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Personality and Social Psychology
Body dissatisfaction assessed by the Photographic Figure Rating Scale is
associated with sociocultural, personality, and media influences
VIREN SWAMI,1,2 ROSANNE TAYLOR1 and CHRISTINE CARVALHO1
1Department of Psychology, University of Westminster, UK 2Department of Psychology, HELP University College, Malaysia
Swami, V., Taylor, R. & Carvalho, C. (2011). Body dissatisfaction assessed by the Photographic Figure Rating Scale is associated with sociocultural, personality, and media influences. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 52, 57–63.
This study sought to investigate the convergent validity of a new measure of body dissatisfaction, namely the Photographic Figure Rating Scale (PFRS), in relation to media influence, celebrity worship, the Big Five personality factors, and respondent weight status. A total of 401 female undergraduates com- pleted a battery of scales consisting of the PFRS, the third revision of the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Scale (SATAQ-3), a measure of celebrity worship, a measure of the Big Five personality factors, and provided their demographic details. Results of a multiple regression showed that body dissatisfaction was most strongly predicted by two of the SATAQ-3 subscales and participant body mass index, although celebrity worship and Emotional Stability added incremental variance. Limitations of the current study are discussed in conclusion.
Key words: Body dissatisfaction; Photographic Figure Rating Scale; sociocultural influence; celebrity worship; Big Five.
Viren Swami, Department of Psychology, University of Westminster, 309, Regent Street, London W1B 2UW, UK. Tel: +44 207 9115000; e-mail: v.swami@ wmin.ac.uk
INTRODUCTION
There is now a substantial body of research suggesting that anxi-
ety about appearance is a ‘‘normative’’ experience among girls
and women in the West (e.g., Cash, 2004; Cash & Pruzinsky,
2002; Rodin, Silberstein & Striegel-Moore, 1984; Smolak, 2006;
Smolak & Levine, 1994) and increasingly in developing countries
(e.g., Mellor, McCabe, Ricciardelli, Yeow, Daliza & Hapidzal,
2009; Swami, 2006). The high proportion of women who report
that they are unhappy with their bodies is of particular concern
because of the established relationship between symptoms of neg-
ative body image and the development of eating disorders (e.g.,
Neumark-Sztainer, Paxton, Hannan, Haines & Story, 2006; Stice,
2001; Stice & Shaw, 2002). In many cases, negative body image
is also associated with poorer mental well-being (e.g., higher rates
of depression; Keery, van den Berg & Thompson, 2004; Paxton,
Neumark-Sztainer, Hannan & Eisenberg, 2006) and diminished
confidence in interpersonal relationships (e.g., Cash, Maikkula &
Yamamiya, 2004).
Given the key role that body dissatisfaction (typically defined
as negative self-evaluations of one’s own body; Stice & Shaw,
2002) plays in the etiology of eating disorders and poor mental
health, it is important to identify superior measures of the former.
While a number of different techniques exist for the measurement
of body dissatisfaction (see Thompson, 1990), the most common
form involves the selection of a figure that best represents a
woman’s perception of her own body size (e.g., Gardner, 2001;
Glauert, Rhodes, Byrne, Fink & Grammer, 2009; Truby & Paxton,
2002; Williams, Gleaves, Cepeda-Benito, Erath & Cororve,
2001).
Although there are a number of such stimulus sets in existence,
perhaps the most ecologically valid is the Photographic Figure
Rating Scale (PFRS; Swami, Salem, Furnham & Tovée, 2008b),
which uses images of real women rather than line-drawings or
computer-generated images. The PFRS, like its predecessors,
depicts a range of women varying in body size from emaciated to
obese (Swami et al., 2008b). Female participants are asked to rate
the figure that best represents their current body size and their
ideal body size, and body dissatisfaction is then measured as a
discrepancy score between current and ideal sizes. Initial work
with the PFRS has shown that is has good test-retest reliability
and high construct validity (Swami et al., 2008b), and it is
increasingly being used to measure both body dissatisfaction and
the thin ideal in different cultural and sub-cultural contexts (e.g.,
Swami, Henderson, Custance & Tovée (in press); Swami, Salem,
Furnham & Tovée, 2008c; Swami, Steadman & Tovée, 2009a;
Swami, Furnham, Chamorro-Premuzic et al., in press).
Even so, tests of the convergent validity of the PFRS with a
range of psychological dimensions remain limited. As a contribu-
tion to the literature, therefore, the present study sought to exam-
ine the associations between body dissatisfaction as measured
using the PFRS and sociocultural attitudes toward appearance,
celebrity worship, and the Big Five personality factors. Examining
the convergent validity of the PFRS also ties in with recent work
seeking to identify the sociocultural and individual difference
determinants of body image and body dissatisfaction (e.g.,
Grogan, 2007; McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2003; Smolak, Murnen &
Thompson, 2005). In the following sections, we briefly discuss
the variables used in the present study and their relationship with
body image as documented in the extant literature.
Sociocultural attitudes toward appearance
Driven by sociocultural theoretical models, much of the avail-
able research on body image has centered on the triad of media
influences, peer pressure, and parental pressure (e.g., Clark &
� 2010 The Authors. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology � 2010 The Scandinavian Psychological Associations. Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA. ISSN 0036-5564.
Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 2011, 52, 57–63 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9450.2010.00836.x
Tiggemann, 2006; Halliwell & Harvey, 2006; Shroff & Thomp-
son, 2006), with the former perhaps being the strongest focus of
attention. Thus, several meta-analyses (e.g., Grabe, Ward & Hyde,
2008; Groesz, Levine & Murnen, 2002) and numerous studies
(e.g., Durkin, Paxton & Sorbello, 2007; Humphreys & Paxton,
2004; McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2003; Monro & Huon, 2005) have
highlighted the deleterious effects on body image of exposure to
unrealistic media representations. In short, it is argued that the
media present standards for body slenderness, physical attractive-
ness, and athleticism that can cause body dissatisfaction when
they are internalized and to the extent that women feel unable
to achieve those standards (Thompson, van den Berg, Roehrig,
Guarda & Heinberg, 2004).
The most widely used scale that measures perceptions of media
influence and the internalization of media portrayals of bodily ide-
als is the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Question-
naire (Heinberg, Thompson & Stormer, 1995), now in its third
revision (SATAQ-3; Thompson et al., 2004). The SATAQ-3 is a
30-item scale that measures four related aspects of media influ-
ence: (1) Information (the extent to which various media are con-
sidered an important source of information about appearance); (2)
Pressure (perceived pressure from various media to strive for ide-
als of attractiveness); (3) Internalization-General (the endorsement
and acceptance of media messages concerning unrealistic aesthetic
ideals); and (4) Internalization-Athlete (endorsement and accep-
tance of an athletic body ideal).
A number of studies have shown that the SATAQ-3 has high
internal consistency, and good construct, discriminant, and predic-
tive validity (e.g., Forbes, Jobe & Revak, 2006; Markland &
Oliver, 2008; Thompson et al., 2004), and it has also been trans-
lated into a number of different languages (e.g., Swami, 2009).
Previous work has shown that the subscales of the SATAQ-3 are
significantly associated with body image disturbance (Thompson
et al., 2004). For example, one study reported that Pressures and
Internalization-General scores were significantly higher among
eating disordered patients than college norms (Calogero, Davis &
Thompson, 2004). Likewise, in the present study, we hypothe-
sized that Pressures and Internalization-General subscale scores
would be significantly associated with body dissatisfaction.
Celebrity worship
While media influences have been widely studied in the body
image literature, one particular aspect that remains under-
researched concerns aspects of celebrity worship, or the idolization
of celebrities as role models (Giles, 2002). The most prominent
theoretical account of celebrity worship was proposed by
McCutcheon, Lange, and Houran (2002), who postulated an
‘‘absorption-addiction’’ model to explain three increasingly
extreme sets of cognitions associated with parasocial (or one-
sided) relationships. In the first instance, ‘‘entertainment-social’’
celebrity worship reflects the social aspects of parasocial attach-
ment, and is driven by an attraction to a favorite celebrity
because of their perceived ability to entertain. For some individ-
uals, a compromised identity structure may lead to ‘‘intense-per-
sonal’’ celebrity worship, or a psychological absorption with a
celebrity. In extreme cases, this absorption may become addictive,
leading to ‘‘borderline-pathological’’ attitudes and behaviours that
serve to maintain an individual’s satisfaction with the parasocial
attachment (Giles & Maltby, 2004; Maltby, Houran, Lange, Ashe
& McCutcheon, 2002; McCutcheon et al., 2002).
This body of work has conceptualized celebrity worship as a
normal part of identity-development (e.g., Giles & Maltby, 2004;
McCutcheon et al., 2002), with possible effects on corporeal
experiences including body image disturbance. Specifically, it has
been suggested that a desire among respondents to look like ideal-
ized media icons may result in negative body image when those
bodily ideals are not attained (see Greenwood, 2009). Indeed,
some recent work has shown an association between celebrity
worship and symptoms of body image or eating disorders (e.g.,
Greenwood, 2009; Shorter, Brown, Quinton & Hinton, 2008) and
acceptance of cosmetic surgery (Swami, Taylor & Carvalho,
2009b). In the most relevant of these studies, Maltby, Giles, Bar-
ber, and McCutcheon (2005) reported a significant relationship
between intense-personal celebrity worship and preoccupation
with body shape. Based on this body of work, we hypothesized
that there would be significant associations between intense-per-
sonal celebrity worship and body dissatisfaction.
The Big Five Personality Factors
The association between body image and individual difference
factors has received rather less interest compared with sociocul-
tural factors, although there is now agreement that such factors
play a role in shaping body beauty ideals and body dissatisfaction
(e.g., Swami, Hadji-Michael & Furnham, 2008a). One set of indi-
vidual difference factors that has been implicated in body image
is the Big Five personality model, a hierarchical framework of
personality with five bipolar factors (i.e., Agreeableness, Consci-
entiousness, Emotional Stability, Openness, and Extraversion).
These factors represent personality at the broadest level of abstrac-
tion and reflect most individual differences in personality (Gold-
berg, 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1997).
The Big Five framework has been shown to have strong pre-
dictive ability in relation to a variety of real-world outcomes
(Chamorro-Premuzic, 2007), including body image. The most
consistent findings from this research suggests that Emotional
Stability (the tendency not to experience negative emotional
states) and Extraversion (the tendency to be gregarious, outgo-
ing, and assertive) are negatively correlated with body dissatis-
faction (e.g., Davis, Dionne & Lazarus, 1996; Davis, Shuster,
Blackmore & Fox, 2004; Swami et al., 2008a). In the present
study, we expected to replicate these associations between body
dissatisfaction and Emotional Stability and Extraversion, respec-
tively.
The present study
In summary, the present study sought to examine the convergent
validity of the PFRS in relation to sociocultural attitudes toward
appearance, celebrity worship, and the Big Five personality
factors. Concurrently, our work also extends the extant research
with its focus on the individual difference and sociocultural ante-
cedents of body dissatisfaction. Importantly, our study includes
both variables that have received widespread attention (sociocul-
tural attitudes toward appearance) and those that have received
58 V. Swami et al. Scand J Psychol 52 (2011)
� 2010 The Authors. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology � 2010 The Scandinavian Psychological Associations.
relatively scant coverage (celebrity worship and the Big Five per-
sonality factors) in the body image literature.
METHOD
Participants
The participants of this study consisted of 401 female undergraduates enrolled in various courses at a large university in Greater London (age range 18–50 years, M = 24.72, SD = 5.87). Most participants were of European Caucasian descent (63.6%), while others were of Asian descent (13.7%), African Caribbean descent (13.7%), or some other ancestry (9.0%). In total, 39.9% of participants self-reported as being atheists, while 23.9% were Christians, 12.5% were unsure of their religious beliefs, 8.7% were Muslims, and 15.0% were of some other religious background. In terms of marital status, 35.4% reported that they were single, 46.9% that they were in a relationship, 11.5% that they were married, and 6.2% that they were separated. Participants’ body mass index (BMI) ranged from 14.53 to 31.64 kg/m2 (M = 21.68, SD = 3.49).
Materials
Photographic Figure Rating Scale (PFRS; Swami et al., 2008b). This scale is an advance on the Contour Drawing Figure Rating Scale (Thompson & Gray, 1995) and consists of 10 greyscale photographic fig- ures of real women in front-view. As discussed by Swami et al. (2008b), the women in the images were captured in a set pose at a standard dis- tance, wearing tight grey leotards and leggings, and had their faces obscured to avoid any influence of facial cues. Moreover, the PFRS is presented in gray scale so as to minimize the impact of ethnicity or skin tone. The images represent two women from each of the established BMI categories: emaciated (< 15 kg/m2), underweight (15–18.5 kg/m2), normal weight (18.5–24.9 kg/m2), overweight (25.0–29.9 kg/m2), and obese (> 30 kg/m2). In the present study, participants were asked to rate (1) the figure that most closely resembled their own bodies (current), and (2) the body they would most likely to possess (ideal). All ratings were made on a 10-point scale, with 1 representing the woman with the lowest BMI and 10 the woman with the highest BMI. A body dissatisfaction score was then computed by subtracting ideal ratings from current rat- ings. Previous work has shown that the PFRS has good test-retest reli- ability and high construct validity (Swami et al., 2008b).
Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire-3 (SATAQ-3; Thompson et al., 2004). The SATAQ-3 is a 30-item scale measuring the multidimensional impact of sociocultural influences on body image along four dimensions (Information, Pressure, Internalization-General, and Internalization-Athlete). The four factors are internally reliable, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients generally exceeding 0.80 (e.g., Thompson et al., 2004). Items were rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = Definitely disagree, 5 = Definitely agree), and subscale scores were computed by taking the mean of items associated with each factor. In the present study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were as follows: Information, 0.87; Pressure, 0.84; Internalization-General, 0.90, and; Internalization- Athlete, 0.93.
Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS; McCutcheon et al., 2002). The CAS is a 34-item measure in which respondents are asked to indicate their attitude towards their favorite celebrity that they themselves have named. The CAS has a three-factor structure comprising Entertainment-social, Intense-personal, and Borderline-pathological. Items were rated on a 5-point scale (1 = Strongly disagree, 5 = Strongly agree) and subscale scores were computed by taking the mean of items associated with each component. Previous work has shown that CAS has good internal consis- tency and convergent validity (e.g., McCutcheon et al., 2002). In the present study, internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) was high for all
three subscales: Entertainment-social, 0.89; Intense-personal, 0.91, and; Borderline-pathological, 0.87.
Ten-Item Personality Inventory (TIPI; Gosling, Rentfrow & Swann, 2003). This is a brief scale for assessing the Big Five personality factors, which shows adequate convergent and discriminant validity, test-retest reliability, and patterns of external correlates (Gosling et al., 2003). Par- ticipants rated the extent to which a pair of traits (e.g., ‘‘Extraverted, enthusiastic’’) applied to them on a 7-point scale (1 = Disagree strongly, 7 = Agree strongly). Five items were reverse-coded, and two items were averaged to arrive at scores for each of the Big Five personality factors. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were as follows: Extraversion 0.52, Agree- ableness 0.57, Conscientiousness 0.56, Emotional stability 0.50, and Openness to experience 0.51. Although these alphas are generally low, they were measured using only two items and are in line with norms (for a discussion, see Gosling et al., 2003).
Demographics. All participants provided their demographic details con- sisting of age, ethnicity, religion, marital status, height, and weight. The latter two items were used to calculate participants’ BMI, as kg/m2.
Procedure
Once ethical approval for this study was obtained from the relevant uni- versity ethics committee, three experimenters recruited participants opportunistically from various campus locations. The nature of the exper- iment was explained and, once participants provided informed consent, they were provided with a paper-and-pencil questionnaire, which they completed individually and anonymously. Once participants returned their completed questionnaires to the experimenter, they were verbally debriefed. All participants took part on a voluntary basis and were not remunerated for their time.
Statistical analyses
All analyses were conducted on SPSS version 17.0. First, we examined bivariate correlations between body dissatisfaction, the SATAQ-3 sub- scales, the CAS subscales, the Big Five personality factors, and paramet- ric participant demographics (age and BMI). We then conducted a multiple linear regression with body dissatisfaction as the dependent vari- able and all other variables as predictors. For these analyses, the alpha for significance was set at 0.05.
RESULTS
Bivariate correlations
Descriptive statistics (Ms and SDs) for all variables and bivariate
correlations are reported in Table 1. As can be seen, body dissatis-
faction significantly and positively correlated with three of the
SATAQ-3 subscales (Information, Pressures, and Internalization-
General), two of the CAS subscales (Entertainment-social and
Intense-personal), and BMI, and significantly and negatively cor-
related with the Big Five factors of Extraversion, Emotional Sta-
bility, and Openness.
Multiple regressions
To examine which of the variables predicted body dissatisfac-
tion, we conducted a multiple hierarchical regression with body
dissatisfaction as the dependent variable. In order to see which
psychometric variables predicted body dissatisfaction once
women’s body size has been taken into consideration, participant
Scand J Psychol 52 (2011) Body dissatisfaction 59
� 2010 The Authors. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology � 2010 The Scandinavian Psychological Associations.
BMI was included on its own in the first block. SATAQ-3 sub-
scale scores were then entered as predictor variables in the sec-
ond block, CAS subscale scores in the third block, the Big Five
personality factors in the fourth block, and participant age in the
fifth block. The regression results (reported in Table 2) showed
that BMI on its own accounted for 15.0% of the variance, SAT-
AQ-3 variables accounted for 20.0% of the variance, the CAS
variables 1.0% of the variance, and Big Five 1.0%. In the final
model, the only significant predictors of body dissatisfaction
were participant BMI, two SATAQ-3 subscales (Pressures and
Internalization-General), Intense-personal celebrity worship, and
Emotional Stability.
DISCUSSION
The primary aim of this study was to examine the convergent
validity of the PFRS in relation to sociocultural attitudes toward
appearance, celebrity worship, and the Big Five personality fac-
tors. Overall, the results of the current study supported our
hypotheses, showing significant associations between body dissat-
isfaction, media influence, celebrity worship, and several of the
Big Five personality factors. These results were largely supported
by our regression analysis, which showed that the predictor vari-
ables together accounted for 37.0% of the variance in body dissat-
isfaction.
Overall, the direction of specific predictions in the present study
supported our hypotheses and was in line with previous work.
First, we found that the SATAQ-3 variables of Pressure and Inter-
nalization-General strongly predicted (positively) body dissatis-
faction. This is in line with previous work showing that the
SATAQ-3 has strong predictive validity in relation to measures of
body image and that the Pressures and Internalization-General
variables are the strongest such predictors (e.g., Thompson et al.,
2004). More generally, our results centrally implicate the mass
media in developed societies in the promulgation of an unrealisti-
cally thin ideal and the subsequent body dissatisfaction experience
by women as a result (Swami, 2007).
Second, our results showed that Intense-personal celebrity wor-
ship was a significant predictor (positively) of body dissatisfac-
tion. These results support previous work showing a significant
association between Intense-personal celebrity worship and preoc-
cupation with body shape (Maltby et al., 2005) and acceptance of
cosmetic surgery (Swami et al., 2009b). More generally, our
results indicate a role for celebrity worship as a specific aspect of
media influence that is associated with measures of body image.
That is, the present results support the notion that corporeal expe-
riences are shaped, in part at least, by media influences and (as a
subset of that influence) the formation of parasocial relationships
with celebrities.
Finally, and consistent with previous work (e.g., Davis et al.,
1996, 2004; Swami et al., 2008a), our results showed that Emo-
tional Stability was negatively associated with body dissatisfac-
tion. On the other hand, although Extraversion was significant
correlated with body dissatisfaction, it did not emerge as a signifi-
cant predictor in our regression analysis. Moreover, it should be
noted that the Big Five personality factors (like celebrity worship)
only accounted for a small percentage of the variance in body
dissatisfaction, suggesting that these factors may not have much
real-world value in describing body dissatisfaction.
An important limitation of the present study was our reliance
on female undergraduates, which limits our ability to generalize
the present findings to other age groups or male populations. In
particular, it may be useful to examine to what extent the same
pattern of results hold among men, although it should also be
noted that no version of the PFRS currently exists for use among
men. In addition, at least one of our scales (i.e., the TIPI) showed
Table 1. Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations between body dissatisfaction, SATAQ-3 subscales, CAS subscales, the Big Five personality factors, age, and BMI
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15)
(1) Body dissatisfaction 0.22** 0.42** 0.15** 0.02 0.12* 0.17** 0.06 )0.12* 0.02 0.01 )0.15** )0.10* 0.01 0.39** (2) SATAQ-3 Information 0.71** 0.74** 0.28** 0.38** 0.43** 0.07 )0.15** )0.10* 0.11* )0.31** )0.24** )0.13** )0.09 (3) SATAQ-3 Pressures 0.61** 0.33** 0.45** 0.39** 0.27** )0.15** )0.05 0.09 )0.44** )0.28** )0.15** 0.01 (4) SATAQ-3 Internalization-General
0.30** 0.33** 0.60** 0.12* )0.16** )0.14** 0.06 )0.48** )0.08 )0.17** )0.17**
(5) SATAQ-3 Internalization-Athlete
)0.03 )0.01 )0.09 0.07 )0.06 )0.15** )0.02 0.18** 0.11* 0.09
(6) CAS Entertainment-Social
0.77** 0.72** )0.08 0.03 )0.03 )0.08 )0.44** )0.17** )0.19**
(7) CAS Intense-personal 0.55** )0.08 )0.20** )0.10* )0.28** )0.17** 0.13** )0.27** (8) CAS Borderline-pathological
0.10* 0.03 )0.07 )0.07 )0.16** )0.17** )0.08
(9) Extraversion 0.01 )0.21** 0.32** 0.47** )0.02 0.21** (10) Agreeableness 0.19** 0.16** 0.06 0.17** 0.25** (11) Conscientiousness 0.04 )0.01 0.15** 0.01 (12) Emotional stability 0.09 0.24** 0.14** (13) Openness 0.18** 0.04 (14) Age 0.16** (15) BMI M 0.92 3.08 3.35 3.10 2.76 1.87 2.79 1.33 4.45 4.49 4.86 4.03 4.69 24.72 21.68 SD 1.29 0.52 0.77 0.51 0.77 0.65 1.08 0.37 1.47 1.21 1.45 1.36 1.36 5.87 3.49
Note: SATAQ-3 = Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (3rd revision); CAS = Celebrity Attitude Scale; BMI = Body Mass Index.
60 V. Swami et al. Scand J Psychol 52 (2011)
� 2010 The Authors. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology � 2010 The Scandinavian Psychological Associations.
only moderate internal consistency, and it will be important to
replicate these results using more robust measures of the Big Five
factors.
In similar vein, it may be useful for future work to use objec-
tive, rather than self-report, measures of key variables. In relation
to height and weight data, for example, it may be useful to obtain
objective measures, even though previous work has shown such
self-report data to be reliable when respondent anonymity is
ensured (Davis, 1990). Future work could also extend the current
work by including a wider array of psychological measures, such
as self-esteem, life satisfaction, and self-objectification. In addi-
tion, it may also be useful to examine the association of PFRS-
related variables and other aspects of the tripartite model of body
image, namely peer and family pressure.
In conclusion, our results lend support to the PFRS as an eco-
logically valid measure of body dissatisfaction among women.
Our results showed a role for pressure from the media, internaliza-
tion of media messages, the Big Five personality factors, and
celebrity worship in the development of negative body image.
These results may have important practical implications for
researchers and practitioners seeking to understand the psycholog-
ical antecedents of body dissatisfaction. Specifically, our results
suggest that the internalization of media influence may be the
dominant predictor of body dissatisfaction, over and above such
factors as personality and celebrity worship.
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Table 2. Multiple hierarchical regression with body dissatisfaction as the dependent variable
Block F (df) Adj. R2 Item st. b t p
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2 43.45* (5, 395) D 0.20 Body mass index 0.40 9.52 < 0.001 Information 0.04 0.66 0.512 Pressures 0.51 8.60 < 0.001 Internalization-General 0.18 4.03 < 0.001 Internalization-Athlete 0.01 0.12 0.906
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Received 14 November 2009, accepted 21 March 2010
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