Art Appreciation
77foxtrotChapter 1.4 Color
PART 1
FUNDAMENTALS
Copyright © 2015 Thames & Hudson
Introduction
Color is the most vivid element of art
Attracts our attention and excites our emotions
Perceptions of color are personal and subjective
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Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields
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Chapter 1.4 Color
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Color and Light
We cannot perceive color without light
White light can be separated into the visible spectrum using a prism
Each color has a different wavelength
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Light consists of energy that travels in waves
The distance between the peak of each wave is its wavelength
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Diagram of a Prism
1.4.1 White light can be separated into the visible spectrum using a prism
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Color and Pigment
The colors we see in objects are the colors that are reflected back
Other colors of the spectrum are absorbed by the pigment in the object
Reflected color excites nerve cells in our eyes and is interpreted by our brain
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For example, if the surface of a sweater contains blue pigment, when white light reaches that surface, all the other colors in the spectrum are absorbed by the pigment, and only blue is reflected back.
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Diagram of Light Reflection
1.4.2 White light reaches a blue object and blue light is reflected
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Additive and Subtractive Color
Mixing colored beams of light is called additive (adding colors = lighter results)
Mixing pigments is called subtractive color (adding colors = darker results)
In pigment mixtures, more of the spectrum is absorbed (or subtracted)
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7
Artwork: Charles Csuri, Wondrous Spring
1.4.3 Charles Csuri, Wondrous Spring, 1992. Computer image, 4' × 5'5"
Charles Csuri, Wondrous Spring
The digital artist Csuri created this image on a computer
To be viewed on video display
Made visible by numerous additive combinations of red, green, and blue light
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Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields
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The digital artist Charles Csuri (b. 1922) has been creating imagery on computers since 1963
A pioneer in the merging of art with scientific innovations in computer technology, Csuri has explored and helped develop the digital realm as a viable art medium
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Color Wheels
Used by artists, color wheels have been produced since the 18th century by scientists and color theorists
Displays important information about hue relationships (a “map”)
Different color wheels for pigment (subtractive) and light (additive)
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Twelve-step Color Wheel
1.4.4 Traditional twelve-step color wheel using “artist’s colors”
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Twelve-step Color Wheel
Primary colors: red, yellow, blue (cannot be created by mixing any other two colors)
Secondary colors: orange, green, violet (mixing two primaries)
Tertiary colors: e.g. red-violet (mixing a primary and secondary)
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The primary colors are known as “artist’s colors”
Gray is in the center of the wheel
In theory, a perfect subtractive mix of primaries should result in a perfect black, which absorbs all the colors of the spectrum
In practice, when an artist mixes all the colors, the result is a brownish gray
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Artwork: Vasily Kandinsky, Yellow-Red-Blue
1.4.5 Vasily Kandinsky, Yellow-Red-Blue, 1925. Oil on canvas, 50⅜ × 79¼".
Musée National d’Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
Vasily Kandinsky, Yellow-Red-Blue
Kandinsky uses primary colors plus black and white
He intended to simplify and celebrate art in its purest sense
Primary colors produce the purest color because they are not created by mixing other colors
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Russian artist Vasily Kandinsky (1866–1944) appropriately titled this work Yellow-Red-Blue.
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Color Wheel of CMY Pigments
1.4.6 Cyan, Magenta, Yellow (CMY) pigment twelve-color wheel with black center
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Color Wheel of CMY Pigments
This wheel maps subtractive color combinations
Pigment mixture of cyan, magenta, and yellow results in a “true” black
Used by designers for printing purposes
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Although red, yellow, and blue are the traditional basic hues of pigment, scientific discoveries in physics have provided a new set of primaries
The entire spectrum of white light is absorbed (subtracted) in a combination of cyan, magenta, and yellow pigments, so not a single segment of the spectrum is reflected
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Subtractive Color Mixtures
1.4.7 Subtractive color mixtures using CMY primaries. When the three colors are perfectly layered together, the result is black
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Artwork: Analia Saban, Layer Painting (CMY): Flowers
1.4.8 Analia Saban, Layer Painting (CMY): Flowers, 2008. Acrylic and screen printing ink on canvas, 36 × 36 × 1½". Thomas Solomon Gallery
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Analia Saban, Layer Painting (CMY): Flowers
Saban seeks to “debunk” traditional beliefs about color
Mixes red from magenta and yellow
CMY are already the accepted colors used in design and commercial printing
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Color Wheel of RGB Light
1.4.9 Red, green, blue (RGB) light twelve-color wheel with white center (primary mixture)
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Color Wheel of RGB Light
This wheel maps additive color combinations that are used for mixing light
Primary colors: red, green, blue
Secondary colors: cyan, yellow, magenta
Tertiary colors: mixture of a primary and secondary (e.g. red-magenta)
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Chapter 1.4 Color
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White is in the center of the wheel
Helpful for digital artists
We call the mixture of colors in light “additive color,” because each time a color of light is added to a mixture it gets lighter, until eventually it results in white
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Additive Color Mixtures
1.4.10 Additive color mixtures using red, green, and blue (RGB) primaries
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Dynamics of Color
Color wheels can be a guide to the many attributes of color and how to use them
Two aspects of color that can be seen by looking at color wheels:
Complementary color
Analogous color
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Complementary Color
These colors can be found on opposite sides of a color wheel
When mixed, produce gray (or black)
When painted side by side, they intensify one another
Their wavelengths are very different; creates the illusion of vibrating edges
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Color Combinations and Complements
1.4.11 Color combinations and color complements in pigment
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When the eye tries to compensate for the different wavelengths of two complementary colors, we tend to see each color more vibrantly than when we see them separately.
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Complementary Colors
1.4.12 Makeup artists’ guide to complementary colors
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Make-up artists, whose work involves making their clients’ eyes show to maximum effect, will apply an eyeshadow with red undertones to green eyes.
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Artwork: Frederic Edwin Church, Twilight in the Wilderness
1.4.13 Frederic Edwin Church, Twilight in the Wilderness,1860.
Oil on canvas, 40 × 64". Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio
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Frederic Edwin Church, Twilight in the Wilderness
Church's use of complementary colors create dramatic effect
Red-orange clouds complement the blue-green evening sky
The use of powerful color reveals Church’s awe and respect for the American landscape
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American landscape painter Frederic Edwin Church (1826–1900) gives magnificence to a quiet landscape.
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Analogous Color
These colors are adjacent to each other on the color wheel
Similar in wavelength
Create color unity and harmony
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Artwork: Mary Cassatt, The Boating Party
1.4.14 Mary Cassatt, The Boating Party, 1893–94. Oil on canvas, 35⅜ × 46⅛".
National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
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Mary Cassatt, The Boating Party
The analogous color palette (yellows, greens, blues) creates a harmonious, relaxed effect
Cassatt was one of the few female members of the Impressionist group
Impressionists shared an interest in the effects of light and color
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American artist Mary Cassatt (1844–1926)
Cassatt was the only American member of the Impressionists
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Key Characteristics of Color
All colors have four basic properties:
Hue
Value
Chroma
Tone
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Properties of Color: Hue
Hue is the general classification of a color, as seen in the visible spectrum
Red, yellow, blue, green, orange, and violet are hues
We associate a hue with an ideal version of a given color
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When many of us refer to “the color orange” we are really referring to the hue orange
The hue orange is usually associated with a bright, warm, intense orange color
So, when we use the term “hue,” we most often are making associations with a brilliant color
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Artwork: Kane Kwei, Coffin in the Shape of a Cocoa Pod
1.4.15 Kane Kwei, Coffin in the Shape of a Cocoa Pod (Coffin Orange), c. 1970. Polychrome wood, 2'10" × 8'6" × 2'5". Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco
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Kane Kwei, Coffin in the Shape of a Cocoa Pod
Kwei painted this coffin with a brilliant, intentionally exaggerated, mid-hue orange
Bright colors add to the celebratory mood of funerals in Ghana
Commissioned by a cocoa farmer who wanted to express his lifelong passion at his funeral
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African sculptor Kane Kwei’s (1922–1992) career started when his dying uncle asked him to build him a boat-shaped coffin
Others in the community began to ask for coffins in interesting shapes
Ghanaians believe that having lots of happy people at a funeral gives solace to the family of the deceased
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Properties of Color: Value
Each hue has a value, meaning its relative lightness or darkness compared to another hue
A tint is a color lighter in value than its purest state
A shade is a color darker in value
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Tints imply that the color has been mixed with white
Shades imply that the color has been mixed with black
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Color-value Relationships
1.4.16 Color–value relationships
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The purest values, compared with those visible in the spectrum, are indicated by the black outline
Grayscale values are described as neutral, meaning there is an absence of color
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Artwork: Mark Tansey, Picasso and Braque
1.4.17 Mark Tansey, Picasso and Braque, 1992. Oil on canvas, 5'4" × 7'
Mark Tansey, Picasso and Braque
A work that uses only one hue is called monochromatic
An artist can give variety to such a work by using a range of values
References Picasso and Braque, who referred to each other as Orville and Wilbur in the early days of Cubism
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Many of American Mark Tansey’s (b. 1949) large paintings are monochromatic
The flying machine resembles an early Cubist collage
The monochromatic palette is reminiscent of early black-and-white photos of the Wright Brothers’ experiments with flight
The blue tone refers to Picasso’s Blue Period
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Artwork: Pablo Picasso, The Old Guitarist
1.4.18 Pablo Picasso, The Old Guitarist, 1903–4. Oil on panel, 48⅖× 32½", Art Institute of Chicago, Illinois
Pablo Picasso, The Old Guitarist
This painting features a color palette of blues, browns, and grays that Picasso used during his Blue Period
Colors create a sad and somber mood
The use of different values create a realistically modeled figure
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Picasso’s The Old Guitarist was painted during 1901–4, a time of poverty and personal depression after the suicide of a good friend.
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Properties of Color: Chroma
We tend to associate a color with its purest state, its highest level of chroma
Refers to the strength or weakness of a color
Sometimes described as saturation, chromaticness, or intensity
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When we think of the color yellow, we often imagine something strong, bright, and intense
There are many shades of yellow, however
Mustard yellow, which has a brownish tone, has a weaker chroma because the intensity of the color is less than the purest hue
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Artwork: Barnett Newman, Vir Heroicus Sublimis
1.4.19 Barnett Newman, Vir Heroicus Sublimis, 1950, 1951. Oil on canvas, 7'11⅜" × 17’8¼". MoMA, New York
Barnett Newman, Vir Heroicus Sublimis
The visual impact of this painting relies on value and strong chroma
Subtle variations in the strong red hues; narrow vertical lines (“zips”) alternate in color
Newman wants viewers to be engulfed by color
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The title of this work by American Barnett Newman (1905–1970) is Latin for “heroic sublime man”
Parts of the painting appear separately lit
The square area in the center of this painting suggests Newman’s idealistic vision of the perfectibility of humankind
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Artwork: André Derain, The Turning Road, L’Estaque
1.4.20 André Derain, The Turning Road, L’Estaque, 1906. Oil on canvas, 4'3" × 6'4¾".
Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Texas
André Derain, The Turning Road, L’Estaque
Derain's use of vivid color makes the scene glow with energy and vitality
The Fauves
French for “wild beasts”
Used colors in their purest and strongest states as an act of defiance against the Academy
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French artist André Derain’s (1880–1954) painting is energized by high chroma and color complements that intensify adjacent colors when seen close together
The Academy was a state-sponsored school of art that set rigid rules for acceptable standards for art at the turn of the twentieth century
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Properties of Color: Tone
Tone is the weaker chromatic state of any hue
A hue that is almost gray is a tone, because it has been dulled from its brightest, most pure, state
A tone (low chroma) may be similar in value to a hue at its most intense state (highest chroma)
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Chroma, Tone, Shades, and Tints
1.4.21 Sampling of chroma, tone, shades, and tints in green hue
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Chroma is a term that also describes the purity of a hue derived from the spectrum of pure white light
Green at its highest chroma is closest to its pure state in the spectrum of light
When a color is in its strongest chromatic state, it has no tints or shades
A muted tone, whatever its hue, is less intense as it gets further from the purity of its spectral origin
A pastel-green tone and a dark-green tone would each have a restricted value of green, but a grayed-green hue that is just as dark as the original green would also have a low chroma
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Artwork: Paul Klee, Ancient Sound
1.4.22 Paul Klee, Ancient Sound, 1925. Oil on cardboard, 15 × 15". Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland
Paul Klee, Ancient Sound
In Ancient Sound Klee associates the tonal qualities of color with sound; for example, yellows are similar to bright, high-pitched noises
Dark tones are similar to deep, low sounds
Klee was both an artist and violinist
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Swiss artist Paul Klee (1879–1940), organized a grid full of colors that vary in tone and create contrast
Like the changing notes in a piece of music, the chroma of these colors rises and falls
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The Sensation of Color
Some colors are associated with emotional states (e.g. feeling “blue”)
Color temperature is based on our associations with warmth and coolness (e.g. red is hot)
Color can affect the way we see (the illusion of optical color)
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Color Temperature
We associate color with temperature because of our previous experiences
Relative to colors nearby
Used by artists to communicate physical and emotional states
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Our perception of color temperature can be altered if placed next to an analogous color
For example, green, a color we might associate with coolness, can be warm if we see it next to a cooler color, such as blue
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Artwork: Mosque lamp from the Dome of the Rock
1.4.23 Mosque lamp from the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, 1549. Iznik pottery, height 15". British Museum, London, England
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Mosque lamp from the Dome of the Rock
The colors blue and green reflect the meditative atmosphere of a holy place
In Islamic art, green has positive associations and supports the peacefulness of prayer
Many people associate green and blue with passive environments
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The blue and green are placed on a white ground for contrast.
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Optical Color
Colors that our minds create are based on the information we can perceive
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Optical Color Mixing Effect
1.4.24 Two squares, one filled with red and blue dots and the other with red and yellow dots to create optical color mixing effect
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The square on the left contains so many red and blue dots that our brain interprets them as a violet color
In the square on the right, red and yellow dots are interpreted as an orange tone
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Artwork: Georges Seurat, The Circus
1.4.25a Georges Seurat, The Circus, 1890–91. Oil on canvas, 6'⅞" × 4'11⅞". Musée d’Orsay, Paris, France
Detail of Georges Seurat, The Circus
1.4.25b Detail of Georges Seurat, The Circus
Georges Seurat, The Circus
Pointillism is the use of small dots of color, painted close together
Our eyes see the colors differently through optical mixing
Colors appear more intense because they retain their individual intensity
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Georges Seurat’s (1859–1891) The Circus produces a jewel-like diffusion of light
The illusion of visual vibrations between the colors make it visually exciting
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Georges Seurat: Sunday on La Grande Jatte
Video:
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Color Theory and Deception
We can be deceived by a color because of the influences of color adjacent to it
Color theorist Johannes Itten looked for ideal color combinations
Theorist Josef Albers described some of these color deceptions in his experiments:
for example, he created illustrations of how one color can look like two
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Josef Albers was a teacher of color theory and design at the Bauhaus in Germany, Black Mountain College, and Yale
Johannes Itten was a painter, designer, and teacher at the Bauhaus, a school of art that focused on Modernist ideas in twentieth-century Germany
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Josef Albers, Two Colors Look Like One
1.4.26a Josef Albers, Two Colors Look Like One, State A. From Interaction of Color, Ch. IV, plate 1
1.4.26b Josef Albers, Two Colors Look Like One, State B. From Interaction of Color, Ch. IV, plate 2
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If you look at state A, the brown squares on either side of the horizontal center stripes look distinctly different
But when the blue and yellow center stripes are removed, we see that the different browns are actually exactly the same
By changing adjacent colors, our perception of colors can be changed
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Interpreting Color Symbolism
Color and our cultural beliefs about color can affect how we think and feel
Studies show that color can affect human behavior
Colors also have traditional symbolic values
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Faber Birren, a color psychologist, found that when people are constantly exposed to red light they often become loud, grow argumentative, and eat voraciously
It appears that red can influence aggression in our behavior
We also make associations between colors and language
We might call a severe depression a “black” mood, or, when we don’t want to upset someone, tell “white” lies
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Interpreting Color Symbolism (contd.)
The color green has positive associations for Muslims
Buddha wore yellow or gold
Jews and Christians associate the color blue with God (the Virgin Mary is most frequently depicted wearing blue)
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Symbolism in the Wu Xing (Theory of Five Elements)
1.4.28 Chart of the colors, or “qing,” representative of the Five Virtues and other associated symbols
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Black, white, red, yellow, and green-blue were established as the colors representing these five basic elements
Wu Xing was a philosophy that sought to explain how change affects the cosmos through five elements: water, metal, fire, earth, and wood
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Artwork: Tray in the form of a plum blossom with birds and flowers
1.4.27 Tray in the form of a plum blossom with birds and flowers, China, Late Southern Song Dynasty, c. 1200–1279. Carved red lacquer on wood core, 7⅜" diameter. Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA), California
The color red represents fire and the direction south; it is also symbolic of warmth, good luck, and happiness.
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Tray in the form of a plum blossom with birds and flowers
This tray features many of the traditional symbols associated with the color red of the Wu Xing
The Vermillion (a shade of red) Bird represents one of four constellation symbols seen in the night sky over China
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The two long-tailed birds could be phoenixes; they may also remind us of the “Vermillion Bird”
The Chinese word for “long life” (shou) is similar to that for “long-tailed birds” (dai-shou), associating the work with blessings of longevity
The Vermillion Bird is linked with one of the constellations in the southern night sky that can be seen during the summer months
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Portal Artwork: Painted banner from tomb of Lady Dai
3.3.12 Painted banner from tomb of Lady Dai Hou Fu-ren, Han Dynasty, c. 168 BCE. Silk, length 80½", width at top 36", width at bottom 18¾". Hunan Museum, Changsha, China
An example of the elemental colors of ancient China can be found in Painted banner from tomb of Lady Dai Hou Fu-ren
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The Psychology of Color
Color can alter the way we feel and react; for example, red may provoke passion or anger
Some reactions are culturally biased:
In Western cultures blue is paired with masculinity, while in China it is associated with femininity
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Some ancient cultures, such as the Egyptians and Chinese, used colors for healing
The ancient Persian philosopher Avicenna created a chart that associated color with medical symptoms and their treatment
For example, it was believed that a bleeding open wound would be aggravated by the presence of red, but if the patient was exposed to blue (by simply looking at it) the effect would be beneficial
An example of culturally biased psychological associations of culture: in the United States blue is paired with masculinity, but in China it is associated with the feminine
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Artwork: Vincent van Gogh, The Night Café
1.4.29 Vincent van Gogh, The Night Café, 1888. Oil on canvas, 28½ × 36¼".
Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut
Vincent van Gogh, The Night Café
The colors used by Van Gogh express his sense that this nightspot had a detrimental psychological influence on its patrons
Fierce red, feverish yellow, and sickly green convey feelings of unease and sorrow
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Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) was plagued by periods of deep depression and was hospitalized on many occasions
Through his treatment he learned a great deal about psychology
The colors in this painting are not taken from life
In a letter to his brother Theo, Van Gogh writes about the work, “I have tried to express with red and green the terrible passions of human nature”
In addition to the lurid hues, the strange, lurching perspective in the room opens up irregular spaces that intensify the painting’s lonely atmosphere
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Vincent van Gogh, Starry Night
To learn about another artwork by Vincent van Gogh, watch this video of a MoMA lecturer talking about Starry Night:
MoMA Video
MoMA Video:
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Vincent van Gogh in His Own Words
Video:
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Artwork: Chemi Rosado-Seijo, El Cerro
1.4.30 Chemi Rosado-Seijo, El Cerro, 2003 (started 2002).
Collaboration, Naranjito, Puerto Rico
Chemi Rosado-Seijo, El Cerro
This work is a collaboration between the artist and the local community
Residents decided to paint their homes different shades of green, showing respect for the surrounding mountainous environment
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The work helped to unify the community and promote programs that support positive changes, such as the creation of a space that is both a museum and classroom, as well as the establishment of a community center.
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Expressive Aspects of Color
Artists sometimes want viewers to “feel” an artwork, rather than merely understand it
Color can express a wide range of emotions
Artists can use color to engage the viewer and suggest meaning
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Artists and designers know that the bright yellow of a happy-face symbol attracts our attention and lifts our spirits
They may use blue around the image of a political candidate to suggest traditional values, or green as an identifier of environmental awareness
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Artwork: Henri Matisse, Open Window, Collioure
1.4.31 Henri Matisse,
Open Window, Collioure, 1905. Oil on canvas, 21¾ × 18⅛". National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Henri Matisse, Open Window, Collioure
Matisse, an influential member of the Fauves, focused on the expressive use of color
Used color intensely to reveal the rich character of painting
Complementary pairs enhance the painting, resulting in vibrant color
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French artist Henri Matisse (1869–1954)
In this work he used pairs of complementary color combinations to enhance the painting, for example:
The orange and blue boats, through the window
The red-pink wall on the right paired with the greenish-blue one on the left
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Henri Matisse, Red Studio
To learn about another artwork by Henri Matisse, watch this video of a MoMA lecturer talking about Red Studio:
MoMA Video
MoMA Video:
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Artwork: Paul Gauguin, The Yellow Christ
1.4.32 Paul Gauguin, The Yellow Christ, 1889. Oil on canvas, 36¼ × 27⅞".
Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York
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Paul Gauguin, The Yellow Christ
Gauguin's color choice is symbolic as it expresses the optimism of rebirth
Through color he connects the crucifixion of Christ to the seasons of Earth and the cycle of life
Bright color creates a simple and emotional connection with the viewer
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The French painter Paul Gauguin (1848–1903) used yellow for its uplifting associations
He painted this scene—a deliberately populist portrayal of folk spirituality—while in Brittany, France
Three women in traditional Breton dress attend the crucifixion
He was inspired by a woodcarving in a local chapel
Yellows and browns correspond to the colors of the surrounding autumnal countryside, harvested fields, and turning leaves
Gauguin’s color palette relates the background natural world to the body on the cross, so that our gaze too is drawn in and upward
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Artwork: Hilma af Klint, Group IV, No. 7, Adulthood
1.4.33 Hilma af Klint, Group IV, No. 7, Adulthood, 1907. Tempera on paper mounted on canvas, 10'4½" × 7'8½". Moderna Museet, Stockholm, Sweden
Hilma af Klint, Group IV, No. 7, Adulthood
According to af Klint, the designs and colors used in her work were directed by a spirit whom she contacted during séances
Use of strong yellow represents light and the knowledge that one achieves with adulthood
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Klint may not have intended for viewers to understand completely her paintings and their symbolism—in fact, she requested that her works not be shown publicly until twenty years after her death.
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Artwork: Kondratowicz, TRASH maximalism NYC (Harlem)
1.4.34 Adrian Kondratowicz, TRASH maximalism NYC (Harlem), TRASH project, 2008–
Kondratowicz, TRASH maximalism NYC (Harlem)
Kondratowicz asked his Harlem neighbors to look at trash differently
Distributed bright pink, rodent-repellent, biodegradable trash bags
Elicits a positive emotion from the community
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Color has always been used expressively by artists and designers, sometimes to change the way that a viewer feels about his or her surroundings.
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Chapter 1.4 Copyright Information
This concludes the PowerPoint slide set for Chapter 1.4
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts
Third Edition
By Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields
Copyright © 2015 Thames & Hudson
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Chapter 1.4 Color
Picture Credits for Chapter 1.4
1.4.1 Ralph Larmann
1.4.2 Ralph Larmann
1.4.3 Courtesy Charles Csuri
1.4.4 Ralph Larmann
1.4.5 akg-images
1.4.6 Ralph Larmann
1.4.7 Ralph Larmann
1.4.8 Photo Joshua White. Courtesy the artist and Thomas Solomon Gallery, Los Angeles. © Analia Saban 2008
1.4.9, 1.4.10, 1.4.11, 1.4.12 Ralph Larmann
1.4.13 Cleveland Museum of Art, Mr. and Mrs. William H. Marlatt Fund, 1965.233
1.4.14 National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., Chester Dale Collection, 1963.10.94
1.4.15 Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco, Gift of Vivian Burns, Inc., 74.8
1.4.16 Ralph Larmann
1.4.17 © Mark Tansey. Courtesy Gagosian Gallery, New York
1.4.18 The Art Institute of Chicago, Illinois/Helen Birch Bartlett Memorial Collection/Bridgeman Images. © Succession Picasso/DACS, London 2018
1.4.19 Museum of Modern Art, New York, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Ben Heller, 240.1969. Photo 2012, Museum of Modern Art, New York/Scala, Florence. © The Barnett Newman Foundation, New York/DACS, London 2018
1.4.20 The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Gift of Audrey Jones Beck. © ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2018;
1.4.21 Ralph Larmann
1.4.22 Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland
1.4.23 British Museum, London
1.4.24 Ralph Larmann
1.4.25a Musée d’Orsay, Paris
1.4.25b Musée d’Orsay, Paris
1.4.26a © Yale University Press
1.4.26b © Yale University Press
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Chapter 1.4 Color
Picture Credits for Chapter 1.4 (contd.)
1.4.27 Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA), California. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Sam K. Lee, M.86.330 (www.lacma.org)
1.4.29 Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Bequest of Stephen Carlton Clark, B.A. 1903, 1961.18.34
1.4.30 Photo Edwin Medina. Courtesy the artist and Embajada Gallery
1.4.31 National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Collection of Mr. and Mrs. John Hay Whitney, 1998.74.7. © Succession H. Matisse/DACS 2018
1.4.32 Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York, General Purchase Funds, 1946
1.4.33 Photo Albin Dahlström/Moderna Museet-Stockholm. Courtesy Hilma af Klint Foundation
1.4.34 Courtesy the artist
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Chapter 1.4 Color