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The Role of Rural Community Colleges in Promoting Sustainable Economic Rural

Community Development: A Multiple Case Study

Dissertation Manuscript

Submitted to Northcentral University

Graduate Faculty of the School of Education in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

TERRI D. ANDERSON

Prescott Valley, Arizona

April 2017

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The Role of Rural Community Colleges in Promoting Sustainable Economic Rural Community

Development: A Multiple Case Study

Terri D. Anderson

Approved by:

Date

Certified by:

Dr. John Neal 5-30-17

Dean of School: Dr. John Neal Date

Abstract

The purpose of this qualitative research study was to examine the role a rural community

college plays in the sustainable economic rural community development, using a

community-based lens that considered rural community college and rural community

context, interactions and results to answer the question: How do rural community and

rural community leaders describe the strategies needed to establish a criterion to develop

a rural community college-rural community economic sustainability? This qualitative

multiple case study took place in a rural community and its rural community college. It

involved interviewing six participants who are known as the community leaders within

the rural community college and the rural community, to obtain their perceptions about

the value of implementing an established criterion in their leadership roles to alleviate the

problems between the two in the establishment of a sustainable economic community

development in partnership with the rural community college. Participants were

interviewed in an informal setting, and further participated by explaining more fully how

they believed the partnership of sustainable economic development between the rural

community and its rural community college in establishing a working criterion would

enhance opportunities for the community as a whole. The analysis of responses received

by all the participants revealed they all agreed that establishing a criteria of sustainable

economic community development the best approach for engaging the community in a

partnership with the community college and thereby maximizing opportunities for them

to attain success in future sustainable economic growth between the rural community and

its rural community college. In addition, all the participants expressed support for more

partnerships between the two to enable them to be better community and community

iii

college leaders in promoting sustainable economic community development. The

findings of this study implied that not all leaders were adequately prepared to work

effectively in partnership, and it is recommended that leadership roles within the rural

community and rural community college establish a criterion of engaging all leaders

within the two in on-going involvement in the acquisition of skills required for

addressing the needs and sustainable economic community development in partnership

with its rural community college.

Dedication

I dedicate this to the memory of my Dad and Mom, Warren and Katie Anderson, and my

best bud of a brother, Warren S. I miss you all so much.

Acknowledgements

It is with the upmost respect and gratitude I pay to my wonderful Chair, Dr. Robin

Buckley. Dr. Buckley was there for me at just the right time to lead me to the conclusion

of this wonderful, and arduous, journey. She knew exactly what I needed at a particular

time, and offered sincerity, praise, toughness, and that little extra push. I still have my

nose plug and arm floaties, and am so happy to have traveled that stream with you, Dr.

Buckley. I will take you with me in my heart all the days of my life.

The NCU staff were especially professional, kind, and went out of their way to

assist me with all my crazy questions. Thank you for that.

To the NCU faculty I worked with throughout my journey who were always

generous in their encouragement and coaching, which I needed in abundance. Hands

down, the best of their kind.

To my precious friends and colleagues. You have made me feel so loved and I

will always be grateful for that.

And to the one I treasure above all else, David.

Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 Background ............................................................................................................. 2 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................ 3 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................... 5 Research Questions ................................................................................................. 6 Nature of the Study ................................................................................................. 7 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................ 9 Definition of Key Terms ....................................................................................... 11 Summary ............................................................................................................... 15 Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................... 17 Documentation ...................................................................................................... 17 The Public Agenda of Accountability in Higher Education ................................. 20 Building the Public Trust ...................................................................................... 25 Community Engagement in Higher Education ..................................................... 29 The Characterization of Rurality .......................................................................... 33 The Concept of Community.................................................................................. 38 The Role of Rural Community Colleges .............................................................. 48 Summary ............................................................................................................... 58 Chapter 3: Research Methods .......................................................................................... 60 Research Methods and Design .............................................................................. 62 Population ............................................................................................................. 66 Sample................................................................................................................... 66 Materials/Instruments ........................................................................................... 67 Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis ........................................................... 69 Assumptions .......................................................................................................... 73 Limitations ............................................................................................................ 74 Delimitation .......................................................................................................... 75 Ethical Assurances ................................................................................................ 76 Summary ............................................................................................................... 78 Chapter 4: Findings ..........................................................................................................80 Context .................................................................................................................. 83 The Community College ....................................................................................... 84 Regional Identity and Attitude .............................................................................. 84 Small, Rural, Comprehensive Institution .............................................................. 85 Community Attuned.............................................................................................. 85 Dynamic Approach ............................................................................................... 86 The Community .................................................................................................... 87 Regional Identity and Attitude .............................................................................. 88 A Sense of Place ................................................................................................... 88 A Sense of Time.................................................................................................... 90

vii

A Sense of Work ................................................................................................... 90 Summary: Context ................................................................................................ 91 Process .................................................................................................................. 92 Community and Community Leadership and Partnership .................................... 94 Community College Regionally Driven Instructional Programs .......................... 93 Community and Community College Presence .................................................... 95 Summary: Process ................................................................................................. 97 Results ................................................................................................................... 98 Improved Economy and Skilled Workforce ......................................................... 98 Strengthen Community College and Community Leadership ............................ 101 Summary: Results ................................................................................................102 Evaluation of Findings: Chapter Four ................................................................103 Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations and Conclusions .......................................106 Implications..........................................................................................................107 Limitations ...........................................................................................................108

Significance..........................................................................................................109 Implications..........................................................................................................110 Recommendations ................................................................................................119 Conclusions ..........................................................................................................123

References ........................................................................................................................126 Appendices .......................................................................................................................138 Appendix A: Test Instrument: Interview Protocol.........................................................139 Appendix B: Test Instrument: Informed Consent Document ........................................141

Chapter 1: Introduction

The work of rural community colleges is tied inherently to their local rural

communities by virtue of the founding legislation and mission of the community college

(Miller & Deggs, 2012). The connections, interactions, and actions of a rural community

college flow from and into the community. The college typically plays a vital role in

myriad aspects of the community (Crookston & Hooks, 2012). Rural community

colleges serve their surrounding community area in an effort to educate, to create a

trained workforce, and to alleviate outmigration. Any employment growth and decline in

a given rural county is often influenced by the larger economic and political context

(Crookston & Hooks, 2012). In this era of accountability, developing a more

comprehensive understanding of rural community colleges’ relationships, roles, and

results in their respective rural communities, especially with regard to economic

sustainability, is important. The nature of the rural community college and community

sustainable economic development and the results of these efforts are important yet

challenging to understand.

As a result of budgetary issues due to shrinking state budgets, rural community

colleges must compete for support with other social institutions and initiatives, in

particular policing, incarceration, and health care (Crookston & Hooks, 2012, p. 35). For

many rural community citizens in the United States, the standard of living and the

prospects of a better future are diminished by a lack of proximity to urban areas, such as

out-of-date technology, poor public transportation, geographic isolation, and more

importantly, a lack of comprehensive education delivery system (Goldrick-Rab, 2011).

Rural community colleges must additionally begin to prepare their community citizens

for the technological, economic, and societal changes that have emerged in the twenty-

first century (Ashford, 2013).

Background

In the late 1960s, rapid changes hit Arkansas State higher education. The

legislature began to look seriously at junior colleges for the state. It was deemed that

every county could have one (Higher Education in Arkansas, 2014). The main financial

burden was to rest with local communities who would have to authorize a millage to

support the schools. This became a major stumbling block until the early 1990s when

Arkansas State University recruited Dr. Les Wyatt as president (Higher Education in

Arkansas, 2014). His presidency ushered in the new emphasis on different methods of

program delivery, including distance learning and the development of community

colleges throughout the state under the ASU umbrella. These included Arkansas State

University Mountain Home in 1995 (Higher Education in Arkansas, 2014). The

community college was brought into the state-wide campus of ASU which included

appropriate funding, that the local community would contribute to but would not be

solely responsible for. As a result, enrollment went up for the community college even

though it was located in a rural community, which was a major factor in its continuing

development (Higher Education in Arkansas, 2014).

While these state level changes in community college funding were taking place,

on the national level the concept of community engagement and development has

garnered increasing interest among institutions of higher education in recent years,

especially in relation to the question of higher education’s benefit to the public (Ashford,

2013). This mounting interest is evidenced by the Carnegie Foundation’s establishment

of a new elective classification focused on institutions of higher learning with special

commitments in the area of community engagement. The Foundation defines such

engagement as “the collaboration between institutions of higher education and their

larger communities for the mutually beneficial exchange of knowledge and resources in a

context of partnership and reciprocity” (Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of

Teaching, 2015, p. 1).

In this era of accountability, developing a more comprehensive understanding of

rural community colleges’ relationships, roles, and results in their respective rural

communities, especially with regard to sustainability, is important (Ewell, 2011). As a

result, rural community colleges are now being faced with challenges and conditions that

threaten their existence. Chief among these serious challenges are inadequate state

funding, shrinking student population resulting in the inability to attract and retain

credentialed faculty and staff, lower property tax values resulting in lower tax revenues,

and, more importantly, an inability to maintain technology demands necessary for the

twenty-first century (Hicks & Jones, 2011). The stability of an important community

agency and the rural community college may be questionable (Miller & Deggs, 2012).

Statement of the Problem

The rural community college and the rural community are at a crossroads as rural

community colleges face shortages in leadership, budget, faculty, and more importantly,

the students (Evans et al., 2015). The rural community college draws from its rural

community to fulfill these shortages. The reasons for the shortages have been attributed

to the additional burden of community colleges surviving in a market system that have

been catapulted in both the private sector and public institutions into a global arena

(Crookston & Hooks, 2012). The promise and openness of the rural community college

and the fluctuating boundaries between community and college are both its strength and

its greatest challenge (Mellow & Heelan, 2008). Rural community colleges must depend

on the rural community to be a collaborative sustainable member (Evans et al., 2015).

The problem was that there were no established criteria for leadership in strategies for the

partnership of the rural community and its rural community college in creating a

productive avenue to encourage sustainable economic between the two (Yang et al,

2015).

The specific problem of the rural community college in sustainable economic

rural community development is that some of the community college and community

stakeholders were not experienced in their leadership roles, and that the lack of an

established criterion in the economic sustainability development could be directly

affecting their potential growth (Simmons et al., October 2015). There is limited research

available that assess the quality of sustainable economic development between the

college and the community (Evans et al., 2015). The literature findings on sustainability

can be found through the fields of scientific, political, economic, technical, social, and

academic (Miller & Deggs, 2012). Although the term sustainability is a far-reaching topic

of discussion and is an issue of concern in many facets of society, the literature for rural

community colleges in sustainable economic development with its rural community has

been found to be limited due to the nature of the subject matter (Simmons et al., October

2015). Currently, few empirical studies have examined the nature in conjunction with

rural community colleges and their sustainable economic development for rural

communities to facilitate or improve this collaboration (Evans et al., 2015).

Exploring the connection between the rural community college and its rural

community in their understanding of sustainable economic development was utilized a

semi-structured interview process with the college leadership team and the community

leaders, along with a document review to ensure the desired results from the perspective

of all stakeholders involved (Yang et al., 2015). The context was unique enough to

warrant a careful study and the results may be informative in understanding the

relationship between the rural community college’s sustainable economic rural

community developments (Yang et al., 2015). The lack of an established criterion for the

rural community college in promoting sustainable rural community economic

development defines the problem to be investigated in this study.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore the place-based

context of a rural community sustainable economic development within the rural

community college environment, the college-community interaction, and the resulting

impact on community sustainable economic development. To build an in-depth picture

of this interaction, the Arkansas State University (ASU) Mountain Home two-year

community college, which serves fewer than 2,000 students and the Mountain Home

rural community of 13,000 of people, served as the site (Higher Education in Arkansas,

2014). A semi-structured interview process with six purposively sampled leading

individuals in the rural community and the rural community college was utilized, along

with document review of memoranda of understanding, marketing materials, news

articles, policy and procedures, committee meeting minutes, and program evaluation

reports. Participants included business and industry executives and educational officials

from the college. Including a variety of key community leaders was important for

understanding the rural community college’s role in the rural community’s sustainability

development (Stake, 2013).

To secure the kind of information sought, open-ended questions were used in 60-

90 minute interviews. Ultimately, this research study provided a description of the case,

which is the rural community college and the sustainable economics of the rural serving

community, an analysis of the themes related to the process of college-community

interaction, an analysis of the themes related to the results of the college-community

engagement, and an in-depth understanding of the many facets and complexities of the

case and the phenomenon of interest to reveal interactions of the many constituents and

variables, the many perspectives of stakeholders on what works and what does not work,

and the multi-layered and sometimes contradictory experiences of the players in this

drama (Marshall and Rossman, 2011).

Research Questions

The specific research questions that guided this study were:

RQ1. How do community and community college leaders describe the

strategies needed to develop a rural community college-rural

community economic sustainability?

RQ2. How do community and community college leaders describe changes in

the sustainable economic relationship between the rural community college-rural

community?

RQ3. What do community and community college leaders perceive to be

effective strategies for promoting sustainability for the alliance of rural

community-rural community college?

Nature of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore rural

community sustainable economic development within the rural community college

environment, and perspectives on critical factors relating to the sustainability. The intent

was to provide a view of college-community interactions and results.

According to Schwandt (2010), the interpretive researcher seeks to understand the

complex world of lived experience from the point of view of those who lived it (p. 221).

Indeed, the researcher’s concern for understanding the emic perspective and meaning

people construct as they interact in their social worlds is central to interpretive research

(Marshall & Rossman, 2011). Additionally, the approach of the interpretive researcher is

holistic (Schwandt, 2010). According to Stake (2013), the researcher must look at

interconnections and context - temporal, spatial, historical, political, economic, cultural,

social, and personal. Additionally, interpretive research is inductive and oriented toward

discovery and exploration, minimizing investigator manipulation of the study setting

(Yin, 2011).

These conceptual tenets of the interpretive paradigm translate pragmatically to

five central characteristics of interpretive research (Marshall & Rossman, 2011). These

characteristics align with the purpose of the study; to understand the meaning that

individuals construct as they live and interact with their social world; to be the primary

instrument for data collection and analysis, thus able to be responsive to the context and

data collection situations; to conduct research in the field to become familiar with both

the context and the participants in the study; to use inductive research strategy; and for

the study to be descriptive and interpretive (Marshall & Rossman, 2011).

The case study strategy was chosen because of its emphasis on understanding

processes and contexts (Lee & Roth, 2009). The strategy aligned with the focus of this

study, which was the interaction of a rural community college and a rural community.

Additionally, the case study strategy supported the inquiry into the relationships that exist

among an environment context, and organization, and social processes (Yin, 2011). The

key feature of the case study approach was on understanding processes as they occur in

their context rather than method or data (Schwandt, 2010, p. 233). To understand the

complex phenomenon of the case study, it was important to view it through the emic,

experiential perspective of the study participants in order to make conceptual, theoretical

sense of the case (Gall et al., 1999).

To conduct the qualitative research study, participants included six rural

community leaders and rural community college administration officials. The

participants were interviewed by the researcher. The interviews were utilized to

determine the relationship between leadership practices, rural college and community

cultures, and to ascertain the effects of the sustainable economic development.

Additionally, a review of the documents, both historical and recent, was conducted to

determine an overview of the variables of a shared vision and process of sustainable

economic development within the rural community and its community college.

Examination of the data analysis revealed several major themes and five significant

findings:

1. The rural community defines itself through a regional, rural lens and is

characterized by an interconnectedness of its people to the land and to the history

of the region.

2. The rural community college and the rural community invest in reciprocal

partnerships and collaborate on mutually beneficial economic pursuits.

3. An improved regional economy and skilled-up workforce are identified as

positive rural community changes, and the rural community college’s

contributions to those positive changes are cited as a public benefit.

4. A rural community leadership network with increased confidence in

collaboration, understanding of the rural community assets, and efficacy in rural

community economic sustainability development is recognized as a positive rural

community change, and the rural community college’s contributions to those

positive changes are cited as a public benefit.

5. An enhanced rural community image and an optimistic rural community outlook

are identified as positive rural community change, and the rural community

college’s contributions to those positive changes are cited as a public benefit.

When these findings are taken into account with the related literature, this study offers

consideration for practice and further research among rural community college, civic, and

policy leaders.

Significance of the Study

This study is significant for two reasons: (a) the need to better understand the

rural community college impact on the local economic development in the rural setting;

and (b) the opportunity to contribute to the scholarly literature on rural community

college and community economic sustainability and to the scholarly literature on rural

community engagement in higher education. The understandings and expectations of the

public always matter to public institutions, but in an environment where calls for

accountability are increasing at the same time resources are diminishing, the stakes

become even higher. As a result, the rural community college and the rural community

are at a crossroads as rural community colleges face a plethora of shortages in leadership,

budget, faculty, and more importantly, the students (Flora & Flora, 2013). The reasons

can be attributed to the twenty-first century bringing the additional burden of community

colleges surviving in an emerging market system that have been catapulted both the

private sector and public institutions into a global arena (Crookston & Hooks, 2012).

Rural community colleges need to reflect on the requirements of their rural community

and be a collaborative strategic sustainable alliance member. However, these

partnerships often are job specific, narrow in focus, and are aligned with a specific

business in the community. One of the primary reasons for the lack of research data are

that typically most educational reforms do not have longevity (Caffarella & Daffron,

2013). An additional constraint is of time- and place-bound individuals needing current

higher educational training and connections to rural community businesses for

cooperative work experience. Because of the combination of these factors, rural

communities and rural community colleges are becoming isolated because of not having

greater access to what the current economic trends have to offer from the benefits that

may be afforded them - expansion in workforce development, innovative faculty

positions, as well as opportunities to use the community as a classroom (Torres et al.,

2013).

The nature of the rural community college and community sustainable economic

development and the results of these efforts are important to understand, yet challenging

to analyze and communicate. The “promise and openness [of the rural community

college], and the fluctuating boundaries between community and college, are both [its]

strength and [its] greatest challenge” (Mellow & Heelan, 2008, p. 14). Thus, the

utilization of systems and external perspectives, which take into account that the whole is

greater than the sum of its parts, proved to be a helpful lens for the endeavor of

understanding the impact of a rural community college on its local rural community

sustainability for development (Ashford, 2013; Hicks & Jones, 2011; Jacobs, 2012). The

rural community college, in most of rural America, is one of, if not the only, entity that

offers a comprehensive program of workforce training, yet issues of institutionalization

of reforms within an organization, particularly located in a rural community, are

problematic to sustain. There are few studies from this particular lens that have actually

examined the sustainability of reforms over a long period of time (Grayson, 2012). This

study has provided critical insight into developing a better understanding of the problems

facing the rural community college in promoting sustainable economic rural community

development.

Definition of Key Terms

Accountability and Public Benefits. The delegation of authority down the chain

of command in institutions of higher learning and public service organizations show that

it is a long distance from the initial delegation of authority starting from governors and

legislators to state higher education boards and ultimately to the professors providing the

instruction, research, and service that benefit the local community. Ultimately, the

benefits are for the general public and, more importantly, students, businesses,

governments, and social and civic organizations (Altbach, Gumport, & Berdahl, 2011).

Accountability Community Colleges. Degree attainment goals in the rural

community college include increasing prominence for them. However, this also creates

greater scrutiny in the form of accountability. What can offset this accountability is the

technology along with the new generation of accountability measures that are appropriate

to the distinctive rural community college mission, can be made available to meet this

challenge (Ewell, 2011).

Arkansas Rural Community Colleges. Citizens of rural Arkansas are typically

less educated than urban citizens although civic pride and sense of satisfaction with

quality of life often seem stronger in rural communities (Deggs & Miller, 2011).

Educational attainment analysis shows that given the educational opportunities that urban

citizens have, rural community citizens see education as the key to strengthening their

rural community because it is the means for improving the knowledge and skill level of

the citizens (Deggs & Miller, 2011).

Asset-Based Rural Community Sustainability. The asset-based approach to

rural community sustainability provide a common framework for linking what has been

regarded as disparate approaches to reporting on sustainable economic development in

rural community communities. The recognition that those involved have different

responsibilities for different mixes of assets is the key to understanding how information

and action can be combined to develop the level of sustainability that is sought (Chesson,

2013).

Higher Education Classification. Globalization has been forcing change across

all higher educational institutions. These institutions are now placing a premium on

education and degree attainment. Because higher education plays a fundamental role in

creating competitive advantages, there is increasing emphasis value of performance

assessment within educational institutions. Accordingly, many governmental agencies are

restructuring higher education system to ensure they can compete better by creating

classifications for educational institutions (Hazelkorn, 2013).

Institutional Effectiveness. The current assessment movement in higher

education appears to be heavily student focused. The current thinking is that the

usefulness of the faculty, administration, and institutional assessment, i.e., effectiveness,

depends in large part on how effectively students are assessed (Astin & Antonio, 2012).

Outmigration. The challenge facing governments is how to entice more students

to acquire a postsecondary education so that a socially optimum number of students in the

region attend college. A theory of investment in human capital, such as students, is that

they can make decisions about their level of education based on the benefits of going to

college along with the cost level (Toutkoushian & Hillman, 2012). As a result, policies

(such as financial subsidies to students or to designated postsecondary institutions) that

reduce the private cost to students of investing in human capital, which in turn would

cause some students who were at the margin for attending college to conclude that it is

now in their best interest to pursue a postsecondary education (Toutkoushian & Hillman,

2012).

Rural America. Since 2010, it has been determined through statistics of the

regions that unprecedented numbers of low-wage, low-skill jobs continue to be created in

rural areas of the nation due to the mobility of people. Consequently, these jobs are being

filled by culturally and linguistically diverse individuals. As a consequence of this

mobility, it has been determined that many rural areas are now becoming just as diverse

as urban areas (Reed, 2010). The changing demographics of rural America suggests that

rural community colleges with these diverse populations are more likely to hold negative

views of multicultural education.

Rural Community Colleges. College attendance stakes are higher in the twenty-

first century than ever before, both in terms of costs and the potential benefits to students

and society. To become economically self-sufficient in information driven world

economy, some form of postsecondary education is all but essential in order to thrive in

the world, not just survive (Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh, & Whitt, 2010). As a consequence,

unprecedented numbers of historically underserved students are coming to campuses,

including the rural community college.

Rural Development. Statistical data has proven that there are many rural

communities in the United States that are economically depressed since the turn of the

century. Nonetheless, while many poor rural communities are geographically isolated

with small populations, they are more likely to be rich in social capital (Ring, Peredo, &

Chrisman, 2010). As a result, the nature of the social capital in these rural communities

can either facilitate or constrain the development of business networks in their totality.

Rural community level conditions that might increase the probability of business network

effectiveness almost always include a rural community college.

State Accountability Standards. What has been happening to teaching over the

last decade or so bears a close resemblance to what has been happening in other areas of

the public sector, nationally and internationally. Health provision, housing, employment

and welfare services have experienced a period of restructuring, driven by many of the

same impulses and arguments as those which have become well known to people

involved in education (Mahony & Hextall, 2013). This idea has been internationally

based on the idea of taking managerial and organizational approaches developed within

the private sector and applying them to public policy. This drive provides one way of

understanding the enormous significance being attributed to the concept of standards

(Mahony & Hextall, 2013).

Sustainable Economic Rural Community Development. Rural communities

that are socially equitable and economically viable are suitably positioned to respond to

changes in the built environment, changes which ultimately impact the health of the

communities. A community is a rich source of capital, which can be used as a powerful

means to shape local solutions for sustainable economic development (Roseland, 2012).

Summary

In summary, while the rural community college’s connection to the local rural

community is largely inherent, a full understanding of community college-community

interaction and the impact of those interactions on the community as a whole is often

difficult to articulate. Given the context of today’s accountability requirements, it is

advantageous to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the rural community

college with regard to the sustainable economic development of the rural community,

both for impact and public benefit.

Examining the place-based relationship of a rural community and a rural serving

community college through a system lens is the focus of this study. The intent is to

provide a community based view of community college-community contexts,

interactions, and results by answering the question: How does the rural community

college impact the sustainable economic development of the rural community? The

significance of this study resides both inside and outside the community college. For

community college practitioners such as me, a clearer understanding of the impact of

rural community college endeavors on the rural community as a whole is important. For

the public and for policy-makers, a clearer understanding of the impact of rural

community college endeavors on the sustainable economic development with the rural

community as a whole is perhaps more important. Scholastically, this study may

contribute to the literature on rural community colleges and rural community sustainable

economic development and to the scholarly literature on rural community engagement in

higher education.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Researchers have studied the changing role of the rural community college, the

rural community, and the challenges faced by these colleges and communities, the growth

or decline at a rural community college, as well as the growth or decline of a rural

community. The literature on sustainability is diverse and drawn from a multiple of

fields: scientific, political, technical, social, and academic. Due to the complexity of the

topic and the extensiveness of the literature on the subject, it is not reasonable to cover its

entire history or its impact globally. Rather, this review is intended to introduce

economic sustainability with a rural community-rural community college. An analysis of

the economic sustainability between the rural community and its rural community college

in identifying an established criterion in ways to partnership between the two for public

benefit is the focus of this review. The following literature review will provide a

summary of the current literature available related to this study, both directly and

indirectly.

Documentation

The review of the literature is an emergent and recursive process. A number of

keyword searches have been conducted thus far in article databases such as ERIC,

EbscoHost, FirstSearch, ProQuest Gale Academic OneFile, SAGE Journals Online and

Knowledge, SAGE Navigator, as well as Academic Search Premier and LexisNexis.

Additional exploratory searches have been in Dissertation Abstracts in ProQuest

Dissertations and Theses. Further keyword searches were utilized in the Northcentral

University Library Databases Catalog, WorldCat Catalog, Annual Reviews, Ebrary,

Taylor & Frances Online, Web of Knowledge, and Wiley Online Library. Occasionally,

Google Scholar, Informaworld, and the Community College Research Center will be

conducted.

Represented keywords that will be utilized during the review of scholarly

literature will include: rural areas; rural America; rural education; rural community

college sustainability development; rural community colleges; rural development; rural

sustainability development; community development; community sustainability;

economic development; rural community colleges and community sustainability

development; place-based education; place-based theory; Arkansas community colleges;

community colleges and economic development; community theory; community

development; rural community development; community development models; social

capital; community capital; asset-based community development; systems thinking;

systems theory; logic models; civic engagement; higher education; community colleges

and civic engagement; community engagement; higher education and community

engagement; accountability higher education; accountability community colleges; state

accountability standards; institutional effectiveness; higher education performance

measures; accountability and public benefit; and rural community college and rural

community sustainability.

To develop the framework for this study, four areas of literature are reviewed,

which addresses the following concepts: (a) the public agenda of accountability in higher

education, (b) the building of trust from the rural community in the sustainable economic

development alongside the rural community college, (c) the concepts of rurality,

community, and community development, and (e) the role of the rural community college

(U.S. Department of Education, 2016). This chapter presents the review of the literature

in these areas.

Researchers have studied the changing role of the rural community college as well

as the challenges faced by rural community colleges and the surrounding rural

communities. People living in rural settings typically have lower education completion

levels, higher than national average obesity rates, poor health, and lower than average

wage earnings (Miller & Deggs, 2012). Additionally, during the most recent United

States recession, job growth in rural America has been slow to recover and has not

returned to the levels of employment of 50 years ago (Miller & Deggs, 2012, p. 331).

Kennamer et al. noted that numerous studies have evaluated the growth of

community colleges. Community colleges are seeing the greatest surge in enrollment

since the baby boomers of the mid-1960s and early 1970s (Kennamer, Katsinas, Hardy,

& Roessler, 2010, p. 13). Two-year colleges, as a whole, project a 20% increase in

enrollment around the nation over the next decade (U.S. Department of Education,

National Center for Education Statistics, 2012). Community colleges along with rural

community colleges are typically the first to venture beyond the predictable borders of

higher education because they seek to fulfill their open-door mission and tradition of

community service (Kennamer et al., 2010, p. 15). Kennamer et al. also found that by

Carnegie classification, 42% of 2.3 million new students in 2009 currently are or will

enroll in community colleges, while the remaining will enroll in the four-year university

(p. 13).

Hicks and Jones (2011) notes that the rural community college is student-

centered, without having large numbers of support staff that would be commonly seen in

4-year institutions. There is a willingness on the part of employees to extend themselves

beyond what those of larger institutions would do. Therefore, employees at rural

community colleges are found to be student-focused which supports the mission

statement of their college. Helping students succeed motivates the employees to do the

same. This is the two-factor theory supported by Herzberg, which states that people

experience a high or pleasure from the satisfying experience working the students and

their goals for college success (Hicks & Jones, 2011).

The Public Agenda of Accountability in Higher Education

Public accountability literature reflects the public’s growing concern regarding

returns on an investment in higher education. In the 1990s, accountability requirements

began to emerge as a key challenge for community colleges and all post-secondary

institutions as government officials, accrediting agencies, and public constituents began

to call for greater accountability from institutions of higher education (U.S. Department

of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2012). Burke (2005b) described

the accountability pressures on higher education in America as an accountability triangle

of three entities - state priorities, academic concerns, and market forces.

This quest for evidence of institutional performance, individual and societal

benefit, quality, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness was driven, according to Murray

(2010) by the increasing complexity and cost of public higher education (p. 51). Laanan

(2011) also noted that the decreasing availability of state funding, concern over the

academic and technical preparation of the American workforce, as well as interest in

higher education’s role in society has led to the need for better linkages between public

post-secondary institutions and the local community. Krueger and Casey (2014)

observed that whether [accountability] is an asset, a tool, or a bludgeon, every indication

is that accountability measures are increasing and are here to stay (p. 56).

It was not until the turn of the twenty-first century that the rules of accountability

for higher education began to change to a paradigm of state level accountability,

according to Flora and Flora, (2014). Myriad federal reports called for new

accountability models, including the 2004 Measuring Up report (National Center for

Public Policy and Higher Education, 2014), and the 2015 Business and Higher Education

Forum report (American Council on Education, 2015). They called for an accountability

model emphasizing public agendas and return on investments, not only for student

enrollments and institutional processes, but on student learning and educational

attainment criteria Flora and Flora, (2014).

The literature reflected the emergence of accountability as a tool for state policy

initiatives, as Flora and Flora, (2014) noted that the focus of accountability is not what

state institutions do, rather how the state and its citizens benefit with a more capable

workforce and productive economy (p. 12). Chambers (2014) noted that while

accountability, access, and quality framed higher education public policy for over 50

years, a new outside-in aiming of the agenda was emerging, focusing not on the

institution as the unit of performance but on society’s needs from higher education, and

on a desire to measure progress to meet a public agenda. Chambers (2014) identified

seven specific elements of this new public agenda: (a) high school graduates with

increased academic preparation for college-level work, (b) high school graduation rates

be increased, (c) racial and economic lines among high school students need to be

decreased, (d) college affordability through need-based aid, tuition levels need to be

maintained at a reasonable level, (e) the number of science, engineering, and math related

disciplines should be doubled, (f) college preparation, retention, and degree attainment

must be increased for all students, (g) work to increase the quality of student learning

outcomes for college graduates (p. 25).

Chambers (2014) stated that the emergence of this new public agenda for post-

secondary education used a functional and utilitarian framing, focusing on national and

state-level outcomes and investment strategies. The United States government’s stake in

higher education accountability was made clear in the Spellings Commission report

(American Council on Education, 2015), which called for more access to information

about colleges and universities due to a lack of pertinent data and accountability that

could hinder policymakers and the public from making informed decisions, resulting in

higher education becoming inhibited from demonstrating its contribution to the public

good. Thirty years ago, Bowen (1977) sounded the same call when he stated that as

educators, they could not ignore the call for accountability. Bowen (1977) believed that

society needed facts and reliable judgments about the outcomes of higher education.

What was troubling for him was that if educators could not meet this need, decisions

made about the allocation of resources to higher education could be made on the basis of

incomplete criteria, which Bowen believed would be biased toward the tangible, the

quantifiable, and perhaps the irrelevant.

Perhaps the strongest statement about mismatched accountability measures came

from the National Commission on Community Colleges’ report (2014), which called for

community college leaders to develop new accountability measures that better assess the

unique and varied missions of the community college. The report contended that

contributions of community colleges are not easy to document and that traditional

performance metrics often reflect the culture of four-year institutions rather than the

culture of community colleges. The Commission stressed the complex missions of

community colleges within their local communities that the contributions of community

colleges to their communities are difficult to document, and the effort to do so is

hampered by a lack of appropriate accountability metrics.

Soots, Sousa and Roseland (2010) noted that the political and economic

restructuring since the mid-1990s has had a profound impact on the social and economic

economy pertaining to sustainable economic development. This has resulted, they stated,

in non-profits, as well as educational institutions alike, taking on a greater responsibility

in address the social needs and fluctuations of the local marketplace. Furthermore, it was

noted that there was an increasing need for an inter- and cross-disciplinary approach to

the complex social, economic, and educational sustainable problems that are facing rural

societies today.

As a result of the frequency and urgency of the sustainable problem, regions

around the world are now attempting to transition to the knowledge based economy in an

effort to addressing these complex changes. Knowledge production and utilization as

well as innovation and social cohesion, are some of the key processes in addressing the

issues in long-term community sustainable economic development. To this point, Butler

et al. (2015) addressed the importance of education being a prerequisite for promoting the

behavioral changes. Additionally, it was determined that to provide citizens with the key

competences needed would be the transition tools needed to achieve sustainable

economic development. The success in revising unsustainable trends will, to a large

extent, depend on high quality education with the key processes in the sustainable

development phase.

Knowledge based economies are not to be considered a one size fits all deal to

planning sustainable development, according to Gismondi and Leon (2012). New skills

and information will be needed to foster growth and that will depend on a number of

local factors and variables, including size of the community; existing infrastructure and

partnerships within the community; the depth of vision that is shared throughout the

public, private and community stakeholders; monetary commitment; and the ability of the

community to attract and retain the highly skilled workers. It is therefore incumbent for

the rural community to invest in the local citizens through education, training and lifelong

learning that would be required, such as including with the economic, public, educational,

civic and voluntary spheres. Therefore, frameworks that emphasize educational

opportunities as strategies for economic growth and community wellbeing will be the key

to the success in planning for knowledge based economy.

Gilchrist and Taylor (2016) discussed the need for community college leaders to

work with local and state leaders to define a rubric which would measure the community

college’s impact on economic, workforce, and community development. They

maintained that, with current performance indicators, the real value a community college

adds to its locality is missed. Moreover, they mused that it would be even more difficult

to measure how different a community would be without its community college. Another

advantage of rural community colleges for the rural community arise from their multiple

missions which may result in the presence of local kinship networks, according to

Howley, Chavis, & Kester (2013).

In this accountability milieu, the American Association of Community Colleges

(2011b) responded with a new set of community college accountability measures, entitled

“The Voluntary Framework of Accountability”. The association noted that the metrics

are espoused to give community colleges what many believe have long been lacking in

reporting their successes to the public and policymakers. The metrics cover student

progress and outcomes tracking, career and technical education enrollments and

outcomes. Adult Basic Education/GED tracking and Student Learning Outcomes (in

progress). Fain (2011) noted that community college leaders say the measures are fair

after long arguing that they are fundamentally different from four-year institutions and

should be judged by different yardsticks.

Building the Public Trust

Identifying the public benefits of higher education and communicating those

benefits to the public have been shown to be critical components of building the public

trust. Three decades ago, Bowen (1977) wrote a classic work Investment in Learning in

which he discussed the purposes and outcomes of higher education as being both

individualistic and collective. He proposed that while Americans have historically leaned

toward an individualistic purpose for education, there are inevitable social functions of

higher education, such as agents of social change and agents of social stability (p. 22).

Bowen (1977) observed that the public or social benefits of higher education are often

subtler and difficult to evaluate than individual benefits, but are, nonetheless,

undoubtedly present. The social benefits he identified included quality of civic and

business life; effective citizenship and responsible leadership; community spirit;

improved home care and training of children; good public health; public policy change;

specialized talent, technological knowledge, and professional earning power; refinement

of conduct; cultural heritage preservation; artistic creativity; social problem solving;

economic growth; and military power (p. 45). Nonetheless, Gilchrist and Taylor (2016)

believed that while public benefit or public good is an abstract concept, it manifests in

three primary ways, (a) by economic measures, (b) as a civic resource, and (c) as an

ethical code.

Economic growth is distinguished from economic development, according to

Adelman (2010), in that growth is concerned with Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and

individual earnings or income (W-2), whereas economic development is a combination of

changes in production patterns, self-sustaining growth, institutional change, technological

upgrading, and widespread improvement in the human condition. All of the literature

reviewed in the human capital and economic growth section was concerned with

economic growth that is often measured by aggregate income. The conceptual

framework for this study is sustainable economic development because this can be an

ideal lens for understanding the impact of a diminutive income on human survival or the

things humans are able to do or become in society while still maintaining sustainability in

their local environment.

The distinction between economic growth and sustainable economic development

is important because economic growth can occur to the income scale only, while

sustainable development refers to growth that is spread out and shared. The Spellings

Commission (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Rural Development, 2013) report called

for a postsecondary education system that would be accessible for all rural community

citizens, or a higher education that could be widely shared. Hence, changes in higher

education, it was believed, need to be directed at sustainable development, not economic

growth. But why is sustainable development significant for rural development? Poverty

remains a predominantly rural problem with a majority of the nation’s poor located in

rural areas, according to Phillips and Pittman (2014). However, in rural areas, the

connection with social and economic dimensions appears particularly evident, and their

joint consideration in a sustainable analysis seems an obvious consequence. This

interaction is described in the analysis of different case studies reported by Antonio

Andreoni (2011), who shows that rural systems are more resilient in comparison with the

urban areas, since they can better maintain their equilibrium with the economy and bear

the effects of economic shocks.

In the opening decade of this century, public benefit emerged as a central focus

for higher education. Community college leaders, and leaders in all realms of higher

education, were called upon more than ever to engage their external constituents to

discern public needs, establish priorities, align college mission, assessment and reporting,

so that their efforts would not only be effective but also understood. Institutions began to

find that improving the public’s understanding of the work and contributions of post-

secondary education was no small task, requiring reciprocal communication, including

continuous gathering of public feedback and opinion and continuous communication

from institution to constituents.

In the community college arena, building public support was viewed as one of the

six key policy levers of the Achieving the Dream - Community Colleges Count initiative,

led by the Lumina Foundation (2012). The initiative focused on the benefits of an

associate degree, including the individual benefits of increased earnings, improved health

care, leisure time, and opportunities for the next generation. Additional benefits included

the community for economic development, lowered poverty rates, reduced

unemployment, reduced reliance on social safety net programs, and overall decreased

demand on public budgets. Public-trust building remains central to the initiative’s

mission. Another advantage of rural community colleges for the rural community arise

from their multiple missions which may result in the presence of local kinship networks,

according to Howley, Chavis, and Kester (2013). They noted that because rural-serving

institutions address a range of educational and economic development needs, especially

for the local community, they have often served several generations of community

members at one time, thus creating unique family environment(s) that has shown to

support student development.

At the national level, American Association of Community Colleges (2012)

acknowledged the need for increased communication as it launched a listening tour in

2011, traveling across the nation in preparation for its new 21st century initiative

Reclaiming the American Dream (Reclaiming the American Dream (2012). Public

communication at the local level by college presidents and other community college

leaders was also underscored as an important aspect of building and maintaining public

trust. Spilde (2010) encouraged legislative advocacy and relationship building. Duncan

and Ball (2011) cited accountability as a pillar of effective advocacy, contending that

college presidents should work closely with elected officials at all levels.

Adelman (2010) discussed the strategic cross-sectorial alliances that are

productive allow the opportunities for shared knowledge, reallocation of scarce resources

to maximize organization (individual or collective) capacity, and shape expansion

through systemic planning and performance monitoring. The implementation of new

knowledge through networking enhances the successful strategies throughout the

organizations and builds satisfaction across the community (Hicks & Jones, 2011).

The social capital that strategic cross-sectorial alliances create can be difficult to

measure, as Gismondi and Leon (2012) points out. They describe it as to the frequency

and the value of specific transactions that can occur as a result of relationships between

groups and the people surrounding them. For instance, community owned businesses

tend to bring people together more frequently, it was noted. Investors, workers, business

owners and a variety of support networks (customers, government, family, education, and

media) can help find good employees which would result in possibly reducing advertising

costs because of the network of word of mouth. Gismondi and Leon (2012) believe that

this would help identify investment opportunities, connecting investors and

entrepreneurs. Additionally, established communities are known to be sources of social

capital and as the well of democratic action. It is these social factors, rather than the

stock of capital, for instance, that can strengthen local economies.

Community Engagement in Higher Education

According to Phillips and Pittman (2014), the concept of community engagement

emerged out of the interest in higher education’s accountability to its public, acquiring

such attention in post-secondary education as to be called a movement. Researchers

exploring the concept of community engagement in higher education have offered

various definitions, views, and benchmarks, but with a common thread: exploring the

interactions between college and community. Lawson and Elwood (2014) outlined

common forms of college-community engagement as being (a) service learning, (b) the

local economic development, (c) a community-based research, and (d) social work

initiatives. Ramaley’s (2009) definition highlighted the common thread of genuine

mutuality, that is engagement is characterized by shared goals, a shared agenda, and an

agreed upon definition of success. The resulting collaboration or partnership is mutually

beneficial to all and is likely to build the capacity and competence of all parties.

The most recognized benchmarking for community engagement was the

framework established by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching

(2010) for a Community Engagement classification. Defined by Carnegie (2010) as the

collaboration between institutions for the mutually beneficial exchange of knowledge and

resources in the context of partnerships and reciprocity, the Community Engagement

classification was outlined further in a press release about the program: Curricular

Engagement: described teaching, learning and scholarship to engage community, faculty,

and students in a mutually beneficial and respectful collaboration. These interactions can

address community-community college identified needs, thus enhancing community

wellbeing, deepen students’ civic and academic learning, and enrich the scholarship of

the institution. Outreach and Partnership Engagement: described two related

approaches to community engagement. The first would focus on the provisions of the

institutional resources for community use along with benefits to both campus and

community. The second would focus on collaborative interactions with community and

campus for related scholarship for the mutually beneficial exploration, exchange, and

application of knowledge, information and resources (research, capacity building,

economic development, etc.) (para. 5).

The advent of this new Community Engagement classification for colleges and

universities was perhaps the most accurate gauge of the significance of the community

engagement movement. Through an elective application process offered to college and

universities for the first time since 2006, 76 institutions were chosen for the inaugural

classification. Of those 76 institutions granted Community Engagement classification

status, four were community colleges: Chandler/Gilbert Community College in Arizona,

Kapolei Community College in Hawaii, and Middlesex Community College and Bristol

Community College in Massachusetts.

In the 2008 Community Engagement classifications, 119 institutions were

successfully recognized with the Community Engagement classification. In 2010, 115

colleges and universities were selected for the Community Engagement classification.

Community engagement took hold as a movement inside institutions as well. Colleges

and universities began developing institution-wide infrastructures to support community

engagement efforts. Howley, Chavis, and Kester (2013) called for both academic and

administrative infrastructures in order to respond interactively to the surrounding

community. To that end, colleges and universities developed engagement plans;

established new outreach and engagement administrative structures; generated

engagement benchmarks and outcome indicator categories; created websites; held

conferences; expanded service learning, economic development, community-based

research, and social work initiatives; and developed new community engagement

journals. Simpson’s (2011) research study of 13 community engaged classified

institutions revealed that the perceived benefits of community engagement practices to

the community and to the institution were significant enough to warrant mention.

The majority of community college community engagement related writing and

resources primarily addressed two aspects of the community engagement concept –

service learning and partnerships. This observation was supported by the Campus

Compact IOEP which identified experiential pedagogies and service learning as key

activities, and by the Community College National Center for Community Engagement

(formerly the Campus Compact National Center for Community Colleges), committed to

civic engagement through service learning (American Association of Community

Colleges, 2011a).

The literature reviewed supported the idea that community colleges have been

viewed as intrinsically more community-focused than their university counterparts, and

have been often seen as having the most successful community based programs in the

United States, as noted by Warburton (2013). In fact, Bell (2016) commented on the

range of higher education – community engagement as being at one end of the spectrum

is the huge community college network, as its title implies, intimately related with both

local economies and political preferences. At the other there is the pinnacle of private,

research-intensive universities, often having fraught and tense relationships with their

immediate localities. Yet, even with this acknowledgement of community colleges’

connections to their communities, community colleges have remained largely outside

scholarly discourse about community sustainability. As the Carnegie Foundation (2010)

found, today’s community college and community-based training system need to provide

responsive training in various delivery modes (traditional, hybrid, and online courses and

training) that reflect the needs and demands of the community and respond to the needs

of industry and business in sustaining community development with the community

college. Maurrasse (2012) noted that one of the greatest ironies of the burgeoning

national movement around higher education/community partnerships regarding

sustainability is the limited involvement of community colleges. He went on to

encourage community colleges to get involved in the community college engagement

movement and to share their deep knowledge of working successfully with local

communities.

The Characterization of Rurality

A characterization of rurality must begin with an acknowledgement that the

meaning of rural is more varied than might be expected. In some situations, rural has

been defined by data, and in some situations, rural has been defined by image. Blakely

(2007) noted that most people are not concerned with what is officially rural, but rather

understanding the various ways in which rural is defined is a critical step.

Multiple definitions for rural have been used by the government for statistical and

funding purposes, and debates over appropriate size limits have been ongoing, according

to Cromartie and Bucholtz (2008); Flora and Flora (2013) found over 15 different

definitions of rural used by various federal programs. Cromartie and Bucholtz (2008)

described the array of definitions as dizzying. The U.S. Census Bureau divides the nation

into urban and rural. By the Census Bureau definition in 2010, rural areas comprised

open country and settlements with fewer than 2,500 residents located outside urbanized

areas and urban clusters. According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2013b) system, in 2010,

19.3% (59.5 million) of the population in the United States was deemed rural. But

debates over the appropriate size limits are ongoing, as noted by Cromartie and Bucholtz

(2008). Explaining this characterization on its webpage “What is Rural?” the United

States Department of Agriculture (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2012) stated that in

2003, the OMB designated non-metropolitan areas as either micropolitan – a non-metro

county with an urban cluster of at least 10,000 people; or noncore – neither metro nor

micro. Outside the OMB, both these non-metro areas have been generally considered

rural

A rural distinction, or any place-based distinction, of the nation’s colleges and

universities did not exist in higher education’s Carnegie Classification system until 2006.

This revision of the Carnegie Classification (2010) added setting and size classifications,

including for two year institutions, as rural-serving, suburban-serving, and urban-serving;

and size distinctions of very small, small, medium, large, and very large. The addition of

these categories was largely credited to the work of Stephen Katsinas and John Friedel

(2010), and David Hardy (2008), who advocated the utilization of the new classification

system to distinguish rural, suburban, and urban institutions and their similarities and

differences.

These variously defined classification systems revealed, according to Flora and

Flora (2013) researchers attempting to delineate rural as distinguished from suburban and

urban, so as to communicate a sense of their scale and scope based on the numbers of

people living in an area. Rural in this sense referred generally to a small population

available to interact within a large space. An alternative method, again according to

Flora and Flora (2013) of defining rural has been termed imaged-based. Often historical

and somewhat stereotypical, these image-based definitions of rural often have been

equated with small size, isolation, homogeneity, and a strong sense of local identify.

Davis and Marema (2008) noted that, even though America is no longer a predominantly

rural nation, rurality lingers in the nation’s DNA. It is both a storehouse of values and

the point of origin for the national mythology. Shortall and Warner (2012) observed that

rural areas have been seen as both idyllic places of peace and backward areas that shunt

the lives of rural people.

The media has used rural images to suggest simpler, slower, rustic, or pastoral

impressions, according to Blakely (2007). And proponents and critics have been found

conversely, observed Merrett and Collins (2009), to maintain that rural places are either

idyllic or outmoded. Indeed, researchers have found rural America to be diverse, as

noted by Davis and Marema (2008) and Flora and Flora (2013, whereby its communities,

history, resources, and issues have often diverged. For instance, Davis and Marema

(2008) debunked three myths about rural America – that there is a single rural America,

that isolation alone makes rural places and people different, and that rural Americans are

mostly farmers. At the time of their writing, they pointed out that there was more ethnic

and racial diversity in rural America than was generally recognized, with significant

population clusters of Native Americans, African Americans, and Mexican Americans in

various rural regions of the country. They explained that rural America was not as

geographically isolated, intellectually deprived, nor trouble free as rural stereotyping

would portray.

Many rural Americans, living adjacent to 80% of the U.S. highway systems,

commuted to metropolitan areas for work, shopping, and medical services. Many rural

Americans made excellent use of media and telecommunication technology. Yet,

according to Davis and Marema (2008), many rural Americans did face geographic

separation, lack of transportation, persistent poverty, and a high incidence of drug and

alcohol addiction. Finally, they clarified that more rural Americans were not farmers,

since less than 2% of rural residents claimed the farm as their primary source of income.

Shortall and Warner (2012) maintained that because of the significant changes in

rural America since the Industrial Revolution and the resulting differentiation of rural

realities, the concept of rurality is necessarily contingent. Fluharty stated it this way in

his 2012 testimony to the Agriculture Committee of the U.S. Senate, that there is no one

rural America, rather, it is a diverse, dynamic and every-changing landscape. These

various nuances of rurality converged at one significant point; that the meaning of rural,

both its denotation and its connotation, has been important to understand, one rural

community at a time. Geographic locations, sparse population, and local identity may

have been oft-defined factors of rurality, but for the purpose of this study, it is important

to understand the myriad nuances of rurality as context for understanding rural

community economic sustainability and for understanding the role of a rural community

college in that sustainable alliance.

Miller and Deggs (2012) pointed out, to fully recognize the challenges that rural

community colleges face it is important to understand the characteristics of a rural

environment, especially considering 85 percent of the nation’s geography consists of

rural areas where 65 million reside. According to Gillett-Karam (1995), Rural America

consists of low population density, low total population, low-per-capita income, low

levels of educational attainment, slow job growth, high poverty, high unemployment, and

high rates of illiteracy. Although rural areas share many commonalities, they vary in

their geographic locations. For example, Mahaffey (2009) found that rural areas can be

on southern reservations, in Appalachian mining communities, or next to affluent

suburbs.

Many of the concerns and issues that rural residents face is a result of poor

academic preparation before and during high school, which can be seen in both high

school graduation rates and rural college enrollment rates. According to the Alliance for

Excellent Education (2010), more than one fifth of the nation’s two thousand poorest-

performing high schools are located in rural areas. Additionally, Johnson and Strange

(2009) found that one in five rural children live in poverty, leading to higher high school

drop-out rates and lower college enrollment rates. AEE (2010) found that one out of

every four rural high school students fails to graduate.

According to Shamah (2009), rural parents often have conservative values, have

lower educational expectations, and are less supportive of their children in earning a

college degree. Since many rural parents lack a college degree themselves, their children

also hold lower educational and occupational aspirations than their urban peers. (Graves,

2011) states that many rural children do not have parents with colleges degrees to help

them navigate the maze to college. Rural parents worry about the costs, while many do

not see the eventual payoff of a college education, so they sometimes push back the idea.

If students do not have support from a mentor or do not feel comfortable discussing their

educational or career expectations with their parents, Graves (2011) believed they are

more likely to become discouraged and drop out of high school or become involved with

drugs and alcohol.

The evolution of rural America from homogeneous, agrarian-based communities

to widely diverse communities often dominated by nonfarm activities such as

manufacturing, services, mining, and government operations has complicated rural policy

discussions. More recently, the goals, resources, opportunities, and challenges of rural

communities have diverged (Flora & Flora, 2013). Flora and Flora (2013) contended that

the differences among rural communities have often been more distinct than the

differences between rural communities and their urban counterparts. Some areas of rural

America, faced with population and economic decline, have focused on economic

stimulation and community growth, while other areas rich in natural amenities have

focused on responding to the rapid population growth, through the provision of roads,

services, and schools. Whitener and Parker (2007) noted that given the various

circumstances of rural communities, rural policy for the future will need to encompass a

broader array of issues and a different mix of solutions.

The Concept of Community

The concept of community has been not only closely associated with the concept

of rural, but also like rural, it has been defined in myriad ways. Flora and Flora (2013)

observed that while sociologists use the term community in many ways, they ascribe to

three defining aspects of the term community, (a) a place or location, (b) a social system,

and (c) a shared, common identity. They maintained that a shared sense of place,

involving human, cultural, and environmental relationships is often central to the concept

of community (p. 15).

The concepts of rurality and community previously discussed emphasizing place

based context, social interaction, and local solutions, provide the backdrop for a review of

community development models. In 1980, James Christenson opened the book

Community Development in America with the sentence: “The community development

profession is coming of age” (p. 3). Christenson went on to note that in spite of the

growth in community development activities, the terminology and the profession of

community development remained ambiguous, as it does today. A new mode of

community development, promoted by Flora and Flora (2013), advocates an asset based

premise to community development. They have found that every community, however

rural, isolated, or poor, has resources within it. When those resources are invested to

create new resources, they then become capital. Flora and Flora affirmed the importance

of building on strengths, recognizing what is working, and seeking out success factors in

community development studies.

According to Kanter (2011), alliance building and maintenance of the

relationship(s) can be problematic given the essence that collaborative organizations are

working to develop an external (virtual) open and living system that requires structures,

processes, and resources to sustain it. These living systems require monitoring and

strategies to effectively work for individuals or teams towards common goals for each

organization. Kanter (2011) noted there are signs where instability occurs and it takes

individuals and leadership to address the fragile relationship. Fundamental practice of

collaborative leadership is to have instilled in the cooperative relationship the process for

building, networking, and moving forward the vision of the mutual benefits and

individuals’ goals for each organization(s) involved in the relationship to realize real

sustainable economic development.

Developing cooperative partnerships and efforts toward joint socio-economic

resources and shared opportunities could provide for education, employment, and

community or recreational events for family members. According to Flora and Flora

(2013), the obstacles facing rural communities is the lack of development of talent for

members of a rural community because many rural communities have not yet learned to

make the most of their young population and their talents, especially those who began life

in impoverished surroundings. They go on to say that rural communities have

characteristics of a country setting with agricultural-based economy and removed from

city conveniences and populations. Building strong relationships in the community to

benefit the community members can lead to a sustainable learning organization and

community.

Researchers exploring the concept of community engaged in sustainability

associated with higher education have offered various definitions, views, and

benchmarks, but with a common thread – exploring the interactions between community

and college. Donaldson and Daughtery (2011) outlined common forms of college-

community engagement as local economic development, community based research,

service learning as well as social work initiatives. Their definition highlighted the

common thread of genuine mutuality, which is engagement that is characterized by

shared goals, agenda, and agreed upon definitions of success. The resulting collaboration

would be mutually beneficial and likely to build the capacity and competence of all

parties involved. The authors shared a service learning model that progresses into a

graduate- level social work macro practice course. This model would give explicit

attention to respecting the dignity and worth of each individual by sharing the power and

developing collaborative relationships between students and community residents where

both are serving and learning together.

A learning community is not just an education institution where learning occurs,

noted Bragg (2011). In fact, a learning community is not necessarily associated with

formal education per se. Learning communities typically integrate multiple disciplines;

learners are taught in a cohort (a specialized group of individuals taking common

courses); and there is a concerted effort among all stakeholders to assist all participants in

building a unique culture that includes the formal educational environment as well as the

social one. Learning communities typically have two common features: they link classes

together to build relationships with different subject matter to provide coherence for

students, plus they build both academic and social communities for students and faculty

by enrolling them together in large blocks of coursework.

Based on a study by Etuk, Keen and Wall (2012), between the fall of 2011 and the

spring of 2012, graduate students and a faculty member from the Oregon State

University, engaged in an effort to identify the factors associated with rural community

vitality. These factors were grouped into five broad categories by Etuk, et al. They

reflected the aspects of communities and their contexts which Etuk, et al. deemed pivotal

in the collective change process. The factors were: (a) conditioning influences, (b)

capacity, (c) resources, (d) processes, and (e) external conditions. Recognizing some

important key features of the community and external conditions that play a role in that

transformation, the study noted that in order for rural communities to become more vital,

they will have to go through some sort of collective change utilizing these five categories.

Using past research, the study by Etuk et al. (2012), continued to address

particular attributes of rural communities present that could be worth cultivating if

vitality is to be attained. In particular, the study noted that vital rural communities have

low levels of inequality and high values. That is, a diverse economic base with farming,

manufacturing, health, and trade service industries; values that make them proactive,

persistent, learning-oriented, diversity-oriented. Additionally, these vital communities

have a willingness to invest in the community. The study indicated that today’s vital

communities are likely to have demonstrated their resilience in the past, which suggests

that past successes positively influence future successes or that current success can build

future successes.

The study of Irwin et al. (2010) statistical analysis of rural counties in the United

States found that income inequality was a significant negative predictor of rural

prosperity. In this particular study, it was found that rural prosperity was defined by an

index of four indicators: unemployment; high school dropout; poverty; and housing. In

rural counties where income inequality was high, prosperity tended to be low. In rural

counties where there was more income homogeneity, or where the relatively greater

income equality existed, prosperity tended to be greater.

It is unclear why this is the case, although Irwin et al. (2010) hypothesized that

this relationship between inequality and prosperity suggested the importance of building

a larger middle class in the rural counties through upward mobility to reduce household

income inequality. While these findings provided solid evidence as to a relationship,

more research must be done to understand the implications as well as the underlying

reason for the relationship between inequality and prosperity in rural counties in the

United States.

In addition, Irwin et al. (2010) found there were certain features of an economic

base related to the prosperity of rural counties in the United States. The conclusion of the

study found that prosperous rural counties tended to have more non-farm private sector

jobs. By breaking out private sector jobs by industry, Irwin et al. (2010) were able to

isolate the types of jobs that are associated with prosperity. Counties with prosperity

tended to have more independent manufacturing jobs than non-prosperous counties.

Independent manufacturing, an industry that is not tied to local resources and

inputs, consequently, had more location choices. These independent manufactures

include paint manufacturers, automobile factories, and apparel manufacturing. The study

also found that the prevalence of jobs in secondary and tertiary private industry, such as

white collar industries, health care, trade, professional services, and real estate, were

linked to prosperity. Irwin et al. (2010) found that prosperous counties had more

secondary and tertiary private industry jobs than non-prosperous counties. Interestingly,

the study found that the number of resource-based manufacturing, food, lodging, mining,

and government jobs per capita had no statistical significance in relationship to prosperity

in rural counties in the United States.

The findings of Irwin et al. (2010) noted values were present in vital rural

communities, namely being proactive, have a diverse population, being persistent,

learning oriented, and a willingness to reinvest in the community. Irwin et al. (2010) past

research has revealed that globalization has changed the landscape for many rural

communities. The research suggested that for rural communities to succeed in the

increasing globalization economy, they must compete not only with other rural

communities, but also with urban areas. From this research, infrastructures including

bridges, roads, waste disposal, transportation, and especially telecommunications, would

be critical for rural communities in getting their products and services to global

consumers. This in turn would assist the rural communities to be far more attractive sites

for non-local firms for their global consumers in transporting goods and service in an

expeditious time frame.

In addition to physical resources, the Irwin et al. (2010) study noted that human

resources are tied exponentially to the sustainability of rural communities. The study

specifically stated that human capital, the skills and education of individuals, would

matter in the ability of rural communities to be sustained into the future. The study goes

on to argue that this resource would be needed in rural communities with the changes that

are occurring to innovative technology in the workplace at a rapid rate.

Globally competitive firms require that technology be a major factor in making

their products and services available in delivering them to consumers across the globe.

Therefore, a rural workforce must be able to function within this technological advanced

environment. Rather than advocating for the development of particular technological

skills, the researchers suggested that rural communities should offer workforce training

with the ability to think independently and adjust quickly to a changing technological

work environment.

As a result, the study suggested that rural areas with this type of highly skilled

workforce would be more likely to attract and retain employers, which is a critical

component of a sustainable rural community and its rural community college in offering

the workforce training. Of course, more research would be needed to validate this link

with human capital and industrial retention, which would then segue to improved

economic, social, and educational outcomes for rural communities, but the suggestions do

seem logical.

In this study, human capital refers to the knowledge and skills individuals have

that can be effectively applied to work settings. Some researchers simply use the level of

education attained by an individual as the indicator of human capital, while others use

more complex measures that can reveal ability along with training. It is possible to

measure the human capital of individuals at the rural community level.

The Irwin study (2010) involved statistical analyses that examined the association

of multiple factors to notions of rural community and its higher education involvement.

They found that rural communities in the United States were prosperous if their rates

were above the U.S. average. Rural communities with high percentages of adults over

the age of 25 with high school degrees tended to have higher odds of being prosperous

than other regions. According to this study, there appeared to be evidence that the

prevalence of human capital, as measured by the percentage of adults with high school

and greater education, is an important factor associated with rural community vitality and

sustainability with its rural community college.

A community along with a community college can provide current students an

opportunity to participate in service-learning activities or cooperative work experience.

These experiences in the field can benefit both community and employer from the work

accomplished and the potential of hiring a valuable employee that has experience with

the processes necessary for the job. Jacobs (2012) stated that service-learning is an

extension of volunteerism and cooperative work experience is the element of reciprocity

that elevates it to the level of philosophy. The philosophy of service learning is mutual

community benefit, individual growth, and generosity. Service learning also has a

component of pedagogy based on the experiences and reflections of individual learners.

The difference between service learning and cooperative work experience is the aspect of

volunteerism, community benefit, and reflective process for individual growth that

cooperative work experience does not address. According to Jacobs (2012), the benefit

to the community college professional-technical program is the continual improvement

feedback on existing curricula outcomes measured against industry benchmarks.

Howley, Chavis, and Kester (2013), in their study, described that despite the

hardships many rural communities and their community colleges face, they can be

socially enabling institutions that improve the sustainability and help form the identity of

rural America, both in terms of individual communities and in terms of the individuals

themselves (p. 2). They stated that for quality of life in rural places and especially for the

sustainability with the community, one advantage would be the rural community college

due to it, in many instances, serving as community centers or hubs in providing meeting

space and other support for rural community civil groups. The rural community college

can offer various educational, social, cultural, and entertainment programs and services to

their local communities in the sustainability efforts between the two (p. 3).

Rural community colleges can offer a wide array of economic and workforce

development efforts to enhance the sustainability with the community. Traditionally,

according to Howley, et al. (2013), rural community colleges have contributed to local

community economic development sustainability by (a) providing the first two years of

higher education, (b) being a local employer, (c) preparing students for the workforce, (d)

offering basic skills education, (e) conducting contract training, (f) facilitating internships

and cooperative education, (g) providing prescreening services for employment, and (h)

offering placement services for graduates. These services provide the foundation in the

sustainability of the rural community and its rural community college.

Howley, Chavis, and Kester (2013) explained that some rural community colleges

form partnerships with local businesses as well as up and coming ones in their rural

community, to provide workforce training or to develop degree programs that align with

regional employer needs and the sustainability of the rural community and its alignment

with the rural community college (p. 3). Rural community colleges also participate in

state or regional consortia that are focused on improving regional markets, serve as

business incubators, and provide office space or technical assistance for startups.

Collaborative or shared governance needs a foundation of a shared vision,

according to Flora and Flora (2013). Cooperative and collaborative efforts by all

stakeholders in organization(s) from the rural community to the rural community college

that can learn from one another are called team learning. Jacobs (2012) noted that leaders

must work toward transforming collective thinking skills, so that groups of people within

the rural community can reliably develop intelligence and ability greater than the sum of

individual members’ talents in the workforce sustainability.

The ultimate goal is to create productive, creative, and energetic organizations

that are aware of themselves and the relationship that it has with the rural community

college and other systems and organizations in the sustainability efforts. Broadening a

vision statement to include other organizations, groups, and individuals (stakeholders)

from the rural community and the rural community colleges creates interconnection and

combined efforts that lead to the development and actualization of a sustainable

community college-community-based learning organization, according to Kanter (2011).

The Role of Rural Community Colleges

The purpose of this section is to review the existing literature on rural community

colleges. The following highlights the key themes and regional sources of the prevailing

literature. The literature reviewed was found to explore the scope of rural community

colleges in the twenty-first century. It was discovered by Hardy and Katsinas (2008) that

of America’s 896 publicly controlled two-year community and technical college districts,

553 or 62% were classified by the Carnegie Foundation as rural serving community

college districts (p. 10). Nearly a third of the nation’s community college student

enrollments occurred at rural community colleges. In Oregon, for example, the

Department of Community Colleges and Workforce Development (2008), approximately

60% of the state’s unduplicated student enrollment occurred at the 14 rural serving

institutions (Oregon Department of Community.

In regard to postsecondary institutions (community and technical colleges) in the

United States, the Carnegie Foundation (2010) found that rural institutions are classified

as small when enrollments are below 2,500 students, medium when enrollments are

above 2,500 but below 5,000 students, and large when enrollments exceed 5,000

students. Rural community colleges serve fewer students, with more of their students

being full-time and less diverse than that of urban or suburban community colleges. Low

enrollments in smaller and medium-sized rural community colleges also suggest that they

may lack sufficient resources to address educational issues, and their cost per student is

higher, factors that indicate more budgetary limitations, according to Fluharty and Scaggs

(2007).

According to Benjamin, Hyslop-Margison, and Taylor (2010), a community

college shares three historical roles; education, training, and providing community

resources. During the twentieth century, events such as urbanization, industrialization,

and economic development caused dramatic changes in society. Some of these changes

resulted in the creation of junior colleges, many of which later became community

colleges.

Jacobs (2012) discussed several education movements that also supported the

creation of community colleges: expansion of the public education system, the increased

professional standards for public school teachers, the vocational education movement,

and the demand for increased community and adult education (p. 191). Benjamin,

Hyslop-Margison, and Taylor (2010) noted that during the 1930s, due in part to the Great

Depression, there was a shift in the purpose of junior colleges with an increasing

direction toward workforce development. The Truman Commission first formalized the

term community college in 1947, stating that a network of state supported community

colleges could provide affordable, accessible education for a more diverse student

population, indicating nontraditional students (p. 125). After World War II, in 1946, with

the United States having to accommodate all the returning veterans, the G.I. Bill was

created for the specific purpose to increase college enrollment of veterans which resulted

in greater growth for community colleges (p. 126).

Benjamin, Hyslop-Margison and Taylor (2010) noted that the events of the

twentieth century, such as World War II in the 1940s, the Korean War during the 1950s,

and the Vietnam War in the 1960s, led to the establishment and later expansion of the

community college to include a comprehensive mission. Initially, the expansion of the

community college was a direct reflection of the veterans of the wars. In the 1960s and

1970s, with the enrollment of baby boomers in addition to the returning Vietnam War

veterans, community colleges continued to expand. They began to become places that

would respond to local community needs, offering open access to postsecondary

education and training programs. During the 1980s, community colleges began to shift

their focus to align their curriculum with local high schools in order to prepare students

for vocational and technical two-year programs. This led to the rural community college

becoming a major focus for its rural community. A major shift in the 1990s occurred

where community colleges became more market-oriented in their goals and more

businesslike in their behaviors (p. 130).

The role of training for workforce development became a major component in the

1990s within the community college structure. According to the American Association

of Community Colleges (2011a), community colleges gained a much more significant

economic function during this time. The traditional community college mission was

expanded to include workforce training and technical skills development. As a result,

community colleges became institutions that combined an entrepreneurial college with a

workforce training center, and yet preserved the traditional institution comprised of an

open admission policy coupled with a comprehensive curriculum. Consequently, today’s

community colleges do not resemble the junior colleges of the twentieth century.

The Association (2011a) noted that a comprehensive community college offers a

wide variety of programs specific to the community needs that encompasses economic,

cultural, and social factors. Comprehensive community college course offerings range

from career and technical to developmental education, and especially attractive to many

students, transfer education opportunities. They provide many benefits to their

communities, such as the creation of job training, a competent skilled workforce,

business incubator resources, and community-based activities. Blanchard, Casados and

Sheski (2009) showed that community colleges began offering six-month vocational

diplomas; one- and two-year career and technical and pre-professional certificates; and

two-year programs of general and liberal arts education associate degrees which will

transfer to a four-year institution. These offerings have continued to evolve over the last

ten years to match the global and technology worlds of today with two-year science,

math, and information technology degrees.

The rural community college is an integral part of the community. Since 1972,

when the first rural community college was built, community colleges have been and

continue to be open to anyone and everyone from all demographics, according to Hardy

and Katsinas (2008). They stated that in order to be able to train rural community’s work

force, the rural community college must be accessible to the most remote and

disadvantaged populations. Unlike students in heavily populated urban and suburban

areas that have the option of attending several two-year community colleges, and public

and private four-year institutions, rural students often have only one accessible option.

Katsinas (Hardy and Katsinas, 2008), also noted that for potential college students who

live in rural regions, the choice is not between a community college and another

institution; it is between a community college and nothing.

In order to serve all populations, the rural community college has focused its

mission on being all things to all people, especially the underprepared, the

underrepresented, and the underachieving student, according to Blanchard, Casados, and

Sheski (2009). Katsinas (2008) said that to be all things to all people, the rural

community college has become the land-grant college of the twenty-first century,

working to academically prepare students to transfer into a four-year degree program or

vocationally prepare them for a skilled profession. The rural community college has been

able to provide a practical and liberal education at a cost that even the working classes

can afford.

Rural community colleges also emphasize their ability to focus on the student, be

flexible and accessible, provide remedial services, and adapt to their community’s

educational and economic sustainability. The rural community college has become

trusted by people across social classes. Although rural community colleges have an open

door enrollment policy, students continue to face enrollment barriers. As Ashford (2013)

pointed out, since rural community colleges have to cover a large service area, many

students cannot access transportation or afford to travel upwards to fifty miles to attend

an hour-long class with the high prices of cost-of-living recently incurred.

Since the majority of rural college students are low income, according to

Abraham Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy of needs theory, their first priorities consist of

meeting their physiological needs, such as satisfying hunger pangs and securing a place

to live. To meet these needs, a large number of non-traditional students work full time

and go to school part time to assure that their groceries for themselves and their families

will be covered. After their physiological needs are met they are able to work on meeting

other needs, such as safety, love, belonging, and self-esteem.

Traditional aged students often live on campus, work fewer hours, and have more

time to become involved with campus extracurricular activities. Nontraditional students

typically live off campus, go to school part-time, work full-time, and engage in few on-

campus activities, which make it more difficult to meet one’s psychological needs such as

safety and belonging. If nontraditional students cannot make connections for find a

community with the campus, they are less likely to become socially and academically

integrated into the college culture, according to Collier and Morgan (2008).

Scholarly attention to the unique needs of rural community colleges has

permeated research during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, according to

Theobald and Wood (2010) in that they noted that rural Americans may well represent

the single most diverse and heterogeneous group of individuals and communities in our

society (p. 2). There has to be the ability to meet the needs of the rural community

college on a declining budget. To do so that takes real entrepreneurial spirit, innovations,

and constantly watching the horizon for opportunities (Hicks & Jones, 2011).

Leadership of a rural community college is, in essence, tasked with revitalizing

the college. While pressing needs are able to provide adequate facilities, using updated

technology, serving the communities, increasing enrollment, and numerous other critical

components, the primary driving force behind these institutional efforts is a driven

compassion for meeting the needs of all students across the rural community college

campus (Hicks & Jones, 2011).

The best known research regarding the role of the rural community college has

grown out of the Rural Community College Initiative (RCCI), a 1994-2001

demonstration project to promote economic development and increase access to post-

secondary education in distressed areas of rural America. This initiative involved 24

rural community colleges from 11 states, was funded by the Ford Foundation, managed

by MDC, Inc., and assessed by the American Association of Community Colleges. What

was found – and stressed – was the importance of community colleges’ mission, capacity,

and position in the community for place-based economic development and people-based

education.

The evaluation of the RCCI program revealed three key factors supporting

community colleges’ outreach roles: (a) committed and well-funded partners, (b) a

culture of change, and (c) focus on economic development and educational access (Rural

Community College Alliance, n.d.) Evaluation of the North Central Regional Center’s

RCCI program yielded a list of success factors which included - flexible, albeit limited,

funding; a strategy to identify assets; connecting passion for place to action; new

collaborations; and coaching expertise (Emery, Flora, Fey, Hetland, & Cooper, 2008).

Emery, et al. (2008) stated a continuing outcome of the RCCI has been the Rural

Community College Alliance (RCCA), an organization of rural colleges primarily from

Appalachia, the South, the Southwest, and the Northern Plains Indian Reservations. The

RCCI seeks to provide peer learning and support as well as represent the voice of rural

community colleges regarding challenges of rural America such as changing economies

and demographics and disconnected public policies (Emery et al., 2008). The Mid South

Partnership for Rural Community Colleges, a research and technical assistance

partnership among Mississippi’s land grant institutions and southern community colleges,

credits its beginning to the RCCI as well.

In the paper Invigorating Rural Economies: The Rural Development Mission of

Mississippi’s Community Colleges (Rubin, Cejda, Fluharty, Lincoln, & Ziembroski,

2005), recommendations were made to both community colleges and the state.

Recommendations to the colleges included: (a) shift the college’s mindset to place more

emphasis on the college’s role in the community, (b) expand the benchmarks by which

the college measures its success, and (c) be a strong voice in rural development

initiatives. Recommendations to the state included: (a) encourage community colleges to

play expanded roles in community and economic development, (b) make community

colleges eligible grantees for community and economic development programs, and (c)

publicly recognize community colleges for their work in community and economic

development.

Beyond the RCCI research, there has been additional interest in the role of rural

community colleges in the communities they serve. Frequently covered topics in the

literature on community colleges included: the issues faced by rural community colleges,

especially fiscal challenges, leadership in rural community colleges, and the institutions’

role in economic development. Research regarding the issues, especially fiscal

challenges, that rural community colleges face has highlighted the symbiotic relationship

between a rural community and its community college.

Fluharty and Scaggs (2007) wrote about rural community colleges serving rural

communities which have limited financial resources. They noted that rural community

colleges and their communities share a common destiny. They also stated that while

parts of rural America are prospering, other areas are in economic decline or mired in

poverty. The downward spiral of state funding for community colleges and its impact on

rural community colleges was also addressed by Roessler, Katsinas, and Hardy (2008),

who noted that rural-serving community colleges appear to be the most vulnerable to

funding shortages.

In the second vein of rural community college research, studies related to rural

community college leadership have often focused on the leadership challenges and

opportunities related to place and relationships at rural community colleges. Parker

(2010) asserted the importance of community college presidents taking on leadership

roles in the community. Clark and Davis (2008) stressed the importance of a rural

community college president’s deep engagement with the community in order to develop

a systemic view of the relationship between the community and the community college.

Third, the role of the community college in economic development has been

addressed widely, even beyond the previously reviewed research related to the RCCI. As

stated by Phelps (2012a), U.S. community colleges have historically played a prominent

role in economic and workforce development. This role as an economic engine for the

nation was recently expounded on by Boggs (2012), who described community colleges’

quick and localized responses to workforce and economic needs. As well, Jacobs (2012)

wrote about community colleges having proximity to the local workforce, technical

training experiences, and program-offering flexibility, all of which have positioned

community colleges to engage successfully in local economic development.

Katsinas and Friedel (2010) promoted the unique positioning of community

colleges’ local delivery system to meet economic sustainability development challenges

through their non-traditional economic development programs such as small business

development centers and customized training programs. Their review of the community

college-economic development literature ended with a call for community college leaders

to get involved in community college-economic development policy formation.

Dissertations involving rural community colleges and economic development have

included Parker’s (2010) study in North Carolina concluded that the primary role of the

community college was to support economic development, while Haynes’ (2006) study

focused on the utilization, needs, and gaps in workforce education, training, and

retraining of business and industry in rural Mississippi community college districts.

Thomas’ (2003) dissertation identified successful community college economic

development programs and services in rural southwest Virginia, and Gossett’s (2002)

study of western North Carolina small business owners found that the most important

economic development activity for community colleges were perceived to be their job

training programs for existing businesses.

The semantic lines between economic development and community sustainable

development or community building have sometimes been blurred. But in the literature

review community colleges, the underlying thesis that rural community colleges’ play an

important role in the development of the community has been consistent. Miller and

Tuttle’s (2007) study of three rural communities identified four outcomes beyond

academic programs and job training included developing community inclusiveness,

developing community pride, creating a value-added community lifestyle, and being the

central defining component of the community. Miller and Kissinger (2007) maintained

that rural community college services such as economic development, cultural

enrichment, educational opportunity, and leisure programs extend program activity

outputs to influence the status and identity of both individuals and the community as a

whole.

Noting the heightened importance of rural community colleges to their

communities, Eddy and Murray (2007) advocated for collective visioning and planning

so that community expectations of rural community colleges were realistic. At the same

time, Eddy and Murray called for state and federal policymakers to address the rural

differential, recognizing that rural development requires a regional approach and that the

needs in rural community colleges are not all the same. Over a decade earlier, Valek

(1995) observed that rural community colleges were committed to assisting communities

with their most crucial needs. Valek cited community colleges’ capacity building role

through promoting cooperation, maximizing existing resources, and providing

consistency over time.

Summary

In summary, the literature on the role of rural community colleges can be

characterized as quite rich, especially with regard to rural community colleges and

economic development in the southern and north central region of the United States. Of

particular interest is the majority of the scholarly literature on rural community colleges

originating from the southern and north-central regions of the country. Community

colleges in the Northwest and especially rural Northwest community colleges have been

essentially absent from the resources.

The literature review proved very helpful for establishing the background of this

study. As the review of the literature progressed, connections and relationships among

significant concepts in the different areas of the literature which eventually led to the

tentative development of a framework that coherently linked the personal research

perspective with the focus of the research study and the chosen research strategy. The

literature review revealed that opportunities where this study might one day contribute to

the literature based as well as the daily practice.

Key findings thus far include the emerging focus on the public agenda of

accountability in higher education; the mounting activity and corresponding literature

related to community engagement in higher education which included the Carnegie

Foundation’s new Community Engagement classification; the wealth of community

college contributions to the community engagement; the many voices calling for better

measures of community college’s complex mission and impact on local communities,

especially related to state performance measures; the need to better understand rural

America’s diversity, needs, and policy directions; the absence of literature on rural

community colleges in the Northwest; and lastly, the absence of literature on rural

community colleges’ impact on the rural economic sustainability community

development.

Similarly, there was a lack of findings regarding leadership roles in the economic

sustainability of a rural community and its rural community college. As rural community

and community college leaders who are expected to lead their respective institutions into

the domain of a global society, the establishment of a criterion in these leadership roles

represent a crucial predicament. The next generation of leadership will have to be

receptive to the economic sustainable development taking place within the rural

community and its rural community college. Careful consideration and selection of

individuals for developing economic sustainability between the rural community and its

rural community college in new leadership roles with their respective institutions and

developing a succession of established criterion will be an important component of this

transition.

Chapter 3: Research Method

The rural community college and the rural community are at a crossroads as rural

community colleges face shortages in leadership, budget, faculty, and more importantly,

the students (Flora & Flora, 2013). The reasons have been attributed to the additional

burden of community colleges surviving in a market system that have been catapulted

both the private sector and public institutions into a global arena (Crookston & Hooks,

2015). Rural community colleges must reflect on the requirements of their rural

community and be a collaborative strategic sustainable member. However, these

collaborations are often job specific and narrow in focus, particularly with businesses in

the community. There is a lack of research data regarding sustainable community

economic development (Yang et al., 2015). A time and place bound constraint in the

research is needed for current higher educational training and connections to rural

community businesses for cooperative work experience. The combination of these

factors, rural communities and rural community colleges are becoming isolated from the

benefits that may be afforded them if they had greater access to what the current

economic trends have to offer, as well as opportunities to use the community as a

classroom (Torres et al., 2013).

The nature of the rural community college in sustainable economic community

development and the results of these efforts are important to understand, yet challenging

to analyze and communicate. The promise and openness of the rural community college,

and the fluctuating boundaries between community and college, are both its strength and

its greatest challenge (Evans et al., 2015). The rural community college in most of rural

America is one of a small number of institutions that offers a comprehensive program of

workforce training. The local context was unique enough to warrant a careful study to

determine what local theories and best practices might help improve its practices

(Grayson, 2012). It was critical to develop a better understanding of the problems facing

the rural community college in promoting sustainable rural community economic

development. The utilization of systems and external perspectives may prove to be a

helpful lens for the endeavor of understanding the impact of rural community college

sustainability on its local rural community development (Ashford, 2013; Hicks & Jones,

2011; Jacobs, 2012).

The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore rural

community sustainable economic development within the rural community college

environment, and perspectives on critical factors relating to the sustainability. To build

an in-depth picture of this interaction, the Arkansas State University (ASU) Mountain

Home two-year community college, which serves fewer than 2,000 students and the

Mountain Home rural community of 13,000 of people served as the site. A semi-

structured interview process with six purposively sampled leading individuals in the rural

community and the rural community college was utilized along with document reviews.

Participants included business and industry executives and educational officials from the

college. Including a variety of key community leaders was important for understanding

the rural community college’s role in the rural community’s sustainability development

(Stake, 2013).

To secure the kind of information sought, open-ended questions were used in 60-

90 minute interviews. Ultimately, this research study should provide a description of the

case, which is the rural community college and the sustainable rural serving community,

an analysis of the themes related to the process of college-community interaction, an

analysis of the themes related to the results of the college-community engagement, and an

interpretation of the impact of the rural community college in promoting sustainable

economic rural community development (Marshall and Rossman, 2011).

The specific research questions that will guided this study were:

RQ1. How do community and community college leaders describe the

characteristics needed to develop a rural community college-rural

community sustainable alliance?

RQ2. How do community and community college leaders describe changes in

the economic sustainable relationship between the rural community college-rural

community?

RQ3. What do community and community college leaders perceive to be

effective strategies for promoting economic sustainability for the alliance of rural

community-rural community college?

The study consisted of semi-structured interviews with six experienced rural

community and rural community college leaders. Through the interpretation and analysis

of the data collected in these interviews, using a consistent semi-structured interview

guide, the researcher developed conclusions for future guidelines for future exploration of

the sustainability of the rural community and the rural community college.

Research Methods and Design(s)

Qualitative multiple case study methodology is often used as an alternative choice

when attempting to solve problems that cannot be solved by manipulation of the

environment by means of quantification and probability testing (Stake, 2013). The

principles of qualitative research are to investigate complex events involving real-life

experiences (Maxwell, 2014) and make meaning of them (Christian, 2014). The case

study (Yin, 2009) design was chosen in order to gather information from multiple sources

as to why the rural community college may not be aligned with sustainable economic

community development. Both Shank (2013) and Maxwell (2012) stressed the

personalization that the case study approach brings to research, enabling the views of the

participants in the study to be revealed.

The major justification for the chosen research methodology is that in being a

case study with selected participant interviews drew upon descriptive qualitative

information, gathered from individuals directly involved in the day-to-day functionality

of leadership within the community college and the community. The aim of the research

was to provide a description of the phenomenon – community college and community

stakeholder’s experiences of community college sustained community development – a

descriptive case study was utilized. The inquiry focused on one rural community college

and its sustained development with the community, with the multiple case study

structure. The definitive boundaries of the case were utilized by the unit of analysis,

which was the experiences and perceptions of the community college and community

stakeholders, resulting in a holistic design not warranted. The very nature of utilizing a

case study was that it enabled a much richer picture to be revealed (Palinkas, 2013).

The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore rural

community sustainable economic development within the rural community college

environment and perspectives on critical factors relating to the sustainability. The intent

was to provide a community-based view of college-community interactions and results.

The college, Arkansas State University Mountain Home, was chosen from the

classification of small, rural community colleges in Northwest Arkansas based on the

researcher’s professional knowledge of the community and college. In choosing the rural

community college, the ability was to gain access to the community and the community

college which was important. The primary participants in the study were key community

and community college leaders, identified by participant attributes including community

leadership, which the researcher utilize a purposeful sampling strategy in selecting the

participants from within the case (Schwandt, 2010). By including a variety of key

community and community college leaders, the discovery of an array of perceptions of

the rural community college’s role in community development was discovered.

The professional experience has afforded a range of place-based experiences,

from a small, rural college in an agricultural and recreation-based environment, to an

urban community college in a technology and manufacturing environment, to a large

rural community college in a government and service-based environment (Stake, 2013).

Subsequently, the opportunities have afforded the researcher to work effectively with

local stakeholders in asking the questions regarding college and community sustainable

economic development. The opportunities with state level policy based questions around

mission and funding prioritization, performance reporting, public understanding, and

systems collaboration have expanded the researcher’s experiences (Institute of Education

Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, 2013).

The theoretical concept that has emerged as a scaffold for the research study

include (a) the concepts of rurality and community, (b) systems theory, and (c) college-

community engagement and the relationship of higher education to public benefit

(Gonyea, Wright, & Kulkosky, 2014). In this study, the functional whole was the

community, and the goal was to understand the community embedded in its natural and

social environment and the interdependence of its parts. Research consisted of

interviewing six experienced rural community and rural community college leaders with

questions of college and community sustainable economic development, observation of

these individuals, and document review of databases of county/city socio-economic

information, community newspaper archives, college and community websites, college

and community planning reports, and public information and marketing documents.

Using three types of data collection enhanced the reliability of the study (Patton, 2002).

The term for this is triangulation (Yin, 2009). Gall, Gall and Borg (2007) stated that

triangulation should be used within the case study. These methods of data collection

should be used and then analyzed so that the data is supported within the methods (Gall

et. al., 2007).

A basic logic model guided the data collection, data analysis, and data

interpretation for this study, including data about the context of the rural community and

the rural community college, data about the process of interaction and engagement of the

college and the community; and data about the results of that interaction (Yin, 2011).

Consistent with a case study research strategy, multiple qualitative methods of data

collection were employed, including document review, individual interviews, and

participant observation (Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education,

2013).

Population

The multiple case for this study was a rural Northwest Arkansas community and

the rural community college within it, and the rural community and rural community

college leaders. The selection of the small, rural-serving community college, utilizing the

Carnegie Classification of Colleges and Universities, was due to it being classified as a

small, rural-serving college with an annual unduplicated credit enrollment of under 2,500

students (Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 2010). The rural

community college is located in a primarily mountainous region and is situated in a city

of around 13,000 people.

Sample

Purposeful sampling was used for the qualitative case study because the potential

participants were being easily accessible and met the study criteria. The study

participants, rural community leaders and rural community college leaders were

contacted requesting that they assist in the study. The study participants were contacted

by mail, and email to explain the purpose of the study, the criteria for participation, and

the participant’s time commitment. The rural community college and the rural

community leaders’ have the knowledge and experience with sustainability between the

two to facilitate the study data. The group of participants were identified as: (a) rural

community leaders affiliated with industry, banking, and health services; and (b)rural

community college administration in the Chancellor, and Vice Chancellor category, thus

they were confirmed to participate in the study, it was the researcher’s expectations that

their participation represented a varied theory knowledge formulation.

Decisions associated with enacting closure to further searches for evidence must

be guided by the sampling as well as pragmatic constraints (Parker, 2012; O’Reilly and

Suri, 2011). Sample saturation of data was associated with this stage when further

collection of research evidence provides little in terms of further themes, insights,

perspectives or information in a qualitative research study (Suri, 2011). Although no

precise formula for sample size in qualitative research exists (Yin, 2011), the six

participants for this study were the initial target to ensure confidence in the results and to

achieve data saturation (Yin, 2011).

Materials/Instruments

The strength of the case study design was that it permitted the use of multiple

sources of evidence (Houghton, Casey, Shaw, & Murphy, 2013). Two data collection

methods were utilized in this study – community college and community leadership

interviews and documentation in the form of databases of county/city socio-economic

information, community newspaper archives, college and community websites, college

and community planning reports and public information and marketing documents.

These sources were complementary in they delved into the structure and context of state

mandated stakeholder collaboration. Four principles of data collection can contribute to

establishing validity and reliability in case study research: (a) use of multiple sources of

evidence, (b) create a case study database, (c) maintain a chain of evidence, and (d)

exercise care when using data from electronic sources (Yin, 2013).

For the purposes of this case study, data collection was collected over a period of

four months. The participant interview was supported as one of the most important

sources of case study evidence (Jung, Chan-Olmstead, Park, & Kim, 2012; Sharifi-

Tehrani, Verbic, & Chung, 2013). Interviews are targeted sources focused on the case

study’s topics of inquiry. Additionally, interviews provide insightful explanations as well

as participants’ personal perceptions about the topic (Stake, 2010).

The case study is designed to look for patterns, themes, and constructs in the data

(Yin, 2011); patterns which will identify relationships within the case (Marshall &

Rossman, 2011); themes which will describe salient, recurrent features of the case; and

constructs, new and previously identified in the literature (Gall et al., 1999). A

qualitative method of data collection (Yin, 2011), document review, was utilized (Stake,

2013). The document review examined databases of county/city socio-economic

information, community newspaper archives, college and community websites, college

and community planning reports and public information and marketing documents

(Stake, 2013). The process of inductive analysis of the data was utilized, looking for

patterns, themes, and constructs that were identified in the literature and as new data

(Creswell, 2009).

In this study, the interviews were maintained using an open-ended conversational

tone (Stake, 2010), but a semi-structured interview guide was used (see Appendix A)

with each one-on-one interview. The interview guide was designed to help focus the line

of inquiry on the participant’s actual experiences as a stakeholder as well as their

perception about their professional experiences. Instead of holding a rigid stream of

questioning, interviews were conducted in a more fluid conversational manner as

suggested by Rubin and Rubin (2011).

Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis

Prior to the interview data collection, a preliminary document review was

conducted by examining databases of county/city socio-economic information,

community newspaper archives, college and community websites, college and

community planning reports, and public information and marketing documents.

Following the document review, individual interviews were conducted. With the six

study participants, the interview process was conducted over a four-month span. This

was a good number of participants with a seemingly adequate amount of data saturation,

the process of highlighting certain data through descriptive phrases and looking for

patterned regularities was the focus (Gonyea, Wright, & Kulkosky, 2014). By reducing

the data in searching for patterns and sorting into categories, the focus became more

streamlined.

The plan was to utilize both methodological triangulation and data source

triangulation protocols to ensure soundness of the data within this qualitative study

(Marshall and Rossman, 2011). The collection of data was through multiple methods,

including interviews, observations, and review of documents, as well as data from

multiple study participants. Engaging in both an iterative method and data triangulation

process was to establish trustworthiness of the qualitative study (Yin, 2011). Essential

feedback after the interviews ensured soundness of the data. Strategies of soundness for

the study needed to be highlighted for presuppositions by the researcher for the beginning

of the study as well as during the research process.

A limited sample field test was conducted to assess the appropriateness of the

interview questions (see Appendix A). A field test can inform decision making regarding

the redesign or changing of a survey (Remenyi, 2011). The purpose of the field test was

to identify the major components of sustainable economic development involvement with

the rural community college and the rural community through an examination of the

literature and nonbiased feedback the researcher gathered about whether answers being

sought to the questions were be appropriate for the population, whether they made sense

to the population, and whether they represented the perspective of the field (Remenyi,

2011). The nonbiased feedback included one social science professor, one leading expert

on research into community colleges, and one sociology professor. Once the feedback

had been compiled, this was incorporated into a redesigned instrument that was used to

update the interview questions and sample design to measure new phenomena. In theory,

a redesign may allow for implementation of better data collection, processing and

estimation methods (Remenyi, 2011).

In order to understand the context of the rural community and its community

college, questions about the community were asked of the participants. Examples of the

questions was to ask what kind of interactions with the content of the community college

would generate engagement in sustainability for how will community members

collaborate with community college members to achieve shared goals. Their description

of the community was crucial, especially relating to the community’s challenges,

problems, and/or need faced in today’s world. Questions relating to the rural community

college was be geared toward understanding the process of community college-

community interaction, for example, asking in what ways do the community college and

community partner together, particularly with the community college leaders and the

community leaders in community development efforts. (See Appendix A).

Understanding the results (outcomes, impact, and positive change) with the last

set of questions asked of the participants, especially the sustainable e4conomic

development on the rural community and the rural community college was achieved

(Marshall & Rossman, 2011). The recorded interviews were transcribed to gain

familiarity and understanding of the interview data. Using the software data analysis

program, NVivo, the data was analyzed looking for pattern regularities and sorting the

data into categories (Marshall & Rossman, 2011).

NVivo is a comprehensive qualitative data analysis software package. The

software was used to organize and analyze interviews, textual sources, field notes, and

other types of qualitative data including image, audio and video files (Truxaw, Casa, &

Adelson, 2011). The decision to use software was based on the volume of data that was

gathered as well as the options of different software packages before the decision was

made to use NVivo. Qualitative data analysis software is often based on grounded theory

approaches to data analysis in that theory will emerge from the data, thus, the software

often has “memoing” tools which facilitate theory building from the data (Truxaw et al.,

2011).

The grounded theory approach to data analysis can also mean allowing the data to

“speak for itself” rather than approaching the data by using the existing theoretical

frameworks (Stake, 2013). While the “memoing” tools in NVivo could push the

researcher to draw a theory from the data, it was not necessarily following the grounded

theory guidelines when using this software. NVivo was relatively simple to use.

Documents were imported directly from a word processing package and then coded

easily in the computer. Coding stripes were then made in the margins of documents so

the researcher could see at a glance which codes had been used where.

Decisions were made based on sampling one package to found it will to be

appropriately user-friendly. Time becoming familiar with the package was an important

part of the decision making process. As a result, the availability of a support network

was necessary so that the researcher quickly became proficient in use of the package

(Truxaw et al., 2011).

Document Review. All data are considered in the context of the environment in

which they are gathered. In the documentation, an attempt was made to understand the

perspectives of the group being studied and to experience the insider’s viewpoint.

Documentation was recorded without superimposing a judgment or value system.

Inductive reasoning was used to examine the data, develop an understanding of the

situation, and document generalizations and findings.

Individual Interviews. The participants in the study for interviewing were key

community leaders with important attributes; including community leadership

Participants included business and industry executives and education leaders. By

including a variety of key community leaders, a discovery of an array of perceptions with

regard to the community college’s role in sustainable economic community development

was sought. The taped interviews were conducted as semi-formal in a private boardroom

of the rural community college campus. Confidentiality was maintained and the

participants who agreed to be interviewed were given documents to that effect, which

were signed by them and by the researcher. Data collection was stored in a locked

cabinet after the taped interviews were transcribed. The transcribed interviews were sent

to each participant so that they could verify the authenticity of the interview. The data

that was collected for the analysis has been locked in a cabinet and will remain there until

the time limited runs out so that the data can be destroyed.

Participant Observation. Observational techniques are methods to gather data

firsthand on programs, processes, and/or behaviors being studied. In particular,

responses by participants were based upon their experience with strategic sustainable

alliances and in which sector that they work. There were two major sectors of

participants; (a) educational, specifically university, and (b) business (Caffarella &

Daffron, 2013). By directly observing the activities, the researcher developed an

understanding of the context within which the project operates (Institute of Education

Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, 2013). Observational approaches allowed the

researcher to learn things the participants may be unaware of or that they were unable to

discuss during the interview. Observations were carried out using a carefully developed

set of steps and instruments, and were guided by a structured protocol (Institute of

Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, 2013). Moreover, observations were

important in gaining insight by describing activities or identifying challenges within the

context (Observation Research, 2011). The goal was to have two rounds of responses that

were provided by an expert panel of individuals anonymously. Thus, the feedback on the

collective responses and observation gained the most reliable consensus of opinion from

the group of experts (Caffarella & Daffron, 2013). (See Appendix A)

Assumptions

Bloomberg and Volpe (2012) defined research assumptions as basic factors that

researchers hold as true in regard to research. Several assumptions were made for this

qualitative study. First, it was assumed that the rural community and rural community

college leader participants understood what was expected from them by the study and

that those were taken seriously. It is thus also assumed that they gave honest and

meaningful responses during their interviews. Mero-Jaffe (2011) suggested that

convenient, comfortable, and private interview locations can increase a participant’s

likelihood to provide honest information to the researcher, thus, a location for a safe,

quiet and comfortable interview was provided in which to conduct the interviews.

Another assumption is that a sufficient number of participants would be willing to be

interviewed for the study. A carefully monitored open-coding was utilized to ensure

saturation had taken place from the sample of the six participants. A significant

assumption for the study was that the participants would have adequate experience to

meaningfully discuss the topic of community college sustainable economic community

development (Palinkas et al., 2013).

Limitations

The study was limited by the population for this study, which included only six

out of 10 rural community and rural community leaders. The generalizability of the

findings to other community leaders is therefore not guaranteed. It was also delimited by

the qualitative method used. When conducting data analysis, experience and bias could

have affected the results and interpretations developed. This is an important limitation.

Creating a codebook of thematic analysis could be subjective. For this reason, the

researcher complied the transcribed data and entered it into a commercially available

qualitative research software solution, NVivo, to comprehensively code, organize, and

analyze the data. Provided that a coding scheme was developed, using NVivo to develop

a system could make coding the entire data set based on the coding scheme less

subjective and more efficient.

Delimitations

As defined by Bloomberg and Volpe (2012), delimitations refer to the researcher

imposed parameters of the study. The delimitations in this study principally related to the

designated sampling frame in this study. In this study, participation was delimited to one

community which houses a community college. This particular case study was selected

because of access to study participants – community college and community leaders.

This study was based on using data to uncover the sustainability between the rural

community and its rural community college. There was a literature review available to

the participants on the various methods in using data and also to know why the need of

additional data might be needed. A multiple case study which is qualitative and holistic

in nature had been created for this purpose to understand the in-depth analysis as well as

the need of using appropriate methods for sustainability in the community-community

college relationship. Various methods and procedures with effect to usage of data could

be helpful to guide the community-community college leaders.

There was the expectation that adequate evidence would be derived from the data

gathered; however, in a case study, this researcher had to continuously judge the acquired

data for importance. Only one rural community college in a rural community had been

chosen along with six of the leading leaders of both. While several sites could have been

chosen, it was the decision of the researcher to focus on one site with the belief that even

though this delimitation could affect the reliability and validity of the study, it was the

belief of the researcher that this may not occur and did not.

Ethical Assurances

This study followed the ethical mandates of the Belmont Report (National

Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral

Research, 1979) by following its principles to protect human subjects of research: respect

for persons, beneficence, and justice. An important component of respect for persons is

the concept of informed consent (Dresser, 2012). According to the research, examining

the data was determined by using qualitative research in the form of a case study (Lia,

2010; Lee, 2010; Yin, 2009). Qualitative research can provide an important role in the

research of sustainable economic development in rural community –community colleges.

The interview process, observations, and examination of documents were used to try to

discover the sustainable development for future research. It was imperative that while

using the described process that validity, ethics, and integrity was involved. While

conducting interviews, Schram (2006) stated that a researcher cannot separate ethics and

interactions within individuals in a study. Schram then suggested four points to consider

establishing the ethics in a qualitative study. First, researchers must consider how they

present themselves. Second, researchers must be aware of the conversation and how the

participant and researcher communicate. Third, researchers must make private the

information the participants are sharing. And finally, researchers must separate

themselves from the research without losing touch with the participants. If researchers

consider the previous points, they more accurately understand the researcher and the

participants. Researcher must remain true to the research and know that they may have

some influences on the outcome of the study. Researchers must also understand that the

participants are people with feelings, fears, and issues of trust. The interview process

itself could have become an ethical problem because of its use of open-ended and

discovery based questions. However, all precautions were utilized to ensure a nonbiased

outcome.

All respondents were informed that the participation was voluntary and they could

have opted out at any time. Confidentiality was addressed by not revealing the names of

the participants, but rather using a coding sequence instead of the names. Names of the

participants in in a locked cabinet. The researcher, by utilizing an informed consent form

for the participants in order to allow the researcher to collect and use the data gathered

being kept private in order to protect the participants from harm. However, there was

minimum risk physically or mentally in this study due to it being conducted in an

educational setting. Data collection began only after permission was granted by the

participants. The participant’s privacy regarding the data complied was treated with a

high degree of confidentiality by the researcher in order to maintain honesty and trust

among the professional participants involved in the study. Ethical assurances, as per

Schram (2006) suggests, there was no engagement in practices intended to suppress,

falsify, or to invent findings to meet the researcher’s needs.

Researchers must bear in mind that their interpretation of participants answers

themselves can influence the study. Care must be taken to avoid the researcher’s input

into the narratives of the participants by journaling researcher’s input and/or bracketing

researcher’s possible bias. In order to protect both the researcher and participants, each

study must be approved through the Institutional Review Board (IRB). The IRB’s goal is

to conduct ethical research when using human participants (Northcentral, 2014). The

board does this by having each researcher apply to the IRB. The research then requires

each participant to sign a consent form agreeing to participate in the research. It is only

with approval of the IRB that research involving humans can be conducted. The research

data is in a secured location using locking devices including physical keys and online

password protected files. When the process began the task of gathering and analyzing the

research data, study participant identification codes was utilized, as well as utilizing

pseudonyms for the study participants, attributing direct quotes by pseudonym.

Summary

In summary, the focus of this study was to describe and understand the

relationship of a rural community college’s role in promoting sustainable economic

development in its rural community, along with college-community engagement, and the

resulting impact of the rural community college on rural community economic

sustainability development (Hanson, et al., 2011; Houghton et al., 2013). In conducting

this qualitative study, a constructivist perspective, a case study research strategy, and a

multiple case design was employed (Yin, 2011; Stake, 2010). A conceptual framework,

comprised of the following associated concepts, provided the foundation for the study

design: (a) the concept of community and rurality, (b) systems theory, the community

capitals framework, community development, and (c) college-community engagement

and the relationship of higher education to public benefit (Marshall & Rossman, 2011;

Houghton et al., 2013). This research study has provided a qualitative case study of the

rural community college and the rural community’s economic sustainable development,

culminating in practical recommendations for improvement of the themes related to the

process of college and community interaction, interpret themes related to the results of

the college and community engagement, and the rural community college’s promoting

sustainable rural community economic development (Andreoni, 2011).

Chapter 4: Findings

Chapter Four presents the findings of this qualitative multiple case study which

examined the role of rural community college in sustainable economic rural community

development. The intent of the study was to provide a rural community college-rural

community based view of context, interactions, and results. The participants in the study

were community leaders, including (a) business and industry executives, and (b)

community college administration. The completed study will provide the community

college and community leaders strategies to improve the sustainable economic rural

community college-community development. As discussed in Chapter Three, a

combination of constant comparative and theoretical analysis were used to analyze the

data from the six participant interviews (Draper & Swift, 2011; Suri, 2011). All

participants and information provided will remain anonymous by assigning pseudonyms

to all participants.

During the research process, it was important to be informed of various research

designs and adhere to the most appropriate design type to ensure the use of best practices

in the investigation to produce the most useful data. In conducting this research, a

qualitative case study design was selected as most appropriate. A qualitative case study

design effectively reveals the logical use of repetition and reflection created from the use

of collected data (Yin, 2014). In this study, a qualitative multiple case study design was

conducted to gain an understanding of rural community college and rural community

leader’s perceptions about their level of insight and preparedness to implement

sustainable community development effectively. The methodical assumptions suggested

in this inquiry was based on the individual experiences of the individual, and

understanding and interpreting their experiences helps to maintain validity. The potential

limitations of the design of this study were stated, and the researcher remained focused

on the goals of the study through a continual review of the statement of the problem and

the study’s purpose. In addition, the researcher implemented several tactics applied

throughout the conduct of the study to establish construct, validity and build internal

validity. The delimitations of this study were clearly stated regarding the number of

participants, the number of rural colleges, and the geographic location. Ethical

assurances were considered and approval was gained by the IRB at Northcentral

University.

Research question 1 asked, “How do community and community college leaders

describe the strategies needed to develop a rural community college-rural community

sustainability? “Research question 2 asked, “How do community and community college

leaders describe changes in the sustainability relationship between the rural community

college-rural community?” Research question 3 asked, “What do community and

community college leaders perceive to be effective strategies for promoting sustainability

for the alliance of rural community-rural community college?”

The findings that emerged from the data analysis are presented here by way of the

primary research questions that follow a logic-model design of context, process, and

results. Thus, the four sections of this chapter are:

• Context: How do community and community college leaders describe the

strategies needed to develop a sustainable economic rural community college-

rural community development?

• Process: How do community college leaders describe changes in the sustainable

economic community development relationship between the rural community

college-rural community?

• Results: What do community and community college leaders perceive to be

effective strategies for promoting sustainable economic community development

for the alliance of rural community – rural community college?

• Summary of Findings

Individual interviews were conducted with the six community college and

community leaders to ascertain information about how the sustainable economic

community development between the two could improve. Three community college

leaders and three community leaders were utilized for the study. All of the volunteer

participants have been given pseudonyms to keep their identities anonymous, and all

information provided by the participants will remain confidential. The interview protocol

also aligned with the research questions. Community college leaders chosen for the study

were ones who were involved in working directly with the community college and

community in an effort to obtain data that were consistent among the community college

leaders. To further substantiate the findings, a database of information collected during

the study was developed as one way of helping other researchers who might wish to

replicate the study. The interviewees were both male and female. Ages of the

community college and community leaders ranged from 40-60 and their experience in the

profession ranged from 10 to 30 years.

In the first section of this chapter, findings from the document review and participant

interviews provide a description of the context in which the rural community college and rural

community are situated. In the second section, findings from participant interviews provide

insights into college and community interaction. In the third section, findings from document

review and participant interviews provide understanding of the perceived results of rural

community college and sustainable economic rural community development interaction.

Context: How do community and community college leaders describe the strategies

needed to develop a rural community college sustainable economic rural community

development?

In this first section of Chapter Four the findings are presented from the findings from

the data analysis of the first research question regarding the strategies needed to develop a rural

community college sustainable economic rural community development. The data were

derived from interviews with the six study participants, from participant observation, and from

a document review of the community college and the community. The descriptive themes

which emerged from the data analysis include:

1. Community College

a) Regional Identity and Attitude: Small, rural, comprehensive institution

b) Regional Identity and Attitude: Community-attuned

c) Regional Identity and Attitude: Dynamic Approach

2. Community

a) Regional Identity and Attitude: A sense of place

b) Regional Identity and Attitude: A sense of time

c) Regional Identity and Attitude: A sense of work

This study comes at a time when rural community colleges have been facing a public

increasingly interested in return on investment in higher education, and searching for ways to

increase that investment. Rural community college leaders have proposed that a rural

community college cannot be accurately assessed with a close examination of the community

where they are situated and their relationship with those communities. Hence, at the heart of

the rural community college mission is connecting with and indeed joining other community

institutions to bolster the community, to provide educational opportunities to its citizens not

only for workforce development but for overall quality of life. Thus, the first consideration for

this study is a contextual examination of both the rural community college and the rural

community under exploration.

The Community College. The site of this study is a community college located in a

rural region. It is a two-year community college serving predominately the residents of two

counties, as well as neighboring counties in a border state. It is situated in a rural community

with an approximate population of 15,000 surrounded by mountains, lakes, and rives with

fishing and tourism being its prominent source of tax revenue. It’s current student base is

approximately 1,500 students, coming from a two county and bordering state.

Regional identity and attitude. The six community college and community leaders

who participated in the study expanded on the preceding information about the community and

community college by offering their perception of the unique characteristics of the community

college. The data analysis of community college characteristics elicited one over-arching

theme – Regional Identity and Attitude. This theme of Regional Identity and Attitude

developed from a fusion of three sub-themes which emerged from the study participants’

interview responses: (a) a small rural comprehensive institution; (b) community-attuned; and

together, the local history, geography, and economy of the community and community college

intermingled to create a certain regional identity and attitude described by the study

participants.

Small, rural, comprehensive institution. The first research findings revealed a strong

sense that the small, rural, comprehensive institution, among the study participants, defined

here as recognition and respect for the community college’s location and natural environment.

The community college is a public, open-access two-year campus serving students in a two

county and northern border state. The campus is located in the heart of the mountain range,

within minutes from two fresh water lakes and two rivers. CL3 quantified the community

college: “The college meets a need for the local people in that it is close and they can earn a

degree and get a better paying job.” CL4 states:

“I have quite a bit of experience in university and I have seen a lot of them, a lot of program development including program development for economic development. I will say that this institution is a little unusual in that it supports the physical facilities as well. It supports programming as well, which is quite brilliant, actually. I think the community college does a . . . good job at attempting to balance different missions. One of the missions is higher education, helping people to move on in the intellectual rule of pursuance, and they do that. But there is also a job training component, and I think the community college does a . . . good job of matching its programs to the community needs, and even more importantly, of addressing those needs. I am impressed that the community college recognizes that the basic skills gap that is here. The mixed goal of the community college which is of course higher education and transfer students into a four-year university and move on in that direction, enrich their lives and the lives that depend on them. And it has a vocational- technical goal as the two are welded together.”

Community Attuned. The second research findings revealed a strong sense that the

community attuned, among the study participants, defined here as a recognition and respect for

the community college with the community. CL 4 gives a definition of this: “The community

is deeply rooted in the community college. Both are influenced by the other; it’s a two-way

street. Those tendrils run both ways. And good for the community college recognizing that

unmet need. There are a lot of places that don’t and won’t.” CL6 states:

“Our community has two sides. One side is relatively progressive compared to other rural communities in neighboring counties. This side is comfortable financially and enjoys the things this community has to offer and is able to travel outside the county. The second side is very different. They struggle to meet the demands of everyday life and really don’t see a way out. This side is just surviving another day while trying to meet the needs of their family. The community college is a spring board for those starting their careers and also provide education and training for those who need skills to enter the work force. So it helps the people who are struggling by offering workforce development programs. I mean, can you even picture our community without the community college now? I certainly can’t.”

Dynamic approach. The third research findings revealed a strong sense that the

dynamic approach among the study participants, defined here as a recognition and respect for

the community college. “The community college is a reflection of the community it serves.

They are tied in a symbolic relationship that is so intertwined that most people either take it for

granted or don’t see the connection at all” (CL1). CL2 had a succinct view:

“Our strengths lie in our partnerships. This is the most giving community I’ve ever seen. The community has seen fit to bestow on the community college millions of dollars of art, finest physical facilities in the state. There is so much support for the community college. While we have the most beautiful campus for a community college in the state, not just be the most beautiful campus, but to surround . . . students with this particularly suited to learning. It shows the community values their community college students through the physical. They see that they are in a building usually reserved for small, expensive liberal arts campus students. So they are surrounded by the very best and that tells them [students] that they are valued by the community and the community college. The community college has been gifted with Rembrandt paintings, Asian artifacts and all sorts of different art including worldwide recognized performances that the students are surrounded with. That lets the students know that they are enveloped in this culture of value and they belong with this valuable artifact. I think that is very unique to the community college. The same approach applies with the technical education, having some of the finest mechatronics in the state and soon to be nation. Again, the finest nursing program around a great simulation room donated to the community college by the community medical center. The

community college is investing a lot because of our community and the education of the students, whether it’s liberal arts, science, or technical education, it’s very unique.”

The Community. The site of this study is a community located in the South within a

national scenic area. The primary community is approximately 12,000 residents situated

within a county of approximately 41,000 residents, covering 587 square miles – or 75 persons

per square mile. The community is located approximately 100 miles from a larger

metropolitan area. The primary community falls into the metropolitan category set by the U.S.

Office of Management and Budget (2012) defined as an area with a population of 10,000 to

49,999, plus surrounding counties that are linked by commuting patterns. The U.S. OMB

definition, which remained in place at the time of this writing (Economic Research Service,

U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2012), stated that these metropolitan areas often represent

important economic and trade centers in rural areas. The definition held true of this

community. A review of Bureau of Economic Analysis (2015) data for the years 1969-2008

revealed that the county’s population grew from 9,943 to 38,386 or 23.1% during that 40-year

period. By comparison, the percentage of population growth for the state was 47% and for the

nation, 52.2%, during that same time period (BEA, 2015). The county population is

predominately white, with an estimated 1.66% Hispanic or Latino population as of 2015 (BEA,

2015).

Fishing, tourism, and forest products have long been the underpinning of the area’s

economy. As well, the area’s economy has long been bolstered by two major rivers which run

through the region, and two major lakes. Today, tourism has become one of the driving forces

for the area’s economy.

Regional identity and attitude. The six community college and community leaders

who participated in the study expanded on the preceding information about the community and

community college by offering their perception of the unique characteristics of the community.

The data analysis of community characteristics elicited one over-arching theme – Regional

identity and attitude. This theme of regional identity and attitude developed from a fusion of

three sub-themes which emerged from the study participants’ interview responses: (a) a sense

of place; (b) a sense of time; and (c) a sense of work. These sub-themes permeated the data,

both oral and written. Taken together, the local history, geography, and economy of the

community and community college intermingled to create a certain regional identity and

attitude described by the study participants.

A Sense of Place. The first research findings revealed a strong sense of place among

the study participants, defined here as a recognition and respect for the community’s location

and natural environment. This prevailing view was quantified by CL2: “Our local community

is unique. I’m sure they are all but ours is particularly unique in that it is a really good example

of how a community and a community college can partner to create something strong.” CL3

reiterated, “. . . our community has remained pristine, [being isolated] keeps us away from the

corridor [interstate] that drugs run up and down. We are off the beaten path.” CL4 states,

“This community is deeply rooted . . .”

The rivers and lakes flowing through this community seems to underlie the

community’s sense of place. Surrounding by steep mountains, river valleys, and soaring

palisades, the community is situated in a river valley, the heart of the community is positioned

on the beaches of the lakes. As CL2 states “We have the most beautiful campus in the state,

and not just be the most beautiful campus, but to surround our students with this is particularly

suited to learning. It shows we value our students through the physical.” CL3 underscored

that by stating, “We have a history here.”

This sense of place, referenced by the participants, contributes to a regional identity that

grows out of the region itself, which is sprawling and rural, extending beyond the community

boundaries and county lines, and following the lakes and rivers to include two other counties.

When the participants discussed their community, they referenced city, county, and region

interchangeably. CL5 made this representative assertion: “Our community has taken on the

attitude of blurring the boundaries between the community and the state, and that is a huge

strength.” In this same vein, CL6 noted the reciprocity among these bi-county rural

communities, “We are unique in that we service multiple counties. We have our own small

airport that is beneficial to the surrounding counties. That creates this reciprocal relationship

that is critical to a rural community.” And CL1 added this commentary about the community’s

location: “We are a gateway, if you will. It’s either the front or the back! We have some

beautiful country around us . . . we easily draw from the surrounding counties and the state just

north of us.”

Community and community college leaders also discussed the location of the

community as it pertained to transportation and access. They underscored the disadvantage of

the community location with regard to transport and people, citing lack of interstate highway

and railway. “I believe that our location, our very isolated location, and we are isolated in a

different way because we are 2 ½ hours from any larger area. We are really in a rural location

even for our state because we do not have the infrastructure that comes through, we do not

have the highways that come through, we are isolated being located in the mountains. This is

our challenge to us as it relates to economics, to jobs” (CL3). CL6 further addressed the

isolation of the community: “I believe at this point the community and the community college

cannot survive without each other!”

A Sense of Time. Second, the research findings revealed a strong sense of time with

the community and community college. As the community and community college leaders

described the people and the activities of the community and community college today, they

often did so through historical references and turns-of-phrase which emphasized their

awareness and appreciation of local history and of hearty ancestry. Two historical references

are frequently linked to the characterization of the area. First, the region is recognized as one

of the best locales in the United States in fishing for trout. Second, the area is celebrated as a

critical juncture for the Cherokee Indians in their move to the west via the Trail of Tears. CL3

observed, “We have a history and appreciation of history. There is a pride in the community

and the community college of our history.”

Other community and community college leaders described the people in the

community in terms of determined and hard-working pioneers. CL3 articulated the

community’s historical connection this way:

“Those ancestors and others that arrived, in many instances, their descendants have remained to continue the stabilization of the community. And along with that, the drive to engage in education and slowly build a place of where these rural people could engage in education, is remarkable.”

Other participants described the community citizens in similar terms, highlighting

strength, independence, determination, and a pioneering spirit. “The people of this community

are strong and independent. They have created a community that faced adversity and survived.

There is a lot of perseverance here” (CL1).

A Sense of Work. The third research findings revealed another element of this

regional identity, a strong sense of the community’s place-based regional economy and worth

ethic. CL3 explained it:

“The community college, in the beginning, met a need for the local people in that it was close and they could earn a degree and get better paying jobs. The community college was filling the pent up need of the backlog of the people in the community who had wanted to get a degree, but were unable to travel the 2 ½ hours any direction [north, south, east, west], so the community college was able to really fill a need for the local people to upgrade their skills to get more money for their skills. The people in the community are determined, hardworking, and want a better life for themselves and their families.”

“The community provides employers and the community college provides job ready

employees” stated CL6.

The opportunities for work and industry in the community are starting to expand. For

example, tourism, small businesses, retail trades and services continue to grow. CL6 went on to

say, “The project with the most impact on the citizens of the community is the technical center

at the community college. That will fill an enormous need in the community.” CL1 explained

it further,

“The community college has been directly involved in the recruitment of a manufacturing expansion opportunity for the community. The community college has worked directly with the company and state economic development officials to develop a training program that would address the company’s concerns of adequate workforce skills to staff its expansion. This led way to a new program and a nearly $2 million investment by the company in facilities and equipment for the community college. So, the college started a new program aimed at moving people from unemployment to a position of workforce readiness. This is a partnership between the community college and a large number of social service agencies in the area. The primary focus will be to engage individuals receiving service from any of the participating agencies into an education continuum that allows them to enter employment with job readiness and life skills training. This is a direct response to the community and employer leaders indicating that more employees with higher skill sets are needed to sustain the economy of the community.” Summary: Context. In summary, the community college of this study is a small, rural

comprehensive community college serving approximately 1,500 students annually. It serves a

two county and one border state geographic region described in the previous section and its

mission statement is to “LEAD through educational opportunities: Lifelong learning, Enhanced

quality of life, Academic accessibility, and Diverse experiences.” The study participants

described the community college as being community-attuned and taking a dynamic approach

to its work. The community-attuned theme referred to in the study participant’s perceptions of

the college as being integrated and in sync with the community. The dynamic approach theme

represented a continuum of related community perceptions about the college’s proactive

approach to its work.

Community leaders demonstrated a strong sense of regional identity and attitude. The

majority of the community’s citizens have a strong work ethic and community theme of place

and time, and the work ethic permeates the community college as they do the community as a

whole. The study’s participants understand their economy as place-based, and believe that

sustainable community development between the community and community college is

desired, attainable, and within reach working together. The study participants recognize that

the community college is an integral part of the community’s proactive, sustainable community

development attuned, and is dynamic in its approach to attaining this goal.

Process: How Do Community and Community College Leaders Describe Changes in the

Sustainable Economic Relationship Between the Rural Community College-Rural

Community?

This second section of Chapter Four presents the findings from the data analysis of the

second research question regarding the processing of the rural community and the rural

community college in changes in the sustainable economic community development

relationship between the two. The data derived from the interviews of the six study

participants. The study participants were community college and community leaders including

community college administration and community business executives. The findings respond

to the question: How do community and community college leaders describe changes in the

sustainable economic relationship between the rural community college-rural community?

Three themes emerged from the data analysis:

1. Community and Community College Leadership and Partnership

2. Community College Regionally Driven Instructional Programs

3. Community and Community College Presence

Community and Community College Leadership and Partnership. The study

participants were asked the question “How do community and community college leaders

describe changes in the sustainable economic relationship between the rural community

college-rural community?” CL1 responded: “The community college leaders have been

directly involved in the recruitment of a manufacturing expansion opportunity in the

community. The community college worked directly with company and state economic

development officials to develop a training program that would address the company’s concern

of adequate workforce skills to staff its expansion. This has led to a new program and a nearly

$2 million investment by the company in facilities and equipment for the community college.”

And CL2 expanded on this: “The community college works closely with community partners

to develop curriculum. They have got recruiters and case managers to guide students all the

way to a job. They then get out of the line to serving someone else. That is exactly the point.

That is a really unique thing, I’ve never seen much of that, so I am really proud of the

community college for not only using partnerships in the traditional way and doing that better

than most but from a non-traditional approach.”

This is a prominent theme throughout all of the study participant’s responses; the

partnership with industry to build programs at the community college to enhance the workforce

for not only a sustainable economic community development, but for the community college to

create a sustainable economic workforce. CL3 give a specific instance of utilizing state dollars

for the partnership of the community college and the community: “We have a history here;

that’s another thing interesting that needs to be mentioned regarding sustainability with the

community and the community college. The former chancellor of the community college got

involved with the State Department of Corrections, which is a whole other entity, to come and

assist the community college with big maintenance and building jobs on the campus. What a

way for state dollars to be used effectively in rural community partnerships to help each other.

These kind of partnerships are going to have to develop for there to be sustainability.”

CL4 talked about working with community leaders and the overarching concern was

the workforce either not being sufficiently trained or refusing to do the job required. The

example was:

“I talk to area employers all the time and the common complaint is that they cannot get people to do a good job; they will work when they show up. I say maybe pay a better wage and the employers tell me that when they do that, the workers will collect their paycheck for the week or two weeks they worked, they would get a little money in their pocket, more money than they ever had, and would not come to work anymore. The employers have to start the hiring process all over again. They went on to say that their turnover was worse when they paid more wages. If you can do something about that mindset, and the community college is doing that, I think that will improve to make it easier for employers to attract more productive workers.”

Community College Regionally Driven Instructional Programs. As mentioned

before, the study participants found that there is a strong drive with partnerships of the

community college and community industry in their efforts to produce a quality workforce for

community industry and businesses to ensure that production as well as productivity is

sustained. With this focus, CL1 talked about the new $2 million investment by a company

with a branch located in the rural community to

“. . . to develop a training program that would address the . . . concerns of adequate workforce

skills to staff its expansion . . . resulting in a new facility and equipment for the community

college.” CL5 expanded on this: “the medical facility in the community, which is a huge

source for the community college graduates, finds that the quality graduates from the

community college has been a driving force behind expanding their facilities. The community

college works with high schools, giving these students exposure to higher educational training.

There is an instructional program whereby high school students can take college course

concurrently, get college credit, and have their first two years of college completed by the time

they graduate from high school. That is and will continue to be a strength for them to continue

on with their education.” CL6 was succinct in their reply: “The instructional program with the

most impact on the lives of high school graduates, or really anyone seeking job training, is the

new technical center at the community college. That will fill an enormous need in the

community.”

Community and Community College Presence. The community and the community

college are located in an isolated region, surrounding by lakes, rivers and mountains. There is

no prominent infrastructure that comes through the community and there is no major city

located nearby. The community is considered being ‘off the beaten path.’ That is considered

to be a good thing and a bad thing, according to the study participants. “I know with all rural

areas there is a connotation of being isolated, but we are kind of isolated in a different way

because we are 2 ½ hours from any larger area. We don’t have a major airport close, we are

really in a rural location because we don’t have the infrastructure that comes through, we don’t

have the highways that come through, we are isolated being located in the mountains. Unlike

major cities in the state, they have rural areas around them and they have the infrastructure

around them, so I think that is a challenge to us as it relates to economics, to jobs” participant

CL3 responded. CL3 went on to clarify the isolation of the community: “It is also what

allows our community to remain pristine, it keeps us away from the corridor that drugs run up

and down, it doesn’t mean we don’t have that in our community, but we are not located near an

interstate. A good thing about a rural community is it allows the children to be children, not be

pushed into what television says children should be. The children are not exposed to the ‘hurry

up and grow up,’ to mature quickly. They can be children and play outside. They are not

pushed into the adult crowd too soon. That is a challenge in many ways, but the needs for

today, this is an exception of that for a rural community”

CL2 emphasized the uniqueness of the rural community and the rural community

college: “The perceptions of a rural community and community college is that I think ours is

different. It is a really good example of how a community and state organization can partner to

create a successful endeavor that could and will have an enduring future.” CL1 brings it

together by stating: “The local community college is a reflection of the region it serves. The

primary purpose for the creation of the rural community college is to bring the access of higher

education services and opportunities to a focused region enriching the lives of those served.

The rural community and the rural community is tied in a symbiotic relationship that is so

intertwined that most people either take it for granted or don’t see the connection at all. The

economic health of the community has a direct impact on the college.”

CL2 reiterates on the locale and presence of the community having such a unique

community in its midst: “Our local community is unique. I’m sure they all are but ours is

particularly unique in that it is a really good example of how a community/state organization

can partner to create something strong. Our strength lies in our partnership. We have the most

giving community I’ve ever seen. The community has seen fit to bestow on the campus

millions of dollars of art, finest physical facilities in the state. There is also a great high school

and lots of support for the community college. While we have the most beautiful campus in

the state, not just be the most beautiful campus, but to surround our students with that so that is

particularly suited to learning. That lets the students know that they are enveloped in this

culture of value and they belong with this valuable artifact. I think that is very unique to us.”

Summary: Process. The themes that emerged from the data analysis of interviews

with six participants regarding how the community and community college leaders describe

changes in the sustainability relationship between the rural community college-rural

community: a community leadership and partnership network, regionally driven instructional

programs, and the community and community college presence. The community and the

community college network through workforce partnerships that will allow the community

leaders to better understand the community’s requirements to the community college, and to

create a network of partnerships, which have resulted in developing productive and rewarding

relationships that have yielded solutions to the community’s challenges by including regionally

driven instructional programs in welding, mechatronics, nursing, natural resources, and high

school student advancement. As such, the community college’s integral role in these

community partnerships leads to a strong presence in the community as one of the vital forces

in the region’s successes. The community college is involved in the community, and vice

versa, in myriad ways, most notably through business connections and involvement, as well as

the resources and facilities to help fulfill the community needs.

Results: What Do Community and Community College Leaders Perceive to be Effective

Strategies for Promoting Sustainability for the Alliance of Rural Community-Rural

Community College?

This section of Chapter Four presents the findings from the data analysis of the third

research question regarding the results of effective strategies for promoting sustainability for

the alliance of rural community-rural community college. The data was derived from

interviews of the six study participants. The study participants were community college

administration leaders and community leaders. These findings resulted from the question:

What do community and community college leaders perceive to the effective strategies for

promoting sustainability for the alliance of rural community-rural community college? The

data analysis elicited two key themes that answered this third research question:

1. Improved Economy and Skilled Workforce

2. Strengthen Community College and Community Leadership

Improved economy and skilled workforce. The community and community college

leader’s responses emphasized the work of the community and community college working

together to train and advance the local workforce, creating, ultimately, a positive sustainable

economic development in the local economy. They talked about the need for a skilled

workforce to ensure positive sustainable economic development in the local economy and how

having the community college in the community is generating the needed skilled workforce

which has resulted in the expansion of local businesses to ensure the workforce can be

productive and beneficial to the local economy. “The community college doesn’t rest on

success. The community college continues to pursue programs that will benefit and contribute

to the health and sustainability of the community” (CL6). CL1 emphasized the pubic

beneficial aspects of the community college’s contributions: “The community college

continues to be on the cutting edge of using technology to assist in the delivery of instruction.”

CL2 underscored the public benefit of the community college working with the community:

“The community college works closely with community partners to develop curriculum.” CL3

spoke about the community college’s sustainable economic vitality being tied to the

community: “We have created opportunities and changed thousands of individuals lives who

make up our community, so I think at the individual level, the community college has made a

huge impact.” CL5 listed several aspects of the community college’s sustainable contributions

toward positive development in the community: “Community college leaders are active in

Rotary, Lions, Chamber of Commerce, sitting on the Board of Directors of the medical center,

working with high schools with the Promise Grant, local industry infusing $2 million into the

community college as well as their facility to ensure skilled workers will be available.”

In supporting the positive sustainable economic development, all of the study

participants responded that the community college’s role in workforce training of the local

workforce has been a major result of the community college and the community partnerships.

“Find an area employer who has an improved workforce is the bottom line because the training

costs have gone down, the workforce is more stable, the employer is more productive and more

profitable. Now they are able to expand the employment base and the productivity” noted

CL4. “Within the past five years, we have developed a complete technical center and program;

within the last five years we have now automotive training; HVAC and mechatronics that are

really needed in the community and the community has really jumped in and helped us with

that” CL2 emphasized.

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Community leaders have also underscored how a skilled workforce improved not only

individual lives, but has also improved the community’s sustainable economic development

and livability. The following quote describe the community’s sustainable economic

development as a result of partnering with the community college:

The community members, individually, have contributed to the arts on campus, with individual foundation money, significantly that the community college could build the new simulation building, sustain the campus buildings, maintenance so that the grounds of the community college so that they have more and the state will allow more. The community members have given enough money to the campus so that the community college will have an ongoing maintenance above what the state provides. The community leaders have given the community college millions of dollar for a simulation center for the health program. The local medical industry has given the community college $1.5 million for expanding the college’s medical labs. The local car dealership donated a 10,000 square feet building for the tech center. So, providing the facilities and the remodeling the facility itself is a very physical representation of their support.” (CL2)

The second quote illustrates the community leader’s emergent awareness of the

sustainable economic partnership between the community, as a whole and individually, and the

positive beneficial results of the skilled workforce development:

The education within these structures, each program, it is easy to teach standard programs-nursing, math, English, those things, but when the community college gets a customized degree, it is very important that it be sustainable to the community. Over saturate a market and then people cannot get a good job, so the community has stepped in to help the community college build programs that the community will hire from. That is a big thing! The community leaders have helped develop these programs for a better path for students. The community leaders have told the community college leaders what they needed to be taught so they would be hired and be sustainable. So, not only does the community help the community college build the buildings but they help build the curriculum they need so that the students are well placed in jobs. (CL2)

Finally, CL3 described the results of the community college sustainable community

development as having an impact that is surpassing all expectations for a positive future, not

only for the community, but for the community college: “It’s going to take a lot of hard work

to sustain, but it just might make it.”

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Strengthen Community College and Community Leadership. The community

leaders discussed the community leadership as both the process of community college and

community being sustainable and the economic development of the community college and

community partnerships. In this section, community leadership is presented as a finding

related to the results of the community college and sustainable economic community

development. In response to the question about what type of strategies might enable the

community to advocate successfully for sustainability development with administrative and

legislative policies that affect community college services in rural areas, the study participants

reflected on the improved efficacy of community leadership overall as a positive and as a

public benefit derived in part from the community college sustainability to the community’s

economic development. Community leaders have learned to work collaboratively and have

learned to build on that unity to develop a more unified political influence on the community’s

behalf.

Some of the community leaders reflected on the unique individuals who have been part

of the community leadership and the unique situations that reflected in the community: “We

have to communicate with each other consistently. The community should expect the

community college to be constantly monitor the needs of employers and interest of students in

an effort to meet the demands of an ever changing economy. It is the community’s

responsibility, along with the community college, to demand the attention of our legislators and

support the efforts of the partnership. Here is where I believe success will produce more

success” (CL6). CL1 also reported: “The combination of the variety of services being

delivered by governmental agencies across any community college region would be a prime

strategy that could drive legislative policies in the future. Small rural community college such

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as ours are surrounded by six to 10 governmental agencies all serving the same 1000 to 2500

people. A strategic and policy shift could save millions of dollars and perhaps provide more

revenue to directly serve the students.” CL3 reinforced the belief that the community and

community college leaders work together to strengthen the partnership because of the

challenges of what state legislation might create:

“I think we are going to have to take a very strong look at doing more with less because we are seeing that as our legislative dollar’s decrease. We are going to have to listen carefully to what the legislators and the . . . you hate to do things based on politics, but that is just the reality. I think what speaks always is dollars, so anytime we can impact the economy of our community, if we can prove impact on the economy that will sustain, and of course, there is a whole lot wrapped up in that. That means that we have got to have the right programs, we have to treat our students and we have to treat each other respectfully so that we can all work together in an environment where we can really affect change in the community to move forward.”

The interview data also revealed that community leaders felt their unified relationship

with one another fostered more political influence, and ultimately, success in their sustainable

economic community development endeavors, especially with the community college. CL5

expanded upon this:

“If community leaders, when they come together with politicians and with government representatives, when the community leaders can show that they are all together, that the community and the community college are on the same path, for example, look at this combined group coming to you asking for your assistance in something that is going to better the community and give you a payback. Good intentions can get you hired. It necessarily makes sense to apply a business model to the community college – community sustainable economic development knowing there is going to be a payback But the key thing is just work together, don’t assume that you are a specialist, an economic leader expert, and educational leader expert. Collaboration is the term I want to use here.”

Summary: Results. In summary, the results of the community college and sustainable

community economic development that were identified by the community leaders who

participated in this study center around two themes:

1 Improved Economy and Skilled Workforce

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2 Strengthen Community College and Community Leadership

The community college’s contributions to creating a diversified local sustainable

economy and to providing local workforce development that can lead to local employment

were noted. The community college’s role in the improved unity of the local leadership,

including leadership wisdom such as the importance of a shared community college-

community vision, the recognition of regional aesthetic value, and taking a leveraged approach

to seeking financial capital were also highlighted. And, finally, the importance of the

community college’s presence and involvement in the community as well as the community’s

generous giving of dollars, facilities, and scholarships in bolstering both the community’s view

of itself and the outsider’s view of the partnership between the community college and the

community was underscored.

Evaluation of Findings: Chapter Four

The results obtained from the qualitative thematic analysis were supported by the

literature of the subject. As expected it was found that the rural community and the rural

community college leaders were in favor of establishing a criterion for the sustainability

economic development for the rural community-rural community college partnership to

achieve a deeper knowledge acquisition and understanding for the economic sustainability

development. Although the rural community-rural community college leaders were in favor of

the acquisition and understanding of the partnership, they admitted the need to have adequate

time and planning to integrate the economic sustainability development into the overall five

and ten year plans for the rural community-rural community college alliance. These findings

then imply the prerequisite for a proper application and implementation of the integrated

partnership theory which is the framework of this study. Hickey (2012) and Pendergrast et al.

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(2012) described that integrated partnership should create positive benefits to the rural

community-rural community college. Meanwhile, Hacieminiglu (2014) supported the rural

community-rural community college leaderships’ notion that the integration may be difficult

given that it could mean extra time and work for them; increasing their already hectic and busy

work schedules.

In the second research question, the rural community and rural community college

leaders believed that indeed, the integration of an established criterion for a sustainable

economic development partnership may lead to the application and connection of the two

groups to achieving their long range goals. The participants as a whole agreed with this

initiative. The negative effects of the integration were reported to be minimal that it does not

affect the strong belief of the leadership that the integration should generate the rural

community-rural community college population awareness on community growth in general.

Finally, the leadership in this study shared that the best method of incorporating a

sustainable economic development through an established criterion is through the inclusion of

the criterion for the population as a whole. The literature majorly reported how the rural

community usually integrated the rural community college by connecting both concepts into an

established criterion. However, in this case, the leadership proved a specific goal of creating

an established criterion as the main vehicle in which they integrate and apply the criterion for

the benefit of the public.

Based on the findings above, it can be observed that the results of the study should

increase the call and need for other rural community-rural community colleges to attempt in

practicing the implementation of integrating an established criterion in to their leadership

public plan. The leadership of the rural community and the rural community college may learn

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and gain insights from the narratives and experiences shared by the six participants. The

current study should help in realizing the need of a more intensified incorporation of an

established criterion for long range planning, and to avoid creating this long range plan without

the sense of identity and awareness about their region’s history, culture, and civic competence.

Summary

In Chapter 4 of the study, the findings from the interviews, discussion, and document

review with the six rural community-rural community college leaders were discussed. Again,

the purpose of the qualitative multiple case study was to discover the leaders’ perceptions on

the outcomes of creating an established criterion in creating an economic sustainable

development between the two. Using a qualitative content analysis, the three research

questions were addressed through the main themes established. Several other themes were also

formed and presented to fully present the perceptions and experiences of the participants on the

effectiveness of the integration of an established criterion on sustainable economic

development for the rural community-rural community college. Chapter 5 contains the

discussion of the findings, the limitations and recommendations, implications, and conclusion.

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Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations and Conclusions

The work of rural community colleges is tied inherently to their local rural

community by virtue of the founding legislation and mission of the rural community

college (Miller & Deggs, 2012). The connections, interactions, and actions of a rural

community college flow from and into the community. The rural community college

typically plays a vital role in myriad aspects of the rural community (Crookston &

Hooks, 2012). Rural community colleges serve their surrounding community region in

an effort to reverse negative trends such as stagnant economic sustainable growth and

outmigration. Any employment growth and decline in a given rural community is often

influenced by the larger sustainable economic and political context (Crookston & Hooks,

2012). In this era of accountability, developing a more comprehensive understanding of

rural community colleges’ relationship, roles, and results in their respective rural

community, especially with regard to economic sustainability growth, is important. The

nature of the rural community college and community sustainable economic development

and the results of these efforts are important yet challenging to understand.

The rural community college and the rural community are at a crossroads as rural

community colleges face shortages in leadership, budget, faculty, and more importantly,

the students (Evans et al., 2015). The rural community college draws from its rural

community to fulfill these shortages. The reasons for the shortages have been attributed

to the additional burden of rural community colleges surviving in a market system that

have been catapulted in both the private sector and public institutions into a global arena

(Crookston & Hooks, 2012). The promise and openness of the rural community college

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and the fluctuating boundaries between the rural community and the rural community

college are both its strength and its greatest challenge (Mellow & Heelan, 2008). Rural

community colleges must depend on the rural community to be a collaborative

sustainable member (Evans et al., 2015). The problem is that an evaluation of the rural

community college with promoting sustainable rural economic community development

is necessary to assess their role due to the lack of an established criterion (Yang et al.,

2015).

The specific problem of the rural community college in sustainable rural

economic community development is that the rural community college and the rural

community stakeholders may not fully understand that the lack of an established criterion

in the sustainable economic development could be directly affecting their potential

growth (Simmons et al., October 2015). There is limited research available that assess

the quality of sustainable economic development between the rural community college

and the rural community (Evans et al., 2015). Currently, few empirical studies have

examined the nature in conjunction with rural community colleges and their sustainable

economic development for rural communities to facilitate or improve this collaboration

(Evans et al., 2015).

Implications

Although the study only included the perceptions and experiences of the six

leader participants, it was ensured that their narratives were analyzed thoroughly to

maximize the meanings and essences of their responses. By doing so, the themes

established successfully addressed the research study questions and general objectives.

From the findings presented in Chapter 4 and the interpretations discussed in Chapter 5,

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is strongly believed that with this current research study, the effectiveness and

importance of an established criterion is substantiated. The results of the study can

benefit the rural community, the rural community college, educators, community leaders,

and the society to experience positive changes once the integration of an established

criterion has been applied correctly and in a more formal manner. The study can then

allow for the key decision makers of the rural community-rural community college to

develop insights on the importance of the established criterion on the lives of the rural

community and the rural community college as well as the effectiveness of the theory of

an established criterion integration.

By developing these insights, the key decision makers can then perform more

concrete actions into reinforcing the application and integration of the established

criterion into a more sustainable economic development for the rural community and the

rural community college. Finally, and in the long run, the efforts of creating an

established criterion for the sustainable economic development of the rural community-

rural community college partnership can create socially aware and active members of the

society to apply these concepts into their lives and the world around them.

Limitations

The limitations that may have affected the conclusions of this study was that the

original ten study participants were reduced to six study participants. The four potential

participants that did not participate were elected officials of the community. The six who

did volunteer may have been more confident in their leadership identity and more

comfortable speaking about their leadership and open to exploring the answers to the

questions asked of them. Additionally, some of the participants were more talkative and

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eloquent than others and some of the participants may have given answers that they

thought would please the researcher (Jakobsen, 2012; Lizzo, Andrews, et al., 2011). The

six study participants were in working environments that were considered stable careers

rather than having to campaign for their position. Thus, the skill, background, and

experiences of the researcher may have led the six study participants to feel comfortable

in sharing their views, vision, critical observations, and hopes for a brighter future in their

rural community college and rural community. Lastly, the results of the study may not be

transferable to a larger population because of the small study size and the use of

purposeful sampling (Patton, 2012).

However, recognizing these limitations and the effect that the limitations may

have had on the conclusions, the study is still valuable. It is an exploratory study, and

therefore not striving for the results to be generalizable, but looking to start the process of

investigating the perceptions of the rural community college sustainable efforts with its

rural community development. Various measures were put in place to mitigate the effect

of the limitations of the study. Because of the study design, analysis process, and study

alignment, the results can be considered trustworthy and valuable in presenting the

perceptions of the sustainable economic development with the rural community college-

rural community.

Significance

This study is significant because the nature of the rural community college and

rural community sustainable economic development and the results of these efforts are

important to understand, yet challenging to analyze and communicate. The “promise and

openness [of the rural community college], and the fluctuating boundaries between the

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rural community and its rural community college are both [its] strength and [its] greatest

challenge” (Mellow & Heelan, 2008, p. 14). Thus, the utilization of systems and external

perspectives, which take into account that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts,

may prove to be a helpful lens for the endeavor of understanding the impact of a rural

community college on its rural community sustainability for development (Ashford,

2013; Hicks & Jones, 2011; Jacobs, 2012). The rural community college, in most of rural

America, is one of, if not the only, entity that offers a comprehensive program of

workforce training, yet issues of institutionalization of reforms within an organization,

particularly located in a rural community, are problematic to sustain. There are few

studies from this particular lens that have actually examined the sustainability of reforms

over a long period of time (Grayson, 2012). This study will provide critical insight into

developing a better understanding of the problems facing the rural community college in

promoting sustainable economic rural community development.

Implications

This chapter reviews the purpose and significance of the study and presents a

summary of the data themes detailed in Chapter Four. It then provides the implications,

recommendations, and conclusions in relation to the literature, participant interviews,

analyzes the limitations of the study, offers consideration for professional practice and

further research.

The purpose of this multiple case study was to examine the role a rural

community college plays in the sustainable economic development of a rural community.

The study examined community leaders’ perceptions of their rural community and its

rural community college, the interaction between the rural community and the rural

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community college, and the results of that interaction. The participants in the study were

six community and community college leaders, included business executives and higher

educational administration.

Collaborative regional efforts that encompass stakeholders from traditional and

nontraditional education institutions and organizations, e.g., community colleges, non-

profits, governmental agencies, business, and alternative schools, that are willing to

develop strategic alliances and sustain the effort may be able to effectively develop

solutions for issues associated with scarce resources, lack of technical experts, as well as

geographical isolation or a decentralized community base (Attard, 2012; Coburn, Russell,

Kaufman & Stein, 2012). The concept is here, but to make it work in rural communities,

the leadership must work in a collaborative venue, not in isolation (Jones & Yarbrough,

2013). While a rural community college’s connection to its community is largely

inherent, a full understanding of the rural community college-rural community interaction

and the impact of those interactions on the rural community as a whole is often difficult

to articulate (Jones & Yarbrough, 2013). Given today’s demands on higher education

institutions to defend their benefits to the public, it was determined that a more

comprehensive understanding of a rural community with regard to sustainable economic

development and the impact on the rural community it serves (Battersby & Verdi, 2015).

Thus, the rural community college sustainable efforts toward the rural community’s

economic develop was the focus of this study. The intent was to provide a community

college-community based view of the contexts, interactions, and results.

This first section of Chapter Five summarizes the data themes presented in

Chapter Four. Next, the data themes are synthesized into significant findings and

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discussed within the framework of the three research questions: (1) How do community

and community college leaders describe the strategies needed to develop a rural

community college-rural community sustainability? (2) How do community and

community college leaders describe changes in the sustainability relationship between the

rural community college-rural community? (3) What do community and community

college leaders perceive to be effective strategies for promoting sustainability for the

alliance of rural community-rural community college?

The data and subsequent findings were derived from interviews with the six study

participants, from participant observation, and from a document review of the rural

community and the rural community college. The themes/findings which emerged from

the data analysis were:

1. The community college was characterized as being:

a. regional identity and attitude including being small, rural,

comprehensive institution;

b. regional identity and attitude including being community-attuned;

c. regional identity and attitude including using a dynamic approach.

2. The community was characterized by:

a. regional identity and attitude including a sense of place;

b. regional identity and attitude including a sense of time;

c. regional identity and attitude including a sense of work.

3. The community college and the community interacted by way of:

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a. a community and community college leadership and partnership;

b. community college regionally driven instructional programs;

c. community and community college presence.

4. The results of the community college-community interaction were:

a. improved economy and skilled workforce;

b. strengthen community college and community leadership.

In this study, five significant findings emerged from a synthesis of data themes

and an alignment of those data themes to key language from the literature. The term

“significant” in this study is used to convey importance, not to convey statistical

significance. They are as follows:

1. The community defined itself through a regional, rural lens and was

characterized by an interconnectedness of its people to the land and to the

history of the region.

2. The community college and the community invested in reciprocal

relationships and collaborated on mutually beneficial pursuits.

3. An improved regional economy and skilled workforce were identified as

positive community changes, and the community college’s contribution to

those positive changes were cited as a public benefit.

4. A community and community college leadership network with increased

confidence in collaboration, understanding of community assets, and

efficacy in sustainable community economic development was recognized

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as a positive community change, and the community college’s

contributions to those positive changes were cited as a public benefit.

5. An enhanced community college and community image and an optimistic

community outlook were identified as positive changes were cited to a

public benefit.

The discussion that follows is organized by the three research questions and the

corresponding significant findings. Thus, the first section covers research question one:

“How do community and community college leaders describe the strategies needed to

develop a rural community college-rural community sustainability?” and the single

corresponding significant findings.

The second section covers research question two: “How do community and

community college leaders describe changes in the sustainability relationship between the

rural community college-rural community?” and the single corresponding significant

findings. The third section covers the research question three: “What do community and

community college leaders perceive to be effective strategies for promoting sustainability

for the alliance of rural community-rural community college?” and the two corresponding

significant findings

Research Question 1 Findings. How do community and community college

leaders describe the strategies needed to develop a rural community college-rural

community sustainability? The findings of research question one did emerge in response

to the first research question regarding the context of the study: The rural community

defined itself through a regional, rural lens and was characterized by an

interconnectedness of its people to the land and to the cultural history of the area.

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Through this lens this finding highlighted the importance of both the natural capital and

the cultural capital of the rural community.

The importance of the context in this study was three-fold. An interpretive study,

the underlying assumption was that a description of the context was part of the complex

whole, and therefore, central to building understanding of the research topic (Coburn,

Russell, Kaufman & Stein, 2012). Also, as a case study, the context of the study was

important because “the phenomenon under study is not readily distinguishable from its

context” (Yin, 2011, p. 4). Finally, for this rural community college-rural community

study, it was important to view the findings through a systemic lens, interpreting how the

rural community was situated in its natural and social environment (Parker, 2010).

The six rural community college and rural community leaders who participated in

this study described the rural community in terms of an interconnectedness of people to

place and broad geographical definition of the community. They spoke proudly about the

community’s rural characteristics, geographical location, natural resources, and cultural

history. They emphasized the rural nature of the community, viewing the community’s

physical location as noteworthy, with regard to natural resources and livability. Taken

together, the study participants’ reflections on their rural community revealed a palpable

rural and regional identity and attitude, punctuated by the interconnectedness of its

people to the area’s natural and cultural environments.

The six rural community college and rural community leaders also made repeated

references to the community college’s embrace of the community, noting that it reached

out to serve the community. The college’s planning efforts, leadership networking and

partnerships, and program development strategies were all cited as evidence of the

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college’s regional, rural orientation. The college’s nursing, mechatronics, welding, and

natural resource programs were noted as reflections of the community. In fact, all of the

six study participant’s descriptions of the community and community college were often

intermingled: “I believe at this point the community and the community college cannot

survive without each other!” (CL6). Thus, this finding about the rural community’s

regional identity and approach included the rural community college as well and reflected

the literature’s emphasis on the relationship of the rural community college to their

unique locale, “Colleges. . . are place-based institutions, deeply affected by their local

environment” (Harkavy & Hodges, 2012, p. 3).

The significance of this study’s findings that the rural community defined itself

through a regional, rural lens and was characterized by an interconnectedness of its

people to the land and the cultural history correlated with the literature. The context of

this study was presented as a rural community wherein the people viewed themselves as

interconnected with the rural community college and the importance of developing

strategies to sustain the economic development of both.

Research Question 2 Findings. How do community and community college

leaders describe changes in the sustainable economic relationship between the rural

community college-rural community? The findings emerged in response to the second

research question regarding changes in the sustainable relationship between the rural

community college and its rural community. The rural community and its rural

community college have invested in a reciprocal relationship and have, and are,

collaborating on mutually beneficial pursuits for the sustainable development of both.

This finding also highlighted the importance of the development of the social capital

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between the rural community college and its rural community. All of the six study

participants cited the financial investment the rural community has put into the rural

community college as well as the partnerships that have sprung up in recent years to

encourage economic sustainable growth for both the community and the community

college. The partnerships of the community and community college leaders was

described as an effective means which had been developed among leaders from the

community college, industry, and local commerce. In the course of their narratives, the

study participants underscored the uniqueness of this partnership of leaders, stressing the

importance of continuing to develop partnerships, building mutual understanding,

effective communication, maintaining reciprocity, and fostering trust among the

partnerships. According to CL2, “Our strength lies in our partnerships. We’re investing

a lot because of our community and our community college and the education of the

students . . . it’s very unique.” The descriptions of the community and community

college leadership partnerships from the study participant’s responses, coincided with

three defining factors attributed to the social capital in current social science literature:

partnership, trust, and reciprocity (Flora & Flora, 2013; Grayson, 2012; Gismondi, 2012;

Jones, Stall & Yarbrough, 2013).

Within this section, the process of rural community college-rural community

partnerships for changes in the sustainable economic relationship was represented the

findings for research question 2: the rural community college and the rural community

invested in reciprocal relationships and collaborated on mutually beneficial pursuits for

positive changes. The study participants’ personal experiences with the leadership

partnerships in the rural community and the rural community college as well as their

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perspectives on the process of these partnerships between the two yielded the above

findings. Their responses echoed literature on community capitals, literature on social

capital, literature on community partnerships in higher education, and literature on the

mission and role of the rural community college. These findings represented the study

participants’ responses about partnerships in changes for the sustainable economic

development between the rural community college-rural community.

Research Question 3 Findings. What do community and community college

leaders perceive to be effective strategies for promoting sustainability for the alliance of

rural community-rural community college? Three findings emerged in response to the

third research question regarding effective strategies for promoting sustainability for

alliance: (a) an improved community economy and skilled workforce were identified as

effective strategies, and the community college’s contribution to those strategies were

cited as a public benefit; (b) a community-community college leadership partnership with

increased confidence in collaboration, understanding of community assets, and efficacy

in sustainable economic community development was recognized as effective strategies,

and the community college’s contributions to these strategies were cited as a public

benefit. These findings also highlighted the importance of the investments and the

interactions among the rural community and its rural community college.

First, the study participants identified an improved rural community sustainable

economy and a skilled workforce as positive rural community changes, for which the

rural community college was directly recognized. Specifically, study participants cited

career and technical educational programs at the rural community college which had

recently been developed to respond to the need for local skilled workers as a central

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factor in the recent upswing in the local economy, attributing it to the sustainable efforts

on the part of the rural community college. Another principal finding of this study was

the rural community college and rural community leaders of their role in the workforce

and sustainable economic development. The study participants’ responses on the rural

community college’s role in sustainable economic development were consist with the

literature on the importance of the rural community college’s roles in local workforce and

sustainable economic development (Coburn, Kaufman, & Stein 2012; Jones, Stall, &

Yarbrough 2013).

The rural community’s workforce and sustainable economic development

achievements cited by the study participants as important results of the rural community-

rural community college partnerships bear many consistencies with the literature on

regional development. The concepts from this study that aligned with the literature on

regional development included: the merit of face-to-face connections, the need for a

community-community college unifying narrative, community stewards practicing

collaborative community -community college leadership, and the shared pursuit and

acquisition of external funding (Coburn, Kaufman, & Stein 2012).

Recommendations

This study examined the role of rural community colleges in promoting

sustainable rural community development, and its impacts on rural community

sustainable economic development from three angles: context, process, and results. The

context of this study was revealed as a rural community wherein the rural community

leaders are to view themselves as interconnected with the area, the culture, and the

history of the area. Within this context, the rural community college was viewed as an

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integral part of the whole of the rural community. The process of rural community

college-rural community partnerships was represented in the finding: The rural

community college and the rural community are invested in reciprocal partnerships and

the collaboration on mutually beneficial pursuits. The results of the rural community

college-rural community sustainable economic partnerships were represented by three

findings: (a) for the rural community in having an improved sustainable economic

development and a skilled workforce; (b) a rural community college-rural community

partnership with increased confidence in economic collaboration, understanding of the

rural community assets, and efficacy in the rural community sustainable development,

and (c) to have an enhanced rural community image and an optimistic rural community

outlook.

The study participants’ experiences with new rural community college training

programs which promote the training of a skilled local workforce, as well as their views

on improving the rural community sustainable economic development, contributed to

their citing these as positive rural community changes to make and recognizing the rural

community college’s contributions to these changes as a public benefit. As well, the

study participants’ observations of the rural community college-rural community

partnerships, leadership, and increased collaboration, and understanding of the rural

community assets, and efficacy in the rural community sustainable economic

development efforts, contributed to their citing this as positive rural community changes

and recognizing the rural community college’s contributions to these changes as a public

benefit. The study participants’ view was that the rural community needed to be viewed

with an enhanced rural community image and an optimistic rural community outlook, and

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recognized the rural community college’s contributions to these changes as a public

benefit.

These significant findings aligned with the literature on rural community

sustainable economic and community development; the literature on rural community

development; the literature on asset-based rural community sustainable development

models, especially the partnership with the rural community college and the rural

community industrial economy; and on the literature on mission, role, and accountability

of the rural community college. These finds also highlighted the importance of investing

in the sustainable development of human, social, political, cultural, natural, financial, and

built capital as systemic assets that each will contribute to the rural community college-

rural community sustainable development. The literature on rural community college

sustainable economic rural community developments discussed the importance of

involving a broad-based band of rural community leaders, which could allay the

possibility of biasing sustainable economic development efforts away from under-

represented groups (Flora & Flora, 2013).

The first recommendation for future research would be to expand these results by

conducting a similar study at other universities in the United States, particularly within a

close urban region. Results may be different in another location and would expand

general knowledge on rural community college in sustainable economic rural community

development. The second recommendation for future research consist of using a larger

sample that would include participants with more involvement in the rural community.

For example, the study could include local elected officials and governmental leaders for

more experienced to provide a greater opportunity to identifying the perceptions of a

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larger number of rural community leaders that would not only result in greater depth and

breadth of data collected but also allow for a comparison in less versus more experience

leadership. A third recommendation would be to conduct a quantitative study with a

larger sample once a deeper understanding of rural community college and rural

community leaderships’ perceptions is gained through qualitative study. The fourth

recommendation would be for future researchers to recruit perhaps less invested rural

community college and rural community leaders to address the likely self-selection bias

occurring in this study. This would allow researchers to see a greater breadth of

perception and explore what motivates leadership to put in extra effort in creating

partnerships between the rural community college and the rural community leaders when

they perceive it is needed as a result of lack of a trained workforce. However, in order to

secure a larger sample, a recommendation for future research would be to implement

other recruitment efforts. For example, researchers should meet individuals in positions

that could assist with recruitment. Said individuals can have a positive impact with

respect to encouraging others to partake in research. Another example would be to

include call potential participants as part of recruitment. Asking potential participants to

participate via telephone calls can have better results as everyone does not check their

mail with great frequency.

Additional recommendations would be that future researchers could attempt to

separate and isolate perceptions. Research on the perceptions toward both groups would

assist not only the rural community college leaders but the rural community leaders in

meeting the needs of both. The sixth recommendation for future research would be to

conduct a quantitative study on the effects of the partnership collaboration of rural

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community college and rural community leaders. Moreover, the study would also allow

researchers to assess leadership responses to the collaboration. This study could help

rural community colleges identify if the collaborative partnerships made by leaders in

response to their perceptions are beneficial to the partnership.

Based on the results of this current study, practical application recommends are

presented. The first recommendation for practical recommendation would be for rural

community college leadership to understand that rural community leaders tend to quickly

formulate perceptions of collaborative partnerships and adjust their strategies based on

these perceptions. The second recommendation would be for rural community leadership

to assess rural community college leaderships’ perceptions. Furthermore, the third

recommendation for rural community college leadership would be to design professional

partnerships with rural community leaders, and vice versa. By acknowledging that the

rural community college leadership and the rural community leadership develops

perceptions rather quickly, both groups can address the process of developing perceptions

and establishing perceptions while developing the partnerships. The fourth

recommendation would be having both groups of leaderships to build an infrastructure

within the two groups that could assess the collaborative partnership as it is developing

and alleviate potential negative issues that may arise.

Conclusions

“We used to think that if we knew one, we knew two, because one and one are

two. We are finding that we must learn a great deal more about ‘and’”

(Eddington, 1920, p. 103).

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The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore the rural

community college sustainable economic development within the rural community

environment, and perspectives on critical factors relating to the sustainability. The

research questions were designed to delve in the context, interaction, and results. The

findings and conclusions have provided information to answer each of the research

questions.

Regarding context, it was concluded that the study participants’ believed that the

context of this study was revealed as a rural community wherein the rural community

leaders are to view themselves as interconnected with the area, the culture, and the

history of the area. Within this context, the rural community college was viewed as an

integral part of the whole of the rural community. In the area of interaction, it was

concluded that the process of rural community college-rural community partnerships is

invested in reciprocal partnerships and the collaboration on mutually beneficial pursuits.

In the area of results, it was concluded that the results of the rural community college-

rural community sustainable economic partnerships were represented by three findings:

(a) for the improved rural community in having an improved sustainable economic

development and a skilled workforce; (b) a rural community college-rural community

partnership with increased confidence in economic collaboration, understanding of the

rural community assets, and efficacy in the rural community sustainable economic

development, and (c) to have an enhanced rural community image and an optimistic rural

community outlook.

These conclusions may have been affected by several study limitations including

the original ten study participants were reduced to six study participants. The six who did

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volunteer may have been more confident in their leadership identity and more