Research paper-How parenting style affect child development

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Computers in Human Behavior 60 (2016) 411e424

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Computers in Human Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

The relationship between Internet parenting styles and Internet usage of children and adolescents

Hasan €Ozgür Computer Education and Instructional Technology Department, Faculty of Education, Trakya University, Edirne, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history: Received 21 December 2015 Received in revised form 17 February 2016 Accepted 19 February 2016 Available online 1 March 2016

Keywords: Parenting style Internet Children's Internet use Adolescents' Internet use

E-mail address: [email protected].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.081 0747-5632/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

a b s t r a c t

Parenting styles, which are known to have a significant effect on children's development, also have a significant effect on children's Internet use. This study was designed to demonstrate how parenting styles in relation to Internet use are perceived by children and parents and how these styles affect children's Internet use. Both qualitative and quantitative data-collection techniques were used in the study. The quantitative data-collection process was carried out through the participation of 1289 stu- dents, and the qualitative data-collection process was carried out with 20 parents and 23 children. The result of the study showed that the Internet parenting styles could be categorized as laissez-faire, permissive, authoritative, and authoritarian. A significant relationship was shown between Internet parenting style and child's gender and mothers' education level. It was also found that as the students' age and grade level increased, Internet parenting styles that were interpreted as initially authoritative were later interpreted as laissez-faire. As the grade level increased, the Internet parenting style tended to lean toward laissez-faire.

© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

As a means of accelerating and facilitating communication and access to information, the Internet has become an important con- stituent in the lives of all users, particularly children and adoles- cents. Providing these facilities and opportunities to its users, the Internet serves a wide range of purposes for many individuals in many fields worldwide. Internet use in Turkey is increasing incre- mentally every year, as in other countries. In parallel with the in- crease in Internet service providers and the decrease in prices, the number of individuals with access to the Internet is also increasing every day in Turkey (Turkish Statistical Institute [TurkStat], 2015). Data from TurkStat (2015) indicate that the household Internet usage rate is 69.5% and that its usage has increased by 1.5% from the previous year. TurkStat (2013) showed that the Internet usage rate is 50.8% for children ages 06e15 years, 36.9% for those ages 06e10 years, and 65.1% for those ages 11e15 years. Similarly, also influ- enced by the F@TIH project (Movement of Enhancing Opportunities and Improvement Technology, abbreviated as F@TIH), which was launched in 2010, the technological infrastructure of all schools has been improved, tablets are distributed to foster students'

technological literacy, and Internet access is aimed at every child. The number of children and adolescents with access to the Internet is increasing every day in parallel with these developments and opportunities (TurkStat, 2013). Moreover, it was found that 45.6% of children ages 06e15 years use the Internet almost every day (TurkStat, 2013) and that the Internet is mostly used at home by both children and adults (Hofferth, 2010; Kaşıkcı, Ça�gıltay, Karakuş, Kurşun, & Ogan, 2014; Livingstone, Mascheroni, �Olafsson, & Haddon, 2014; TurkStat, 2015).

Although the Internet has many utilities and facilities, its un- conscious, uncontrolled, and extreme use creates risks for all users, particularly children and adolescents. Unconscious and uncon- trolled Internet use causes academic failure (Yang & Tung, 2007; Young, 1996), social isolation, and other negative effects, e.g., anx- iety, depression, and loneliness (Chen & Lin, 2015; Steinfield, Ellison, & Lampe, 2008; Yen, Ko, Yen, Wu, & Yang, 2007), cyber bullying (Aricak & Ozbay, 2016; Gezgin & Çuhadar, 2012; Peluchettea, Karl, Wood, & Williams, 2015; Slonje, Smith, & Frisen, 2013), the tendency to commit crime (Oktan, 2015; Patton, Eschmann, & Butler, 2013), a decline in life satisfaction and qual- ity (Bulut-Serin, 2011; Çelik & Odacı, 2013; Çuhadar, 2012) and some other psychological problems (Cao, Sun, Wan, Hao, & Tao, 2011; Kim & Davis, 2009; Ko, Yen, Yen, Chen, & Chen, 2012; Landers & Lounsbury, 2006).

Fig. 1. Parenting styles (based on Baumrind, 1991; Maccoby & Martin, 1983).

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Research emphasizes that parental control and guidance are effective in reducing the negative situations that children face through the Internet medium (Leung & Lee, 2012; Valcke, Schellens, Van Keer, & Gerarts, 2007), but strict rules and control could compromise a child's future acquisitions (Cankaya & Odabasi, 2009). Cankaya and Odabasi (2009) state that exhibiting parenting attitudes may help limit a child's Internet usage and thus protect the child from the Internet's negative aspects. These researchers also state that a change in attitude of parents who used to have a negative attitude toward Internet use may enable their child to gain the maximum benefit from this medium.

2. Theoretical background

2.1. Parenting styles and Internet parenting styles

Although the Internet is a technology that children and ado- lescents frequently use and has an important place in their lives, families bear the great responsibility to prevent the risks that children may encounter from this medium (Duerager & Livingstone, 2012; Erdur-Baker & Kavsut, 2007; Rosen, Cheever, & Carrier, 2008; Valcke, Bonte, De Wever, & Rots, 2010). Indicating that children's Internet use is affected by numerous factors, re- searchers emphasize that parenting style is one of these factors (Eastin, Greenberg, & Hofschire, 2006; Rosen et al., 2008; Valcke et al., 2010). Baumrind (1991, p. 57) defined parenting style as the actions taken by parents during the period in which the child so- cializes and how the child is controlled. In the following years, in addition to the studies on parenting styles that Baumrind had defined in consideration of the degree of control in the interaction between parents and children, Maccoby and Martin (1983) also indicated that the degree of warmth in the interaction between the parents and child is important in parenting style.

Parental control in Internet usage includes guidance for chil- dren's online activities, setting up rules to regulate Internet use, and taking measures to restrain children's inappropriate online activities. In the relevant literature review, it is noted that children's Internet-use processes should be kept under control (Cho & Cheon, 2005; Pauwels, Bauwens, & Vleugels, 2008; Rosen et al., 2008), and to this end, parents should use content-filtering software and monitor their children's Internet history (European Commission, 2008; Liau, Khoo, & Ang, 2005; Mitchell, Finkelhor, & Wolak, 2005; Stark, 2007; Wang, Bianchi, & Raley, 2005). Additionally, the literature review revealed that a very small number of parents set up rules in relation to Internet usage duration (Duimel & de Haan, 2007; Wang et al., 2005).

Parental warmth in terms of Internet usage includes advanced communication with children during their use of this online me- dium and support for the children. In the related literature, some research emphasizes the importance of parental guidance (De Rycke, 2007; Walrave, Lenaerts, & De Moor, 2008), and some research notes the necessity for parents to be in closer proximity to their children and to demonstrate more care toward them during their Internet-usage process (Cho & Cheon, 2005; Law, Shapka, & Olson, 2010; Lei & Wu, 2007; Lwin, Stanaland, & Miyazaki, 2008; Valkenburg, Peter, & Schouten, 2006). Research also shows the necessity of parents to adopt a more respectful and understanding attitude towards their child's preferences during Internet usage (Fleming, Greentree, Cocotti-Muller, Elias, & Morrison, 2006; Lwin et al., 2008). In their studies, Lee and Chae (2007) and Kerawalla and Crook (2002) find that when parents and children use the Internet together, the child better learns the negative aspects of the Internet.

The four parenting styles formed by the intersection of parental control and parental warmth (see Fig. 1) can be defined as follows:

- Authoritative Parenting Style: Authoritative parents have solution-oriented communication with their child, share ideas mutually and support the child's special skills and tendencies (Maccoby, 1992). These parents usually establish practical rules, e.g., the Internet-use duration (Valcke et al., 2010).

- Permissive Parenting Style: Permissive parents do not demand much of their child, avoid facing their child and do not refuse the child's requests (Darling, 1999).

- Laissez-faire Parenting Style: Having a tendency to rarely give feedback to their child, these parents provide little or no sup- port, emotionally or as guidance, for their child. Parents with this style have poor communication and low interaction with their child (Maccoby,1992). Laissez-faire parents do not reflect a correct supportive or restrictive attitude with regard to their children's Internet use (Valcke et al., 2010).

- Authoritarian Parenting Style: In the authoritarian parenting style, which is defined as the intersection of low parental warmth and high parental control, the child is expected to obey and not to break the strict rules established by the parents (Darling, 1999).

The reviewed literature in relation to parenting styles indicates that mothers primarily act in the authoritative style, whereas fa- thers have a tendency to lean toward the authoritarian style (Aunola, Stattin, & Nurmi, 2000). With the increase in their edu- cation level, parents' control and warmth also increase (Pauwels et al., 2008). It was found that girls adapt to the authoritative parenting style better, whereas boys accept the laissez-faire style more (Aunola et al., 2000).

The reviewed literature in relation to Internet parenting styles indicates that parents who are younger, more educated and hence more aware with regard to the Internet establish more rules and have warmer interactions with their children with respect to their children's Internet usage in comparison with those parents who are unaware (European Commission, 2008; Valcke et al., 2010). Other studies show that younger children, compared to adolescents, are controlled and limited more strictly by their parents (European Commission, 2008; Lwin et al., 2008; Valkenburg et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2005) and receive more explanation about Internet- usage rules (Valcke et al., 2010). The literature also reveals an adverse effect of the increase in the number of children in a family on Internet usage control and warmth (Duimel & de Haan, 2007). The research indicates that the rules established by the families for

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Internet usage for girls and boys do not differ in content or number (European Commission, 2008; Livingstone & Bober, 2004). How- ever, some research shows that mothers adopt a more restrictive attitude than fathers in relation to Internet usage (European Commission, 2008) and that Internet usage is more restricted for girls than for boys (Pauwels et al., 2008).

In a study conducted by Valcke et al. (2010) regarding Internet parenting styles, it was concluded that the majority of parents act in the authoritative Internet style, and there is a relationship between Internet parenting style and the level of Internet usage of parents and children. Similarly, in another study by Lou, Shih, Liu, Guo, and Tseng (2010), it was found that most parents have an authoritative Internet style, and the least observed Internet style is the permis- sive style. Lou et al. (2010) noted that the authoritative parenting style is the most effective in disciplining children, and the parenting style and parents show a relationship with Internet usage, Internet literacy and Internet parenting. By contrast, in another study per- formed by Ayas and Horzum (2013), it was found that parents adopt the laissez-faire Internet style most commonly, followed, by the permissive, authoritative, and authoritarian styles, respectively.

2.2. The relationship between Internet parenting style and children's Internet usage

Related research indicates that control over children in relation to the Internet, warmth towards children during this period (Eastin et al., 2006), and restrictive actions towards children's Internet usage are not related to children's Internet usage (Lee & Chae, 2007). Research has noted that parental control is not effective in reducing Internet risks (Law et al., 2010; Liau et al., 2005; Livingstone & Helsper, 2008). However, in some other studies, it was stated that parenting styles may prevent children from coming across negative or inappropriate websites (Cho & Cheon, 2005; Fleming et al., 2006; Heim, Brandtzaeg, Hertzberg, & Endstad, 2007; Leung & Lee, 2012; Valcke et al., 2007) and that children can understand the risks of the Internet and adapt to the right way of using it (Eastin et al., 2006). In another study, conducted by Lwin et al. (2008), it was found that parental control causes a decrease in the Internet-usage levels of young children. However, it is stated that although parents' control and supervision of their children's Internet usage may prevent children's exposure to online risks, strict rules and restrictions may impede children's opportunities to learn and their online communication (Cankaya & Odabasi, 2009; Duerager & Livingstone, 2012).

2.3. Aim of the study

Among European countries, Turkey is viewed as a country with the lowest consciousness levels in the context of the Internet lit- eracy of children and with the least knowledge about children's safe Internet usage (Haddon & Livingstone, 2012). Striking data from the same report show that the ratio of children coming across inappropriate content shared over the Internet is twice the average of children in other European countries. In an evaluation of the interactions of parents with their children during Internet use, it was noted that Turkish parents use the Internet the least and have the least amount of knowledge about it (Haddon & Livingstone, 2012). Furthermore, in the study on the Internet usage of family members, mothers in particular were reported to have very low levels of knowledge about Internet usage compared to their Euro- pean counterparts (Haddon & Livingstone, 2012).

Although many investments have been made in Turkey to extend the use of technology and the Internet, there here has been little (Ayas & Horzum, 2013; Horzum & Bektas, 2014) research on the relationship between Internet parenting style and children's

Internet usage. Because the samples of these studies consisted only of students of certain ages, a generalization of the obtained data is limited. For this reason, the necessity for further holistic studies to identify the parenting styles of those who have different cultural backgrounds and children of different ages and different de- mographic characteristics is mentioned in the related literature studies (Ayas & Horzum, 2013; Haddon & Livingstone, 2012; Horzum & Bektas, 2014; Ihmeideh & Shawareb, 2014; Valcke et al., 2010). The main purpose of this study is to identify the Internet parenting styles that families prefer during the Internet- usage process of children and adolescents and to present the relationship between the Internet parenting style and children's gender, children's education level, children's daily Internet-usage time and parents' education level. Through a number of in- terviews with parents with different characteristics in terms of various parameters, such as Internet literacy and education level, the aim was to gauge parents' knowledge of the Internet's risks and safe usage, parents' perspective of the Internet, children's Internet- usage process, and parents' care and guidance during their chil- dren's Internet usage-process. In line with this general purpose, the following research questions were posed:

1. What is the Internet parenting style most commonly preferred by parents?

2. Is there a relationship between Internet parenting style and child/parent characteristics?

3. What is the effect of different Internet parenting styles on a child's Internet usage?

4. Do parents' Internet style and children's opinion of their par- ents' style coincide with each other?

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Research design

The research was performed using a mixed-method approach in which both qualitative and quantitative data were used simulta- neously. The convergent parallel mixed methods design was used. In this approach, qualitative and quantitative data are collected simultaneously, and the findings are compared to determine whether the findings obtained verify each other (Creswell, 2013, p. 222). The relevant pattern is presented in Fig. 2.

The cross-sectional survey model, a general survey model, was used to acquire the quantitative data for the research. In cross- sectional survey research, measurement is performed once in accordance with the characteristics of the parameters to be described (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009, p. 391). The case-study pattern was used to collect the qualitative data for the research. In the case studies, case-specific factors (e.g., environment, individuals, and processes) were studied in a holistic approach, and the focus was on how they affected and were affected by the relevant case (Yildirim & Simsek, 2013, p. 83).

3.2. Participants

The study samples consisted of two different groups. The first research group (from which the quantitative data were collected) consisted of a total of 1356 students who studied at five different primary and secondary schools and six different high schools located in Edirne City center. The questionnaires from 67 students who did not give the correct answers in the data-collection tool were excluded from the research. For this reason, the analyses were conducted from the data obtained from 1289 students (see Table 1). Edirne, which is located in western Turkey and shares borders with the Balkan states, is a city with a near-high level of development in

Fig. 2. Convergent parallel mixed-methods design (based on Creswell, 2013, p. 220).

Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the students.

Sex N (%) Grade level N (%) Boy 630 48.9 3rd grade 109 8.5 Girl 659 51.1 4th grade 165 12.8 Age N (%) 5th grade 116 9 9e10 239 18.5 6th grade 124 9.6 11e12 259 20.1 7th grade 137 10.6 13e14 272 21.1 8th grade 123 9.5 15e16 379 29.4 9th grade 170 13.2 17 or older 140 10.9 10th grade 218 16.9 Student Education Level N (%) 11th grade 63 4.9 High School 525 40.7 12th grade 64 4.9 Middle School 535 41.5 Receive Technical Help from N (%) Elementary School 229 17.8 Father 396 30.7 Father Education Level N (%) Father and Mother 269 20.8 Elementary School 137 10.6 Mother 223 17.3 Middle School 162 12.6 Friends 165 12.8 High School 402 31.2 Forums 147 11.4 Bachelor's Degree 436 33.8 Nobody 89 6.9 > Bachelor's Degree 152 11.8 Warned by N (%) Mother Education Level N (%) Mother 614 47.6 Elementary School 283 22 Father 344 26.7 Middle School 335 26 Father and Mother 198 15.3 High School 258 20 Nobody 133 10.3 Bachelor's Degree 255 19.8 Daily Internet Usage N (%) > Bachelor's Degree 158 12.2 Less than 1 h 32 2.5 Connect to Internet N (%) 1e2 h 278 21.6 By oneself 1143 88.7 2e3 h 265 20.6 Under parental supervision 146 11.3 3e4 h 472 36.6 Connect to Internet from N (%) More than 4 h 242 18.8 Home 1239 96.1 Internet Usage Years N (%) Internet cafes 128 9.9 More than 6 yrs. 651 50.5 School 651 50.5 3e5 yrs. 465 36.1

1e2 yrs. 173 13.4

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terms of the socio-economic development ranking of the country (Ministry of Development, 2011).

To collect data from the second group (from which the quali- tative data were obtained), a typical case sampling was used. The purpose of this sampling was to obtain an idea of a certain area through studying the average cases and to inform those who did not have sufficient information about this area, subject matter, application and innovation (Yildirim & Simsek, 2013, p. 138). The qualitative study data were obtained from the second group, which consisted of eight females and 12 male parents ages 35e48 years. The demographic data on the participants and their children are presented in Table 2.

3.3. Data collection tools and procedure

For the collection of the quantitative research data, The Internet Parental Style Scale and personal information questionnaire were used. A semi-structured interview form, which was developed by the researcher, was used to obtain the qualitative data.

The Internet Parental Style Scale: The 5-point Likert type The Internet Parental Style Scale was developed by van Rooij and van den Eijden (2007). Its original Dutch version was translated into English by Valcke et al. (2010). The Turkish version of the scale was adapted by Ayas and Horzum (2013). The scale consists of two

factors with 25 items. The “parental control” factor of the scale consists of 11 items, and the “parental warmth” consists of 14 items. A point between 1 and 5 is obtained from each item on the di- mensions of parental control and warmth. Points 1e2 are consid- ered low, and points 3e5 are considered high. A 2 � 2 structure is formed by the obtained values, which includes low/high parental control and low/high parental warmth. Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient is found to be .94 for the scale in general, .86 for the parental control factor and .88 for the parental warmth factor (Ayas & Horzum, 2013). In the present study, Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient was found to be .92 for the scale in general, .87 for the parental control factor and .85 for the parental warmth factor. In Fig. 1, the determination of the Internet parenting style using parental control and warmth dimensions is demonstrated visually.

Personal Information Form: The personal information form drawn up by the researcher included a set of questions prepared to obtain certain demographic information such as the child's gender, age, grade, and Internet-usage time and the education level of the mother and father.

The research data were obtained from 1356 students of various education levels in March, 2015. The research was conducted in person, and the students were informed at the outset about the subject of the research and data-collection tools. They were reminded that participation in the research was on a volunteer

Table 2 Demographic characteristics of the interviewed parents and their children.

Sex Age Education level Years of Internet usage Daily Internet usage

Parent Child Parent Child Parent Child Parent Child Parent Child

Female Boy 42 16 B.N. HS 13 yrs. >6 yrs. 3e4 h 3 h Male Girl 45 12 B.E. ES 15 yrs. 3e5 yrs. 6e7 h 1 h Male Boy 41 14 Ph.D. MS 19 yrs. >6 yrs. 4e5 h 3 h Female Girl 40 14 Sc.D. MS 16 yrs. >6 yrs. 4e5 h 3 h Female Girl 35 14 B.S. MS 16 yrs. >6 yrs. 1 h 3 h Male Boy 43 16 B.E. HS 16 yrs. >6 yrs. 8 h 2 h Female Girl 47 17 ES HS 6 yrs. >6 yrs. 1 h 3 h Male Girl 42 12 Ph.D. MS 12 yrs. >6 yrs. 1 h 3 h Female Boy & Girl 42 12/12 B.E. ES 10 yrs. 3e5 yrs. 2 h 1 h Male 2 Girls 43 16/12 Ph.D. HS/MS 10 yrs. >6/3e5yrs. 2 h 2 h/1 h Male Boy 43 10 B.S. ES 14 yrs. >6 yrs. 1 h 2 h Male Girl 48 12 Ph.D. ES 16 yrs. >6 yrs. 2 h 1 h Female Boy 44 16 ES HS e 3e5 yrs. e 4 h Male 2 Boys 40 12/10 B.E. MS/ES 16 yrs. 3e5/>6yrs. 2e3 h 3 h/1 h Male Girl 36 10 B.E. ES 14 yrs. 1 yr 3e4 h 1 h Female Boy 35 12 HS MS 6 yrs. >6 yrs. 1 h 2 h Female Boy 43 10 HS ES 4 yrs. 3e5 yrs. 1 h 2 h Male Boy 41 12 Ph.D. MS 17 yrs. 3e5 yrs. 2 h 2 h Male Boy 46 14 Ph.D. MS 15 yrs. >6 yrs. 2e3 h 3 h Male Boy 43 10 MS ES 19 yrs. >6 yrs. 3 h 2 h

B.N.: Bachelor's of Nursing B.E.: Bachelor's of Engineering/Education B.S.: Bachelor's of Science Ph.D.: Doctor of Philosophy Sc.D.: Doctor of Science ES: Elementary School MS: Middle School HS: High School.

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basis. The scale was answered in approximately 20 min. During the process of the qualitative data collection, the parents

answered the open-ended semi-structured interview questions while their children stated their opinion on their parents' Internet styles on The Internet Parental Style Scale. The interview form was set by the researcher after a literature review such that it was capable of revealing the purpose and scope of the research. To ensure the scope validity of the interview form, three domain- expert academicians were consulted. In line with the suggestions from the domain-expert academicians, the form was recomposed and took its final form. To test the intelligibility and applicability of the questions, two parents were interviewed in a pilot scheme on a voluntary basis, and no problem was encountered with this scheme. Each parent was evaluated in semi-structured interviews through the form that took its final form in line with expert opin- ions. The interviews were recorded using a voice recorder. During the interviews, the researcher avoided any orientation that may have affected the participants' perspectives. The determination of the participants was performed with the intention of ensuring credibility, transmissibility, consistency, and the verifiability of the research through employing strategies such as purposive sampling, an expert review on the research data and findings, and the approvability and detailed description of the research process and findings from the research report. Any orientation was avoided that may have affected participants' opinions during the application stage and semi-structured interviews, and the research and data- collection processes were ensured to proceed in a natural and objective manner.

3.4. Data analysis

In the data obtained from the quantitative part of the research, the control in relation to the classification of the Internet parenting styles was examined using discriminant analysis, and the rela- tionship between the Internet parenting style used on the students and other parameters was examined using the chi-square test. The analysis of the qualitative data was performed using the content- analysis technique. The main objective of the content analysis was to identify the concepts and relationships that could explain

the data collected (Yildirim & Simsek, 2013, p. 259). In the research- analysis data, a word processor, a spreadsheet, and qualitative data- analysis software were used. All the research data and voice re- cordings were transferred in advance to a computer medium. An academic member listened to and confirmed all recordings to ensure the accuracy of the data and voice recordings transferred to a computer medium. Pursuant to the obtained data, the themes were presented to two academicians who are experts in educa- tional technologies and qualitative data, and then, inter-rater reli- ability analysis was performed for the themes obtained. Here, to present the opinion on the themes, the formula inter-rater reliability ¼ agreement/(agreement þ disagreement), which was offered by Miles and Huberman (1994, p. 64), was used. As a result of the calculations, the inter-rater reliability coefficients for all themes were shown to vary between .86 and .96, and the reliability coefficient for the general average of themes was found to be .89. Because the inter-rater reliability coefficient found was above .70, which was set as the criterion (Gay, 1987, p. 217), the themes were taken to be reliable.

4. Findings

4.1. Internet parenting styles preferred by parents

In the research, after the demographic information was collected, the accuracy of the classification made using The Internet Parental Style Scale was tested. Discriminant analysis was used for this purpose. One of the purposes of using discriminant analysis is to decide which parameter group the data will fall under (Kalaycı, 2014, p. 335). The results of the discriminant analysis on the ac- curacy of the Internet parenting style classification are given in Table 3.

Table 3 shows an 87.4% possibility that the discriminant function used in determining the Internet parenting styles of students' families was correctly assigned to the groups to which families' Internet parenting styles were classified using the scale. The find- ings presented in Table 3 show that 595 of the students considered their family's Internet parenting style to be laissez-faire, and 395 considered it to be permissive. Whereas 282 children stated that

Table 3 Internet parenting style classification e discriminant analysis.

Internet parenting style Predicted group membership

Laissez-faire Authoritarian Permissive Authoritative Total

Original Count Laissez-faire 497 61 37 0 595 Authoritarian 0 17 0 0 17 Permissive 0 5 364 26 395 Authoritative 0 26 7 249 282

Original % Laissez-faire 83.5 10.3 6.2 0 100 Authoritarian 0 100 0 0 100 Permissive 0 1.3 92.2 6.6 100 Authoritative 0 9.2 2.5 88.3 100

*Rate of people accurately classified in the group to which they belonged was 87.4%.

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the Internet parenting style in their family was authoritative, 17 children stated that their family adopted the authoritarian Internet parenting style.

4.2. The relationship between Internet parenting style and child/ parent characteristics

In this stage of the research, first, the relationship between Internet parenting style and the child's gender was examined. The findings obtained are presented in Table 4.

The findings presented in Table 4 show that the Internet parenting style of 227 (34.4%) female students' families was authoritative, that of 221 (30.7%) was permissive, that of 205 (31.1%) was laissez-faire, and that of 6 (.9%) was authoritarian. The Internet parenting style of 390 (61.9%) male students' families was shown to be laissez-faire, that of 174 (27.6%) was be permissive, that of 55 (8.7%) was authoritative, and that of 11 (1.7%) was authoritarian. The relationship between the Internet parenting style of the stu- dent's family and the student's gender was observed to be signifi- cant (c2(3) ¼ 168.93, p < .01). This finding indicates that gender is a significant parameter in Internet parenting style. The table shows that in general, the female students considered their parents' Internet parenting style to be mostly authoritative, followed by permissive, laissez-faire, and authoritarian. Male students consid- ered the Internet parenting style of their parents to be mostly laissez-faire, followed by permissive, authoritative, and authoritarian.

The relationship between the age parameter and Internet parenting style (c2(8) ¼ 309.95, p < .01) was found to be significant. For the purpose of this analysis, because the number of persons per cell in the authoritarian style was small, the parents with this style were excluded from the analysis. The finding presented in Table 5 reveals that the age parameter is a significant parameter in Internet parenting style. Children aged 9e10 years stated that the Internet parenting style of their parents was mostly authoritative (46.2%), whereas children aged 11e12 years stated that it was mostly permissive (41.6%). Children aged 13 years or above stated that the Internet parenting style of their parents was, to a large

Table 4 Chi-square table of relationship between Internet parenting style and students' gender.

Internet Parenting style Female Male df c2 p

N % N %

Authoritative 227 34.4 55 8.7 3 168.93 .001 Permissive 221 33.5 174 27.6 Laissez-faire 205 31.1 390 61.9 Authoritarian 6 .9 11 1.7 Total 659 100 630 100

extent, laissez-faire. The table shows that in general, the increase in the age parameter changes the authoritative Internet parenting style of the families into a laissez-faire style.

When the findings presented in Table 6 are considered as a whole, it is observed that the relationship between the grade parameter and the Internet parenting style is significant (c2(18) ¼ 332.55, p < .01). For the purpose of this analysis, because the number of persons per cell in the authoritarian style is small, the parents with this style were excluded from the analysis. This finding reveals that grade level is a significant parameter of the Internet parenting style. The table shows that in general, the authoritative Internet parenting style of the families of students in seventh grade or higher increasingly changes into a laissez-faire style (see Table 7).

Regarding grade level, 365 (69.5%) of the students in high school stated that the Internet parenting style of their parents was laissez- faire. Two-hundred and two (37.8%) of the students in middle school stated that the Internet parenting style of their parents was permissive, whereas 104 (45.4%) of the elementary school students said that their parents adopted the authoritative Internet parenting style. It is shown that the relationship between the Internet parenting style and the type of school in which the students study is significant (c2(6) ¼ 249.50, p < .01). The evaluation shows that regardless of school type, an increase in education level results in a decrease in parental warmth and control in terms of the Internet.

When the findings presented in Table 8 are considered as a whole, it is observed that the relationship between mothers' edu- cation level and their Internet parenting style was significant (c2(12) ¼ 25.37, p < .05). Mothers with a laissez-faire Internet parenting style were mostly elementary school graduates, and permissive mothers were generally middle school graduates. Another finding obtained from the table is that the mothers with an undergraduate and graduate education level had a higher ratio of authoritative style in Internet usage than mothers with other ed- ucation levels. It was discovered that the relationship between fa- thers' education level and their Internet parenting style was not significant (c2(12) ¼ 15.05, p > .05). The findings show that primary school-graduate fathers exhibited a laissez-faire parenting style toward Internet usage, whereas fathers with an undergraduate degree exhibited mostly permissive and authoritative Internet parenting styles.

The findings presented in Table 9 show that the relationship between the Internet parenting style of the families and the number of years the child had been using the Internet (c2(6) ¼ 85.09, p < .01) were significant. This finding reveals that the Internet usage year is an influential parameter in the family's Internet parenting style. When the Table is considered in general, it is revealed that the increase in the usage year is in parallel with the laissez-faire, permissive, and authoritarian Internet parenting styles.

Table 5 Chi-square table of the relationship between Internet parenting style and students' ages.

Internet parenting style Age c2 df p

9e10 11e12 13e14 15e16 17 years And older

N % N % N % N % N %

Laissez-faire 43 18.1 62 24.3 122 45.7 253 67.8 115 82.7 309.95 8 .001 Permissive 85 35.7 106 41.6 97 36.3 88 23.6 19 13.7 Authoritative 110 46.2 87 34.1 48 18.0 32 8.6 5 3.6 Total 238 100 255 100 267 100 373 100 139 100

Table 6 Chi-square table of relationship between Internet parenting style and students' grade level.

Internet Parenting style

Grade c2 df p

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Laissez-faire N 20 28 28 30 58 66 118 145 47 55 332.55 18 .001 % 18.5 17.1 24.1 24.8 43.3 54.5 71.1 67.1 74.6 87.3

Permissive N 41 56 52 49 51 39 32 58 13 4 % 38.0 34.1 44.8 40.5 38.1 32.2 19.3 26.9 20.6 6.3

Authoritative N 47 80 36 42 25 16 16 13 3 4 % 43.5 48.8 31.0 34.7 18.7 13.2 9.6 6.0 4.8 6.3

Total N 108 164 116 121 134 121 166 216 63 63 % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Table 7 Chi-square table of the relationship between the Internet parenting styles and students' school levels.

Internet Parenting style Elementary school Middle school High school c2 df p

N % N % N %

Laissez-faire 40 17.5 190 35.5 365 69.5 249.50 6 .001 Permissive 83 36.2 202 37.8 110 21.0 Authoritative 104 45.4 135 25.2 43 8.2 Authoritarian 2 .9 8 1.5 7 1.3 Total 229 100 535 100 525 100

Table 8 Chi-square table of relationship between Internet parenting styles and the education level of students' mothers.

Internet parenting style Elementary school

Middle school High school Bachelor's degree

Post-graduate and higher

c2 df p

N % N % N % N % N %

Laissez-faire 202 71.4 151 45.1 108 41.9 88 34.5 46 29.1 25.37 12 .013 Permissive 50 17.7 143 42.7 101 39.1 66 25.9 35 22.2 Authoritative 30 10.6 38 11.3 40 15.5 99 38.8 75 47.4 Authoritarian 1 .3 3 .9 9 3.5 2 .8 2 1.3 Total 283 100 335 100 258 100 255 100 158 100

Table 9 Chi-square table of relationship between Internet parenting styles and students' Internet-use duration.

Internet parenting style 1e2 years 3e5 years 6 and more years c2 df p

N % N % N %

Laissez-faire 40 23.1 195 41.9 360 55.3 85.09 6 .001 Permissive 58 33.5 150 32.3 187 28.7 Authoritative 73 42.2 114 24.5 95 14.6 Authoritarian 2 1.2 6 1.3 9 1.4 Total 173 100 465 100 651 100

H. €Ozgür / Computers in Human Behavior 60 (2016) 411e424 417

4.3. The effect of Internet parenting style on child's Internet usage

It was found that the relationship between the Internet parenting style of the families and a child's daily Internet usage

time parameter (c2(12) ¼ 102.26, p < .01) was significant. This finding indicates that the Internet parenting style of the family is an influential parameter in the child's daily Internet usage time. When the table is considered in general, it can be observed that the

Table 10 Chi-square table of the relationship between Internet parenting styles and students' daily Internet usage.

Internet Parenting style Less than 1 h 1e2 h 2e3 h 3e4 h More than 4 h c2 df p

N % N % N % N % N %

Laissez-faire 7 21.9 98 35.3 114 43.0 250 53.0 126 52.1 102.26 12 .001 Permissive 5 15.6 83 29.9 72 27.2 161 34.1 74 30.6 Authoritative 17 53.1 91 32.7 77 29.1 58 12.3 39 16.1 Authoritarian 3 9.4 6 2.2 2 .8 3 .6 3 1.2 Total 32 100 278 100 265 100 472 100 242 100

H. €Ozgür / Computers in Human Behavior 60 (2016) 411e424418

increase in the daily Internet usage is in parallel with the laissez- faire and permissive Internet parenting style (see Table 10).

4.4. Parent's perspective on Internet and child's Internet-usage process

In the interviews, fifteen parents indicated that the preeminent benefit of the Internet was fast and easy access to information. One parent expressed this benefit as follows: “First of all, you can easily access information and easily conduct research”. Other expressed benefits of the Internet were easier communication through online tools, the easier and faster handling of routine operations such as banking and shopping, and hence a more efficient use of time. Two parents stated that meeting new people and socializing through social websites faster and more easily are some of the advantages of the Internet. One parent said, “On social media, you can see people's thoughts, emotions and sadness immediately; you can see their happiness and their happy moments”. The easier and faster follow- up of daily agendas through social websites and news sources was also listed among the benefits of the Internet. The facilitation of the access to numerous sources, materials, and content for indi- vidual needs was included among the benefits expressed. One parent expressed that the Internet supports children with their schoolwork, saying, “The Internet helps our children with their courses” (Table 11)

Twelve parents listed the following as major negative sides of the Internet: attacks by malicious people on the virtual platform against computers and against personal rights and safety due to viruses, Trojans, and spam messages. One parent said, “Our child might be exposed to threats, blackmail, and situations that can lead to safety problems that disclose their privacy, such as cyber bullying”. Ten parents stated that they suffered from information pollution and incorrect information from the Internet. One of them emphasized another negative component by saying, “If you are not following a genuine site, there are lots of made-up sites full of mistakes”. Because individuals lose track of time while using Internet applications,

Table 11 Parents' views regarding the benefits of Internet use.

Theme Sub-themes f

Attaining information 28 Attaining information easily and fast 15 Being informed easily and fast about the daily agenda 10 Searching to do homework 3

Facilitating communication 17 Communication with friends 12 Communicate with family members 5

Time management 1 Saving time 1

Accelerating and facilitating daily chores 7 Accelerating and facilitating shopping 5 Accelerating and facilitating banking 2

Individual development 3 Socialization 2 Searching about subjects of personal interest 1

social websites and online games, and because of the extreme us- age of this online medium, physiological problems may arise, such as visual impairments posture impairments, along with psycho- logical problems, such as loneliness and addiction. Moreover, content shared on websites that is inappropriate for the psycho- social development of younger children in particular, heavy engagement in this medium after going online, and inefficacy in time management were listed among the Internet's negative components (Table 12)

Eighteen parents stated that they shared with their children their own personal knowledge and experience about the benefits and disadvantages of the Internet. One of the parents explained their behavior within this process as follows: “We frequently remind our child that the Internet medium might involve some ill-intentioned people, and we try to draw attention to the fact that the person they are speaking to might not be as well-intentioned as we are”. Four parents expressed that they asked domain experts for opinions on this matter. One parent said, “We absolutely get support from their computer teacher”. Three parents mentioned that they led their child to Internet sources such as websites and forum sites, and two parents said that they helped their child access printed sources that explained the benefits and disadvantages of the Internet (Table 13)

Eight parents said that they familiarized their child with social activities such as sportive activities, meetings and trips with friends, and playing outside with friends to limit their Internet- usage time. One such parent said, “To keep her away from using the Internet for too long in her spare time, we picnic with the whole family, or visit friends or relatives”. Of the parents who said that they informed their child about the problems that excess Internet use can cause or warned them about the Internet's negative aspects, four stated that they put limits on Internet usage for a more effi- cient use of time, and two said that they used time-limiting soft- ware (Table 14).

Parents also said that they prevented their children from entering sites that are inappropriate for their psychosocial

Table 12 Parents' views regarding the negative effects of Internet use.

Theme Sub-themes f

Psychological effects 6 Internet addiction 3 Isolate oneself from friends 2 Loneliness 1

Individual effects 3 Wasting time 2 Spending too much time on computer 1

Physiological effects 2 Eye problems 1 Poor posture 1

Content 26 Virus, Trojan, spam 11 False information content 7 Unsuitable content 4 Unsafe information content 3 Identity theft 1

Table 13 How the child is informed about the positive and negative aspects of the Internet.

Theme f

Sharing personal knowledge 18 Expert consultation 4 Guidance to Internet resources 3 Sharing printed resources 2

Table 14 Methods that the parent employs to limit child's Internet-usage time.

Theme f

Participating in social activities 8 Warning 7 Setting a time limit 4 Informing about the negative aspects of the Internet 4 Using software 2

Table 16 Actions employed to track the child's Internet usage.

Theme f

Checking the history of online activities 10 Observing from a distance 9 Speech 6 Be around 2

Table 17 Tools employed for monitoring the child's Internet usage.

Theme f

No tools used 11 Quota/data usage monitoring 7 Log tracking software 2

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development. One said, “We tell him that he should not visit sites with inappropriate content, not to join live chats and not to click on buttons that are for communication and from somewhere he doesn't know, and we explain to him what can happen if he does not listen to us”. For the same purpose, nine parents stated that they used the service providers' family filters, and four parents expressed that they warned their child. Two parents stated that they tried to prevent their child from seeing inappropriate content by entering the room where the Internet connection is made and disturbing the child frequently (Table 15).

Half of the parents said that they monitored their child's Internet usage primarily through checking the history via the Internet browser, and they viewed the child's activities and talks on online chat mediums on social media sites by logging in with the child's password. Nine of the parents that participated in the study said that they arranged the room's seating so that they could see the monitor of the device that connects to the Internet, and they remotely monitored their child's online activities. One of these parents said, “I call him from time to time as if something interesting happened, and in the meantime, his mother checks which pages are open on his computer”. Six of the research participants emphasized that they talked with their child about they have done on the computer to gain knowledge about his/her activities online. Two parents stated that they checked their child's Internet activities by either sitting side-by-side with him/her or connecting to the Internet at the same time (Table 16).

Eleven of the parents who provided opinions stated that they did not use any tools because they did not know which tools they could use to monitor their child's Internet-usage behavior. They said they could not do anything but trust their child. One of these parents stated, “I do not follow her Internet behavior because I do not know how to follow it”. Seven parents said that they monitored the Internet-usage quota and the amount of mobile data used. Two parents said that they used log-tracking software that records which user performed what type of operations on which date and

Table 15 Actions that the parent takes to prevent the child from entering sites that are inappropriate for children's psychosocial development.

Theme f

Informing 14 Using family filter 9 Warning 4 Being at the Internet-access area 2

at which time on their computer, and they checked every night what was done on the computer using this software (Table 17).

The parents stated that because mothers stay at home for longer periods of time, their knowledge and attitude are more dominating than fathers' in regards to determining the rules for the child's Internet usage. The parents say that they primarily benefit from their own experience and knowledge for setting the rules, and one of them explained the reason for this behavior as follows: “Each expert tells us something different, and I don't know in which one to believe, so I decided on the right way on my own to do this since I have been using the Internet for many years”. Six parents said that they obtained information from the mass media such as television and radio to establish Internet-usage rules, and three said that they used Internet sources. Two of the parents interviewed expressed that they met their child's information technology teacher to establish Internet-usage rules, and three other parents stated that they used printed sources for this purpose. One of the two parents who consulted adolescent psychologists to set up Internet-usage rules that are appropriate for child development said, “I went to adolescent psychologists, attended conferences by domain experts on problems during adolescence, and consulted experts” (Table 18).

Thirteen parents said that they considered themselves adequate in terms of Internet usage, and they stated that their children contacted them first when they encountered a problem. Two par- ents did not consider themselves adequate in terms of using Internet and similar technologies, and they stated that their chil- dren consulted friends who had more knowledge. Seven parents said that their children generally tried to resolve the relevant problems on their own (Table 19).

Nine parents expressed that they conveyed their knowledge to their child on the solution to technical problems that their child experienced during Internet usage, and they expected them to solve the problem with this knowledge. Five other parents said that they tried to solve the problem with their child. Two parents who considered themselves inadequate in terms of the Internet said that they called customer services to solve the problem and performed the instructions with their child. Three parents with an adolescent child expressed that they directed their child to websites or forum

Table 18 Factors effective in determining rules for child's Internet usage.

Theme f

Parent's Internet knowledge 9 Information obtained from the mass media 6 Advice from an expert 4 Information obtained from printed sources 3 Information obtained from Internet sources 3

Table 19 Solutions that the child uses when faced with a technical problem while using the Internet.

Theme f

Parental consultation 13 Solving by individual effort 7 Friend consultation 2

Table 21 Methods employed by the parent to identify the possible unethical behavior of the child on the Internet.

Theme f

By examining the history of online activities 11 By chatting 7 By observing the change in behaviors 3 By the language used by the child 1

H. €Ozgür / Computers in Human Behavior 60 (2016) 411e424420

sites to solve technical problems. One such parent said, “I inform him by stating that when encountering a problem, the solution may again be on the Internet, and there are search engines and solution websites with visual aid”. Two parents said that they helped their child solve the problem by providing hints, and one stated that they shared with their child printed sources that offer solutions (Table 20).

Eleven parents stated that they could understand whether their child exhibited unethical behavior online through the websites the child visited, logging on to the social media sites with the child's password, and reading his/her shares and messages. Seven parents who stated that they often chatted with their child expressed that they could in this way determine their child's unethical behavior. Three parents stated that they could identify possible unethical actions by changes in their child's behavior. One parent with a child in high school said that possible unethical behavior of the child could be understood by the words he/she uses in online chats (Table 21).

Fig. 3. Comparison between Internet parenting style and child's opinion on parent's Internet parenting style.

4.5. Comparison between parent's Internet style and child's opinion on parent's style

In the research, the children of the parents interviewed were asked to answer The Internet Parental Style Scale. It was found that the children's opinion on their parents' Internet style, which was obtained through the questionnaire, did not exactly match with the Internet parenting styles that were found through interviews with the parents. Whereas eleven parents who participated in the study stated that they were authoritative parents, only five of their chil- dren agreed with them. The children of parents who stated that they adopted the permissive style stated that their parents' Internet parenting style was authoritative or laissez-faire. Four of the par- ents who participated in the interview said that they were authoritarian on Internet usage, whereas only one of their children was in agreement with his parent (see Fig. 3).

It was found that the parents who participated in the study considered themselves mostly authoritative on their children's Internet usage. Permissive and authoritarian styles were the second and third most common, respectively. A parent with an authori- tative parenting style expressed his style as follows: “I don't think that as the head of the family or as the parents we have the right to use it more often or other members have the right to use it less often; I think everyone can use it for whatever and however long it is neces- sary”. A parent with a permissive parenting style expressed his style

Table 20 Parental behavior towards solving the technical problem encoun- tered by the child while using Internet.

Theme f

Sharing personal knowledge 9 Solving together 5 Phoning customer service 2 Directing towards Internet sources 3 Providing hints 2 Sharing printed resources 1

as follows: “If my child exceeds the time limit I set for Internet usage and if there are guests at home or I have a job to do, something that I have to complete, I let him use the Internet for as long as he wants”. A father with an authoritarian style expressed his style as follows: “I sometimes get angry at him and sometimes shout at him. Even though I don't approve of this, I have also slapped him”. Another surprising finding revealed by the research is that none of the parents considered themselves to adopt a laissez-faire style (see Fig. 3).

5. Discussion

The parents interviewed listed the positive aspects of Internet usage as follows: Fast and easy access to information, the facilita- tion of communication and daily work, and the acceleration and efficient use of time. However, in addition to these facilities and benefits, when used unconsciously and without supervision, the Internet may cause users, particularly children and adolescents, to experience various troubles. The parents listed these negative as- pects of Internet usage as possible safety problems, information pollution, management problems when misused, troubles with socialization, loneliness, addiction, exposure to content inappro- priate for the age, and psychological and physiological problems. The relevant literature review also supports the opinions that parents provided (Jackson et al., 2007; Kabakci, Odabasi, & Coklar, 2008; Livingstone & Bober, 2006; Livingstone & Haddon, 2008; Pakhare, 2013).

The parents expressed that they primarily used their own knowledge and experience, and if they did not have sufficient

H. €Ozgür / Computers in Human Behavior 60 (2016) 411e424 421

knowledge, they consulted a domain expert, directed children to web sources, and shared printed resources with their children to read them. The children stated that they consulted their families and friends about online technical problems they faced or that they called customer service, accompanied by their parents. Similarly, the related literature review noted that parents should support their child's Internet usage, enable them to discover new things, and seek to provide the required information and guidance (Livingstone, Bober, & Helsper, 2005; Livingstone & Bovill, 2001).

In the study, the parents stated that they took several actions to track the online actions of their children, such as running a history check, being side-by-side with the child, remotely watching them or talking about what the child has done on the Internet. These parental actions are in parallel with the actions put forward in the literature reviews (Lou et al., 2010; Valcke et al., 2010).

The parents expressed that they employed tools such as quota/ data limitation or log-tracking to track their child's Internet usage. More than half of the parents stated that they did not know which tool to use for this purpose because they did not have the technical knowledge required for tracking Internet usage, and therefore, they could do nothing but trust their child. This finding, which indicates that most parents are not conscious Internet users, is similar to the research result that showed that Turkish parents use the Internet less and have less knowledge about the Internet than their Euro- pean counterparts (Haddon & Livingstone, 2012).

In the research, parents said that they employed family filters or told their child about the damage of inappropriate content to prevent them from viewing content that was inappropriate for their psycho-social development. In addition, they mentioned that they checked the web history and focused on the changes in their child's communication process with the aim to detect possible inappropriate behavior of their child in the context of Internet ethics. The literature review on child online protection emphasizes the necessity to take measures similar to what the parents outlined (Odabaşı, Kabakçı, & Çoklar, 2007, p. 98; Livingstone & Bober, 2006).

The research shows that the families' Internet parenting styles are primarily laissez-faire, followed by permissive, authoritative, and authoritarian. This finding is similar to the related literature review (Ayas & Horzum, 2013; Rosen et al., 2008; Valcke et al., 2010), and it partially matches with the findings from another study by Rosen (2007). In their studies, Aunola et al. (2000) state that permissive parenting has the highest ratio. Studies by Eastin et al. (2006), Lou et al. (2010) and Horzum and Bektas (2014) reveal that the majority of parents show an authoritative Internet parenting style, and the least commonly observed style is the laissez-faire style. The contradictory results of the literature review are thought to be caused by the difference in the ages of the participating children and in the cultural dynamics of the parents. Indeed, Kagitcibasi (1996, p. 97) states that parent and child re- lationships in nuclear families in Turkish societies, where tradi- tional values are heavy, occur in a circle of extreme love and control, in contrast to the balanced love and tolerance in Western societies. In this context, with regard to this finding in the research, this extreme love in the parentechild relationship might cause the parent to be more tolerant of the child and hence to be considered permissive or even laissez-faire by the child.

The semi-structured interviews with the parents and the data obtained via the measurement scale from their children yielded even more interesting results. Most parents who participated in the interview defined their Internet parenting style as authoritative, followed by permissive and authoritarian. None of the parents interviewed expressed their Internet parenting style as laissez- faire. However, the children of the same parents considered their families' Internet parenting styles as mostly laissez-faire and

authoritative, followed by permissive and authoritarian. These findings might be caused by parents' failure to transmit certain actions and behaviors that are thought to be possibly viewed inappropriate. The questions that were asked to reveal the Internet parenting style also revealed parents' personality and the rela- tionship and interaction between the family members.

Another finding obtained in the study is the significant rela- tionship between gender and Internet parenting style. This finding is similar to the results found in the literature review (�Alvarez, Torres, Rodríguez, Padilla, & Rodrigo, 2013; Ayas & Horzum, 2013; Berson & Berson, 2003; Horzum & Bektas, 2014; Valcke et al., 2007). In the research, female students considered the Internet parenting style of their families as primarily authoritative, followed by permissive, laissez-faire and authoritarian, whereas male stu- dents listed the Internet parenting style of their parents to be predominantly laissez-faire, followed by permissive, authoritative and authoritative. Aunola et al. (2000) noted that parents treat their daughters in an authoritarian manner and set more rules for them, and they are more permissive toward their sons. Eastin et al. (2006) note that the Internet activities of male children are controlled more than those of female children. Today's Turkey, which is so- cially and culturally a combination of the Ottoman inheritance and Western civilization (Kongar, 2004, p. 15), is characterized by gender mainstreaming such that properties such as being emotional, passive, weak and dependent are associated with fe- males (Su�gur, 2006, p. 3). In this context, due to the gender role, it is thought that this finding was influenced by setting a larger number of rules for women and heavier supervision and direction of women to protect them. However, it is thought that this finding is also influenced by the lower restrictions on men, who are charac- terized by properties such as being strong, brave and independent (Su�gur, 2006, p. 3). Children's age and parents' personal charac- teristics might have an effect on the contradiction between litera- ture reviews. To better understand where these differences originate, there is a need for qualitative and quantitate studies that cover the parameters that are thought to influence Internet parenting style.

Another finding of the research is that the Internet parenting style, which the students had previously evaluated as authoritative, started to be evaluated as permissive and then laissez-faire with the increase in their age, grade, school, and years of Internet usage. The results of the study by Rosen et al. (2008), which examines the relationship between Internet parenting style and children's age, are similar to the findings of this study. Similarly, studies note that regardless of the child's personality, parents show more warmth and care toward younger children than older children and control their actions and activities more (�Alvarez et al., 2013; European Commission, 2008; Livingstone et al., 2014; Lwin et al., 2008; Mitchell et al., 2005; Padilla-Walker, Coyne, Fraser, Dyer, & Yorga- son, 2012; Valcke et al., 2010; Walrave et al., 2008). The findings obtained from the semi-structured interview forms, which were created to determine Internet parenting style, and the findings obtained from the answers of the children of the same families on the relevant measurement tool were compared. The findings showed that the opinions of children aged 12 years or older conflicted with the opinions of their parents regarding the Internet parenting styles adopted in their family. Regarding younger chil- dren, the opinions of both sides were aligned. The reason for this finding could be that children's communication with the family decreases as age increases. Parents think that their children know more about Internet than they do, and hence, they believe that their children can protect themselves against online damage (Wang et al., 2005), causing the control and interest of parents on the child's online activities to decrease (�Alvarez et al., 2013). Conse- quently, the children consider their parents' Internet parenting

H. €Ozgür / Computers in Human Behavior 60 (2016) 411e424422

style laissez-faire. Another finding from the study is that the relationship between

a mother's education level and her Internet parenting style is sig- nificant, whereas the relationship between a father's educational level and his Internet parenting style is not significant. Similar re- sults are found in the related literature review (�Alvarez et al., 2013; Fleming et al., 2006; Lee & Chae, 2007; Valcke et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2005). The results of the research by Mızrakçı (1994) and €Ozyürek (2004) on childrearing show that the increase in a parent's education level triggers a more authoritative attitude toward chil- dren and decreases overprotective and strict disciplining attitudes; their findings support the ones in this study. Similarly, Wong, Ho, and Chen (2015) note that the increase in a parent's Internet knowledge has a significant effect on the parent's learning authoritative Internet style. Regarding this finding, it is thought that a mother with high-level communication and a rule-maker/ restrictive character will become a more conscious Internet user with an increase in education level (TurkStat, 2015; Valcke et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2005). This will influence the children to consider their mother as a parent with an authoritative style. To understand where these differences originate, there is a need for qualitative and quantitative studies that cover the parameters that are thought to affect Internet parenting style.

The literature reviews stated that mothers supervise more than fathers the use of the Internet and similar technologies and that fathers are more important in technological support (Hart, Bober, & Pine, 2008). During Internet usage, mothers communicate with their children better than fathers (Rosen et al., 2008). Livingstone (2007) expresses that because mothers spend more time at home than fathers and children generally connect to Internet at home, they consider mothers the rule-maker and the restrictive parent. Indeed, students who participated in this study stated that they were warned more by their mothers when they used the Internet for too long. The semi-structured interview forms revealed that because mothers stay at home longer than fathers, their knowledge and attitude are more predominant than fathers' in terms of setting up rules. The fact that mother is responsible for the care, attention and control of children in the Turkish family structure, due to the traditional judgment regarding gender roles in the Turkish com- munity, is considered to influence this finding.

Another finding from the study is that children who considered the Internet parenting style of their families to be laissez-faire and permissive spent more time on the Internet daily than children of the families with other Internet parenting styles. The results of the study by Hsu (2005), which state that children of the parents with a laissez-faire Internet parenting style have a high ratio of Internet addiction, support this finding from the study. In addition, another finding obtained by the semi-structured interview form is that the daily time spent on the Internet by parents who show an authori- tative parenting style is almost the same as that of their children and that the children with the shortest Internet-usage duration are from these families. This finding is similar to those of Valcke et al. (2010), who find a significant positive relationship between the daily Internet usage time of parents and children and the parent's Internet style. The finding partially matches the findings from another study by Ihmeideh and Shawareb (2014), which states that the relationship between an authoritative Internet parenting style and Internet usage is significant, and the Internet is most used by the children of parents with this style. This finding can be inter- preted as authoritative parents preventing children from spending too much time online through setting up rules, checking the Internet-usage process and displaying warmth and guidance.

5.1. Conclusions

This research observed that families fall into primarily laissez- faire parenting styles followed by permissive, authoritative and authoritarian Internet parenting styles and that there is a signifi- cant relationship between gender and Internet parenting styles. Moreover, it was revealed that the increase in students' age and hence in their grade level causes the Internet style of families once considered authoritative to be considered laissez-fair. As grade level increases, Internet parenting styles change into the laissez- faire style. It was found that with an increase in mothers' educa- tion level, parental control and interaction with regards to chil- dren's Internet-usage process increases, and the relationship between children's Internet-usage time and Internet parenting style is also significant.

6. Limitations and directions for future research

The research performed has several constraints. The research was performed primarily by adopting the perspective of children. The possibility that parents did not reflect the actual domestic dynamics in the interviews is another constraint of the research. All analyses were obtained from a single group of data. Therefore, the findings obtained in this study should be verified by correlatively considering the findings of the studies performed with the partic- ipation of a greater number of children and parents living in different regions of the country. Furthermore, there is a need for research that compares different countries to identify cultural differences.

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