Evaluating the Progress

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When the military instituted a draft in order to create a undefeatable Army, the government demanded 100% Americanism. Vocal segments of the Black community were hesitant to support the war effort, a cause they viewed as hypocritical. A. Philip Randolph and Chandler Owen, editors of The Messenger encouraged Blacks to resist military service.

Most African-Americans though saw war as an opportunity to demonstrate patriotism. Black political leaders trusted that if the community would sacri�ce and support the war effort, the nation would have no choice but to reward the community with greater civil rights. For the most part, Blacks approached war as their duty. Over 1,000,000 responded to the draft with about 370,000 actually inducted to serve.

Over 200,000 individuals served in France during World War I. Many dug ditches, cleaned latrines, transported supplies, buried the dead, and cleared debris. The largest number worked on the docks of Brest, St. Nazaire, Bordeaux, and other French ports to load and unload supplies. It was hard work, but essential to the success of the War.

Two Black combat divisions, the 92nd and 93rd, saw combat. The American Army loaned the 93rd division to the French Army, making it the only American division to serve exclusively under French command. The 369th Infantry Regiment from New York became the most famous �ghting unit of the African-American troops, nicknamed the Harlem Hell�ghters. It was this regiment that Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts served and became the �rst American soldiers to receive the French Croix de Guerre (War Cross). This regiment also served for 191 days during which the ceded no ground to German forces. This was the �rst American regiment to reach the Rhine River in Germany following the cease-�re and thus returned to the United States as heroes.

The 369th Regiment �rst gained its notoriety for its band, led b James Reese Europe and made up of musicians from the United States and Puerto Rico. It was this group that popularized jazz in France.

Racial violence tested blacks' patriotism in July 1917. In East St. Louis, tension between Black and White workers sparked a four-day riot that left 125 Blacks dead and the nation in shock. The response from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People was to hold a Silent Protest Parade in New York city. Eight thousand gathered, men dressed in black and women and children in white, to march quietly to the sounds of muf�ed drums holding signs that read, "Mr. President, why not make America safe for democracy?"

In Houston, Black soldiers from the 3rd Battalion of the 24th Infantry, marched on the city and killed 16 Whites in protest of racial discrimination and abuse from Houston's law enforcement. Again, the nation was shocked which led Southern of�cials to publicly oppose

future training of Black soldiers in the South. One-hundred ten were convicted during 3 military court-martials, thirteen of whom were hanged.

Despite the bloodshed in Houston, the Black press and civil rights organizations insisted that Blacks be granted the opportunity to serve and �ght in the War. Joel Springarn, worked to establish an of�cer training camp for Black candidates even as many in the Black press argued against the Jim Crow camp. W.E.B. DuBois saw what he saw as the crucible of the talented tenth, especially since Black college students largely from historically Black colleges were the driving force behind the camp. Howard University recruited potential candidates from college campuses and Black communities throughout the nation. The camp opened in June 1917 with 1,250 aspiring of�cer candidates. At the close of camp in October 1917, 639 men had received commissions.

The military created two combat divisions for Blacks, the 92nd and 93rd. Though most of the men were assigned to service units, military service also introduced Black men too different people and different parts of the nation and world.

The 92nd Division did not fare as well as the 93rd. White Army of�cials characterized them as rapist and spread rumors about them among French citizens. The claim is that they were unjustly treated, often court-martialed on trumped-up charges, a position these soldiers would claim long into the 20th century.

Despite inadequate training and racial discrimination, the division as a whole fought well through-out their time in France. However, one regiment, the 368th Infantry Regiment, performed poorly during the Allied Muse-Argonne battle in September 1918. It is this performance that is often used to characterize all Black soldiers and of�cers during the War.

Service in the French Army was all-in-all a good experience for African-Americans. They often interacted with North and West African soldiers serving in the French military. This interaction went a long way in solidifying a sense of brotherhood and unity with the Continent. Black soldiers also were received well by the French who showed little racism - a stark contrast to what White Americans exhibited. One soldier recalled "they treated us with respect." These interactions also contributed to the image of France as a nation free of racial discrimination and committed to human rights. It gave many a global perspective of the world. Lemuel Moody, who served overseas said the experience was improved and broadened him - it changed his out look on life - "I see things now with different eyes."