CARIBBEAN RELIGION HISTORY

I it I j JI It II II II If I ,t I JI ii ft • t II H II ff 11 1 I If If l ! 1 I I I I I" II O 11 11 11 I I t ! I

2

THE SOCIAL FRAMEWORK OF VOODOO

I.

Voodoo 1a essentially a popu.lJlr rd1g,on. The greater pan of its adhcrtnts ate recruited ,1mang the pcru,ants who form 97 pdt' cent nf Utt ltltal popufatlon Qf the coumcy N. to the city dwclle~ -!hey h,w• remnlncJ fairhful UI it in whatever mcosurc they l.lJlvc !Lopl up their rural r\)U!a. The practite rif Voodoo, along witlt lhc c~du&ivc u,t of tile Crwh, lnnguage, is 0011 ot' lhc dw.ictcrimcs whicl1 iciciologista have kept to tl,stinqui!lh bc- 11\'tcn- tht0 rn=e• and the amnll class Qf educated people wbo c11je1y • .:cnain mnterioJ case and call 1hcmselvcs 1he. 'elite'. Th~ 111lltllbi;n o[ 1his ~lite, who ~re mooily Mulattos, adhere wi th the urmon tc11oc1ty m We.1rcrn m<>des of Ille and thouglu, ond h<Jld lhc c-uuntry people in the ~rcotcat conttmpl. Del.ween thC$C t wo d11SSes the cle:ivu~c i~ ,o prnn<>W1ced lho.l the ~l!rc haa bucn termed a: 'caste' and c>nc American sociolugis1, 1.cyburn,1 ha,gone so i'ar aa to ,foscribc lhen1 as twn different na\iona sharing t he san,e cou.ru.ry. In fae1 tltc diffc:renc(e ha,,c been very much exag- gerat4d.Th~ cllt.,, ii Mt~ cute tlince it i, OJl1:h 1,1 Lho~e who suc- c,,..,4 In raiaing thcll\5clvct, •itllet by Ullcnt, luck or politics from lh• mJ<s,cs . .Even in 1he~11bject which concerns us here, 1hecon- tr11sts •re, 1101 $<1 niarked ~t one might thin k. Mo~• of the elite children .re bro11ght t•I' by BcTVani,; who come from che mornts (ntounuuoa) M+d cmryw,th them the 1rrrors of ',\fnc:in Guinea' . All Huhion., wh:ltevcr their socinl status, ha,•c trcmbletl ill the.le ycmrh at storic~ of :a-omb1 and werewolves nnd lear.ot to dread the rower uf sorcerers and evil spirits. Most of them, 11ndcr the influence or school or fami ly, react ag:iirui such fancies but some give in 10 them and consull u V0<,doo·prieol U\ secrcl.

On this point T will quote the evidence of u bishop who Wt- fortunately rousl re.main anonymous ~ 'S.1perstition i1> ~o wide- spre3d .w.d deep lhat lr c,;uJd be aaid to 101tclt everyone, T he best,

58

TllE SOCIA.L l'RAM!rWORK OP VOOOOQ 59

.-en those who don·t pracUse 11, !Jave to fight ag3inst tbe feelings they cxp<!:ricnc,, when (rtce,i with cc.rtai.n facts, ccrmn signs wliirh rCCIIII eup<:rstitian to 1hem.' Even a Hair.i.ao priest ooco rnnle,;sc:d that he was pronl' to such feeling,;: 'The whole nf one's Omn~ i~ 1mpregnnted with thern, right to th!" ho1ttm\ of the soul; 1hc ,mallcst dctuil of ex.istence is dominued by them.' And i,.,. icle this testamcn\ ,.-e con quote an excerpt from a conference

IJcl.d by Mol\$C1gneur Kcriru-r,an in 1896: 'A b«or [aorccrcr J u,OAses our streets. We know l11m. Everyone "1)1'ts him. Where i1 lw going? Vnu mJght think to some poor person wh1> c.innot •fford <l<>ctor or ch.cmist. Uut no. He ,s gc11ni tu II snpcrb house wltcte he will oper:ile o.n the father of some family in the highei;t r•nk of M>ciety .'

Thi> cwldcncc. of ~up!1r$1ilion amc,ng the upperclnsse,, perh.lips ,lightly ex~ggerMed at 30Ur~, nevcrtltolcss fits iu with the description (lf Vnodoo which we have gi1•en so far. The cult is, befor-c all else. a runl pngani~m ancl mun be considered ln its true setting-in the ,rtChllCJ and villages. The politlcol and social fran,eworks peculiar tr, the AfnCQn tribes frorn wltom the I foitlan!l of !()day are descended, were pulvcri.zed hy ,tav~ry. E,·en the famlly did not survive that dtssolutiQn; only in hAphu.ard fashion was It rocoostituted on the fringe of plantation lift; anti in the liral years of tht country's mdepcndencc 'ro11ssain1 l,ouverture, Ocssalines ind Cltciswpht. had all intended to m~iotain the •ystetn of huge propertlto on which thd peasants- would have livtd ftS serf$ .• History decided otherwise. tr was- the peasant smnll-holding which t.rlumphcd in the tnd.. 'rhe families which divided bc,rwi:en them the land, or the Stnc, rev-ouped along Imes ~vhich, though not stricily speaking ;\Ftic.att, yet recalled 1hc orgamuationnl forms common to AfriCll and Europc. Not very long nq, Lhc soC'ml unit of the Haiti:m country,iidc was the rxtended family consisting of the h~-,,d of the fami ly, his chlldrcn, marric<I ot unmarried, and his grnndtltlldr<tn. F.ach mln11gf had Its hous~ anc.1 r'icld, The whole l.!roup of c:unjug-:il f.amilies, ~u closely rdoicd, "~ called the 'co,npo1md' (/a/iu), nml its hnUJeS ~nd granaries often. made up a hamlet. hi; members wcre further bound mgcther by wonhip of rhe,r common ruot-/o« (loa- rati11e1) , that is to uy of Lile gotls and protecting spirits of the

t\o TIIP llOCLAL i'RAMCl!W-OMK OP VOOIH>O

extended family which Were inhorite.tl ju~t like r,rQpcrty. The compPund hm1d kept a liu le oanctuary or /m·,,,ju for hi• gods ond there, in the pretence /lf hi, Jdn, he offiaiatc'"<l, \ hu11,:011 1pr1cst} and mambo (prie,m,s11) were fJnly c•llcd upon m the c1•cn1 of scriou. illness or to 'feed' rho fomily _gods,

Totlny the compound ,s 1endm,11 to du1101cgrnte. Fnmilics arc bcmg dispersed by the carv,n~ u-p 01 l11nd and wealle1ti11~ of the kinship c-,.,,., The cult oi anc-cttral spirus '"JUI lt> ~ltcnclant obllgationt continues tu assure n .ru.casure. 1Jf l!<ihcsion hrtween the members of• scattered lw1group· 11hcn the KOds ,,nd sriTits demand food the wJ1ole. famUy rnuat b<: present dlld ,<hart. the cost&. N<:vcrthc.lcas Vootluo llS ~ domc.11ic cult i~ losin,g 1my,on• Dncc daily Ul the p1·ofil "f tJ1e •mall amonornou~ cult,g,-oups which g.row up round lhe sanctunrii:s,

People whl> rCl,'Ttl thlll Voodo() i•, in fnct, Th<: ti:llgi<in of the people of Haiti, forget how hard is the life of th~ avcrnge peasant. and W'lrkcr. 11.olation, <:Ganmnfo ,;tntcnntion, admimstratil'e fecldc1sncss, ignoran.»-all help to explain the misery u~i.ich is to be found among the .m•sses. At Lht source o( that poveny st:tnch thee familiar CUTse of so many un.Jcr-d~vdopcd countrie#: over-populatim, <m ever less fertile l~nd Haiti l1a<- the highest density of population in the Western liernlsphuc--a50 people to lhc ll(jUa,e mile . .8cnea1.h o gay nnd aptimiKtic.- t~ttrio, the pea,iam conceals a chronic a.nl<iety which f&, unfortun .. tdy, on ly too well justified. Seldom w.e• he uwn enough lund 10 C$CQpt: the dearth which occms at Lll~ sliglu~st <::ipricc of wcnhcr. U5Ually he is i.n dc.bt, it1 p<>-. .. cs$ior, of d"ubtJ\11 title-deeds and can neil.bcr .rcau nol' ,~rite. Umblc 11, speak F-rcnch as do the town- fol.lc, be fceli! ,m easy prey to tl1dr cupidity, And then to all these cau•l3 of anxiety i~ added tl1c dread of rllness. 'l'ubc:rculosis, malaria ;utd hookw<lrm 11rc C'ndc:mi~ and 1hc1r Lhrcat is always present in ijddition to that of tbi: acc:jdenr~ wh,ch 1M)• ,•ui.u Jiim. Voodoo reflect. these cares. Whnt ihc fa11hJul ask of tbcfr gum is .001 ,o much riches nud happmess but more 1.bc removal <lf the mi.series which """ail them from every qu.artt<:r. JIID.CS$ and mis- fortttne seem to them divine jod1,rmcnts which mut1t oomchaw be mitigmcd by oJfcrings and sacrifice. It ill unjust and naivt 10 rept<!ach the peasants ft,~ wasting mu.ch of their 11\C,lgre re-

voor,oo C.Ll!1ICY ~ND CUt.T•OllOUl'S 6,

!><>Urccs on pagan ceremonies. As long as mediC:11 services arc non-existent m rhc country districts, so long may the Voodoo priests be sure or a larg,: clicntcle, Voodoo allows iu adhcrentsto finJ their ,...,y back to a rudnncntary form of collective life, tc) ,how thcu :lrtistic talents and to have the exalted feeling of v,n~ with the aupcrwullial A.t M::i.rbful whore VooJoo has been ml)r~ or li:s• ~uppresscu, a wretcheJ dupression has r nlc,<l over 1hc valley, ~nd life for the pealiant• bns Lost all

11nint. We h~vc ~cen that Voodoo txilltS in two forms--une domestic,

the other public. lt i& tbie 11131 whicl1 m.~inly concern.\ u.s htre. Most of my observation• wcte made at Pc•rl•11u-Prin~c: where lhc ,;anctuancs :rrc numerous and pms-peroia t1nd whc.re the ritunl i~ full o{ rcnncment~ nnd s1Lbtlct,es which a.rt lacking- in the rural cults. t•eople are prone to suppo.se 1hn1 the purest an,J richest tr•di1iont are to be found ln the remotes, valleys. The little I was "1ile to sec of rurol Voodoo convinced inc that 11 '"''s poor in in. rltu:11 c<1111p:1rcd to the Vondon of the capital. Simplicity of cite , . not JilWa)'$ ;t guarantee of antiquity. Lt is o(ten the re~ult of ignor:mt:l! and ocgleel. No dnuht 8orne African charaet~Tistics art Imler preserved in the buckw,wds- thara in tlu: fauboutg~ of l',1rr-au-Princc, but th!! purity of the Afric~n. heritage only modcrutely concern~ 11$, Voodo(l dC$<:rvt1l ro be studied noL only M regards the surviv11I of Dahomc:im :1.nd Congolese bcllcf& and [1n11;;11ccs, b1,t also ns a rcl(gio1>s $)'$ltm born fairly recently from , fusion of many different clcmanlli. It is the dynamic aspect of Voodoo always evolving before our "Ye:! which is ,nore to our purpose than the r,ch material it affords ro Uie erudite. possessed t,y a craving for the sc~rch for origins.

11. V 00000 tl, ERG YANT) COLT- GROUPS

1/l)l)UoO h3$ pre~encd one tif tht fundamental charact<tislics, <•f 1hc A£ri«tn religions from wh ich ii i, derived , worship ls .. ,ro\l raed hr gro,ip, r,f adherent• wh1> Vl)l11ntarily pince 1hcm- 1<elves 4ndcr the authority of n priest qr pricstes~ whmc s:1nc1 uury or /,u",j" they frcq~c.nt. The faithful whr, have been initiated lu

!>a 'rllP SOCIAi Pl<AtJEWOIU Ot VOOIIOO

the same sanctuary •od who cong«g.ll~ '" w1>roh1p the gods to wh,cb It i• 1acred, form a sort .,r fratem,ty cnlled 'the lium/o &Oo.tty', Th,· tmpurtancc of 1h11 ~uh-group depend> tu a grc;u extent ,,n the p..-n;onalny and influrncc nf the prirRt anJ prie•tess "ho p1 t4iclc.

Th11 complc.x rthgion wnh ir• ,11-dcrineJ frnnri,r, may ptrhk('> be more ns,Jy »J>pro~ched thcou11lt • •ruJ)· of ,i, IOCUIJ ~nJ m~rcn•I fmmcworka. h ,~ tho pr1csts 11111 rha,r numerous aculytu who ha,·c o~r of wiclcly Jil!ercnt lx-Jid& anti rites tormcd a tm~rc or ltM cnhtr<-nl •yst,:m

Spmts tnc11rna1c thcm~rhu •t w,11 in the people ,hC'., dtnose. Any dcvotre ca11 rhc:ieforc •mer lnro immtdiJtc cont:u:t wiU1 the supernatural world. S11~h 1111.1n,acy, hc.wrvcr, Jnes nor invc,lve comm11nk~1ion 1or Jl•l01.,ue with rh-, god a,ncc the pcrion ~d ia mere A.sh, • rctcp111clc, h<lmJ\\cd by lhc •pirr1 for the purpoou of rc,calinp; litm~lf I( you wJSh to get a he~ring from 1hr ~pirii.-p•mcululy when he3lt/1 nnd fortune ore ,11 !ltll.lc--.1 is hcttcr to have r«oum: 10 the skills .,r a priC$1 or prie1.1e»s · h11nxan onJ mn111hQ, lc:,ss ..-ommonlv clll~d pnpa•loa and ""'""1'11•/on The wnnl J(ungttn, uocd as • •ynnnyrn c,f hwtJJ1a11, camcs w,lh 1t • nuance ;,fo~h 1s respectful ur Jcprccia1ory, 1ceordin1t to 1hc rcgim1.1

Ahliough lw11gm1 •1111mmr1b<111 re ot1cr1 cl1>sel)' link<·d with ca.ch othrr, they are by 110 me.in• p_an of a pr<>pcrly nrg•n1zed corp$, •nicv arc tbe head, ,1f a11111nomu11s •<Cb "' cuh-groupt, rarhcr than mcmben. of• ckrwol hicrnrchy, l'.trl.JJ,nly rhe prest,g:c of• hu11J:u.n m•y ltlftud •nJ alfccr s:1.nC1u1nt11 oc...-ed by hi• tltAi!!plc,., but lhcr,• i• n11 •ubordmHt1011,,. •uch, of one l11111.t;a11 lo Annthcr. Thr pmfrssion ha~ us l(r.1dc1 \\hich curre.pond with the v•riou, dcgt<'t• <>f i1111in1Jon, but • ptiesr nnly l1os nuthoritv nvtr thn8t "hu ,·ohrnunly offer thmistlvc. as ~-anu <>( the: ,pinu wnrahippeJ in lus ,onctuury.

Thr.-c i• tht' ,:rcatesl , •ncty of t) pe,, m 1l11a profession, ranging from rite lq11<1r3nt. m•pired pe;uaru who pllta up an altJT near his liulc hou•e ,IDd mvokes the 1h11 un beholf of his ncighbvurs, to the gn1ul liung<Jn ol the apual, t11l1iva1ed ,n his own w:ay, subtle .tntl 1m~d wnh occullt>nl, wi1h t1 sancuury full of ~ru,tic prerrnsfon•. Some priC$ts enjoy ~ rcpu1auon "'hkh

VOODOO CLER GY ANO CULT-GROUPS 63

.. ,es no fotthet than the llmll nf 1lte1t dtetncl and <>then anract owd1 of clu:nta 11tJJ ue known all uver 1he country. Some ltu11ga11 qnd 111QJ11bo even cut a figure III the world of

la,luon. Therr humfo 1A frc<juuted by mcmbtr. of 11\c bourgeoisie ho arc not afraid 10 rub ahoulder• with a.ru,anv •nd wwkmcn.

"'me yea.rs ago, a mum~o nf C'rnix-de1<•llnuq11ets whn was gctUng •.1dy to celchl'l\tc • grand co:rcmony lor hi, gaardian loa, sent

,1111 printed i1rvi1u1ion cnrds tn lus many rcla1i<1n1 ,n the town, The evenin11 wu a great success. ,\n elegant gathering, which included scvCl'lll \11gh•T11J1ki11g membcn of the govcmlncnt, cruweJ rnto h11 penstylc The mambo led them through t.he rooms of her sa11c1uary, ceplymg gnciously to lbe no.ive qUClltiont ,..h,ch were put to her and, wliilc rhc /umsi were p<,.,,,eucJ by rcrfecr lv msnnered /1Ja., 1he had ,cfrcshment.t served lnJced, •he was ,he perfect hosteu, and the impresario of an exhit111ion which convinced the mCll prejudiced th.n VooJoo wa, obvioudy • wholesome and picturesque entertainment.

All 10ra of £an1astic aroriew ,bout the powen of lnmg1111 nt3Y be hc;ird . Atcnaise, ,1 wornan ,n M"rbinl who claimed to be a mmnbo, of\cn ~pollc 10 me about her grandfather, a l11mga11 well versed in all the lore of Africa who could 'chnnge people into animals :rncl, what 18 hD.?der sull. ,nro Guinea ,irut I' Th• pnu:cr of remairunf{ sc:vcrol days under warer iii attri.buted to 1rumy lrungan and mamoo. Madame 1',ama. who WU none the lest a well balanced and intelligent womon. told me in tht moai noftlllll tones thnt lihe h•d spent L11ree years ~t the liottom of a river where she had received in,uu~-tion from water 1pirits.

Tt,c gift m""r pri1.cd in a priest is ,econd sigh1. To some hungan it has brought fame which nu:rtly inrrcued after their deaths. A certain Nan Go,nroicr uc<1uired •uch II rcpurnbon th91 even t(I~ n ,no1luaycrwill uy as a oour, 'Wbat I ace for you. Antoine Nan Commicr himgelf -would not have seen.' Thi, hungan 1& reputed to have knuwn a long ume ,n adv•nce who was going tn come and cunsuh him and if it were a pen1011 of Import• ancc he scnr a horse to meet h,m. With Nan Gornnuer question• and uplanauons were superfluous. lie reau people'• 1houichB and replied be.fore being naked..

Voodoo adept.• use the word 'knuwledge' (coMmwrllU)

(,4 THE .;OCIAI, fl\~M RWOR K OF YOOOOO

10 dcscnhc whal Wt would define 3S ••upcrrmur~I insight and I.he power which la derived thorcfcom'. 11 is in dcgrc~ or 'knowledge' 1hn1 variom f1ur1gon anJ ,,wml,u dllfor from cacl, other. In ~ddi- lton to d,i, power, which depends mort or I<:$$ on aupcrnaunal g1(ts, J,uncaH and tno"'bo must also ;,cqu1r~ a murc 1echwcal kind of educatloll' they mmt koOIV the num,s uf 1hc 1plr111, their ,unhme\9, their emblems, their ~~ru111s spcaal taste, and t.he laturgi<'> •ppr11pna1c tn I.he dilfrrcnt kind, or ce...,mon)'. Only tho!<¢ "1111 h1.ve mastered thi, lore deserve thi, tnlt liungan or "'"'"~· 'ro do so re,1ulr~ pcnoe~erancc, a i:oo,1 memory, musical aptirude and a lung uptrionce of ritual. /\ good hungcm II at one and the saroc lim,.- priest, hcaJer, ~ooths.-tytr, cxnrc,xcr, orgmuzer of puhlic entL1"1ainmcn1a Jnd cho1nnw1ter. ll is functions arc b) no mr.u,• limncd to the dumain of the sacred. He 1s on inlluen1,.il political 11:uide, an dcctc,rnl •gmt fN wbosc co-opcraticln senntnrt •nd depuut~ 11re 1irc,parcd 10 pay h3.lld· $0mclr Fn:qucntl} h•• intdligencc anJ rcpu1.11ion make lum the acceptcJ ~oumdlur of 1hc community Th~ who frequent his l11wifa l•tin(e their troubles 10 him and cliscua• with him thcir pnvat~ affair,, ind work J le cnn1bines m his pc non the f unuions of ro,/. mayor ~nd notary Material profit Ii not the only allac- tion of his profession: the t<>Cjal pos,1[011 wh ,ch goe, with it is such ij• to inter~, •II wh<1 feel they have cnougli IJlcnt ~nd •pplic:111nn to raise thet'O$Cl,es ~bove manual labour. To become ,, l111nga11 or 111a111h~ •• tu climb the social ladder and he guw:antecd a plo~ m the pubhc eye.

A paychological 11udy of ltungan and mom/x, would perhaps reveal thut mutt of them shored c~rtain ch~r-Jcicristics. My experience IJ\ thi$ •ubJt~ •~ not wade enough to nllow me to gcneraliic. Many liungorr whom 1 knew acc:mcd 10 me to be maladjusted or neurotte. Among them were homoscxUAls- 1mprM<sionablc, capricious, uvcr-sen.irivc and prono tr> sudden tnntport, of emot:cin. On the other h~ntl Lorgin•. "ith whom l had 11 lung frirn,lsh,p, WQf o pcrfoctl)· nomiol woman. She did occa,ri<>n3lly 'go off the deep ~nd'-with the viole,1c1t or " cyclune-b111 >lac cslmed down so qu1cluy tbat these frighttning outbursi. never 11ruck mr a. being comple1cly sincere. l\lad~me Andrle, another prominent mambo, was remarkable only for hor

VOOl)O() CLY.Rt.l A~II ct•L r-1':llO~PS 65

1111,,lhqcnee and cunnini;, In •pile of h<T pd$afll ori]!ln she 1..-,·,1ne • complc:t• liourgcni~ an her IUl<~ 1111d btha,,our Of tt., hWll(IJ.11 l kt1cw there waij one whoRc 1\u111c I slrnll withhold "'Im ,,c,1ui.rcd a -.;C.rl.lin rc:pntitunn umong .ntel1cctunt circ11-1 by ],,,. ,ntdltgcnt-e •nd by lu, rcaJ,ne .. 10 put lum&df al th.: dia- 1~•,,.1I of ~111hmpul\l):l>U I-le was r:uJte, a ,ti.iuru,ng pc.-011, ,, l. ly, perhn1111 • 1lntg•Rdd1c1 ancl gifted with o rothcr oJJ i111Jgi•

11111,,,._ To ,trcnitthcn 1he df('('t of h,, ~=••ea he m:"11' inn11Yij• 1· •Ill which he •ul,sc'lucnth Jusuli~tl by bolJ atlU R31\"<' 1hc11lo- 1:,, ,1 •pecul,1no11. llcncath n gona,1 cxl~rior ht concealed• m11rbid ,.,ni1y 1111d ocni111vit)·, Wh,·1t I refused to p2~ the c<1't. of a , rcmony which be h11d W'1.ntctl tu urglnil<' in n,y hC1nt,a1, t,c ,·vcnged himself bi uwittnl( 111,• u, hi• h1111if11 to h\ke p11rt in • ,·re. Prc1<1aling tu hunour ,nJ u, d,1(lor mr. he in r~ct made me

putc my crime with tll kind. of &mull crucll,c,; Most of thc,s,., who chooic the ptt1fcs$ion <1! hungan o, mnmhn,

,,., ;o •L the ltnpul&c .. r n m<•llVC in which fanh, amlullon. lnvt • .1 Po"tr llJIJ •hcer rnp .. lit) ore oil u,c~mcablv m,~~d Priettly .. ,utlon i1 nc,n~ 1.hc lc.s intcrprctcJ a~ :, c:111 (rom tltc »uper- 11,11Ural wnrhl which r~nn11t he disreipnlcd with imp11ni1y. "n1r1cfon Jnd rtnsurc v.tagh hc:w•I~ on tho.., wh" •re accu~ .,f having 'bnught' lhetr patron ,pirits, for ,r 1h~.y have rndc«I ,lune this, then 11 as hec1111se the ·i;ooJ lua' rcjcc1,d chem o un- worth) 2nd 1hc mctttn2ry loo. tu wlu•m thcv ~pplirJ in despair, ~~CC'ptcd them. Those "h11 have i.lmlc ,uch • 1h,ng co.n only be lmngar, 'working wiLh bNlt hanJa' (111n:m/lu11/ ,ltr ,/,..,,. mmn.r) 1ha1 18 to uy the k111J of ,orttrc"' known 0$ lk,k11. Th• 111t101mt ol rower put iuw the hautl~ ut a hu11g11n Joya him open to g, cat tompt.:llions, ll1nugh In, pmfrs&1<>n- hkc th•I of med1cmc, wdh wh1<:h 1t bu much in cnmm11n-ha.. its ethic Uuhapp,ly this•• often •iulittctl. 11,ve 1101 certain li1111gnn h~en occuactl nf sbtJwlng thcmi;clvcs to be in nt, )111rry 1,, cure their pa1.Je111s JJld even nf .iggravating ,n ,tin= in (lrdcr 10 make 1t mMr fruitlul ,,f fee~? 11 hM c,cn hccn su~gcs1cd 1liaL they get v•gcthcr whb the ,;orccrc~ whc, huvc ~•&I o spell un then- clitnt in nrJet to lc:•rn the •~rc:1 of I.he opdl \\h1ch caus,d the Ji«::o ... The two •ccum- ph= then share the pruflt.• front thr he:otmcnt. Ag~111st this lund of t·x1oruon the faithful uro powcrlc!oll (Ir, mort1 c:ncily, they

l.i6 TUil SOCIAL PRAJ\IEWORK OP VOODOO

have no other rcfui:e tba.u thr mor,tl sense <>f the /M Lhemsclvcs. Spirii. do 001 like t() ~cc rhtir help abused. Sometimes they punjjjh t;he guilty L11nj:a11 by withdrawinit their patTonage and dcpri,•,n11 him of hi• 'knowledr,e'. Then· pun.illhmcnr can c,•en go us for as •u.bjecting him 111 pnson or to some •1thtr humilia-tion ..

Spuits wlio have chus(T) u mon {or a womn n) as \'esSel for auptrn:tturol pr,wcr~ and bavc decided 10 kt-e1) him in thdr service, rrwko thdr will known to h.im eitl1~r hy the lltlcrances of 1l1c po~•=<l or ~y :t symbolic dream. lkfc,re one man, Tullius, became ~ l111ng(m, he often saw, in tlrtnmi, u gourd containing Lhe he.tds •nd m ake-bone,, covr,ring rhe ncrcd rattle. (a.rsonh "Ymhcil af the pr,csdy profo,ainn. To~~Y of sumeoM th.at he (or she) has 'tnken the a.ttl)Jj'•• mc.u1s that per3on '13.$ become a l11111tt1n or mm11ho.

Anyone singled nt1t by chc lot1 e-0uld only avoid Lhe summons at risk to himself. Some time after he h.ad dreamed the d=m which we have just mencioned, •rullius bees.me ftcriously ill. He hd1cved he liad been struck down by th~ niy1tb11 who had grown tired of his inability to make up Ilia mind. He fdt all the more gullty since /1>11 had announced, 11t l1i• birtl1, by means of -various miracles, thnt he was predestined to serve them: hig nlother flccing from u cyclono which lrnd burst on the region, took refuge in a church nnd was there. gripped by the first p.angs of childbirth. She then distlnctl>• hc.ird the noise of drums and religious chanting: Lhis ":as tl,c sound of her guardian spJrits Ogu-b:ilindjo, Linglcssu, and Mistre~s-Marnbo-Nart.:1, who were corning to her asslst:a.o.ce. She had he.r baby in che porch, to the dismuy of the curd whr• would ht1vc liked to rush Jicr 10 hospital. Firuilly-aootl1cr omen of an exceptlona.t career-the baby came feet ftrsi.

• The a.uOH, or- l:4crt.d natde, ,t utcd for .1\rni:nunllNM' 1he loo, h cio,uh,t, or• guuttl (l..q,••unia tp. J tided and cm1nfod or iu flesh and pip&- lt i. c-nv1·n:d on.r w.ft.h A n1t1-work ot chma b~d• wbicth Vtey In colour and munber accordlnt to wfucl1tvt"1 loo •re •t1'l.ltll(.r,r of the ln11~1.f.n' Sno..k<' Vf'nrbas.e 1tr. rnln,INI with ahe chin.t bc1d... Sqmc:rn:nCll the Vertc-b.tne prtidomimrtc. Amm are u1ually '1.rmiahta w,rh • bell which the rr,.-.1 rin:,;i• during• citf't!mQny. ·rhn-t- ate two mam typo of "'A?": the m::1.1n,c-r-m,o-n and 1ht 1.>rdin11ry nu.rm. --8,efort; they are u~d In I ter·• vice ·rhut nmt~ 1rn1lit ti'ri,1 be COl'ltttrntcd by bt.,-,1-um. When a pmou i.l 'ordained' H ltun11an or lft.oH1/m hr Of •hi! 13 ·pul to bed with an assort.

VO-OQO<• Cl, El<GY Al'f) C'IJl,T•OR0'1l'S b7

The case oi a lamous mambo of Pon-au-l!nncc. Madam~ L., 11lords aru,Lhtr ciromplc o( ~ person not during 1.0 res/st ~ s11pcr- " '" lJJ'..al vocation. She w•s • il.:il lous Cntholic, proud of belongi.ng ", U1~ Soci.tcl du Srtcrc-Cocu.r. She was covered wlt.li pioUJI 111e'1JI$ llnd he.r certllicate Of ha1,u~m wu fmmed vn the wall of 11"1 p:ufour. l 11 ,piti, of her repugnant,:, the {IJ11 inf1s1ed nn her 11,~ominJ!. a 111m11bv and ,he ~vc w:ry only bccau~ ,he Wlti 3fraid "I 1t1t!i.r 'puniahroent·. Jn rcrnrn they helped her t(l $Ct hcraelf up mil contrib\l\cc.l tn the success 11f her tre.1tmtn1;1. Tlu:r di1I not "'quire hc-r to give up hcT Chri,ti~n ,1uiics .tnd th~t i• why, nn her ultar, a prayer l,ppk sto.nds clicek by jowl with the ploying ,-:4rd8 and rattle of the seer.

'!'he cnll of du, spirits is sometimes heard by pr.oplc wbo seem 111 no condition to comply with them. T was wld the extraordinory , tn.ry uf II pcasanr who bec:une u .l'rotcstnnt after th~ death of his •ott: he WaJ.Hcd to get hia ow11 back on tl1e loa who bad dlsrcgardcd hi~ praywi. In faa he bctre them 1uch hatred that he had swom Mver ~gain LO have nny1hit1g tO du with Jh¢m. Then, one evening, when he wa., ,cturniog from a gathering at the thurch, he mcl lhret'" mysteriou, beings un die road. Re tli&tin~'tly heard .ine "f 1ht$C $aY 'No-it i~ not he .• .' whcreupol\ ht l<l31 con• scio11sn,-ss. A few days later, waking from a dc<!"f) sleer , he found u11 his chest the c:rnhlrn.1s of a /umg11n; two 'thund\lflStnncs' nnd 1he pack of cards of a 11oothsaycr. l<eahzinj? hi~ d~ni;~r he to<1k the hint. He ~•vo up Pr.01estanusm, went back to the bosom of the Catholic church and became a /11n,go11. It ,s said 1ha1 he brings ahou1 remarkable CIJ.tes aod that his predictions always came true.

Th~ profe$$lon of hu11gan can be hereditary. Naturally a forher likes ro hand on the ,ecrtts of his arr to his ~ti. Jnd 1rai11 him up m take hi~ place. Th~ mere faet that the ~nctuary, an<I the spirits wl1ich live in it, form part 11( tht· inhc.1·ita11ce entails .1 responsibility fOT rhc ~cir from which he can unly C5C3pt with difficulty: on rht: one hand the /011 nnd the clicntdo of the /umrf~ consi.itute • sort of capital which a fo1nily- dves not lightly give up, and 011 the olhtr 1he abandoned, fum1shc.d spmt~ may tun1 on tho person whose duty it ,s 10 feed them. The strusglc whic.h takes place ln the soul of the man who 11mls the profession of

68 TIH l>O('IJU FRA\11/WOllK Of VQm>OO

ltUIIJJDn repugnant and who In ~pltc of 1his ,s pushed into It by his (,11nily, 80Qn takes on the nature of 3 p=MI ~-•nO,ct with the aru:cttral Ion. I I~ feels they are tb~ca1cmn2 ham. I le aurihutu every illne>4!. every diuppo,ntmcnt to 1he,r hoetth1y ,rul ,io, Wc-Jkened by Ccsr, he often give• ,n to what he 1magi11et1 10 be a supcmatunl uppcnl. Sometime. 1he ,·cry opp<>"il~ h•ppcns. A aoo wishes lo euc~..-cd h•~ fut her bu, 1he apirits are aga1n>1 it and put every obst11do tn hia pa1h.

Mose C2ndilbtc, for the pneschood go through a coune of inscruction laaiing sever.ii month,, nr t\'CO ~c••cn,l ycan w,th a hungan or ''"'"'"" who w1:shcs 10 t.'lke them on. They Je3m the tecltniqu.c <1f their profc .. ,on b,· passlni: 1hrnugh all 1he '11r:tdes' of tl1t Vc>c1doo h,cr•rchy, serving tltrtr muin.-r 1uccC$S1vclv as huiui, hu•gtn,kon (choirmaster). lo-pince ~nd ronptJJ1u The muter, tame 1$ rerlccted on Ju, pup,h, ;ind rhesc, \\heu they llecome m/lllfbc, or l,unga11, l:llk wid1 prulc of their apprenticeohip.

Som~ prics11 say th~y 1(01 1h,1r cduc:inon d,rcctly front 1hc apiri~. Amon,: the Iva, Ogu, l.i:gb•, ,\y,zan •ntl Simhi rc~g~rd thetn6elves :rs proper lrn11~nn ,rn d undertnkc lbc iMtruc1io11 or ccruun novices, sdccied by I hrm A mun "hu hA> received hi, OStQrr from 1he 'mysteries' will pretend lo he proutl '1f il- in order to conce:il a f~hng of 1nfcririn1y. for he who cb1m1 •u~matural p31ronagc b.u nt\'Cr hnd 1hc adv:inuge of a proper 1111inml! and :.c, tries to '-'Y a, liule AS po681blc •hour hi, 'knowlcd11c'. Be 1s known a.a a ~u1111u11-mo1oullt • ~ name ,-1,ich hean a dr•panging nullnCC. S,m,larly 11 c110 happen th.11 t>tics~ who wun1 10 rnnkc iMo,>11ions in ritual without offending 1hcir 1,rr~tn•I master!, a11rlbu1c the novelties to lite fuller i1mruc11011s wh,ch lb.cy uy the)• ba,r. gol Crom the loa.

The ltnnsm1$s1on of '.knowledge' c,ir, be effected through :1 nugic "hjecc. A lrun11an qf Pon-•u-Prmce. who hot! set him.elf up In Marb,al. wos qifrc,l-~o pcnpl~ a•1d-w1tJ1 such extra- ordinary powcn of ..:cond sight that he manoged Ill arno~5 • fortune wluch w'1i u1lnu1cd a, more th.on 10.000 11.011n.lC$ (i.e. Sz,ooo). On h,s tlc,1hbcJ he g~ve lus 1nru, b11ptlmrj ~ piece of

• 'Straw b1.1 c.mrJ h) ,x-aun1 1 11c:ople WLth dw taml!I aodft.1hn- ot ,rodnrn1hr, all ,r•\.h ot~•, 'hnub.c-r' or

1.11.tu,..

\"OODOO Cl. EROY ANO CUL 'r•l':ROUl'S 6cJ •rll, whicl1 he alw.iys wore rfiu1Jd hi~ woist. A~ s,,on ns tl,c girl " hi hc-tsctf ,-,th u she was pc,,oc,1..,d by • IQQ, and inherited,

11, th~ spol, hec brothl,r's gift•. Sh~ followed io h,s steps onJ I ,,1 ,m1.- u ,11mnbu.

I\ hrn n ca11Ji.l.:itc 11> tht pric.<tholld hos cornplc1cd his •1•prm11ceslup he mu~I p~s. 1l11"(111i:h pn ,n,oouon which is

rounded hv th• lm·~lhl s«rccy If we arc to hrhc, e whAl 1 \ ,1 rolLI h, •.1nc J111n,tt11t, Ch<' r1rc:,, uh!ic-r,•ed Ult tlu.s oct:as.ion MC , .. ,re or h...~, dtc ,.amt "-' 1 ho~c ot the lwn::o 11utiat1on \\ hich we , 111 discuss lat~ II i, simply tcu1f!hcr: "there are m(lrc, 1>uni •h-

" ,us'. The l11mi1<m-1,,-bc i~ ,hut up '" on,• of the sonctu3ry , ,.,,111• fur 111111· tlo)s. lk He,, on., str,1w mu1 with ltis an~n by his ., .J, - 11,. Ju-,J t<:>l<I un a stone under wluch a p~ck <>f c::mls hll1!

1,, "" pl•lctl 111.: may onle ,it up £.,r" frw mlnutc1. His dreams ,luring h1S ~<.mlincmcnt ,rr cxcr~mely import.int tlrcy are 1bc m rtn6 h} winch the uocb- p•nicul,rlv the lne:11 ones-convey h,m thcrr marructruns, 1111· f11r111;1I -,111brnncn1cnt o( the ltung11,,

c2llcd 'lil11ng" (11121mtm1Ptl) bccauoc the main rite con•ists of <Ais111g ahe t:ln1htl,11c 1hre<" 1imt•~ in~" •rmcho,r n1n1d the checr- mi; of all present. 'Lifting' u also pracuscd when••~ 2 com- rnurmy mculbe,- ,,chil!VC', k TIO\\ w•u• 111 the Vooduo h.icrarchy.

·11,c ti•ft of ,t,,in·o> .tn<·c "'hach cams u l111ngan the tidt of Jn•wn (sect\ I• uht:uncJ at tile end of s 1ped.1J ctrcmony, 'the ttrippmJ! <>f 1h~ eyes' (In f>11u dts yw.T) which is loo~~d 11r on as r.he hlghNt dci:ru uf pric.ah m11fa1.wn

TIit Jllt;'SITARI.ES OF TIii: llt '9PI>'

fni11~te11, men or wom,11, "hu r<'!lularly ukc an 3Cllvc p2tt ,n ccrcmanics •nd who http the priest in his fw10tion,, arc call,·d hunn, a word of l on ,kriv,11i,1n mt~ning the •pousc of the god' TogcU,cr tl1r,• m,,kc 11r • lluk c1111rt rnund the 1/l{TIIWO or /u,nf!IIIT or, more oaL11)', .1 ,,,c,c1y sworn 10 1he worship of 1hc ,,,,, nnd mad• up u~uall,• or more l\'<ilncn than meo n cnce WC •h31l •p~•k <Jf the l111m1 "" fctnan,nc, ohhou,l?h the title It common 10 b(Jtb sc.,~

Thero ,1n· nrnny ,liffrrent rea>Ons winch 11rompl p(oplc to bdung to A wciccy. They might 10111 ,imply because they live

70 TH ~ SOCI AL fRAMl!WOR& Of VQOIIOO in the nei!lhLourlrnod 01 a tanclut1ry ,,. btaut.c 3 membc,r of their family ,s Jlrendy p3n of it, Other~ uttnch themoel\"Cs Tu" priest {or o priestess) becau•c the:,, ha,·e been lrcatcd by h,rn or simply be<:susc 1!1ey admire hi> tit)'lc <Ir buvo ~ high opinion of h.is 'ltno-.ledgc'. Equally .i dcv(,r.ec might tend 10 \'ISit • s:incluory 1•h~rt hia own /04 t<m~ preccdcnc:e over 11thcrs.

llutu1 wlu, >1gru out of pi~ty to serve 1lie loa ltt some clt011en &anctu~ry, orr tied down IQ mooy duues. They must be prepared 10 spend whc,11: nights dancing and sing.mi: beneath a pe.ristyli, .inti to be possessed by spmrs. A liumi is committed tint only to 111Tcx- 8acrrfic•~ tn the wa or the Im mfr,, (Ma ,tis\> 10 tlovmc ht:n;clf t<> the humblest task~, without hope (lf >tny reward h~yond the fricmlship and protection of th• l"a, a; wdl u living In dreAd r.,f divine pumahmc111 •houJtl s h~ -pr,we ncgligen1, 'l'hc •inging an<! dancing con be "- sai1"1\ic1fon in th~m~elvtS hµt 1hc s:imu could scarcely be salol of 1he 1lowr1-10-c:rrth chore• sud, as cooking !o<>\l fo~ the Joa, cleaning I he pt-tiny le, collcctmg ~nd making ready the ~•=ti objcc1s--in ~hurt Eu lfillmg the role or ' spo~ of the god' Mor,:ovcr lhc l11msi can only dn their job adcqwucly IF dclnila of rituAI ~c Ynmiliur to them. Tile 1nitia1inn llf the ku11:011, during which they rrcc1"e proper IMtrucuon, rounds off th,: religious lrail\iog :tcqu1rcd by llllSid iuJWI 11ttendanr,.- al the l1µ11rf;,.

Zeal, devotion to the lwnga11 ()r 1J1w11bo, •nd !lhcdicncc ~re the main 11wd1ties CJ<pcctrd of a /,,nm', She 1mm Ii«.' as tltforcntinl t4 Lhe monrl11>, whom •he cull, 111amu11, and u, rhl'" ''""It"" whom she calls papa, ~;, she wou ld lie to her own p ~rchts. The good nnmc or n san<:IU!lry c)~-pcnd,i much oo the discirline and ,·rprit d~ rorp, o( its /um.ti,

IL i.s ltigh pr:,lae to Aa)' or" lumgnn thnt h11 keeps his 1,,,.,,.. in• good order; the ncglig~ncc ot In~ hoh(TYmur of a hu,d upsct:inh~ serittuR Jtml):lplwro which shnuld ,1.bt~in when Joa arc Cl<pcctcd. Nn1urnlly LlH• nc<'>l., i,mal lllischicf and inaucntiona 1>r the lwnsi arc r1:s.:11tcd hy l11mga11 µ• pcrsonnl s lights T .orgi1111, wh11111 Ill- ness ~nd oltl age haJ mode suspte,ous nod wuchy, \YU alway, compl2inin11 nf h<:1· lmm1. She found them Jule, irrtsponsible 11nd Jbhve ,di mr/i (/,ardi-brash ,ud d.tsr~,pec1ful). When p<meai,ed l,y a scwrc Ina ~he seized the oppt,rtJJnlry of kcturing •nd some-

VO ODOO CLERGY ~ND CULT-GIIO UJ'S 71

t ,a,i,s chasing them with o whip. Once t saw her b~t an un- 1.,rtunllte ltumi lu fury nn_d then take ller on her knee to comfort her. Of co,use hu11si punished lllro this could not complain t1illcc 1 WM the /0,1 who.had ch:u,1i:4ed 1hc10-wi1hu111 Lorgina lmow-

tng wny1hing ~huuL i1 . , • '!'he mi.bth~\'iour of /1umi weighed on Tullius ioo. One d.a:y

when he hfid got Gu~dc-ratras into hi:o head he ltc111rcd hi• i,,rrni at length an the theme of obtdiencc ond to edify 1hem told the story or the yollng woman who having been whipped ror ma:klng some mist;ikc in prq<iedurc, not onty bore no grudge against her 111uman but came and song rn her:

Sal0,,y4 011ait10 Mttsphd lutnga mwl M'rtspil• 1116111M ,me,

Salli.ny6 onnivo J respect my lumgan I respect my 1110111./,Q ,

for hi~ part doc /iu11g1m hus rc.spon.sibilitio!! towlltds the hm,ti : he is 1hcir counsellor ,11\d p1otector and U tliey find d,cm- 11el~c~ l•lthout mean~ of suppcm. rhrougl\ no fault of their own, he hou .... , feeds ind clothe, them until he has found them a. job. When they ,trc ill, he loob after 1hcm !l6 though they were member• of hi,r fomily

The }1,mg,111 unloads 11art of his fespoll$ibilitie11 on the most devoted and zealous of his l11msi, She who 1s p,omoted to 1he rank of lmnxe111'k011 or •queen chorister' (rcrn~-cl10nterell~) is mistre,;s uf the choir duritljt ceremonies. The s t•ndnrd of rhe lfULrgiMl singi.og iltpeJ\do upon her. It is she who with arms dr.imat1c:illy uplifted, ·sings out ln a (ull srrnng voice the fiTSt 001cs of tho, h ymns, and • lie ,vboaubscqucntly scolcls and chlvvlcs t.hc /,unsi' if 1hcy sing feebly. fin•lly 11 It $be who sh~king lu:r caltle (c/111c/w), brc.iks the rhythm of 1he Ringing wh itll she wishes to ~101>. hi• $hCjllsn wh-> idcrotif,cs each lua as iL appears, who d100.u 1lu, so,1rr-, to be sung in its honour and ~tops them ,1f1.-r the "flprtivcd number of couplets or -at the order of the lmngan, 1'11riog fi:tc, the l,ung,mikQI/ work themselves Gilly night after m~hr, Ill! night Jong, rtcver spur_ing d1omsclves 11-nd without even scckon1: the relaxation and rest which 1s IQ be found in the dizz111css of trance. For :i lnwgenlk//n, no less thnn a dJ'ummcr, must remain in possession of b.cr faculties and attend to what is

71- 1'TrE SOCIAi. JIRA~lt-WORi. OP VOOOOO

hnppc11ini; ollierwis,- chao.• would hring the c~rcmony 10 an end

'!'he hcsd storoke.epcr, also .:allc:d rhe /1111w,nikon-q11anru:- maa1cr, is ~ ruan <>r \\'tunQr, uppo1nted to be m charge oI Ilic offerings. Tf«• /11.p/urr-Ahlm:vfanon o( lhe Cnrn.n,iimlcr in cl1irf of lh"- city (t,111111111t1d1J111 glntrn/ de la .plac. 1-u lite mas1cr uf cercnw,1i.,., I !is o:mhlem ie • ,;ahre or n m~1chot \\1ll1 wh ich he juggles in an clega111 manner. I le mnrchus l11 front or all pro- e.esainns ~ncl cnntwls rhcir movcmc.nts Uc is ~, .. , respunsible for l<"'1ping ur,kt during cercmou,es. f .llllt of ull the pcrtlnnugci\ of lmporronc,.• wo n,ust mention the conlid:tnt (Ir (onji11nr1)-thc rlght-lrnnd man ot I he l,11ng01 nnd lilt 'hcnot ,,r burclcn' c,r majot• 1h1mo who ta.kes care of 1.f1e o.du1lniRtra!ive chom ol o humfo.

The suit of• fium/n-lw,m, /,u,,g11ni/1on, /11,p/nce, dmmmus, etc. •s well as people ,v.t.o h~vc brt>n lN:atc.j tl,cre-/niit1-fmilles (miaU lca,-es), or wlu, bnvc l~comc regular ,1ttcndants-p1'1trt- cayr (children of t~c houw), m,lkc. up wlm~ ,a known as the '/111111/0 society' This so.mctlmes assu11Jcs the ch.aracte1 of a mutual •••istanc,, assocituio11, The 'sllppon society' (sQcroll 1m11u11) Is WJI :tlway, tht" ,.,men~ the /11111,Jo socie1y, alrhough it would be diflicuh to dl'llw a boundary betweon tnL'm. As it.s name ~ugge&~, 11,c ""'''' 1011till1J, by means of its su.bscriprions, helps t<iward~ the m11in1.e11nncc .,r 1hc /11111,Jt,, &fend• its imertSt5 if they arc th rcarcnrd, and helps tho /1.1u1gan ID c,rgani,:e the 'bi.g feaatiogs .,., the god$' which he is bound 10 gi1•e. TheSe societies hav~ h~c:11 most aptly compared tQ the parish councill of the Cat1101l;; Church, Hence rho lt1mga11 try ~nd ~tiffeu thom with inRucntiaJ pohucians or 1.irospetous tradesmen, whose moral or linanci«f suppon could be Qf use.

A•~o~at,ons llke lhese, which grow IIJl round • humfo, nrc often modelled <In the c.o-opcrntivc wc1rk groups wl11ch ace to be found evc,ywhere in tlic Hoit.Lu, C<>untryside. They comprise a wh<>lc hierarchy tl( dignitaries whose rolling lilies llaner the ,wtity of the mcmbc,,., Th~ 'rank•' are confem•d i.n the course of a 'lining' ctrl'.lnony, nod they tum the little groups into a parody of thr Staie-with ~ Pres1deni, a fully fledged !'vlinistcr, Sccrcrary of Si,uc, Senators and IJoputie,1, Gencrab, Goveni- men1 Commist1ionera, etc. Women are not left out af tlti&

V00l)QO C).:F.I\GY A'!<P CVI.T•CROITT'S 73

JlCnerous di~trihution of titles and lo(cv fonctioos. There arc the •flag-queens' ('r,r'11~, drnptau:r'), the' 'sUcnce queens' ('rtitttt ,ilt11ct') whose 1uh it is ro enforce complete si.lcncc duri.og cmemonies, the. 'empresses of Dultomenn youth', the ' tlrrccting J,i,:[[1:$' and e,•cn the ,1gauwes wlw incite people to drink. The ftumfq ,,:,cict1 !cw.If always h.1s iomr fine 1rn1nc like Gold UY.uil, God First. P,ilar Star, Who <1uid.et, 1'he Flower of Cuinca :¼clcty, Rcmcmbr:ance S,x:i.iy, etc,, whi~h i, written up proudly '>II lite faQadc nf the main raye,mytt b-~.

CcnJ1i11 pnc~ts do without ,1 s<1cicty. '!'hey content themsclvts wi1h the uppointm,·nt of ll pcr~ro111i,n or m/r,.,SQltliftl to w)lom they npply in times of frnanc,al emcrgcncy. 11,e ouly compen• •~ti,111 svoJ.iabfc to the bearer of &uch s title--and such a burd<m- 19 the honQur of 'keeping up' the /11,m/o.

TH£ l,()ONOM\' OT' ~. ' 1w~no'

.Dtcomiug 1 IW11gOJ1 or ,nambo can be an eltpcnsive businc~s. Fir,.t of all 1he eeremony r.tllcd 'the taking of lhc ,mon' costs 400 doll~rs o• more, •«oFding 10 Lhe rep111aric111 of the initiat<1r chosen. Then, 10 practise his profession a priest must first get l(lgethcr a lrnm/Q which mean! huying a pi<-cc<>fl•ntl, ~nd pulling up ,evtral gtoup$ of l.luiidin~ i1u:luding u peristyle, Finally, the ;1cce8sOries of worship, fairly cheap in themselves, represent a conaidcrnbfe expense in vie:w ot ~heir number, Ln other words a l'ort-ou-l'nocc h1mgan must invest at least a thous1md dotlnr~ before he can practise. Given the s1ondard of hving of the average Voodooists th.is outlay, which is morcly- a minimum, represents a verit:1blc fortune. 'f'o am••• ~uch u ~11m m.any youni; men temporarily take up ol.l.ter work which will c:ruib.le tho.m lo "'1Ve up. One of the beat l'•rfonners in 0.1hcr1nc Dun• b.run's troupe was in fact ~ young /11111gon who had recently 'takell hi~ amm' and wa~ h11ping, by touring th.c world, 10 save enough h> ~ct hims<!lf up. SomcJ,urigan hcgin by prActi,ing their 3rl in wn1.U, singlt rooms, treating lhc s,ck :;u1d telling pl!Qple's fortunes; in time they hope n, get enc,ugh money to bulld 3 big l,umfo.

'!'be responsibilities of a hungun an: ·u~uafly heavy; wo havu

74 Tflll SOP/\l. fTlAMBWORlt c:lf VIH)OOO

already .seen how lie 1s morally responsible for housing, feeding nnJ cl0th111g 1hosc hu11S1 who Lhrougl, no fault of 1hdr own have become. deslitutc. In additil'n, ot n,orc or less regular intervols be h:l& to lmltl a 'gonoral sorvkc' r,,1 nil lils fua.. Evun lf be ~ helped by the llwnfo ~ci,:ty this ~rcmony Is incvi1:1bly a h11rdtn, It can go ml f111 1w1, wcek1t •lurhlj! which lime the /11mga11 must support 1J1e l,u11ti •nd his gucsh. l h~ml ,,f • ftl!ll io whirh four b11llocks, fiftec1I \!OIII> .and ahout ~ hun,lrcd chicken, were s:icri.ficcd • 1he total cos1 wa~ more than ~ 1hous.1nd doll~~.

'l'hese •~pcns.:s arc foTtUnntcl) balon<:cd b) l)nr,sidcrablc profit~. Many h,1,rgm, ~11d mmr,hu appear comforuihly off o, m cn rich cmoparci.l 1<1 thc;r usual CWIIOmen<. The m~m income of a /,unlla" comes from his fees for 1rea1ing the sick. A 'course o{ treatment' can hring hnn in, Oil average, anytlung fiom fifty to a hw1d1ed duUal's. Although /11111gan only deal with 'su11crnatur3l' i.Unossc•, I hit is to say lbosc cs used by l1JtJ or $Orc01crs; they ncvcrtbuless co1Js1hute ll. serfotl4 sowec of c.ompet1tion for ' medical llocto01', Indeed they like t<> compare themselves with 1hc town Joctor11 ;md ssy their <>wn methods of thrrnpy arc as rigorou$ a$lh0$4: or 1heir collcag11es. People in l.orgim1' .. cMahllsh• ment mnintain«I that she had an understanding" itb a Jtlctor in Pon-~u-Princt b)' which he.$ent her his despen1tc cnso,;-nnd, of cour.c, riu •1e,w. Thus this \!oc:1;or sc:n1 her ,1 patient whose internal organs were 'j nsidc out' und, tubercular case for whom X-ray 'prcdic1ed death in a s.ll(ln time\ She was oble 10 cure these two difficult cases because her 'knowlecl,1tc' enabled her 10 diag- nose the ,llnesses as outside 1he convcntionftl scope ot doctors, both being caS<,s of witcltcra(t ·agitinst whicl, 1bc bookish science of the W1,ites could do oothing. M,uJn.ss, epilepsy an<! 1111?er- culosfa, which are essentially ~upernaturnl (liseasct, are the ~peci~I province t>f cemin ltu11gmu. !,horlly hefo1·c hi11 death the /,u11g1111 J\braham had toyed with tM ideu ol turning hi& h<iuse, "Which uujoined the /111mfa, into a clinic for tlic insane. He 11attcttd him~df 1h21 he could cure lun~tic~ by attacking the evil "pirits whiah wcr,: tormenting them. This would be easy for him, people: said; bec:au.,e ht was in ~onstnnt touch with t>ll.sorts of P•lr<J wa. The /011 whu hdp nu11xa11 to carry out such treatment also make sure the patients pay whatever they have promised. If

voonoo Ct.Cl!CY AND C\Jl,T-lHlOlll'S 7'5

m 111va1id jtetswcll and ther, rciuiie11 Ul p,1.y I.he ltu11i:1111, tlic l))Rtter i• rlacctl In 1hr hands of thc/110 who will 1101 only-p1111hc person's hi:•lth hock whcrr 11 started, but-if hr coi,tinu~ to turri a de-a! •~r-wlll kill luJt1 into the bar.1r,1m. (iood loa 11.;sist 1he /umg,w who Stl1ve.• thl'.m, provided ht ucats hi• clientcle hone3tty. If he c,q,loits people, 1J1cy ah:1.n,lon lum and withhold from him the 'knowltdge' ht nccJ,s.

l.t is ,mpnrt:1111 not u> c:<1nf~e 111,0,gan and 1110111&-> with 1he 'herb-doc:1;onl' who treat pcopk with inf11sions and 'barhs' made of mcdicinul herb.-, a11d who, apan from well-tried recipes, only know a few spells for special 11ccasinng,

Treattncnr of the: sick prnvidt~ 1h~ lorgC>lt and surest somcc of revenue for a pnc>it, bn1 be :1"1o tam~ ,onney fclrctclfuii) the futore. J\ncl then cu.ch ceremony brin~ in, for ,he priest. wl,o organi,,e It. th~ son ot gain which io difftcull 10 evJluatc ,111cc r1•cn if no fees nr• collected. there are still vnrio11, kin~ of profit mad .. on the 'eatabIC11', the purchase ol animals 1,, be sacrificed ~n~ on ,ill 1h11 ditlcrcnl scccssori"" which prieSIS like 10 entl- rnen1e when they dli-cu..ss :1 project wi1h a client. In fact tl)t wh11le l,umfq 6tall' li.vJ: for sc,•c.ral ds)'!' on o[crlngs which hove uot bC<ln consumed or dust.toyed during a fl;ie.

In !l<.14ition, every initi1ttinr1 1<1 the grade of kan:o cams a con- &1dcr:1ble sum for the /u,ngan who conuucts it, partlcularly ir Ins lm11ifo cnJOVII a great pre$tlge.

Flnally !tu11g,w com a lot of mone)' hy ,elling 'msgic powders' und other tutrsmans, much ru demand, for ensuring "11= iu l11l1iness ur to,e :11Tairs, or as protection against rvil tpclls. They a!Ro m,1kc 'gunrch' which shelter children l'rtm1 1he c,·il eye, and ,ttmck.s by we1ewo\vC11. J oscph Antoine. /mng,m u1u hullbund nf Lorgins, did ll hit? tradt 1n 'powders'. He g<>t letters which he g;iv• nil:- II\ rCJtd, They were f.rnm forci~nera, paruolllarly white /\meric,iu., And they dcscrihed alln,cnts to him and asked for IUl udc411~u, rcmcd,y, in return for cash down. Joi', who WM illiterate, ~ot frien& tn reply rn ~11oh cHenL 1Jc enclosed a few pinches of one of his preciou~ powdori and dwged as mud1 39 fifty doUan.

No doubt tlti~ anulysi$ of n priest'$ inconi~ is i11c<1mplcr.c; but ii gives some idea of tho vrofessior,'s vtry ~olid ~dvanuiges, and

76 TIii! SOOI AL PRA M,IIWf) & K 01' V()OIIOO

cxplai"-' why it ¥!tract~ ,o many an,h,tious people -who have no means of improving their aituotlon other than the ~xploit.ation of rcligiou.

Dependence Man undepcn,bble chcntelc makcsl11111ga:n rnuchy anJ irritable. Competmon bcmg hitter, eve.ii Ute heM Mc quick to <:riticii<<: their c0Hcague11 and spread c:,nliarra<t[ng•tories abo,11 them. My friends never failed to lusinuutc 1hal 111ch JIIU such a Jr ,mgan 'wori<ed with both J,o.rut.• or ,nadc of 'lrJd IM' Wl1<11evor a client adnutletl he h,ul liccn 1cea1cd previously by ~nother nu11gm1, a very timely lea w~ called i11 l () tell him the pc11plo whu trcatecl ltfm before were not nnly ignuran1 ~nd mcnmpctent, but also ltad borne him a 1irudge •nd fostered his mncs,,- m5tead of curing.ii, One .,f lhe commonest wayJ frrr /11111ga11 tQ $1nn.der each other w"• 1(1 accuse • cnlle;1.g1:1c of c3sung spells to destroy the good c:tfects of hi• rivals' creatmcnts. Tbece arc even ,omc hu11g111t wicked enough to .suw tu1111g11 (chnrms) ruund tli.e lmmfo of a colle•guc who, olllless he does somcLhing about it, will ~11011 s,c ~II his cures brou.F:ht 10 nothing. ·rh.is o.t lbMl is .ometlmea how the failure of an expensive trc~lment is cxplainccl awa~ A hungon knows by cruuu1 aigns wbc,1 hiJ tcputatiol'I i, 11n th.c wane : 1he sick no longer come to be tu red hy him, hi. l,un,i ~re und1sc1plu1cd or desert him anti finally, th,• lnST •trnw , in1ti:11cs take back the 'heail po~• (poU-tllr) with whicl) lhC)' ~ntrustc,I hull. 'The fame of a l,untn~ is ~ frigllt thing: it ii. a1 the mercy of rumour und gostip, l-lcncc tha1 thirst for adnrl1scmcn(, 1.ho1 boasting and 11kin•decp vanity which ,rre 10 be found in even Lhe mosL hone~! and sincere hung<m and mmnl,o,

Thtr<' are men entitled pb•l•s«vane {bush•pncsr.), b11t Ibey ~re no pall of I he VooJoo hicr>rchy On many occasions, no110 the les,,, thl'lt =vices nrc ind1.spcnsablc. They •re, 38 w~ •hnU •cc, people wh<1 have succeeded in memor.zi(I~ a iircnt mn11y prayer& •nd ~On~ m F rcnch and uiun, an_d wl,o J\1Jfll the r61e of e11rl whtncm,r Catholic liwrgy is incorporated into V111,dQ<, ritual. To ~. certain cxtcn1 they ate: rcprcacntaU,,e,, of L11~ Calholic C.:l,un;_h ,n the hean of pagunism.

'rlH SANCTtlARll!S 77

Ill. 't'H.E SANCTUARIES

•ro understand 1.he wa) ccrcmo111cs are conducted and religious ideas g!vco rnsccdal shape, we mutt first forrn an exact 1de<1 of lhe unc.-tuarics, wl1crc members of fi::ateroilics gather to worship, anti where the faithful come sep.oratdy 10 consult tb.c lumga11 nr 111/J ,,,,,,, •

Thcni is hardly any difference between the 'houses of the my,,,,,.• and ordmnry h11u&!;$, .A l11m,fo is IIOL ~ temple in the ordiruiry ~en"" of thl ,vord, but H ,digious centre comparable in appcarnnco t·o the ,Jld cumpound whith formerly included the ho\ischolds of Im atended family. 'The nun,bcr, disposition an<l decoraho11 of the houses wb1cl11nake up, Voodoo sanctwrry depend ,n. the first pl3ce on the privaic resource5 of the priest ond priestess. concetmcd. and to • le=r c,xtcni on 1beir ima)lin,1100, taste or tho taste attributed to the spin1s. There are poor ltumfo rcdu~d 10 o li1tle 11111,. oth~rs which look like a small village. At PQrt•au-Princc, where ground and constructlon i" expensive, the ,race av:iUnbk tv 1hc g9ds ls unavuidably cramped : often the lwm/o corisiRls of no more than a covered arco and a main build- ing which sbcll"1'$ the IM and also tbc family of the h11ngan nr mumbo. On 1he other hand sometimes these town sancn,arie., shuw a gimcrack luxury which is scltlQm .ctn in lbe country.

The only fcoturc of• h11mfo whi.ch makes it recogniiuble from the ootsido is the 'peri~tylc' , a so.rt of shed, m:unly covererJ over, where dances and cercmnJucs nrc hdd free from the vagarieg of the wca1hcr.

The roof, either 1ha1ched or more often made of corrugated iron, is held up by hnlHundy painted posts: one <>f them, in the middle, is called p,,tMu.•111itan (the centre post) o.nd forms the pivot for rltu:11 dancc:i.. During ceremo.nies it is the object of viuin1i• n1tc111!t1n, which an~•t i1a mainly S:tcrerJ SJgni.6ciior.e.. t n ritual iai role i~ to uct :is 'the pa~agc l'or spirits', that i$ 10 sa.y as the ladder by which •pftits come dowl\ into the pcri~tyle whe11 they ,,re invoked. On one c,cc,asi.on Lorg111a, ang(red by a nu,,,; who ~hawed hcr$clf lucki11g ul respect tow~rds this pQst, .med

78 Tit£ svl:1A1. f'R,\Mi!WOIU( Of- V()ObOO

OIJI, 'D<1n'1 y<>u realize thtrt'& 11 «(\irit hlllidc it 1' The potrou, mi111,1 •• ne.irly alwa~ decornted with brightJy-¢Qlo11red spirG1 band., or with &eattci'e\l bright spots on " 1miform background_ 'f_hc _gcner"I (:!Teet is entirely d~cQrnnve and as (or as J kno v -has n.t 5ymbolie ~flcanlng. The b"l!q of the poat is usually embed. ed in • conicaJ or ,;ylindncal cement pediment which ls usod during gr-vices us u table for pt1tcing 1h111g& down on.

Apart trom rhe feastS, notl111tg except ilia ,lrunu !Jar.ging from hooks on r_he coiling, or fade<! pnpcr wreath~, woul,I 1,uggest that ~uch a pl•c~ is tl,c ac~ne of tl,r mn•1 •peetacufar 1mmif~1a1i,ms of ,·oodoo. Tl11, aid ore sometJ1ru.~ houstd there for ue;1tmen1; also. sometimes, vi,itors from far away, 01 out-of-work l1t1nn depenili:nt un Uu, hc:1cl nf ,he ~ocic:ty, There too the muster o( the /1u111/o ~ pka:>td to receive friends ;ind it is there tha, the nicn1~0 of the h<1Useholcl h~ng about, iron doth.,,; or shell peas, Ncvenhcle.ss n111ml10 md hungar, keep their pcnstylcs very clean nnd 1idy, TJ1cy never fo~t thar for the fo,thful 1.llls huildiog is so imron11nt Ul rhe cult that 11 has become th~ symbol of the """VO nnd that the word 'peristyle' has become synonymous with '=cht!U'Y', Some prims in Port-•u-Prince, ln eea1ch of 111oder- nity, liove lit up their ·peristyles with lumin(luJ rube5, red and blue-the notional colou"" of 11:riti-and 1h,1ir dance A<>ors are surrounded lw rows nf scatll u1 1ir.u, Thii iort ot lnnovftlion makes• tl,c sn,;etuari.,. Jook like tJ1ea1res or p1,/cri.t dt damr, 1n l111mfo wberc rtsped for trudition is still 1he first consideration, and where sp= allow,, tlwrc;,. a $ptcial urclied recesi,, specially reserved for 1h0 Petro /()<t and~omcthnC$ e:v11n a S<"cond recess for tl1.- Coni:11 /onv"

Uiually 1hr gr.ind peristylt is ,1djucent to rhc building 111 which ate •itua1ed the 'chutnhen oflhc gods'. The room con1:;nuing the patron •piriu. of the ltum/11 opens directly 011 In Ont ro[ its •ides. Tin: fo9-1de of the lmmfo, which iorma the back,-1ftlte peris1yJe, Is d«:0rn1cd with puintinl!;• of lloiti's nilrlonal co~H>f-urma, she emblems of the principal lou ancl oth«r omamenlal mo1if,. You may also sec ,here, writteu OUt, the complete name 11f that pani.cular '1111111/0 snciery· Near 1hc door portr<•ib qf 1hc President of the Rcp11blic and lnRuentiul stnalor& or dcpurit~ arc pinned up. Such pictt1res pruvt the loy,?ty of tlte he,1d of 1he ternple

'fill! SAJ"CTU ARl£S 79 , .. ,. threntcned by regulations, tries to pll.l himself under the

1, , .. ,,.,rut prutcction of the 'gratw nigreJ'. I lit •ancruary ptoper which is sometimes referred to u the

"'' -,,my11,,tJ, ><10\etimes l1S the bugi, badji or sobr1dji, is a room

l'Jo. -2, Two supJ)Qrt, for rltunl obj=. ' l"hal on the right, of Oahome:rn origin, would corr, 8 crock or poll c<>nL1ining ~ spirit (Mus~e de l'hommc, no. 50.66.3); dial 1111 ih• lcf1 would serve; •s • .:undclabm,

plllll1td in front of an ahar (Muscc ~. l'hommt, no. 5e>.29.5),

backed by one or morc stonework al1:1rs (p') in the b:use <>f which :Ire one Qr n1or<' an:htcl niches. On the t.11ble of certain altaB there ure sink~ prepared for the needs of a,1uu1ic spiriB. Wh¢n these ,;,pirits arc the object of special vor,cration the water basin& 11n: built scparnfdy und big enough for a person to ba'lhe in. ln some h11mfo the altars are arranged in tieo which makes- it easier to arrange things os well as to increase the number of holy objects displayed.

80 1'Ht !IO~IAL l'RAMl!WORlt OF V()OllOc:>

A i,.,,; i, • vcri1ublc junlc •hvp · jirs and jug• bclongu\g tq the gpitiL> at\d 1hc dc.sd, phutcrs &<1crcd to rwins, cnrrying-pnts belonging to th~ hrmsi, 'th\lndtl' stones· o, stouc, ~wunming in oll belonging to tbc lea, playing card•, tattlc,i, holy emblems beside bottles of wmc Pnd liqncuc-all for the gods. Arnid the jumble one or more lamps may can a feeble ltght. Colour prints arc pmncd to tltc ,.~us, the awo,d o{ Ogu IS drh•cn it1IO tho <t'-Tth lil.nd ncur tt, iu som~ hwufu, yc,u sue NtrJ·,,, the <'Ut1-oos iron $uppOrts which may still be bougJu h1 tlic n,.,rkcL Qf Allt•mcy. The luo"s r,,o,u ii alao a vestr)' where the ,taeililll'llr-the pl\Oplc who have been p<;sscss•.11-cumc t<I fetch the cl<itlu:s and objtct~ wilt.. whida they mun lie C:lJllipped if tbry ti o u, rcprcs~nt tht god whi, dwclla in the,n, Tl•• bag knd lmt ,,( Z&k11 hHng l,e;,H,lc th.- (1Utd1r.. of Lc:gba and the ll>J1•1IHI n( llntnn; clubltrs of l111n1i oeckla,:,,. fe$lOr111 the g<K'I' flt o1"c hung by wire. across th~ ~nom

'The /oa wor,hipped ,m: so numerous. 1hnt it wm,ld be difficult, rodecd unpossible, to give each ,a ~pcc1al room in the h1111tlo: such a privilege 1s Q(tcn reserved for the potron sp,m. but he too sharcg h,. oltar with members of his forrnly or other /011 who hy vlrtut of some at1inily 'go' ,vith him. M1m1b1J T.1>rgina hnrl nnly one ha1:f for all hr.r /oa ~xccpt the CIJ.6dc who lllid • b.uu.&e I.() thcm~lves it lhe oppOllttc end of the puti$tyl\!. Jn lhc hmrne of a leading l,wl{ftu1, ~f the C,1t-d1!-Snc, the two h:alve. c,f the ~•m~ ltouse were l><'.~pied ru1ltC1ivclj br Oamball,,h·\\ ~dfl nn the ""' ~t.le, •ntl by Ogu on rh.- other Yet >\g\\ i, Z..h and Simhi ~•cl• had their <'lwn t.lwr.1Ji11g The rQ(,n\ dt'vottd 1~ Et.ili-l'rc:d~- 0Jlu1mcy wai. fitted llll <1> a bo11d1>ir.

In many /11,tr,j~ there i~ ~ spe,iul l)OTt, 1hc Jjic11, in whith 1hc futu~ kmc:u lino confintd duri ng- their initfotr,m. !\ separate hoUM i, somct1me.-, kqit for the 3',ck, The o,.,,tcr of tl,~ liumjo :1nd his famil) often livo under the same roof os the 'mys1eric~ , bm in scpirrote rmnns. fn the towns a mambo w1th a cenmn amount ,:,f prcsu~e will have a salon inside 1hc lm,nfo, where she can enrcnam VlBJtOlS. Such room11 ~re furnished anti decorated like :my interior uf Lloc lluiu pctatc;c hcmrgcru••c.

$aorod objects 1trc :ilso to be founJ on 1lto ouL-dw-ta of the un_etuary the pmti (iron ba:) of CriminC!l aticki11g up out ,;,f :a

TH6 SA!'<CTUAlllBS 81

l,ra7ier, ~ p1>ol wb.ad, may vary ua size for Damhallnh, a large '11:,¢k c/11# nftcn crowned with a bowie, hat 0<1i.lciaJ in a frock• co,:tt, whirh reptOlienb\ 1loro1,-.:;amcdi, or .m imit,ation c<H>i!rctc t11mh on whkh iU'C f'IKccJ tU'fo.rini:s for 1hc CueM. F.wry l11mif<> i> rngirtlct.l 1,y ·~crctl tree$' \11rbres-up=ml whi,h may h~ recogniicd In' the ,tn110-wo.rlt edging :ill t0uod L11em, by the nraw ,acks (ma<nult) ~ril.l by the ·~u-ips uf mou:nnJ and c:'Jtn skulll of onamol~ hung up in 1hcir br:mches. bven when lhcTC ii 1u, hairier ronnd the nl'r«I prrtinets, 1hc entrance ls none; tht I••• ,·ailed rbe 'portul', (imulltd b1 1hc go.J Leitba, 1h1s ipnr 1s in,uted \\ilh a roligiou• .signitican1't' which is cx1\lessed in dmils of ritual.

Thill briJ skttch of ~ /mtn/fJ inC£Jtpor111u 1he conunl\nCSt rharactcri~ti~ o( all sancrnaracs ,md l~•ve,; out the man) iJ!ffcr- i!llC<:!I t() lw f<'ut1d ,rnong them. llu1 the picture, '-'"111W be lu- cumplctc withmot 111e1itio11 of the tocks, hcus, pig•'<•M, and gwnca-fowl whicll run about ouwde and which perch n11 1 he s;,cred tr=• They 11re an waiting /or the day of sacril¼e, llS are the goats whMe ulca1ing may be heard irom a ne,rby e11cil,,i11re. Tn mauJ /m1T/f& 1he dill'o:n,ne,; between sanctuary 1md i•nn ,s hard to discern .,Ince 1hc l,u11ga11 c:oinhines tl,o iunciions of both farmer an.d priest.