Art Appreciation

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Chapter 1.4 Color

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Copyright © 2015 Thames & Hudson

Introduction

Color is the most vivid element of art

Attracts our attention and excites our emotions

Perceptions of color are personal and subjective

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Color and Light

We cannot perceive color without light

White light can be separated into the visible spectrum using a prism

Each color has a different wavelength

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Light consists of energy that travels in waves

The distance between the peak of each wave is its wavelength

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Diagram of a Prism

1.4.1 White light can be separated into the visible spectrum using a prism

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Color and Pigment

The colors we see in objects are the colors that are reflected back

Other colors of the spectrum are absorbed by the pigment in the object

Reflected color excites nerve cells in our eyes and is interpreted by our brain

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For example, if the surface of a sweater contains blue pigment, when white light reaches that surface, all the other colors in the spectrum are absorbed by the pigment, and only blue is reflected back.

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Diagram of Light Reflection

1.4.2 White light reaches a blue object and blue light is reflected

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Additive and Subtractive Color

Mixing colored beams of light is called additive (adding colors = lighter results)

Mixing pigments is called subtractive color (adding colors = darker results)

In pigment mixtures, more of the spectrum is absorbed (or subtracted)

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Artwork: Charles Csuri, Wondrous Spring

1.4.3 Charles Csuri, Wondrous Spring, 1992. Computer image, 4' × 5'5"

Charles Csuri, Wondrous Spring

The digital artist Csuri created this image on a computer

To be viewed on video display

Made visible by numerous additive combinations of red, green, and blue light

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The digital artist Charles Csuri (b. 1922) has been creating imagery on computers since 1963

A pioneer in the merging of art with scientific innovations in computer technology, Csuri has explored and helped develop the digital realm as a viable art medium

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Color Wheels

Used by artists, color wheels have been produced since the 18th century by scientists and color theorists

Displays important information about hue relationships (a “map”)

Different color wheels for pigment (subtractive) and light (additive)

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Twelve-step Color Wheel

1.4.4 Traditional twelve-step color wheel using “artist’s colors”

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Twelve-step Color Wheel

Primary colors: red, yellow, blue (cannot be created by mixing any other two colors)

Secondary colors: orange, green, violet (mixing two primaries)

Tertiary colors: e.g. red-violet (mixing a primary and secondary)

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The primary colors are known as “artist’s colors”

Gray is in the center of the wheel

In theory, a perfect subtractive mix of primaries should result in a perfect black, which absorbs all the colors of the spectrum

In practice, when an artist mixes all the colors, the result is a brownish gray

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Artwork: Vasily Kandinsky, Yellow-Red-Blue

1.4.5 Vasily Kandinsky, Yellow-Red-Blue, 1925. Oil on canvas, 50⅜ × 79¼".

Musée National d’Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, France

Vasily Kandinsky, Yellow-Red-Blue

Kandinsky uses primary colors plus black and white

He intended to simplify and celebrate art in its purest sense

Primary colors produce the purest color because they are not created by mixing other colors

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Russian artist Vasily Kandinsky (1866–1944) appropriately titled this work Yellow-Red-Blue.

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Color Wheel of CMY Pigments

1.4.6 Cyan, Magenta, Yellow (CMY) pigment twelve-color wheel with black center

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Color Wheel of CMY Pigments

This wheel maps subtractive color combinations

Pigment mixture of cyan, magenta, and yellow results in a “true” black

Used by designers for printing purposes

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Although red, yellow, and blue are the traditional basic hues of pigment, scientific discoveries in physics have provided a new set of primaries

The entire spectrum of white light is absorbed (subtracted) in a combination of cyan, magenta, and yellow pigments, so not a single segment of the spectrum is reflected

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Subtractive Color Mixtures

1.4.7 Subtractive color mixtures using CMY primaries. When the three colors are perfectly layered together, the result is black

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Artwork: Analia Saban, Layer Painting (CMY): Flowers

1.4.8 Analia Saban, Layer Painting (CMY): Flowers, 2008. Acrylic and screen printing ink on canvas, 36 × 36 × 1½". Thomas Solomon Gallery

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Analia Saban, Layer Painting (CMY): Flowers

Saban seeks to “debunk” traditional beliefs about color

Mixes red from magenta and yellow

CMY are already the accepted colors used in design and commercial printing

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Color Wheel of RGB Light

1.4.9 Red, green, blue (RGB) light twelve-color wheel with white center (primary mixture)

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Color Wheel of RGB Light

This wheel maps additive color combinations that are used for mixing light

Primary colors: red, green, blue

Secondary colors: cyan, yellow, magenta

Tertiary colors: mixture of a primary and secondary (e.g. red-magenta)

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White is in the center of the wheel

Helpful for digital artists

We call the mixture of colors in light “additive color,” because each time a color of light is added to a mixture it gets lighter, until eventually it results in white

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Additive Color Mixtures

1.4.10 Additive color mixtures using red, green, and blue (RGB) primaries

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Dynamics of Color

Color wheels can be a guide to the many attributes of color and how to use them

Two aspects of color that can be seen by looking at color wheels:

Complementary color

Analogous color

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Complementary Color

These colors can be found on opposite sides of a color wheel

When mixed, produce gray (or black)

When painted side by side, they intensify one another

Their wavelengths are very different; creates the illusion of vibrating edges

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Color Combinations and Complements

1.4.11 Color combinations and color complements in pigment

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When the eye tries to compensate for the different wavelengths of two complementary colors, we tend to see each color more vibrantly than when we see them separately.

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Complementary Colors

1.4.12 Makeup artists’ guide to complementary colors

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Make-up artists, whose work involves making their clients’ eyes show to maximum effect, will apply an eyeshadow with red undertones to green eyes.

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Artwork: Frederic Edwin Church, Twilight in the Wilderness

1.4.13 Frederic Edwin Church, Twilight in the Wilderness,1860.

Oil on canvas, 40 × 64". Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio

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Frederic Edwin Church, Twilight in the Wilderness

Church's use of complementary colors create dramatic effect

Red-orange clouds complement the blue-green evening sky

The use of powerful color reveals Church’s awe and respect for the American landscape

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American landscape painter Frederic Edwin Church (1826–1900) gives magnificence to a quiet landscape.

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Analogous Color

These colors are adjacent to each other on the color wheel

Similar in wavelength

Create color unity and harmony

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Artwork: Mary Cassatt, The Boating Party

1.4.14 Mary Cassatt, The Boating Party, 1893–94. Oil on canvas, 35⅜ × 46⅛".

National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

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Mary Cassatt, The Boating Party

The analogous color palette (yellows, greens, blues) creates a harmonious, relaxed effect

Cassatt was one of the few female members of the Impressionist group

Impressionists shared an interest in the effects of light and color

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American artist Mary Cassatt (1844–1926)

Cassatt was the only American member of the Impressionists

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Key Characteristics of Color

All colors have four basic properties:

Hue

Value

Chroma

Tone

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Properties of Color: Hue

Hue is the general classification of a color, as seen in the visible spectrum

Red, yellow, blue, green, orange, and violet are hues

We associate a hue with an ideal version of a given color

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When many of us refer to “the color orange” we are really referring to the hue orange

The hue orange is usually associated with a bright, warm, intense orange color

So, when we use the term “hue,” we most often are making associations with a brilliant color

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Artwork: Kane Kwei, Coffin in the Shape of a Cocoa Pod

1.4.15 Kane Kwei, Coffin in the Shape of a Cocoa Pod (Coffin Orange), c. 1970. Polychrome wood, 2'10" × 8'6" × 2'5". Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco

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Kane Kwei, Coffin in the Shape of a Cocoa Pod

Kwei painted this coffin with a brilliant, intentionally exaggerated, mid-hue orange

Bright colors add to the celebratory mood of funerals in Ghana

Commissioned by a cocoa farmer who wanted to express his lifelong passion at his funeral

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African sculptor Kane Kwei’s (1922–1992) career started when his dying uncle asked him to build him a boat-shaped coffin

Others in the community began to ask for coffins in interesting shapes

Ghanaians believe that having lots of happy people at a funeral gives solace to the family of the deceased

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Properties of Color: Value

Each hue has a value, meaning its relative lightness or darkness compared to another hue

A tint is a color lighter in value than its purest state

A shade is a color darker in value

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Tints imply that the color has been mixed with white

Shades imply that the color has been mixed with black

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Color-value Relationships

1.4.16 Color–value relationships

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The purest values, compared with those visible in the spectrum, are indicated by the black outline

Grayscale values are described as neutral, meaning there is an absence of color

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Artwork: Mark Tansey, Picasso and Braque

1.4.17 Mark Tansey, Picasso and Braque, 1992. Oil on canvas, 5'4" × 7'

Mark Tansey, Picasso and Braque

A work that uses only one hue is called monochromatic

An artist can give variety to such a work by using a range of values

References Picasso and Braque, who referred to each other as Orville and Wilbur in the early days of Cubism

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Many of American Mark Tansey’s (b. 1949) large paintings are monochromatic

The flying machine resembles an early Cubist collage

The monochromatic palette is reminiscent of early black-and-white photos of the Wright Brothers’ experiments with flight

The blue tone refers to Picasso’s Blue Period

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Artwork: Pablo Picasso, The Old Guitarist

1.4.18 Pablo Picasso, The Old Guitarist, 1903–4. Oil on panel, 48⅖× 32½", Art Institute of Chicago, Illinois

Pablo Picasso, The Old Guitarist

This painting features a color palette of blues, browns, and grays that Picasso used during his Blue Period

Colors create a sad and somber mood

The use of different values create a realistically modeled figure

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Picasso’s The Old Guitarist was painted during 1901–4, a time of poverty and personal depression after the suicide of a good friend.

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Properties of Color: Chroma

We tend to associate a color with its purest state, its highest level of chroma

Refers to the strength or weakness of a color

Sometimes described as saturation, chromaticness, or intensity

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When we think of the color yellow, we often imagine something strong, bright, and intense

There are many shades of yellow, however

Mustard yellow, which has a brownish tone, has a weaker chroma because the intensity of the color is less than the purest hue

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Artwork: Barnett Newman, Vir Heroicus Sublimis

1.4.19 Barnett Newman, Vir Heroicus Sublimis, 1950, 1951. Oil on canvas, 7'11⅜" × 17’8¼". MoMA, New York

Barnett Newman, Vir Heroicus Sublimis

The visual impact of this painting relies on value and strong chroma

Subtle variations in the strong red hues; narrow vertical lines (“zips”) alternate in color

Newman wants viewers to be engulfed by color

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The title of this work by American Barnett Newman (1905–1970) is Latin for “heroic sublime man”

Parts of the painting appear separately lit

The square area in the center of this painting suggests Newman’s idealistic vision of the perfectibility of humankind

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Artwork: André Derain, The Turning Road, L’Estaque

1.4.20 André Derain, The Turning Road, L’Estaque, 1906. Oil on canvas, 4'3" × 6'4¾".

Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Texas

André Derain, The Turning Road, L’Estaque

Derain's use of vivid color makes the scene glow with energy and vitality

The Fauves

French for “wild beasts”

Used colors in their purest and strongest states as an act of defiance against the Academy

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French artist André Derain’s (1880–1954) painting is energized by high chroma and color complements that intensify adjacent colors when seen close together

The Academy was a state-sponsored school of art that set rigid rules for acceptable standards for art at the turn of the twentieth century

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Properties of Color: Tone

Tone is the weaker chromatic state of any hue

A hue that is almost gray is a tone, because it has been dulled from its brightest, most pure, state

A tone (low chroma) may be similar in value to a hue at its most intense state (highest chroma)

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Chroma, Tone, Shades, and Tints

1.4.21 Sampling of chroma, tone, shades, and tints in green hue

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Chroma is a term that also describes the purity of a hue derived from the spectrum of pure white light

Green at its highest chroma is closest to its pure state in the spectrum of light

When a color is in its strongest chromatic state, it has no tints or shades

A muted tone, whatever its hue, is less intense as it gets further from the purity of its spectral origin

A pastel-green tone and a dark-green tone would each have a restricted value of green, but a grayed-green hue that is just as dark as the original green would also have a low chroma

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Artwork: Paul Klee, Ancient Sound

1.4.22 Paul Klee, Ancient Sound, 1925. Oil on cardboard, 15 × 15". Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland

Paul Klee, Ancient Sound

In Ancient Sound Klee associates the tonal qualities of color with sound; for example, yellows are similar to bright, high-pitched noises

Dark tones are similar to deep, low sounds

Klee was both an artist and violinist

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Swiss artist Paul Klee (1879–1940), organized a grid full of colors that vary in tone and create contrast

Like the changing notes in a piece of music, the chroma of these colors rises and falls

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The Sensation of Color

Some colors are associated with emotional states (e.g. feeling “blue”)

Color temperature is based on our associations with warmth and coolness (e.g. red is hot)

Color can affect the way we see (the illusion of optical color)

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Color Temperature

We associate color with temperature because of our previous experiences

Relative to colors nearby

Used by artists to communicate physical and emotional states

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Our perception of color temperature can be altered if placed next to an analogous color

For example, green, a color we might associate with coolness, can be warm if we see it next to a cooler color, such as blue

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Artwork: Mosque lamp from the Dome of the Rock

1.4.23 Mosque lamp from the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, 1549. Iznik pottery, height 15". British Museum, London, England

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Mosque lamp from the Dome of the Rock

The colors blue and green reflect the meditative atmosphere of a holy place

In Islamic art, green has positive associations and supports the peacefulness of prayer

Many people associate green and blue with passive environments

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The blue and green are placed on a white ground for contrast.

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Optical Color

Colors that our minds create are based on the information we can perceive

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Optical Color Mixing Effect

1.4.24 Two squares, one filled with red and blue dots and the other with red and yellow dots to create optical color mixing effect

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The square on the left contains so many red and blue dots that our brain interprets them as a violet color

In the square on the right, red and yellow dots are interpreted as an orange tone

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Artwork: Georges Seurat, The Circus

1.4.25a Georges Seurat, The Circus, 1890–91. Oil on canvas, 6'⅞" × 4'11⅞". Musée d’Orsay, Paris, France

Detail of Georges Seurat, The Circus

1.4.25b Detail of Georges Seurat, The Circus

Georges Seurat, The Circus

Pointillism is the use of small dots of color, painted close together

Our eyes see the colors differently through optical mixing

Colors appear more intense because they retain their individual intensity

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Georges Seurat’s (1859–1891) The Circus produces a jewel-like diffusion of light

The illusion of visual vibrations between the colors make it visually exciting

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Georges Seurat: Sunday on La Grande Jatte

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Color Theory and Deception

We can be deceived by a color because of the influences of color adjacent to it

Color theorist Johannes Itten looked for ideal color combinations

Theorist Josef Albers described some of these color deceptions in his experiments:

for example, he created illustrations of how one color can look like two

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Josef Albers was a teacher of color theory and design at the Bauhaus in Germany, Black Mountain College, and Yale

Johannes Itten was a painter, designer, and teacher at the Bauhaus, a school of art that focused on Modernist ideas in twentieth-century Germany

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Josef Albers, Two Colors Look Like One

1.4.26a Josef Albers, Two Colors Look Like One, State A. From Interaction of Color, Ch. IV, plate 1

1.4.26b Josef Albers, Two Colors Look Like One, State B. From Interaction of Color, Ch. IV, plate 2

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If you look at state A, the brown squares on either side of the horizontal center stripes look distinctly different

But when the blue and yellow center stripes are removed, we see that the different browns are actually exactly the same

By changing adjacent colors, our perception of colors can be changed

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Interpreting Color Symbolism

Color and our cultural beliefs about color can affect how we think and feel

Studies show that color can affect human behavior

Colors also have traditional symbolic values

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Faber Birren, a color psychologist, found that when people are constantly exposed to red light they often become loud, grow argumentative, and eat voraciously

It appears that red can influence aggression in our behavior

We also make associations between colors and language

We might call a severe depression a “black” mood, or, when we don’t want to upset someone, tell “white” lies

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Interpreting Color Symbolism (contd.)

The color green has positive associations for Muslims

Buddha wore yellow or gold

Jews and Christians associate the color blue with God (the Virgin Mary is most frequently depicted wearing blue)

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Symbolism in the Wu Xing (Theory of Five Elements)

1.4.28 Chart of the colors, or “qing,” representative of the Five Virtues and other associated symbols

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Black, white, red, yellow, and green-blue were established as the colors representing these five basic elements

Wu Xing was a philosophy that sought to explain how change affects the cosmos through five elements: water, metal, fire, earth, and wood

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Artwork: Tray in the form of a plum blossom with birds and flowers

1.4.27 Tray in the form of a plum blossom with birds and flowers, China, Late Southern Song Dynasty, c. 1200–1279. Carved red lacquer on wood core, 7⅜" diameter. Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA), California

The color red represents fire and the direction south; it is also symbolic of warmth, good luck, and happiness.

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Tray in the form of a plum blossom with birds and flowers

This tray features many of the traditional symbols associated with the color red of the Wu Xing

The Vermillion (a shade of red) Bird represents one of four constellation symbols seen in the night sky over China

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The two long-tailed birds could be phoenixes; they may also remind us of the “Vermillion Bird”

The Chinese word for “long life” (shou) is similar to that for “long-tailed birds” (dai-shou), associating the work with blessings of longevity

The Vermillion Bird is linked with one of the constellations in the southern night sky that can be seen during the summer months

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Portal Artwork: Painted banner from tomb of Lady Dai

3.3.12 Painted banner from tomb of Lady Dai Hou Fu-ren, Han Dynasty, c. 168 BCE. Silk, length 80½", width at top 36", width at bottom 18¾". Hunan Museum, Changsha, China

An example of the elemental colors of ancient China can be found in Painted banner from tomb of Lady Dai Hou Fu-ren

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The Psychology of Color

Color can alter the way we feel and react; for example, red may provoke passion or anger

Some reactions are culturally biased:

In Western cultures blue is paired with masculinity, while in China it is associated with femininity

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Some ancient cultures, such as the Egyptians and Chinese, used colors for healing

The ancient Persian philosopher Avicenna created a chart that associated color with medical symptoms and their treatment

For example, it was believed that a bleeding open wound would be aggravated by the presence of red, but if the patient was exposed to blue (by simply looking at it) the effect would be beneficial

An example of culturally biased psychological associations of culture: in the United States blue is paired with masculinity, but in China it is associated with the feminine

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Artwork: Vincent van Gogh, The Night Café

1.4.29 Vincent van Gogh, The Night Café, 1888. Oil on canvas, 28½ × 36¼".

Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut

Vincent van Gogh, The Night Café

The colors used by Van Gogh express his sense that this nightspot had a detrimental psychological influence on its patrons

Fierce red, feverish yellow, and sickly green convey feelings of unease and sorrow

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Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) was plagued by periods of deep depression and was hospitalized on many occasions

Through his treatment he learned a great deal about psychology

The colors in this painting are not taken from life

In a letter to his brother Theo, Van Gogh writes about the work, “I have tried to express with red and green the terrible passions of human nature”

In addition to the lurid hues, the strange, lurching perspective in the room opens up irregular spaces that intensify the painting’s lonely atmosphere

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Vincent van Gogh, Starry Night

To learn about another artwork by Vincent van Gogh, watch this video of a MoMA lecturer talking about Starry Night:

MoMA Video

MoMA Video:

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Vincent van Gogh in His Own Words

Video:

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Artwork: Chemi Rosado-Seijo, El Cerro

1.4.30 Chemi Rosado-Seijo, El Cerro, 2003 (started 2002).

Collaboration, Naranjito, Puerto Rico

Chemi Rosado-Seijo, El Cerro

This work is a collaboration between the artist and the local community

Residents decided to paint their homes different shades of green, showing respect for the surrounding mountainous environment

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The work helped to unify the community and promote programs that support positive changes, such as the creation of a space that is both a museum and classroom, as well as the establishment of a community center.

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Expressive Aspects of Color

Artists sometimes want viewers to “feel” an artwork, rather than merely understand it

Color can express a wide range of emotions

Artists can use color to engage the viewer and suggest meaning

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Artists and designers know that the bright yellow of a happy-face symbol attracts our attention and lifts our spirits

They may use blue around the image of a political candidate to suggest traditional values, or green as an identifier of environmental awareness

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Artwork: Henri Matisse, Open Window, Collioure

1.4.31 Henri Matisse,

Open Window, Collioure, 1905. Oil on canvas, 21¾ × 18⅛". National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

Henri Matisse, Open Window, Collioure

Matisse, an influential member of the Fauves, focused on the expressive use of color

Used color intensely to reveal the rich character of painting

Complementary pairs enhance the painting, resulting in vibrant color

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French artist Henri Matisse (1869–1954)

In this work he used pairs of complementary color combinations to enhance the painting, for example:

The orange and blue boats, through the window

The red-pink wall on the right paired with the greenish-blue one on the left

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Henri Matisse, Red Studio

To learn about another artwork by Henri Matisse, watch this video of a MoMA lecturer talking about Red Studio:

MoMA Video

MoMA Video:

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Artwork: Paul Gauguin, The Yellow Christ

1.4.32 Paul Gauguin, The Yellow Christ, 1889. Oil on canvas, 36¼ × 27⅞".

Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York

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Paul Gauguin, The Yellow Christ

Gauguin's color choice is symbolic as it expresses the optimism of rebirth

Through color he connects the crucifixion of Christ to the seasons of Earth and the cycle of life

Bright color creates a simple and emotional connection with the viewer

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The French painter Paul Gauguin (1848–1903) used yellow for its uplifting associations

He painted this scene—a deliberately populist portrayal of folk spirituality—while in Brittany, France

Three women in traditional Breton dress attend the crucifixion

He was inspired by a woodcarving in a local chapel

Yellows and browns correspond to the colors of the surrounding autumnal countryside, harvested fields, and turning leaves

Gauguin’s color palette relates the background natural world to the body on the cross, so that our gaze too is drawn in and upward

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Artwork: Hilma af Klint, Group IV, No. 7, Adulthood

1.4.33 Hilma af Klint, Group IV, No. 7, Adulthood, 1907. Tempera on paper mounted on canvas, 10'4½" × 7'8½". Moderna Museet, Stockholm, Sweden

Hilma af Klint, Group IV, No. 7, Adulthood

According to af Klint, the designs and colors used in her work were directed by a spirit whom she contacted during séances

Use of strong yellow represents light and the knowledge that one achieves with adulthood

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Klint may not have intended for viewers to understand completely her paintings and their symbolism—in fact, she requested that her works not be shown publicly until twenty years after her death.

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Artwork: Kondratowicz, TRASH maximalism NYC (Harlem)

1.4.34 Adrian Kondratowicz, TRASH maximalism NYC (Harlem), TRASH project, 2008–

Kondratowicz, TRASH maximalism NYC (Harlem)

Kondratowicz asked his Harlem neighbors to look at trash differently

Distributed bright pink, rodent-repellent, biodegradable trash bags

Elicits a positive emotion from the community

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Color has always been used expressively by artists and designers, sometimes to change the way that a viewer feels about his or her surroundings.

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Chapter 1.4 Copyright Information

This concludes the PowerPoint slide set for Chapter 1.4

Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts

Third Edition

By Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Copyright © 2015 Thames & Hudson

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Picture Credits for Chapter 1.4

1.4.1 Ralph Larmann

1.4.2 Ralph Larmann

1.4.3 Courtesy Charles Csuri

1.4.4 Ralph Larmann

1.4.5 akg-images

1.4.6 Ralph Larmann

1.4.7 Ralph Larmann

1.4.8 Photo Joshua White. Courtesy the artist and Thomas Solomon Gallery, Los Angeles. © Analia Saban 2008

1.4.9, 1.4.10, 1.4.11, 1.4.12 Ralph Larmann

1.4.13 Cleveland Museum of Art, Mr. and Mrs. William H. Marlatt Fund, 1965.233

1.4.14 National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., Chester Dale Collection, 1963.10.94

1.4.15 Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco, Gift of Vivian Burns, Inc., 74.8

1.4.16 Ralph Larmann

1.4.17 © Mark Tansey. Courtesy Gagosian Gallery, New York

1.4.18 The Art Institute of Chicago, Illinois/Helen Birch Bartlett Memorial Collection/Bridgeman Images. © Succession Picasso/DACS, London 2018

1.4.19 Museum of Modern Art, New York, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Ben Heller, 240.1969. Photo 2012, Museum of Modern Art, New York/Scala, Florence. © The Barnett Newman Foundation, New York/DACS, London 2018

1.4.20 The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Gift of Audrey Jones Beck. © ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2018;

1.4.21 Ralph Larmann

1.4.22 Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland

1.4.23 British Museum, London

1.4.24 Ralph Larmann

1.4.25a Musée d’Orsay, Paris

1.4.25b Musée d’Orsay, Paris

1.4.26a © Yale University Press

1.4.26b © Yale University Press

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Picture Credits for Chapter 1.4 (contd.)

1.4.27 Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA), California. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Sam K. Lee, M.86.330 (www.lacma.org)

1.4.29 Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Bequest of Stephen Carlton Clark, B.A. 1903, 1961.18.34

1.4.30 Photo Edwin Medina. Courtesy the artist and Embajada Gallery

1.4.31 National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Collection of Mr. and Mrs. John Hay Whitney, 1998.74.7. © Succession H. Matisse/DACS 2018

1.4.32 Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York, General Purchase Funds, 1946

1.4.33 Photo Albin Dahlström/Moderna Museet-Stockholm. Courtesy Hilma af Klint Foundation

1.4.34 Courtesy the artist

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Chapter 1.4 Color