Information
This concludes the PowerPoint slide set for Chapter 2.5
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts
Third Edition
By Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields
Copyright © 2015 Thames & Hudson
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Picture Credits for Chapter 2.5
2.5.1 © Jon Arnold Images Ltd/Alamy
2.5.2 Maki and Associates. Courtesy Silverstein Properties
2.5.3 iStockphoto.com
2.5.4 iStockphoto.com
2.5.5 DeAgostini Picture Library/Scala, Florence
2.5.6 Ralph Larmann
2.5.7 Ralph Larmann
2.5.8 Bridgeman Art Library
2.5.9 Index/Bridgeman Art Library
2.5.10 top to bottom: A. Vergani/DeAgostini Picture Library/Diomedia.com; Marco Simoni/imagebroker RM/Diomedia; Photo © Spyros Arsenis/123RF.com
2.5.11 Ralph Larmann
2.5.12 © Natalia Pavlova/Dreamstime.com
2.5.13 Ralph Larmann
2.5.14 © Christophe Boisvieux/Corbis
2.5.15 Ralph Larmann
2.5.16 Photo Scala, Florence
2.5.17a Ralph Larmann
2.5.17b Ralph Larmann
2.5.18 © John Kellerman/Alamy Stock Photo
2.5.19 © Robert Harding Picture Library Ltd/Alamy
2.5.20 Ralph Larmann
2.5.21 Ralph Larmann
2.5.22 © Photo Japan/Alamy
2.5.23 © Martindata/Dreamstime.com
2.5.24 Ralph Larmann
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Picture Credits for Chapter 2.5 (contd.)
2.5.25 SuperStock
2.5.26 © Anthony Shaw/Dreamstime.com
2.5.27 Photo Shannon Kyles, ontarioarchitecture.com
2.5.29 Photo Sandak Inc, Stamford, CT
2.5.30 © Interfoto/Alamy
2.5.31 © Jose Fuste Raga/Corbis
2.5.32 © Bildarchiv Monheim GmbH/Alamy
2.5.33 © Richard A. Cooke/Corbis
2.5.34 © Free Agents Limited/Corbis
2.5.35 Photo courtesy Michael Graves & Associates
2.5.36 © Chuck Eckert/Alamy
2.5.37a Courtesy Zaha Hadid Architects
2.5.37b © Roland Halbe/artur
2.5.38 Photo © John Swain
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Doric Order Ionic Order Corinthian Order
acroterion
metope triglyph
architrave
abacus echinus
necking
stylobate
stereobate
pediment
gable raking
cornice cornice
frieze
entablature
capital
shaft
base
molding
dentil
volute
acanthus leaf
volute
