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ThePolitical-EconomicContextbyRodriguez.pdf
4
T H
E P
O L
IT IC
A L
-E C
O N
O M
IC C
O N
T E
X T
T h
e "P u
e rto
R ican
P ro
b lem
"
P u
b lic co
n cern
o v
e r th
e "P u
e rto
R ican
p ro
b lem
" su rfaced
w ith
th e
arriv al o
f larg e n
u m
b e rs o
f P u
erto R
ican s to
co n
cen trated
areas in N
ew
Y o
rk C
ity (P
erez a n
d T
irad o
, 1986: 141; Jo rg
e, 1983). T h
e co n
cern b
eg an
in th
e p o
st-W o
rld W
ar II p
erio d
a n
d in
ten sified
as th
e n u
m b
ers arriv in
g
in creased
(see
C h
a p
te r
1 fo r
a d
iscu ssio
n
o f th
e
facto rs
fu elin
g
th e
m ig
ratio n
). P rio
r to th is, P
u e rto
R ican
s h ad
h ad
a lo n
g , b
u t q
u iet, h
isto ry
in
th e U
n ited
S tates sin
ce th e n
in e te
e n
th c
e n
tu ry
(U .s. C
o m
m issio
n o
n
C iv
il R ig
h ts, 1976; Ig
lesias, 1980; U riarte-G
asto n
, 1987; S an
ch ez-K
o rro
l, 1983). B
y th e 19205, th
ere w as alread
y a
n id
en tifiab
le "c o
m m
u n
ity e
th o
s" (Jen
n in
g s a
n d
R iv
era, 1984: 9). T h
u s, th
e p
re-W o
rld W
ar II P u
erto R
ican c o
m m
u n
ity w
as a stru g
g lin
g co
m m
u n
ity , b
u t it
w as a
n in
tact, h
ig h
ly
o rg
an ized
c o
m m
u n
ity th
a t w
a s m
ak in
g p
ro g
ress 1
(S an
ch ez-K
o rro
l, 1983; F
ed eral W
riters P ro
ject G u
id e to
1930s N ew
Y o
rk , 1982; Ig
lesias, 1980).
T h
e C o
n tex
t in to
w h
ich P
u erto
R ican
s S tep
p ed
It w a s th
e arriv al o
f m an
y P
u erto
R ican
s at a tim e o
f d isap
p earin
g
o p
p o
rtu n
itie s in
th e p
o rt o
f e n
try th
a t co
n trib
u ted
to th
e "p ro
b lem
. ,,2
T h
e d
en sity
o f th
e m ig
ratio n
d id
n o
t b y
itself create th e p
ercep tio
n o
f a "P u
e rto
R
ican p
ro b
le m
." A s m
e n
tio n
e d
in C
h a p
te r 1, th
e h
isto rical m
o m
e n
t o f a
g ro
u p
's in sertio
n in
to th
e h
o st co
u n
try sig
n ifican
tly affects th
e ex p
erien ce
o f th
a t g
ro u
p . W
o lff (1982: 362) a
rg u
e s th
e sam e p
o in
t, b u
t fro m
a m o
re co
n tex
tu al a
n d
so cial p
ersp ectiv
e, w h
e n
h e say
s th at "w
h a t is sig
n ifican
t for th
e m
ig ran
t is th e p
o sitio
n h
e is p
laced in
, in relatio
n to o
th e r g
ro u
p s,
85
P U
F :R
T O
R IC
A N
S
o n
arriv al. T
h at p
lacem en
t d e te
rm in
e s w
h ich
o f h
is p rio
r reso u
rces h e c
a n
ap
p ly
a n
d w
h ich
n e w
o n
e s h
e m u
st acq u
ire." In
th is c
h a p
te r I w
ill d etail th
e stru
ctu ral fo
rces w ith
in th
e eco n
o m
y
th a t in
flu en
ced P
u erto
R ican
s' p o
sitio n
in g
. In th
e first sectio n
I w ill d
iscu ss
a series o f stru
ctu ral d
e m
a n
d -sid
e c
h a n
g e s th
at e m
b o
d ie
d N
ew Y
o rk
C ity
's sh
ift fro m
a m a jo
r m a n
u factu
rin g
cen ter to
a p o
stin d
u strial eco
n o
m y
b ased
o
n serv
ice in d
u stries. T
h e seco
n d
sectio n
tak es n
o te o
f h o
w th
e racial o
rd e r
a n
d g
o v
e rn
m e n
t in th
e U
n ited
S tates m
ed iated
th e lab
o r ex
p erien
ce a n
d
p o
sitio n
in g
o f P
u erto
R ican
s.~ T h
e last sectio n
rev iew
s n e w
d e m
a n
d -sid
e
featu res th
at cam e to
m ark
th e N
e w
Y o
rk C
ity eco
n o
m y
in th
e 1980s, a n
d
also in
flu en
ced th
e p
o sitio
n o
f P u
e rto
R ican
s.
S h
ift to a
P o
st-In d
u stria
l, S ervice-B
a sed
E c o
n o
m y
In m o
v in
g fro
m a m
an u
factu rin
g to
a serv ice-b
ased eco
n o
m y
, N e w
Y
o rk
C ity
u
n d
e rw
e n
t fo
u r
fu n
d am
en tal
c h
a n
g e s th
a t h
ad
sig n
ifican t
im p
act o n
th e P
u erto
R ican w
o rk
force: (1) secto ral sh
ifts, w ith
sig n
ifican t
d eclin
es in
m
an u
factu rin
g ;
(2) ch
an g
es in
th
e
fo rces
o f
p ro
d u
ctio n
(tech
n o
lo g
ical ch an
g es), su
ch a
s au to
m atio
n , ro
b o
tizatio n
, a n
d c
o m
p u
te r
izatio n
; (3) ch an
g es in
th e lo
catio n
o f p
ro d
u ctiv
e firm s; a
n d
(4) b lu
e-co llar
stru ctu
ral u n
e m
p lo
y m
e n
t.
S ecto
ra l sh
ifts. A
s P u
erto R
ican s e
n te
re d
th e U
n ited
S tates in
th e
19505 a n
d
19605, th
e U
.s. eco
n o
m y
w a s b
ein g
tran
sfo rm
ed
fro m
a n
in
d u
strial to a p
o stin
d u
strial, serv ice-b
ased eco
n o
m y
w ith
acco m
p an
y in
g
. sig n
ifican t d
eclin es
in m
an u
factu rin
g (B
lu esto
n e
a n
d
H arriso
n ,
1982; B
u sin
e ss
W e e k ,
M arch
3,
1986; Ju
n e
30, 1986;
C e n
te r
for P
o p
u lar
E co
n o
m ics,
1986: 32; B
o w
les a n
d C
in tis,
1986; S
tev en
so n
, 1986). T
h is
restru ctu
rin g
w as p
articu larly
e v
id e n
t in N
ew Y
o rk
C ity
(S taffo
rd , 1985:
U .S
. D e p
a rtm
e n
t o f L
ab o
r, 1986). In th
e late 1950s a n
d early
19605, tech
n o
lo g
ical c h
a n
g e a
n d
p lan
t relo catio
n co
m b
in ed
to cau se d
eclin es in
city m
an u
factu rin
g a
n d
em p
lo y
m en
t. T h
e rate a n
d v
o lu
m e o
f th is secto
ral d
eclin e in
ten sified
in th
e 1970s a n
d 1980s, w
h ile th
e fin an
cial a n
d b
u sin
e ss
serv ice secto
rs in creased
. T
h e secto
r th at d
eclin ed
th e m
o st w
a s m
an u
factu rin
g , th
e area in w
h ich
m
o st
P u
erto
R ican
s w
ere em
p lo
y ed
. In
1960, m
a n
u fa
c tu
rin g
acco
u n
ted for 60':1"
o f th
e P u
erto R
ican w
o rk
force. In
th e d
ecad e th
a t
fo llo
w ed
(1 9
6 0
-7 0
), m an
u factu
rin g
jo b
s in th
e city d
ecreased b
y 173,000
(U .s. D
ep artm
en t o
f L ab
o r, 1972), a
n d
in 1970-80, N
ew Y
ork C ity
lo st 268,000
m a n
u fa
c tu
rin g
jo b
s (S taffo
rd , 1985: 31). M
an u
factu rin
g acco
u n
ted for h
alf o
f th e to
tal d eclin
e o f jo
b s in
N e w
Y o
rk C
ity b
e tw
e e n
1977 a n
d 1984 (U
.S .
86
T H
E P
O L
IT IC
A L
-E C
O N
O M
IC C
O N
T E
X T
D e p
a rtm
e n
t o f L
ab o
r, 1986). A t th
e tim
e, th is lo
ss w a s n
o t o
ffset b y
an
in crease in
lo w
-lev el serv
ice jo b
s, th e o
th e r m
ajo r area o
f P u
erto R
ican
w o
rk -fo
rce co n
cen tratio
n a
t th e tim
e. T h
u s, as w
o u
ld b
e ex p
ected a
n d
as th
e staff rep o
rt o f th
e U
.S .
C o
m m
issio n
o n
C iv
il R ig
h ts
secto ral d
eclin e b
ecam e an
im p
o rta
n t co
n trib
u to
ry cau
se o f h
ig h
u n
e m
p
lo y
m e n
t a m
o n
g P
u erto
R ican
s. D
esp ite
th e
co n
tin u
o u
s d eclin
e in
m
an u
factu rin
g
jo b
s, th
is area
c o
n tin
u e d
to h
o ld
sig n
ifican t p
ro p
o rtio
n s o
f th e P
u e rto
R ican
lab o
r fo rce.
In 1 9
6 8
-6 9
, P u
e rto
R ican
s in p
o o
r n eig
h b
o rh
o o
d s w
e re
fo u
n d
to b
e in
n u
m b
e rs in
m an
u factu
rin g
, w h
ic h
g en
erally p
aid less th
a n
to
su
stain
a d
e c e n
t m
in im
u m
sta
n d
a rd
o
f liv
in g
as
d e te
rm in
e d
b y
th e B
u reau
o f L
ab o
r S tatistics.
4 M an
u factu
rin g
d eclin
es d
u rin
g th
e 1980s w ere e
v e n
sh a rp
e r th
a n
th o
se o
fth e 1
9 5
0 s a
n d
1960s D
e p
a rtm
e n
to fL
a b
o r, 198(1). S
eeT ab
le4 .1
, w h
ic h
sh o
w s th
a tth
e la
b o
r force o
f P u
e rto
R ican
s still h as a d
isp ro
p o
rtio n
a te
n u
m b
e r in
m a n
u fa
c tu
rin g
28'1., v
ersu s 1
6 %
o f W
h ites a
n d
1 3
% o
f B lacks. In
1980, th e d
u ra
b le
a n
d
n o
n d
u ra
b le
m an
u factu
rin g
secto rs, co
m b
in ed
, acco u
n ted
for a g reater
sh a re
o fP
u e rto
R ican
e m
p lo
y m
e n
t th a n
a n
y o
th e r secto
r. T h
is w a s n
o t tru
e for e
ith e r W
h ites o
r B lacks in
N ew
Y ork.
T a b
le 4.1
w as
re q
m re
a
p ercen
tag es)
- - - - -
P u
erto R
ican s
W h
ites B
lack s
A g
ricu l tu re/fo
restry /fishi n
g
.24 .2
4
.1 3
M
in in
g
.01 .08
.04 C
o n
stru ctio
n
2 .3
4
3 .3
2
.4 8
N
o n
d u
rab le m
an u
factu rin
g
1 6
.9 7
1O
.7B
7 .6
9
D u
rab le m
an u
factu rin
g
1 1
.4 7
4.9B
5
.7 5
n
icatio n
si 6.85
9 .5
6
11.53 W
h o
lesale trad e
4 .2
9
5 .3
2
2 .9
3
R etail trad
e 15.13
1 4
.6 7
1
0 .8
9
F in
an ce, in
su ran
ce, a n
d
real estate 9
.7 2
2
1 2
.2 6
9
.6 8
B l l ~ i n e s s serv
ices 5
.3 9
6
.9 9
6
.9
P erso
n allh
o te 11recrea
ti~n a I
serv ices
4 .5
6
5.1 7
.]5
P ro
fessio n
al serv ices
18.29 2
2 .0
7
27.88 P
u b
lic ad m
in istratio
n a
n d
4.73
4 .6
7
6 .9
4
T o
tals 9
9 .9
9 2
100.02
9 9
.9 9
to
tals 3
2 0
,7 8
0
2 ,1
5 1
,8 8
0
8 ]5
,6 4
0
D u
rab le a
n d
n o
n d
u ra
b le
m
an u
factu rin
g
2 8
.4 4
1
5 .7
6
1 3
.4 4
S o
u rce: 1980 P
u b
lic U se M
icro d
ata S am
p le, 5
% S
am p
le, N e w
Y o
rk
87
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
P U
E R
T O
R IC
A N
S
T h
u s, ev
en in 1980, P
u e rto
R ican
s w e re
o v
e rre
p re
se n
te d
in th
e m
o st
v u
ln erab
le (i.e., d
eclin in
g ) w
o rk
w
h ile th
e ir re
p re
se n
ta tio
n in
g
ro w
th secto
rs, su c h
as b u
sin e ss a
n d
related p
ro fessio
n al serv
ices, fin an
ce a n
d in
su ran
ce, a n
d real estate, w
a s d
isp ro
p o
rtio n
ately lo
w (U
.s. D ep
art m
e n
t o f L
ab o
r, 1986;
T ab
les 20,
14). T
h is situ
atio n
w
a s
e v
e n
m
o re
accen
tu ated
for P u
e rto
R ican
w o
m e n
. A s T
ab les 4
.2 a
n d
4 .3
illu strate, fu
lly
3 2
%
o f
th e
P u
e rto
R
ican
fem ale
w o
rk
fo rce
w a s
e n
g a g
e d
in
th
e m
a n
u fa
c tu
rin g
secto r in
1980, c o
m p
a re
d w
ith 16'i'o o
f W h
ites a n
d 11
% o
f B
lack s. P
u erto
R ican
w o
m e n
w e re
also m
o re co
n cen
trated in
n o
n d
u ra
b le
m
an u
factu rin
g .
5
T a b
le 4
.2
M ale Jo
b s b
y
(in p
e rc
e n
ta g
e s)
- - - - ~ ~ - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - ~
P u
e rto
R ican
s W
h ite
s B
lack s
A g
ricu ltu
re/fo restry
lfish in
g
.3 .3
.21
M in
in g
.0
2
.0 9
.0
5
C o
n stru
c tio
n
3 .8
6
5 .5
2
4 .9
4
N o
n d
u ra
b le
m a n
u fa
c tu
rin g
1
2 .9
3
9 .4
2
7 .9
5
D u
r(lb le m
an u
f(lctu rin
g
1 2
.6 6
6
.0 9
7
.9 8
ran
sp o
rtatio n
/co m
m u
n icatio
n s/
9 .7
6
1 3
.2 9
1
7 .2
2
W h
o ies(lie trd
d e
5 .0
8
6 .0
8
4 .1
9
R etail tra
d e
1 6
.5 7
14.69
1 1
.9 3
F
in an
ce, in su
ra n
c e , a
n d
re(ll e
sta te
9
.9 9
1
0 .9
2
8 .6
1
B u
sin ess serv
ices 6
.8 6
7
.0 6
8
.7
P erso
n allh
o tel/recreati()n
al serv
ices 4
.5
5 4
.2 5
P
ro fessio
n al serv
ices 1
3 .0
6
1 5
.9 6
1
7 .2
P
u b
lic (ld ll1
in istratio
n a
n d
g
o v
e rn
m e n
t 4
.4 2
5
.5 9
6
.7 8
T o
tal 100.01
100.01 100.01
P o
p u
la tio
n to
tals 1
7 8
,8 4
0
1 ,1
5 6
,7 0
0
3 7
8 ,4
2 0
D
u ra
b le
a n
d n
o n
d u
ra b
le
m a n
u fa
c tu
rin g
2
5 .5
9
15.51 1
5 .9
3
S O
l/fC t': IW
lO P
u b
lic U sc
M ic
ro Ja
t" S
,lIllD ie.
S am
D Jc. N
('w Y
o rk
C ity
B o
ro u
g h
s.
C h
a n
g es in
th e fo
rces o f p
ro d
u ctio
n .
P arallelin
g th
e c h
a n
g e o
v e r
fro m
an in
d u
strial, m an
u factu
rin g
-b ased
e c o
n o
m y
to a serv
ice-b ased
, in
tern atio
n al eco
n o
m y
w e re
c h
a n
g e s in
p ro
d u
ctio n
tech n
o lo
g ies. In
n o
v a
tio n
s in
clu d
ed
a u
to m
a tio
n ,
co m
p u
terizatio n
, a n
d ,
to
a m
o re
lim ited
ex
ten t, ro
b o
tizatio n
, all o f w
h ic
h resu
lted in
th e elim
in atio
n o
f so m
e jo b
s a n
d c
h a n
g e s in
sk ill re
q u
ire m
e n
ts fo r o
th ers.
6 O rig
in ally
, th e effects o
f th
ese tech n
o lo
g ical c
h a n
g e s w
ere felt d ram
atically in
th e b
lu e-co
llar w o
rk
88
T H
E P
O L
IT IC
A L
-E C
O N
O M
IC C
O N
T E
X T
T a
b le 4
.3
F em
ale Jo b
s b y
In d
u stry
(in p
E rcen
tag es)
" .-
- - - - -
- - - - - - -
P u
e rto
R ican
s W
h ites
B lack
s -
---- - - -
- - - -
~ . - ~ . ~ - -
A g
ricu ltu
re/fo restry
/fish in
g
,1 5
.1 7
,0 7
M in
in g
0
,0 8
,0 4
C o
n stru
c tio
n
.4 4
.7 3
.3 5
N o
n d
u ra
b le
n lan
u factllrin
g
2 2
.0 7
1
2 ,3
7
7 .4
7
D u
rab le m
a n
u fa
c tu
rin g
9
,9 8
3
.6 8
3
,8 3
T
ran sp
o rtatio
n /co
m m
u n
icatio n
s! u
tilities 3
,1 8
5
.2 2
6 .6
1
W h
o lt'sale tm
d e
3 .3
4
.4 3
U
\3
R etail trad
e 1 3 ,3
1
4 ,6
5
9 ,9
9
F in
an ce, in
su ran
ce, a n
d
real e sta
te
9 .3
8
1 3
.8 2
1
0 .6
B
usi rlt'ss serv ices
3 .5
4
6 .9
2
5 ,3
4
P ers(ln
al/h o
lcill'l'creatin n
al serv
ices 4
,6 5
5
.2 3
9
,6 5
f'ro
fessio n
d I st'rv
ices 2
4 ,8
8
2 9
,1 7
3
7 .1
3
P u
b lic a
d m
in istra
tio n
,1l1d g
o v
e rn
m e n
t 5
.1 3
3
,5 3
7,(19
T o
tal IO
n 1 0 0
100 P
o p
u latio
n t"ta
ls 1
4 1
,9 4
0
9 9
5 ,1
8 0
4
,3 7
2 ,2
2 0
D
u rab
le a n
d n
o n
d u
ra b
le
m a n
u fa
c tu
rin g
3
2 .0
5
1 6
.0 5
1
1 .3
,'> tll/re
e : 19fiO
P u
b lic lb
e M
icro d
ata S ,lIllp
le, 5 %
S am
p lt!, N
e w
Y o
rk C
ity
fo rce. S
in ce P
u erto
R ican
s h a d
a h ig
h p
ro p
o rtio
n o
f b lu
e-co llar lab
o rers in
N e w
Y o
rk C
ity , th
ey w
e re
sev erely
affected b
y th
ese stru ctu
ral c h
a n
g e s?
C h
a n
g es in
th e lo
ca tio
n o
f firm s.
C o
in cid
en t w
ith
tech n
o lo
g ical
c h
a n
g e w
a s th
e tre
n d
to w
ard p
la n
t relo catio
n . S
o m
e firm s left, o
sten sib
ly
to im p
le m
e n
t n e w
tech n
o lo
g ies, su
ch as lateral assem
b ly
-lin e o
p e ra
tio n
s in th
e su
b u
rb s, In th
is sen se, c
h a n
g e s in th
e fo rces o
f p ro
d u
ctio n
affected
th e lo
catio n
o f p
ro d
u ctiv
e firm s. P
lan t relo
catio n
p laced
m a n
y b
lu e-co
llar a n
d lo
w -sk
ill serv
ice jo b
s o u
t o f re<
lch o
f P u
erto R
k a n
s--first in th
e su
b u
rb s, th
e n
in th e S
o u
th , a
n d
th e n
in o
th e r co
u n
tries. H
If P u
e rto
R ican
s c<
lm e to
k n
o w
a b
o u
t su b
u rb
a n
jo b
o p
e n
in g
s, tran sp
o rtatio
n to
th e jo
b s, if
p resen
t, w a s co
stly in term
s o f b
o th
m o
n e y
a n
d tim
e, a d
d in
g o
n e o
r tw o
h
o u
rs to each
w o
rk d
ay .'lIn
a d
d itio
n , in
d u
stries in th
e su b
u rb
s alread y
h a d
su
b stan
tial p o
o ls o
f lab o
r a m
o n
g th
e su
b u
rb a n
ite s w
h o
h a d
m o
v ed
n earb
y
o r so
o n
w o
u ld
. S
u b
u rb
an izatio
n o
f th e P
u e rto
R ican
w
o rk
fo rce
w a s
d ifficu
lt b ecau
se o f h
ig h
h o
u sin
g co
sts a n
d ex
clu sio
n ary
p ractices, T
h u
s, jo
b s in
th e su
b u
rb s w
e re
fairly u
n attain
ab le for P
u e rto
R ican
s, w h
ile th e
attain ab
le jo b
s in th
e city w
e re
few a
n d
d im
in ish
in g
.lO T
h e lo
w -sk
ill jo b
s
89
P U
E R
T O
R IC
A N
S
h a d
b een
o p
e n
to im
m ig
ran ts a
n d
m ig
ran ts w
ere n o
w
u n
av ailab
le to P
u erto
R ican
s. T
h e g
ro w
th o
f g o
v ern
m en
t-su b
sid ized
h ig
h w
ay s d
u rin
g th
e p o
st W
o rld
W ar II p
erio d
facilitated su
b u
rb an
izatio n
o f in
d u
stry an
d p
eo p
le. T
h e lack
o f co
rresp o
n d
in g
g ro
w th
in m ass tran
sit m a d
e th
ese su b
u rb
a n
a n
d resid
en ces in
accessib le to
u rb
a n
resid en
ts w h
o w
ere p o
o r a
n d
/o r
n o
n -W
h ite. S
u b
u rb
a n
jo b
s w ere k
n o
w n
a n
d accessib
le to th
o se w
ith m
o re
m o
n ey
, a n
d to
th o
se w h
o w
ere W h
ite. 11 (S ee C
aro , 1974, for a
n in
-d ep
th
d escrip
tio n
o f h
o w
a n
d w
h y
m ass tran
sit co n
stru ctio
n a
n d
d e v
e lo
p m
e n
t w
ere rep laced
b y
h ig
h w
ay s d
u rin
g th
is tim e. S
ee also S
aw y
ers, 1975, w h
o
arg u
es th at th
l' g ro
w th
o f h
ig h
w ay
s w as a d
irect resu lt o
f th e in
terests o f
m o
n o
p o
ly
c,lp ital
in
co llu
sio n
w
ith
g o
v ern
m en
t.) R
acism
a n
d
eth n
ic ex
clu sio
n ,
as m
an ifested
in
real estate
p ractices,
zo n
in g
, restrictiv
e g
o v
e rn
m e n
t co v
en an
ts, a n
d so
cial p sy
ch o
lo g
ical p ressu
res, n
o n
-W h
ites a n
d m
in o
rity eth
n ic g
ro u
p s o
u t o
f th e su
b u
rb s. T
h e
u rb
a n
d em
o g
rap h
ic p attern
o f W
h ite su
b u
rb s a
n d
co
n cen
tra tio
n s o
f n o
n -W
h ites in th
e in n
er cities w as b
ein g
so lid
ified . T
h e
th e lo
catio n
o f firm
s, in co m
b in
atio n
w ith
th e
ab o
v e,
p erp
etu i:lted
th
e d ass-racial
d iv
isio n
s th at
h a d
ev o
lv ed
in
th e
U n
ited S
tates. T
h e effect th
ilt su b
u rb
an izatio
n o
f in d
u stry
a n
d
h d
d o
n P
u erto
R
ican s w
as n o
t lim ited
to e m
p lo
y m
e n
t. S u
b u
rb an
izatio n
also d
e p
le te
d th
e tax b
ase o f th
e cities. W ith
a sh rin
k in
g m
id d
le re
v e n
u e s p
ro v
ed
in su
fficit'n t to co
v er th
e serv ices u
su ally
p ro
v id
ed . A
t th e sam
e tim e, th
e w
ith its y
o u
n g
er, p o
o rer p
o p
u latio
n , h
ad g
reater d e m
a n
d s p
u t o
n its
serv ices. T
h u
s, w h
ile P u
erto R
ican s h
a d
g reater n
eed s, th
e city h
a d
less m
o n
e y
at its d isp
o sal. R
ecen tly
, w ith
g en
trificatio n
o ccu
rrin g
in m
an y
areas, tax re
v e n
u e s h
av e in
creased b
u t city
servicl"s (w ith
th e ex
cep tio
n o
f th
e P o
lice D ep
artm en
t) h av
e n o
t re tu
rn e d
to th eir p
recrisis lev els (N
e w
Y
o rk T
im es, A
p ril 10, 1985).
B lu
e-co lla
r stru ctu
ra l u
n e m
p lo
y m
e n
t. B
y 1972,
it w
as clear th
at secto
ral d eclin
es w ere co
m b
in in
g w
ith in
su fficien
t ed u
catio n
al o p
p o
rtu n
i ties
to
p ro
d u
ce w
h a t
w as
th e n
term
ed
"b lu
e-co llar
stru ctu
ral u
n e m
p lo
y m
e n
t"-w h
a t is
to d
ay
referred
to as
th e
"sk ills m
ism atch
" p
ro b
lem .
In sim
p lest term
s, th
e p ro
b lem
w as an
ex cess o
f b lu
e-co llar
w o
rk ers for b
lu e-co
llar jo b
s a n
d a scarcity
o f w
h ite-co
llar w o
rk ers for w
h ite
co llar jo
b s. T
h is w
as v it'w
ed (in 1972) as h
av in
g b
een an
alm o
st ch ro
n ic
co n
d itio
n o
f th e eco
n o
m y
for a d ecad
e. T h
e R eg
io n
al P lan
A sso
ciatio n
(1972) fo
u n
d it to b
e o n
e o
f th e m
ain p
ro b
lem s o
f th e
B ecau
se o f th
is featu re o
f th e N
e w
Y ork eco
n o
m y
, th e
th e
p re
d o
m in
a n
tly
b lu
e-co llar
P u
erto
R ican
lab
o r
force w
as o
n e
o f
9 0
T H
E P
O L
IT IC
A L
-E C
O N
O M
IC C
O N
T E
X T
d im
in ish
in g
o p
p o
rtu n
itie s a
n d
g ro
w in
g co
m p
etitio n
w ith
o th
e r d
islo cated
(n
o w
su rp
lu s) b
lu e-co
llar w o
rk ers. 12
T h
e sch o
o l sy
stem p
lay ed
a ro le in
co n
trib u
tin g
to th
e p ro
b lem
o f sk
ills m
ism atch
. A s w
ill b e n
o te
d in
a su b
se q
u e n
t ch ap
ter, th e sch
o o
l sy stem
d id
n
o t p
re p
a re
P u
erto R
ican s for "g
o o
d jo
b s." In
1972, w h
e n
th e m
ism atch
b
e tw
e e n
w h
ite-co llar jo
b s a
n d
b lu
e-co llar sk
ills b e c a m
e q
u ite ev
id en
t, th e
R eg
io n
al P lan
A sso
ciatio n
(1972: 3) co n
clu d
ed th
a t "it a
p p
e a rs th
a t p
u b
lic sch
o o
ls in th
e reg io
n s' o
ld er cities a
n d
m a n
p o
w e r train
in g
p ro
g ra
m s te
n d
to
c h
a n
n e l B
lack s a
n d
P u
e rto
R ican
s in to
b lu
e co llar w
o rk
"- th
is d
e sp
ite
d ecreasin
g jo
b s in
th ese areas. T
h is a
w a re
n e ss n
o tw
ith sta
n d
in g
, little w a s
d o
n e a
n d
th e situ
atio n
w o
rse n
e d
. T h
e q u
estio n
h a s su
b se
q u
e n
tly b
e e n
raised
o f w
h e th
e r track
in g
o f stu
d e n
ts, d iscrim
in ato
ry ad
m issio
n s, a
n d
u
n e q
u a l treatm
en t a
n d
p h
y sical facilities co
n stitu
te "p re
m a rk
e t d
iscrim i
n ato
ry p
ractices" in sch
o o
ls (B o
rjas a n
d T
ien d
a, 1985) a n
d w
h e th
e r th
ese "p
re m
a rk
e t d
iscrim in
ato ry
p ractices" in
h ib
it th e lab
o r-m
ark et su
ccess o f
P u
e rto
R ican
s. n
M ed
iatin g
F o
rces
T h
e R a
cia l O
rd er
In ad
d itio
n to
th ese stru
ctu ral ch
an g
es in th e eco
n o
m y
, w h
ich cam
e to affect all A
m erican
s, th e re
w e re
(a n
d are) for P
u erto
R ican
s a n
d o
th e r
"p e o
p le
o f co
lo r" stru
ctu ral fo
rces th a t stem
fro m
th e racial o
rd e r in
th e
U n
ited S
tatl'S . 1
4 T
h ese fo
rces m ed
iated , in
a n eg
ativ e a
n d
fairly in
stitu
tio n
alized fash
io n
, th e lab
o r ex
p erien
ce o f P
u erto
R ican
s. F
o r exam
pll:', alw
ay s p
e rv
a d
in g
th e w
o rld
s o f w
o rk
(h o
u sin
g a
n d
sch o
o ls) w
a s d
irect, in
d irect,
a n
d /o
r in stitu
tio n
alized
racial a n
d
e th
n ic
p reju
d ice. 1
5 T
h ese
fo rces h
a v
e n
o t d
isa p
p e a re
d w
ith th
e sh ift to
a p o
stin d
u sh
ia l so
ciety .
In d
e e d
, se g
m e n
te d
lab o
r m ark
ets, w h
ich h
av e b
e e n
stro n
g ly
asso ciated
w
ith
racial-eth n
ic d
iv isio
n s,
h av
e ty
p ified
b
o th
in
d u
strial a n
d
p o
st in
d u
strial ('co n
o m
ies. 1 "
T h
u s, d
iscrim in
atio n
b ased
o n
race o r eth
n icity
w a s a stru
ctu ral p
a rt
o f th
e lab o
r m ark
et th at affected
a n
d co
n tin
u es to affect th
e situ atio
n o
f P
u erto
R ican
s. T
h e stru
ctu ral n
a tu
re o
f d iscrim
in atio
n b
ased o
n race,
eth n
icity , o
r g e n
d e r in
lab o
r m ark
ets h as receiv
ed in
creasin g
a tte
n tio
n in
th
e p ast ten
y ears. F
o r m
an y
, d iscrim
in atio
n is n
o lo
n g
er u n
d e rsto
o d
to b
e
ju st a q
u estio
n o
f p eo
p le carry
in g
a ro
u n
d p
reju d
icial a ttitu
d e s in
th eir
h ead
s. R ath
er, itis se
e n
to b
e an in
stitu tio
n alized
v ariab
le a n
d a
n im
p o
rta n
t
91
P U
E R
T O
R IC
A N
S
m e c h
a n
ism th
a t h
as c o
n trib
u te
d h
isto rically
to th
e creatio
n o
f se g
m e n
te d
lab
o r m
a rk
e ts (G
ilk es, 1
9 8
0 ; T
re im
a n
a n
d H
a rtm
a n
n , 1
9 8
1 : 62; N
atio n
al C
o u
n cil o
f C h
u rc
h e s o
f C h
rist, 1 9
8 4
).1 7
In
stitu tio
n alized
d iscrim
in ato
ry actio
n s a
re o
fte n
trig g
ered b
y v
isib il
ity , so
th a t a
sa m
a tte
r o fco
u rse d
a rk
e ro
r fo reig
n -lo
o k
in g
in d
iv id
u a ls o
ften
elicit d ifferen
tial tre a tm
e n
t-e v
e n
th o
u g
h su
c h
tre a tm
e n
t m ay
b e u
n c o
n
scio u
s o n
th e p
a rt o
f th e d
iscrim in
ato rs. V
isib ility
c a n
b e eth
n ic, racial, o
r b
o th
, a n
d d
iscrim in
atio n
can b
e b
a se
d o
n e
ith e r o
r b o
th . A
su rn
a m
e o
r a n
accen
t can trig
g er d
iscrim in
atio n
ju st as q
u ick
ly as d
a rk
sk in
. C
learly , racial a
n d
e th
n ic
v isib
ility h
a v
e in
flu en
ced th
e lab
o r m
a rk
e t
ex p
erien ce o
f P u
e rto
R ican
s. A lth
o u
g h
classified b
y th
e c
e n
su s in 1970 a
s 90'X
, W h
ite a
n d
9'7.) N e g
ro , in actu
ality a m
u c h
larg er p
ro p
o rtio
n o
f P u
e rto
R
ican s a
p p
e a r racially
"n o
n -W
h ite
" to b
o th
W h
ite a n
d B
lack A m
erican s
,lO d are th
u s su
b ject to
racial d iscrim
in atio
n . In a
d d
itio n
, P u
e rto
R ican
s h
a v
e h
a d
to c
o n
te n
d w
ith h
o stility
to w
a rd
e th
n ic
d ifferen
ces, w h
ich w
e re
in
so m
e cases in
ten sified
b e c a u
se P
u e rto
R ican
s id en
tified cu
ltu rally
a n
d
n o
t racially . T
h u
s, so m
e P
u e rto
R ican
s w e re
d isc
rim in
a te
d a
g a in
stb e c a u
se
th ey
w e re
racially n
o t W
h ite
a n
d b
e c a u
se th
ey w
e re
cu ltu
rally n
o t B
lack (see C
h a p
te r 3).
R acial a
n d
e th
n ic
d iscrim
in atio
n co
llid ed
sh a rp
ly w
ith P
u e rto
R ican
ex
p ectatio
n s, b
ecau se P
u e rto
R ican
s e n
te re
d th
e U
n ite
d S
tates w ith
a se n
se
o f en
titlem en
t; in fact a
n d
in a ttitu
d e , th
ey w
e re
citizen s. T
h e d
iscrim in
a tio
n a
n d
racism th
ey m
e t c
a m
e as a d
o u
b k
sh o
ck . T
h is w
a s esp
ecially
d ifficu
lt fo r a p
e o
p le
u n
fam iliar w
ith th
e sh a rp
-e d
g e d
d iscrim
in atio
n o
f th e
U n
ited S
tales -d isc
rim in
a tio
n th
a t actu
ally lim
ited life ch
an ces.
W h
a t
P u
e rto
R icJn
s fo u
n d
in th
e lab
o r m
a rk
e t w
a s d
ifferen t fro
m w
h a t earlier
E u
ro p
e a n
im m
ig ra
n t g
ro u
p s h
a d
fo u
n d
.
R estrictive U
n io
n P
o licies a
n d
P ra
ctices
T ra
d e u
n io
n s, fo
rm erly
a n
im p
o rta
n t v
eh icle fo
r e th
n ic
a n
d m
in o
rity
m o
b ility
, c a m
e to
fu n
ctio n
(d u
rin g
th e g
reat m ig
ratio n
) so a
s to k
e e p
th e
n e w
e st
o r
th e
d a rk
e r
m in
o rities
o u
t. F
ath er-so
n
c la
u se
s th
a t
g av
e p
re fe
re n
c e
to
fam ily
m
e m
b e rs
fo r
u n
io n
m
e m
b e rsh
ip ,
lim ited
-access a p
p re
n tic
e sh
ip
p ro
g ra
m s,
in fo
rm al,
u n
a d
v e rtise
d ,
o fte
n
eth n
ically
b o
u n
d e d
jo b
re c ru
itm e n
t a n
d p
la c e m
e n
t m e th
o d
s, sen io
rity ru
les, a n
d
ex clu
sio n
ary racial
p ractices all
c o
n trib
u te
d to
th e ex
clu sio
n o
f P u
e rto
R
ican s fro
m u
n io
n m
e m
b e rsh
ip . W
ith th
e ex
cep tio
n o
f lo w
-lev el jo
b s in
g
a rm
e n
t facto ries a
n d
fo o
d serv
ices, w h
e re
P u
e rto
R ican
s m a d
e u
p a larg
e p
ro p
o rtio
n o
f th e w
o rk
fo rce, m
o st u
n io
n s w
e re
clo sed
to P
u e rto
R ican
s. 18 T
h is w
a s esp
ecially tru
e o f th
e sk
illed a
n d
craft u n
io n
s.
9 2
H I[ P
O L
IT IC
A L
-E C
O N
O M
IC C
O N
T E
X T
T h
e re
w a s a
n iro
n y
in th
is ex clu
sio n
, fo r P
u e rto
R ican
s in N
ew Y
o rk
h
a d
a stro n
g in
te re
st in a n
d a so
lid trad
itio n
o f lab
o r activ
ism (G
o n
zalez a n
d G
ray , 1984: 120 ff.; G
alin d
ez, 1969; F alco
n , 1984a). Y
et, d e sp
ite th
is b
a c k
g ro
u n
d a
n d
th e p
re se
n c e o
f a (still) p re
d o
m in
a n
tly w
o rk
in g
-class lab
o r fo
rce, u n
io n
activ ity
w a s n
o t e
n c o
u ra
g e d
. G o
n zalez a
n d
G ray
co
n clu
d e
th a t
m o
st o
f th
e
p o
w p
rfu l
u n
io n
s ex
clu d
ed
P u
e rto
R
ican
m e m
b e rs fro
m
im p
o rta
n t d
ecisio n
-m ak
in g
p ro
cesses, th
at civ il serv
ice u
n io
n s w
e re
u se
d to
p re
v e n
t P u
e rto
R ican
s fro m
realizin g
so cio
eco n
o m
ic m
o b
ility ,
a n
d
th at o
rg a n
iz e d
lab o
r reacted ad
v ersely
to
P
u e rto
R ican
p
o litical m
o b
ilizatio n
. T h
u s, d
e sp
ite th
e in te
re st a
n d
p rio
r in v
o lv
e m
e n
t in
u n
io n
activ ity
o n
th e p
art o f P
u e rto
R ican
s, u n
io n
s d id
n o
t facilitate th e
eco n
o m
ic in teg
ratio n
o f P
u e rto
R ican
s as th ey
h a d
fo r o
th e r g
ro u
p s.
R estrictiv
e u n
io n
p o
licies h a d
tw o
m ajo
r effects. O n
e w
a s th
at P u
e rto
R
ican
p a y
rates a n
d b
en efits w
ere (an d
are) in ferio
r to th
o se o
f o th
e r
w o
rk e rs d
o in
g tlw
sallle jo b
s. T h
is h a s b
e e n
p articu
larly tru
e in th
e crafts
area, w
h e rl'
u n
io n
b
lo ck
ag es
resu lted
in
th
e
g ro
w th
o
f free-lan
ce, n
o n
u n
io n
ized , an
d th
erefo r/! lovver--paid, P
u erto
R ican p
lu m
b ers, p
ilin ters,
p lasterers, electrician
s, a n
d so
o n
. (T h
e d ata in C
h a p
te r 2 sh
o w
P u
e rto
R
ican m ales to
b e w
ell re p
re se
n te
d in th
e se
areas.) T h
e o
th e r m
ajo r effect
w a s tile re
p ro
d u
c tio
n o
f tlw racial o
rd l'r b
y u
n io
n s th
ro u
g h
re w
a rd
in g
a n
d
g iv
in g
p
referen ce
to
th e
ch ild
ren
o r
frien d
s o
f u
n io
n
m em
b ers,l'!
G (w
e rn
m e n
t
A fter W
o rld
W a r II, g
o v
e rn
m e n
t a ssu
m e d
an in
creasin g
ly larg
er ro le
as a n
e m
p lo
y e r o
f B lack
s. In d
e e d
, g o
v e rn
m e n
t is o ften
referred to in
th e
literatu re as "th
e e
m p
lo y
e r o
f last re so
rt" I t is a
rg u
e d
th at, b
e c a u
se o
f B
lack u
n e m
p lo
y m
e n
t h a s b
e e n
k e p
t fro
m
in creasin
g to
o d
ram atically
(W
ilh elm
, 1971). G o
v e rn
m e n
t, h o
w e v
e r, h
as n o
t h ired
P u
e rto
R ican
s to
th e sa
m e d
e g
re e a
s B la
c k
s-d e sp
ite th
e fact th a t P
u e rto
R ican
s a re
also
citizen s. In 1973, after a
n ex
ten siv
e su rv
e y
o f N
e w
Y o
rk C
ity m
u n
icip al
g o
v e rn
m e n
t e m
p lo
y e e s rev
ealed a g
ro ss u
n d
e rre
p re
se n
ta lio
n o
f P u
e rto
R
ican s,
th e
N e w
Y
o rk
C
ity
C o
m m
issio n
o
n
H u
m a n
R
ig h
ts (1973)
sp ecifically
re c o
m m
e n
d e d
th a t "u
tm o
st p rio
rity sh
o u
ld b
e g iv
e n
b y
th e
D ep
artm en
t o f P
erso n
n el a
n d
all ag en
cies to recru ilm
g m
em b
erso f th
e P u
erto
R ican c
o m
m u
n ity
." T h
is reco m
m en
d atio
n w
as n o
t m a d
e for an
y o
th er
eth n
ic g
ro u
p .
S till,
to d
ay ,
ev en
after th e im
p lem
en tatio
n o
f affirm ativ
e actio n
p
ro g
ra m
s, th e re
is co n
cern o
v e r th
e lack
o f a
d e q
u a te
re p
re se
n ta
tio n
o f
P u
e rto
R ican
s in g o
v e rn
m e n
t (N e w
Y o
rk C
ity C
o m
m issio
n o
n H
isp an
ic C
o n
c e rn
s, 1986: In
stitu te fo
r P u
e rto
R ican
P o
licy , 1
9 8
2 , 1985).20
9 3
P U
E R
T O
H IC
A N
S
M o
re recen tly
, g
o v
e rn
m e n
t h a s p
la y
e d
a n
o th
e r ro
le affectin g
th e
p o
sitio n
in g
o f P
u e rto
R ican
s th ro
u g
h its p
o licies o
f re tre
n c h
m e n
t. A fter a
p erio
d o
fco n
sid erab
le e x
p a n
sio n
o f so
cial p ro
g ra
m s in
th e 1
9 6
0 san
d 1
9 7
0 s,
g o
v e rn
m e n
t p u
lle d
b ack
. In N e w
Y o
rk C
ity , lo
cal g o
v e rn
m e n
t retren ch
m
e n
t b eg
an im
m ed
iately after th
e fiscal crises o
f 1975. T h
e 1
9 8
0 s h
a v
e se
e n
a fu
rth e r d
ism a n
tlin g
o f fed
erally fu
n d
e d
train in
g p
ro g
ra m
s, less p u
b lic
secto r e
m p
lo y
m e n
t g ro
w th
, a n
d less a
tte n
tio n
to , a
n d
e n
fo rc
e m
e n
t o f,
affirm ativ
e actio n
p ro
g ra
m s. T
h e se
p ro
g ra
m s w
e re
rep laced
b y
a n
a p
p e a l
fo r p
riv ate secto
r in itiativ
es to tak
e o v
e r th
e se
resp o
n sib
ilities, a n
a p
p ro
a c h
referred
to as "p
riv a tiz
a tio
n ." T
h e im
p act o
f th is g
o v
e rn
m e n
ta l sh
ift o n
th e
P u
e rto
R
ican
c o
m m
u n
ity h
a s
y et
to
b e
fu lly
d
o c u
m e n
te d
, b
u t early
in
d icatio
n s are th
at it h a s left th
e n
o n
p ro
fit secto r in
se rio
u s straits a
n d
h a s
re v
e rse
d so
m e earlier g
a in
s (B o
rrero , 1983; M
e le
n d
e z , 1986).
D t' F
acto D iscrim
in a
tio n
G o
v e rn
m e n
t h as n
o t cu
t b ack
"a c ro
ss th e b
o a rd
" so
m e areas, su
c h
as d
e fe
n se
, h a v
e h
a d
in cn
'as('d sp
en d
in g
.2 1
M e le
n d
e z (1986) a
rg u
e s th
at th
e re
d u
c tio
n in
g o
v e rn
m e n
t e m
p lo
y m
e n
t (a n
d th
e sh
ift in sp
e n
d in
g
p rio
rities) is a d e facto
assau lt o
n th
e eco
n o
m ic sta
tu s o
f p e o
p le
o f co
lo r.
H e a
rg u
e s th
a t b
ecau se m
o st o
f th e so
cial p ro
g ra
m s b
ein g
cu t a
n ' b
d sed
o n
fin
an cial nC
l'(i, th e red
u ctio
n in govl'rnllH:~nt e
m p
lo y
m e n
t a n
d th
e sh
ift in
sp e n
d in
g p
rio rities h
a v
e a d
isp ro
p o
rtio n
a te
im p
act o n
th e se
g ro
u p
s. In a d
d itio
n , b
ecau se o
f th e c
o n
c e n
tra tio
n o
f p e o
p le
o f co
lo r as e
m p
lo y
e e s in
th
e h
u m
a n
sl'rv ices d
iv isio
n s, sp
e n
d in
g cu
ts in th e se
a re
a s h
a v
e lo
w e re
d
o p
p o
rtu n
itie s fo
r th e m
n
R eg
ard less o
f w h
e tlw
r th is is in
lt'n tio
n al, a
n
o v
ersig h
t, o r a d
t' facto assau
lt, th e fact re
m a in
s th a t c
u rre
n t g
o v
e rn
m e n
t p
o licy
d O
l'S n
o t a
p p
e a r to
b e h
elp in
g th
e P
u e rto
R ican
c o
m m
u n
ity . In
d e e d
, it a
p p
e a rs to
b e re
p ro
d u
c in
g th
e so
cial o rd
e r w
ith in
w h
ic h
P u
e rto
R ican
s o
c c u
p y
a d isa
d v
a n
ta g
e d
p o
sitio n
.
S u
b seq
u en
t E co
n o
m ic D
ev elo
p m
en ts
C o
n tin
u a
tio n
o fT
ren d
s
T h
e co
n tex
t in to
w h
ic h
P u
erto R
ican s ste
p p
e d
in th
e 1
9 5
0 s a
n d
19605 w
a s d
o m
in a te
d b
y d
e m
a n
d -sid
e tren
d s, w
h ic
h w
e re
to c
o n
tin u
e in
th e
1 9
7 0
san d
19805. A s b
efo re, m
a n
u fa
c tu
rin g
c o
n tin
u e d
to lo
se jo
b s -l
2 5
,0 0
0
94
T H
E P
O L
IT IC
A L
-E C
O N
O M
IC C
O N
T E
X T
jo b
s in th
e 1980s alo
n e, a
n d
P u
erto R
ican s co
n tin
u ed
to b
e o
v errep
resen ted
in
th is secto
r (U .S
. D e p
a rtm
e n
t o f L
ab o
r, 1987). T h
e stru ctu
ral sh ifts o
f th e
eco n
o m
y th
at h
a d
earlier affected
P
u erto
R
ican s
w ere
n o
w
n atio
n al a
n d
in tern
atio n
al p h
e n
o m
e n
a . N
e w
lab els, b
o rn
in th
e 1980s, reflected
th
e co
n tin
u in
g sh
ifts-U p
la n
t clo
sin g
s," "ru
n a w
a y
p
lan ts,"
"fo o
tlo o
se in d
u stries," "ru
st b elt," "d
isp laced
w o
rk ers." C
h an
g es in
th e
lo catio
n o
f p ro
d u
ctiv e firm
s a n
d in
th e fo
rces o f p
ro d
u ctio
n in
creased in
p
ace. C o
m p
u terizatio
n sp
read rap
id ly
to all lev els o
f th e b
u sin
ess a n
d
fin an
cial serv ice secto
r, as w ell as to
n o
n p
ro fit a
n d
so cial serv
ice secto rs.
S kill req
u irem
en ts co
n tin
u ed
to sh ift, an
d th
e sk ills m
ism atch
p ro
b lem
s b
ecam e m
o re acu
te. T h
u s, th
e stru ctu
ral featu res o
f th e eco
n o
m y
th at w
ere ad
v ersely
affectin g
P u
erto R
ican s in
th e 1960s in
ten sified
in th
is d ecad
e.
T h
e F iscal C
risis
T h
e retren ch
m en
t p o
licy in
stitu ted
as a resu lt o
f th e N
e w
Y ork C
ity
fiscal crisis h ad
sev ere co
n seq
u en
ces for P u
erto R
ican
D ep
artm en
t o f L
ab o
r, 1987). T h
ere w ere n
o n
ew h
ires, a n
d m
a n
y w
ere let g
o . T
h o
se last h ired
b ecam
e th o
se first fired an
d , to
th e ex
ten t th
at P u
erto
R ican
s w ere in
local g o
v ern
m en
t, th ey
te n
d e d
to b e a
m o
n g
th o
se last h ired
. T
h e fiscal crisis (alo
n g
w ith
o th
e r facto
rs a n
d a m
o re
co n
serv ativ
e n atio
n al
co n
tex t) also
p ro
m o
te d
a ch an
g e in
th e attitu
d e o
f g o
v e rn
m e n
t to
w ard
so cial p
ro g
ram s. P
u e rto
R ican co
m m
u n
ity p
ro g
ram s, w
h ich
h a d
o
ften serv
ed as in
fo rm
al train in
g g
ro u
n d
s for n e w
P u
erto R
ican lead ers
1984), w
ere sev erely
h
u rt.
A lth
o u
g h
co m
p reh
en siv
e d ata are
lack in
g , an
ecd o
tal ev id
en ce in
d icates th
at m an
y p
ro g
ram s w
ith fo
rm al
e m
p lo
y m
e n
t train in
g c
o m
p o
n e n
ts w ere p
articu larly
h u
rt.
G lo
b a
liza tio
n o
fth e N
Y C
E co
n o
m y
W h
ile th e sh
ifts n o
ted ab
o v
e co n
tin u
ed in
th e 1970s a
n d
1980s, a n ew
set o
f ev en
ts a n
d tren
d s w
ere to arise th at d
id n
o t su
b stan
tially im
p ro
v e
th e
p o
sitio n
in g
o f P
u erto
R ican
s. O
n e v
ery i)11portant tren
d w
a s th
e g
lo b
alizatio n
o f th
e w o
rld a
n d
N e w
Y ork C
ity eco
n o
m ies. G
lo b
al sy stem
s th
eo rists h
av e n
o ted
th at, m
o re th
a n
ev er b
efo re, cap
ital a n
d lab
o r m
o v
e w
ith in
w o
rld w
id e sy
stem s rath
er th a n
w ith
in n
atio n
al b o
rd ers (S
assen
K o
o b
, 1988; P o
rtes a n
d W
alto n
, 1981; N a sh
a n
d F
ern an
d ez-K
elly , 1983).
C o
n trib
u tin
g to th
e co
n v
erg en
ce to w
ard a w
o rld
eco n
o m
y h
av e b
een
ch eap
er tran sp
o rt<
!tio n
, ad v
an ces in
teleco m
m u
n icatio
n s, a
n d
th e lo
w er
in g
o f trad
e b arriers. T
h e d
e v
e lo
p m
e n
t o f a
9 5
rU F
R T
O R
IC A
N S
in m
o re
u n
sk illed
p e o
p le
fro m
all o v
e r th
e w
o rld
b e in
g d
ra w
n in
to th
is g
lo b
al sy ste
m . T
h is h
a s c
re a te
d a situ
a tio
n in
w h
ic h
in te
rn a tio
n a l m
ig ra
n ts
c o
m p
e te
w ith
d o
m e stic
w o
rk e rs in
n e a rly
e v
e ry
d e v
e lo
p e d
c o
u n
try , w
h ile
at th e sa
m e tim
e jo b
s a re
b e in
g m
o v
e d
to d
e v
e lo
p in
g c
o u
n trie
s in search
o
f c h
e a p
lab o
r. T
h e tre
n d
to w
a rd
a g lo
b al e
c o
n o
m y
h a s h
ad o
th e r effects a
s w ell.
A m
erican cap
italists, in o
rd e r to
p ro
d u
c e co
m p
etitiv ely
p riced
g o
o d
s, h a v
e
b eco
m e in
v o
lv ed
n o
t ju st in
th e se
a rc
h for lo
w -w
a g
e secto
rs, b u
t also in
th
e
g lo
b al
search
fo r
fo reig
n
m a rk
e ts.
C ap
italists in
o
ld e r,
in d
llstrial c o
u n
trie s h
a v
e also
b e e n
in v
o lv
ed in
th is se
a rc
h . !tw
a s th
is c o
n sta
n t se
a rc
h
a n
d m
o v
e m
e n
t o f cap
ital th n
t led to th
e in
tro d
u c tio
n o
f th e e
x p
re ssio
n
"h y
p e rm
o b
ility o
f cap ital" (B
o w
les n n
d C
in tis,
1986; S te
v e n
so n
, 1986; B
lu esto
n e a
n d
H arriso
n , 1982). T
h u
s, th e issu
e o f d
isa p
p e n
rin g
jo b
s fo r
ru t'rlo
R icc1l1s is ('n
sco n
ced in
a n
in te
rn a tio
n a l m
atrix o
f fo rces th
a t w
e a v
e
th eir w
a y
b ack
to d
e te
rm in
e th
e fates o
f H 'g
io n
al eco n
o m
ies. T
h e se
p ,lttern
s, a s w
ell d S
Ih e lab
o r m
a rk
e t's w
id e n
in g
sp lit in
to tw
o
w e re
e v
id e n
t a s
N e w
Y
o rk
C
ity
c o
n so
lid a te
d
its n
atio n
al a n
d
in tern
atio n
al p o
sitio n
s a s a g
lo b
al city .
T Ill' city
's m o
v e to
b e c o
m e an
in
tern atio
n al fin
an cial cen
ter, fo r e
x a m
p le
, p ro
v id
e d
m o
re jo
b s, b
u t th
e
b u
lk
o f
th e
jo b
g ro
w th
o
ccu rred
in
th e
h ig
h e r-p
a y
in g
, h
ig lll'r-statlls
p ro
fessio n
al sp
ecialty ,
a n
d
tech n
ical field
s. lm
it'e d
, fo r tht:> ('n
tire re sid
e n
t p o
p u
la tio
n , lllan
ag eriill, p
ro fessio
n al, ,1I1d
tech n
ical w
ork(,l"s a c c o
u n
te d
fo
r th
rc e -fo
u rth
s o f
,1 li
Ill'! e illp
lo y
m e n
t g
ro w
th
b,,'t\V l'l'n
1 9
7 7
a n
d
1 9 H
7 (U
.s. D
e p
a rtm
e n
t o f L
ab o
r, 1
9 8
7 ).
In a d
d itio
n ,
g lo
b al
co m
p etitiv
e p
re ssllre
s a c c c n
tu a te
d
th e
p ro
p p
l1 sity
o
f b
u sin
c sse
s to h
ire n o
n tra
d itio
n a l (i.e"
im m
ig ran
t) lab o
r w ith
lo w
e r lab
o r
co sts
2 \T
h ese featu
res o f th
e in
te rn
a tio
n a l e
c o
n o
m y
in N
e w
Y o
rk h
a ste
n e d
th
e c
o n
tin u
in g
d isa
p p
e a ra
n c e o
f jo b
s trad itio
n ally
h e ld
b y
P u
e rto
R ican
s.
N e w
a
n d
th L
' In fo
rm a
l S e
c to
r
A n
o th
e r sig
n ific<
ln t trc
n d
o f th
e p
ast tw o
d e c a d
e s h
a s b
een th
e g
ro w
th
o f th
e in
fo rm
al sl'c to
r-th a t secto
r o ften
referred to
a s "
h id
d e n
" o
r "o if th
e b
o o
k s,"
in c lu
d in
g
n o
t ju
st sm
all-scale h
o m
e
o p
e ra
tio n
s b
u t
lM g
er l'co
n o
m ic
activ ities
su c h
as
u n
reg istt!red
sw
e a tsh
o p
s.2 ! T
h e
in fo
rm al
se c to
r is in creasin
g ly
v ie
w e d
a s a
p e rm
a n
e n
t stru ctu
ral featu
re o f th
e
p ro
cess o fcap
ital accu m
u latio
n o
n a g
lo b
al scale. T h
u s, th
o se in
th e fo
rm al
e c o
n o
m y
d e p
e n
d o
n th
o se in
th e in
fo rm
al e c o
n o
m y
to p
ro v
id e lo
w -co
st g
o o
d s a
n d
serv ices th
a t th
e y
n o
lo n
g e r p
ro d
u c e o
r p ro
v id
e . C
lass rela tio n
s are re
p ro
d u
c e d
th ro
u g
h th
e se
in fo
rm al secto
r activ ities, a
n d
th e re
is a n
e x
p a n
sio n
in th
e lo
w -w
ag e w
o rk
fo rce to
serv ice h
ig h
-in c o
m e ta
ste s a
n d
96
fH E
r O
ll n e
A L
-E C
O N
O M
IC C
O N
T E
X T
n eed
s. T h
u s, lab
o r-in
ten siv
t' o ccu
p atio
n s a
n d
serv ices, su
c h
as sp ecialty
b
o u
tiq u
e s, c
u sto
m iz
e d
p ro
d u
c tio
n , a
n d
h ired
m a in
te n
a n
c e staff, q
u ick
ly
b eco
m e in
teg ral p
arts o f g
el1 trify
in g
areas. T h
ese in fo
rm al secto
r activ ities
are se e n
to b e cru
cial to th
e city 's fo
rm al e
c o
n o
m y
a n
d to th
e larg er g
lo b
al e c o
n o
m y
(S assen
-K o
o b
, 1986). M
a n
y o
f th e n
e w
im m
ig ra
n ts w
h o
arriv ed
d u
rin g
th e 1
9 7
0 s a
n d
1 9
8 0
s w
e re
a c c o
m m
o d
a te
d w
ith in
th is in
fo rm
al secto r(W
ald in
g er, 1985; S
assen
K o
o b
, 1989).
It is
u n
lik ely
th
at P
u erto
R
ican s
h av
e b
een ,
o r w
ill b
e, e m
p lo
y e d
to th
e S d
m e d
eg rp
l' b y
th e se
in fo
rm al secto
r firm s. A
s S assel1
K
o o
b (1983: 198) h
as n o
ted , th
e g re
a te
r p o
liticiJ:atio n
o f w
o m
e n
a n
d m
o re
tr,ld
itio n
al m in
o rities \v
ith reg
ard to u
n io
n s, w
ag es, a
n d
w o
rk e rs' rig
h ts
m a y
m a k
e th
ese w o
rk e rs less
p refl'rab
le, m
o re
co stlv
w o
rk e rs in
th
e in
fo rm
al secto r.
T h
e P
u e rto
R ican w
o rk
fo rce h
a s b
eco m
e ,lccllsto m
ed in th
e fo
rm al
secto r to m
in im
al jo b
sta n
d a rd
s--m in
im u
m o
r u n
io n
w a g
e s a
n d
o
v ertim
e r,ltes, so cial secu
ri ty a n
d
4 0
-h o
u r w
o rk
w e e k
s. In
fo rced
in to
co m
p lian
ce th
reats o f d
ep o
rtatio n
.:> 'i
m ay
b e se
e n
as less d esirab
le w o
rk ers th
a n
n e w
im m
Ig ran
ts. llle
y m
ay
also ap
p ly
for th ese jo
b s less o
ften .
T h
e se
effl'cts
m ,IY
b
e tran
sito ry
, h
o w
ev er,
for n
e w
tre
n d
s are
th at
w ill
affect b
o th
g
ro u
p s:
p ro
jected
lab o
r sh o
rta g
e s,
th e
ret'ln erg
t'llce o f crafts in N
Y C
, th e g
reatt'!' sp ecializatio
n o
f m a n
u fa
c tu
rin g
reten
tio n
o f h
ig h
l'r-sk ill b
lu e-co
llar jo b
s), ,H
Id
th e dt'clint:' o
f w a g
e s in
till' h
u m
a n
serv ices.
A lso
, n
e w
w a v
e s o
f n
ts w ith
lo w
er lab o
r co sts m
ay rep
lace to d
a y
's n e w
im m
ig ran
ts, th
eir early w
ith d
rilw ,ll h
o m
th e lab
o r fo
rce. It is n
o t d
e ilr at
h o
w th
ese tre n
d s w
ill affect P u
erto R
ican e m
p lo
y m
e n
t; th ey
are m
e n
tio n
e d
h ere to l'll1
p h
asize th e v
u lI1
l'rab ility
o f lab
o r to th
e eco n
o m
ic sh
ifts in th e city
.
C red
en tia
fism
C red
en tialism
, a n
o th
e r m
o re recen
t featu re o
f eco n
o m
ic restru ctu
rin g
, h
a s
tw o
d im
en sio
n s:
o n
e
is th
e e m
p h
a sis o
n cred
en tialism
(i.e., th
e d
efin itio
n o
f jo b
s acco rd
in g
to cred
en tials), a
n d
th e o
th e r is th
e su
rp lu
s o f
cred en
tialed in
d iv
id u
als w h
o c
o m
p e te
w ith
n o
n u
e d
e n
ti,lle d
in d
iv id
u als
for lo w
er-lev el jobsY
(' T o tak
e th e latter first, m
o re co
lleg e g
ra d
u a te
s h av
e e n
te re
d th
e N Y
C lab
o r m
a rk
e t in th
e last 10 y
e a rs th
a n
in th e p
rio r d
e c a d
e
(U .s. D
e p
a rtm
e n
t o f L
ab o
r, 1986). B ecau
se o f th
e v a n
ish in
g n
u m
b e r o
f m
id d
le-lev el jo
b s (E
h ren
reich , 1986;
1986), m o
re a
n d
m o
re
9 7
P U
E R
T O
R IC
A N
S
g ra
d u
a te
s are "se ttlin
g " fo
r jo b
s b elo
w th
eir sk ill lev
els u n
til else co
m es alo
n g
, o r in
th e h
o p
es th at th
ey can
m o
v e lip
fro m
th ere. (T
h ese
jo b
s are referred to
b y
so m
e as "n
o n
su p
e rv
iso ry
" jo b
s; see, for ex am
p le,
S taffo
rd , 1985.) A
co lleg
e d e g
re e h
as b eco
m e a screen
in g
d ev
ice fo r m
a n
y
o f th
ese jo b
s. T
h u
s, co lleg
e g ra
d u
a te
s b eco
m e secretaries a
n d
m ay
m o
v e q
u ick
ly to
ad
m in
istrativ e
assistan t
p o
sitio n
s; o
r th
ey
w o
rk ,
a n
d
are p
aid
as, secretaries b
u t are called
ad m
in istrativ
e assistan ts; o
r th ey
sell in su
ran ce,
h a n
d le
a d
ju stm
e n
t m c re
d it claim
s; o r th
ey tak
e jo b
s w aitressin
g u
n til th
ey
g e t th
eirlu ck
y b
reak . T
h ey
w ill b
e h
ired o
v e r h
ig h
sch o
o l g
ra d
u a te
s o r th
o se
w ith
e v
e n
less ed u
catio n
, w h
o in p
ast m ig
h t h
av e g
o tte
n th
ese th
e lab o
r m ark
et th at m
o st P
u e rto
R ican
s face to d
ay h
as (ir> ad d
itio n
to
d isp
laced m
an u
factu rin
g w
o rk
ers) p ro
liferatin g
n u
rn b
ers o f tech
n ically
o r
co lleg
e-train ed
y o
u th
w h
o are c
o m
p e tin
g for th
e sa m
e jo
b s. M
o reo
v er,
a p
p ly
in g
for th ese jo
b s, th
ese m o
re "cred l:'n
tialed " in
d iv
id u
als are p lacin
g
th e m
o u
t o f th
e reach o
f th o
se w ith
o n
ly h
ig h
sch o
o l d
ip lo
m as. T
h ey
are, in
a sen se, "c
re d
e n
tia lin
g " th
e jo b
s by fillin g
th em
. In o th
e r w
o rd
s, th ey
are m
ak in
g n
ew cred
en tials p
e rm
a n
e n
t req u
irem en
ts o f th
ese jo b
s. w
ith in
th
e
g ro
w th
secto
rs are
C1lso req
u irin
g
credt'ntiC 1ls th
at w e re
n o
t n e n
'ssa ry
in th e
In term s o
f th e task
s to b
e d
o n
e , th
e ste p
fro m
<17th A v
e n
u e g
a rm
e n
t d istrict sp
cretary to
a W all S
treet fin
an cial
d istrict
secretary
is v
ery
sh o
rt, b
u t
it o
ften
req u
ires 3
crp d
en tial. C
red en
tials d re u
su ally
th o
u g
h t o
f a s ed
u catio
n al d
e g
re e s o
r sp
ecific sk ills train
in g
, b u
t th ey
o ften
in v
o lv
e m o
re related
ch aracteristics,
su ch
as
fam ily
co
n n
ectio n
s, eth
n ic g
ro u
p
so cio
eco n
o m
ic a n
d
resid en
tial h
ack g
ro u
n d
, p
restig e
o f
th e
sch o
o ls
a tte
n d
e d
, c u
rre n
t resid
en ce,
m a n
n e r
o f d
re ss
a n
d
sty le
o f
clo th
in g
, relig
io n
, sp eech
, co n
tacts, trav el p
x p
erip n
ce, clu b
m e m
b e rsh
ip s, a
n d
Iife T
h e tran
sferab ility
o f "sk
ills" o r "c
re d
e n
tia ls" is so
m e tim
e s m
o re
if w o
rk e rs m
e o
ld er.
is n
o w
also d
ifficu lt w
ith o
u t credentiC
1ls. A
s T h
o m
a s R
. B
ailey , a
n eco
n o
m ist C1t th
e C o
n serv
atio n
o f H
u m
a n
R eso
u rces In
stitu te a
t C
o lu
m b
ia U n
iv ersity
, recen tly
p u
l it: "Y o
u can
n o
lo n
g er start in
th e m
ail ro
o m
a n
d b
eco m
e a lin e su
p e rv
iso r o
r a secretary " (N
e w
Y o
rk D
e c e m
b e r 4, 1986: B
I6).
T w
o -T
iered S
o ciety
W e are also
b e g
in n
in g
to see th
e relativ
e co n
tractio n
o f jo
b s at th
e
m id
d le
lev el (E
h ren
reich . 1986; N
e w
Y o
rk T im
es, S
e p
te m
b e r 27,
1988: sh
a re
s are in creasin
g a
t th e p
o lar ex
trem es.
98
T H
E P
O L
IT IC
A L
-E C
O N
O M
IC C
O N
T E
X T
T h
e fastest-g ro
w in
g serv
ice in d
u stries h
av e b
een ch
aracterized b
y larg
er th
an -av
erag e co
n cen
tratio n
s o f lo
w - a n
d h
ig h
-p aid
jo b
s as m id
d le-in
co m
e jo
b s h
av e b
een u
p g
ra d
e d
a n
d d
o w
n g
ra d
e d
(S assen
-K o
o b
, ]986; F alco
n
R o
d rig
u ez, 1987: 8
2 ,1
1 1
). T h
e v
a g
u e o
u tlin
es of a fu tu
re tw o
-tiered so
ciety
are b eg
in n
in g
to em erg
e. A t th
e to p
o f th
is so ciety
are th e n
e w
h ig
h -lev
el serv
ice jo b
s in th
e fin an
cial, real estate, an d
b u
sin ess serv
ices in d
u stries.
T h
o se in
th ese jo
b s serv
ice th e n
ew co
rp o
rate clien tele fro
m ab
ro ad
a n
d
w ith
in th
e U
n ited
S tates; th
ey p
o p
u la
te th
e su b
u rb
s a n
d th
e g
en trify
in g
areas o
f th e city
. A t th
e v ery
b o
tto m
are th e h
o m
eless a n
d th
e h u
n g
ry .
W ith
in th
is em erg
in g
class co n
tex t, th
e attain
m en
t o f A
m erican
m id
d le
class d re
a m
s a p
p e a rs to
b e d
im m
in g
for P u
erto R
ican s a
n d
o th
ers n o
t at th
e u p
p e r e
n d
o f th
e scale. T h
e P
o sitiv
e S id
e
E co
n o
m ic D
ivid en
d s to
N e w
Y o
rk C ity
D esp
ite th e eco
n o
m ically
d ifficu
lt p o
sitio n
in w
h ich
P u
erto R
ican s
fo u
n d
th
em selv
es in
N
e w
Y
ork, th
ey
w ere
cru cial
to th
e p
ro p
e r
fu n
ctio n
in g
o f th
e N e w
Y o
rk eco
n o
m y
. P u
erto R
ican s en
ab led
N e w
Y o
rk
C ity
to su
stain a th
resh o
ld lev
el of lo w
-w ag
e lab o
r. W ith
o u
t th is so
u rce of
ch eap
lab o
r, m a n
y m
o re firm
s w o
u ld
h av
e left th e city
, a n
d th
o se th
at stay
ed
w o
u ld
h
av e
b een
co
n fro
n ted
w
ith
m o
re d
ifficu lt
eco n
o m
ic co
n d
itio n
s. (F o
r ex am
p le, th
ey m
ig h
t h av
e h ad
to cu
t b ack
o n
o u
tp u
t o r
su ffer lo
w er p
ro fit m
arg in
s.) T h
is h as b
een p
articu larly
tru e for th
e h o
tel a n
d restau
ran t in
d u
stry ,
w h
e re
P u
erto R
ican s
h av
e m ad
e u p
a larg
e p
ercen tag
e o f em
p lo
y ees (E
co n
o m
ic E q
u al O
p p
o rtu
n ities C
o m
m issio
n ,
1 9
6 6
)Y It w
as also tru
e at o n
e tim
e for th e tex
tile in d
u stry
, w h
e re
P u
erto
R ican
s p lay
ed a cru
cial ro le in
a n
in d
u stry
vital to N
e w
Y o
rk 's eco
n o
m y
(th
is ro le is p
lay ed
to d
ay b
y th
e n
ew er im
m ig
ran ts).
In a sen
se, N ew
Y o
rk 's claim
to b e th
e g arm
en t cap
ital o f th
e w
o rld
rested
u p
o n
P u
erto R
ican sh o
u ld
ers. 2H In 1970, N
ew Y
o rk
acco u
n ted
for 70%
o f all d
o llar sales o
f clo th
in g
in th
e U n
ited S
tatesat th e w
h o
lesale level. G
arm en
t m an
u factu
rers p ro
d u
ced a
n d
so ld
m o
re th an
$7biJIion in ap
p arel
each y
ear. A lth
o u
g h
th e to
tal n u
m b
e r o
f g arm
en t firm
s h as d
eclin ed
o v
er th
e y
ears, th e to
tal d o
llar v o
lu m
e o f b
u sin
ess h as rem
ain ed
high.29 A s late
as 1973, th e g
arm en
t in d
u stry
em p
lo y
ed m
o re p
eo p
le th an
a n
y o
th e r ty
p e
o f m
an u
factu rin
g , p
ro v
id in
g a to
tal a n
n u
a l p
ay ro
ll o f $
1 .5
b illio
n (N
e w
Y
o rk
T im
es, N
o v
em b
er 26, 1972:
1). D
esp ite th
e co n
tin u
in g
a n
d su
b
99
P U
E R
T O
R IC
A N
S
se q
u e n
t d eclin
es in th e n
u m
b e r o
f jo b
s in a m
ajo r e
m p
lo y
e r in
N e w
Y o
rk C
ity (U
.S .
D e p
a rtm
e n
t o f
W ald
in g
er, 1985: 329 ff.). S o
m e sch
o lars c
o n
te n
d th
at b u
t fo r th
e P u
e rto
R
ican m ig
ratio n
, N e w
Y o
rk C
ity w
o u
ld n
o t h
a v
e b
e e n
ab le to
h o
ld o
n to
th
is v ery
im p
o rta
n t in
d u
stry (S
en io
r a n
d W
atk in
s, 1966; V ern
o n
, 1960; N
e w
Y o
rk T im
es, Ju n
e 27, 1954: 52).
A N
o te
0 1 1 th
e S
u ccesses
It sh o
u ld
b e b
o rn
e in
m in
d
th a t so
m e P
u e rto
R ican
s h av
e co p
ed
su ccessfu
lly w
ith th
e stru ctu
ral fo rces th
at h a v
e te
n d
e d
to h a w
'a n
a d
v e rse
in
flu en
ce o n
th e eco
n o
m ic in
teg ratio
n o
f th e g
ro u
p . It is e
v id
e n
t fro m
N Y
C
c e n
su s d
ata th at th
e re
h a s b
e e n
m o
v e m
e n
t to g ro
w th
secto rs w
ith in
th e
N Y
C e
c o
n o
m y
a n
d to o
th e r arcas o
f th e co
u n
try . S
o m
e g ro
u p
s o f P
u c rto
R
ican s in
N ew
Y o
rk arc d
o in
g q
u ite
w ell. F
o r ex
am p
le, m ain
lan d
-b o
rn
P u
erto R
ican s in N
ew Y
o rk
a n
' b e tte
r ed u
cated a
n d
h av
e a m o
re fav o
rab le
d istrib
u tio
n th
a n
th o
se b o
rn o
n th
e islan d
; m ain
lan d
w o
m e n
in
th e lab
o r fo
rce at rail'S as h
ig h
as o r h
ig h
e r th
a n
th o
se fo r
P u
e rto
R
ican s
w ith
a
co lleg
e e d
u c a tio
n
a re
e m
p lo
y e d
a s o
ften as
a t th
e h
ig h
e st lev
els o f
ed u
catio n
, ap
p ro
x im
ate th
e
ch aracteristics
o f
n o
n -H
isp a n
ic
W h
ites (F
d !c(m
-R o
d rig
u ez, 1987}.
T h
e re
h
av e
also
b e e n
im
p ro
v e m
e n
ts, fo
r in
stan ce,
in creases
in
sem ip
ro fessio
n al
a n
d
tech n
ical o
ccu p
atio n
s, reg
ard less
o f
o r
n ativ
ity (i.e., w
h e th
e r islan
d o
r m a in
la n
d b
o rn
), a n
d a
n in
crease in th
e
lab o
r fo
rce p
articip atio
n
rates o
f w
o m
e n
in
th
e
last d
ecad e
(F alc6
n
R odrigue;>
:, 1987). In ad d
itio n
, th ere are in
d icatio
n s th
at P u
e rto
R ican
sh av
e fared
b e tte
r in c o
m m
u n
itie s o
u tsid
e o
f N ew
Y o
rk . A
s w a s p
o in
ted o
u t in
2, th
e re
a re
also q
u e stio
n s a
b o
u t th
e d
ata u se
d to
m e a su
re P
u erto
J{ican p
ro g
re ss--fo
r ex am
p le, w
h e th
e r th
e co n
tin u
ally d
e p
re sse
d lev
els a re
th e resu
lt o f a co
n tin
u ally
c h
a n
g in
g p
o p
u la
tio n
o f p
eo p
le th at m
a y
in
clu d
e m a n
y w
h o
are n o
t P u
erto R
ican . W
h a t th
e su
ccesses essen tially
sh
o w
is th at P
u erto
R ican
s ca n
d o
it. W h
e th
e r o
r n o
t m o
re P
u erto
R ican
s w
ill su cceed
w ill d
e p
e n
d g
reatly o
n th
e fu
tu re co
n tex
t o f
a n
d th
e p o
sitio n
th a t P
u e rto
R ican
s M e p
laced in
in
relatio n
to
o th
e r
g ro
u p
s.
100
rH F
I'O lIT
l( A t-L
e t)I':O
rv IlC
U
ll':T E
X T
S u
m m
a ry
: S
tru ctu
ral N a tu
re o
f It A ll
D e sp
ite th
e
im p
o rta
n t
ro le
p la
y e d
P
u e rto
R ican
s in
th e city
's e c o
n o
m y
a n
d th
e su
ccesses o f m
a n
y , th
e g
e n
e ra
l e x
p e rie
n c e a
n d
c o
n te
x t
o f th
e m
ig ra
tio n
h
a v
e b
e e n
d ifficu
lt. P
u e rto
R ican
s a rriv
e d
in
n
u m
b e rs d
u rin
g th
e city
's tra n
sitio n
fro m
a m a jo
r m a n
u fa
c tu
rin g
c e n
te r to
a
p o
stin d
u strid
l e c o
n o
m y
b
a se
d
o n
c o
rp o
ra te
a n
d
cu ltu
ral serv
ice in
d u
strie s. T
h e P
u e rto
R ican
w o
rk fo
rce W ,lS c
o n
c e n
tra te
d in
th l' m
o st
v u
ln e ra
b le
o f th
e m
a n
u fa
c tu
rin g
areas, d u
ra b
le g
o o
d s a
n d
th e g
an n
E 'n
t st'cto
r. T
h u
s, P
u e rto
R
ican s
bl'C ,lnW
u
n k
n o
w in
g ly
e n
m e sh
e d
in
th
e
e c o
n o
m ic
a n
d
so cial
d islo
c a tio
n s
in h
e rl'n
t in
th
e city
's tran
sitio n
. In
essen cl;" lo
w -sk
ill a n
d b
lu e-co
llar jo b
s w e re
b t'in
g e
lim in
a te
d b
y te
c h
n o
lo
g ical c
h a n
g e w
h ile
o th
e rs w
e n
' p ro
te c te
d b
y u
n io
n s o
r m o
v in
g a
w a y
to th
t' su b
u rb
s, th e S
o u
th , a
n d
lo w
-w a g
e secto
rs in o
th e r c
o u
n trie
s. F
e w
e r jo
b s I1
w an
t m o
re u
n e m
p lo
y e d
p e o
p le
a n
d g
re a te
r c o
m p
e titio
n
fo r rem
ain ll1
g jo
b s. S
in ce th
e se
tre n
d s o
c c u
rre d
m o
re rap
id ly
th a n
o u
t m
ig ratio
n o
r th e re
tra in
in g
o f b
lu e-co
llar w o
rk e rs to
fill w h
ite-co llar
a se v
e re
p ro
b le
m o
f b lu
e-co llar stru
c tu
ra l
u n
e m
p lo
y m
e n
t a ro
se in
th
e
reg io
n . P
u e rto
R ican
s b o
re th e b
ru n
t o f th
e se
sh ifts b
e c a u
se th
e P u
e rto
R
ican w
o rk
fo rce w
a s so
h e a v
ily c
o n
c e n
tra te
d in
m a n
u fa
c tu
rin g
. P u
e rto
R
ican s also
h a d
to
c o
n te
n d
w
ith a
so cietal o
rd e r th
a n
in
c lu
d e d
racial
im d
e th
n ic
h o
stility , w
h ic
h W
l'r(;' re p
ro d
u c e d
th ro
u g
h restrictiv
e u
n io
n p
o licies a
n d
p ra
c tin
's, a n
e d
u c a tio
n a l sy
ste m
th a t d
id n
o t p
re p
a re
P
u e rto
R ican
s fo r "g
o o
d jo
b s," a
n d
th e relativ
e l'x clu
sio n
o f P
u e rto
Ri('an~ fro
m g
o v
e rn
n w
n t e
m p
lo y
m e n
t. T
h e 1
9 7
0 s a
n d
19R O
s sa w
a co n
tin u
,1 tio
n o
f th e se
e c o
n o
m ic
tre n
d s, a
fiscal crisis, N e w
Y o
rk C
ity 's m
o v
e to
b eco
m e d n
atio n
,1 l a
n d
in te
rn a tio
n a l
fin an
cid l c
e n
te r, a n
e w
l·m p
h a sis o
n c
re d
e n
tia ls (alo
n g
w ith
th e p
ro lifera
tio n
o f cred
en tiall'd
w o
rk e rs), lIw
en tr,1
n ce o
f n e w
im m
ig ra
n ts w
o rk
in g
a t
lo w
e r w
aW 's, o
ften in th
e in
fo rm
al secto r, a
n d
d im
in ish
in g
m id
d le-fl'v
el jo
b s. T
h e se
n e w
tn 'n
d s ,1nd e
v e n
ts d id
n o
t im p
ro v
e th
e jo
b p
o ssib
ilities o f
P u
e rto
R ican
s. F in
ally , th
e g
o v
e rn
m e n
t's n o
n p
re fe
re n
tia l ro
le in e
m p
lo y
m
e n
t v is-a-v
is P u
e rto
R ican
s, th
e n
its re d
u c tio
n o
f tra in
in g
p ro
g ra
m s,
affirm ativ
e actio n
, a n
d
so cial
sp tc'n
d in
g
in
th e
1 9
8 0
s, ex
acerb d
ted
th e
tro u
b le
d c
o n
te x
t in to
w h
ic h
P u
e rtu
R ican
s ste p
p e d
. ~il
101
' ~
~
.:;::. ~
r::
'- .:: ct',
j ,
Z
r r:: <
'':j;
;..; O
Il (I.;
« :2
..... c ~
Z
"-l '" ::J
T H
E P
O L
IT IC
A L
-E C
O N
O M
IC C
O N
T E
X T
9 T
h e A
m erican
T ran
sit A u
th o
rity e
stim a te
d th
at th e n
a tio
n w
id e a
v e ra
g e co
st for a
n in
n er-city
resid en
t to trav el to
th e su
b u
rb s fo
r h is o
r h e r jo
b w
as $15 m
o n
th in
1968. In N
e w
Y o
rk th
e e stim
a te
for tra n
sp o
rta tio
n fro
m H
a rle
m
F arm
in g
d ale, L
o n
g Islan
d , w
as $ 4
0 p
e r m
o n
th in
th e sa
m e y
t'ar (W ill a
n d
V
atter, 1970). T h
e se
e stim
a te
s d id
n o
t tak e in
to acco
u n
t w aitin
g tim
e o r th
e fact th
at sc h
e d
u le
s w e re
u su
ally g
earp d
to facilitate th
e m a ss o
f su b
u rb
a n
ite s
c o
m in
g in
to th
e city for w
o rk
a n
d n
o t v
ice v ersa. (It IS
o f in
terest th a t in
th e last
d e c a d
e m
o st o
f th e n
e w
jo
b s in
N
e w
Y
o rk
C ity
h
a v
e g
o n
e
to su
b u
rb a n
c o
m m
u te
rs.) 10
T h
e q llt'stio
n o
f w h
y P
u e rto
R ican
s w e re
u n
ab le to
m o
v e to th
e su
b u
rb s for
th ese jo
b s is p
e rh
a p
s b est a
n sw
e re
d by B
M ry (1986); "
U k
e n
e w
h o
u sin
g in
g
en eral, th
e n e w
su b
u rb
a n
h o
u sin
g w
a s n
o t av
ail,lb le to
th e least w
ell o ff o
r, to
a g reat ex
ten t, to
m in
o rities. U
n lik
e earlier tim es, th
e p
o o
r w ere
a n
d p
o litically
b arred
fro m
th e areas c
o n
ta in
in g
th e n
e w
h o
u sin
g
ju risd
ictio n
al frag
m en
tatio n
a n
d
ex clu
sio n
ary
z o
n in
g ."
H ig
h w
a y
s a n
d
recreatio n
al sites w ('re also
p la
n n
e d
so a
s to c x
c iu
d e in
n er-city
m in
o rities fro
m
su b
u rb
a n
sites (C am
, 1974). 11
E v
en
if P
u e rto
R
ican s
secu red
jo
b s
in th
e su
b u
rb s,
th t'
tra n
sp o
rta tio
n
d ifficu
lties w e re
su c h
th at th
e jo b
s w e re
u su
ally sh
o rt-liv
ed . A
s R o
sen b
erg
(1974: 204-·205) p o
in ts o
u t: "If P
u e rto
R ican
s liv in
g in
cen tral cities d
o o
b tain
su
c h
jo b
s, o u
r d,ltil su g
g e ste
d th
at th e d
ifficu lties o
f tra n
sp o
rta tio
n in
v o
lv ed
in
th
e
'rev erse c
o m
m u
tin g
' fro
m
th eir
resid en
ce M
cas to
th
e su
b u
rb a n
t'm
p lo
y m
e n
t c e n
te rs m
a y
b e to
o m
u c h
o f a b
u rd
e n
." 12
SeC ' R
o d
rig u
C 'z (1973) for d
ata o n
th e P
u e rto
R ican
w o
rk ftJrce
b e tw
e e n
1950 iln d
1970; set' also T
o rn
's 13
T ien
d a (1983a: (9
) also raises th
is q u
e stio
n in
p art a
n d
in r('latio
n to
all L atin
o s.
14 T
h eft' is co
n sid
l'rab le d
e b
a te
a b
o u
t th e rd
a tiv
e im
p o
rta n
n ' o
f tilt' r,lC
t' o rd
e r
a n
d th
e eco n
o m
ic oniL 'r in
d e te
rm in
in g
r1ass p o
sitit)n . M
d c n
d e z (1986: 49),
th at n
o t o
n ly
h av
e p ('o
p it' o
f co lo
r h a d
to c
o n
te n
d w
ith th
e fm
ces o f in
stitu tio
n alized
facia I a n
d e
th n
ic p
re ju
d icc, b
u t th
l'y h
a v
e a
iso se
rv e d
as ,) b
u ffer b
l'tw een
th e full efferts o
f d o
w n
w a rd
cy cles a
n d
o th
e r se
g m
e n
ts o f
w o
rk ers. A
lth o
u g
h th
is d e b
a te
w ill co
n tin
u e, it is clear th
at th e raciill o
rd e r a
n d
th
e eco n
o m
ic o rlip
r rein fo
rce each o
th e r ,m
d th
at th e y
arc' o ften
in ex
tricab ly
in
te rtw
in e d
. (S l'l' C
h a p
te r 3 fo
r a n
an aly
sis o f th
e relatio n
sh ip
o f P
u e rto
R ican
race a
n d
g e n
d e r to
15
In 1975, I fo u
n d
th at tirst-
a n
d se
c o
n d
-g e n
e ra
tio n
P u
e rto
R ican
s in N
e w
Y ork
C ity
p erceiv
ed d
iscrim in
,ltio n
to b
e a c o
m m
o n
o ccu
rren ce in th
l' w o
rk p
lace a n
d in
o th
e r areas. O
th e r stu
d it's h
a v
e fo
u n
d th
d t lab
o r m
a rk
e t c
o n
d itio
n s a
n d
d
iscrim in
atio n
h a v
e n
m trib
u lt'd
to th
e d isa
d v
a n
ta g
e d
sta tu
so f P
u e rto
R ican
s. S
ee T ien
d a (1985: (,3
), w h
o states th
,)t th e "to
tal effect o f d
iscrim in
atio n
h as
p ro
b ab
ly b
e e n
u n
d e rsta
te d
." B o
rjas (1983) fin d
s th a t it is th
e "stru c tu
ra l"
facto rs (i.e., th
e in teractio
n o
f in d
iv id
u al ch
aracteristics a n
d th
e p ro
b ab
ility o
f e m
p lo
y m
e n
t) a n
d n
o t P
u erto
H ican
s' o b
serv ab
le ch aracteristics th
at lead to
lo
w er e
m p
lo y
m e n
t rates. S ee also
H e rn
a n
d e z (1983).
16 O
th e r research
ers h av
e a rg
u e d
sim ilarly
; for ex am
p le, C
o lo
n -W
arren (1984)
p o
in ts o
u t th
at tran sfo
rm atio
n s o
f th e e c o
n o
m ic
sy ste
m c
o n
tin u
e to
re p
ro d
u c e
co m
p etitio
n a
n d
in eq
u ality
. In a sim ilar v
ein , S
taffo rd
(1985: 145) d iscu
sses h
o w
each se
g m
e n
te d
m ark
et h as ev
o lv
ed se
p a ra
te criteria fo
r e n
try a
n d
ru les
fo r m
o b
ility ; "T
h e se
m a rk
e ts h
a v
e b
e e n
sh a p
e d
b y
h isto
rical fo rces, in
clu d
in g
im
m ig
ratio n
a n
d
m ig
ratio n
p
a tte
rn s,
ed u
catio n
al re
q u
ire m
e n
ts, h
irin g
103
P U
E R
T O
R IC
A N
S
p ractices, zm
d th
e ro
le of u n
io n
s. T h
e se
m a rk
e ts M
e a
lso
in d
u strh
ll a n
d
jo b
n
'o rg
a n
iz a tio
n
c a u
se d
w
e a k
e n
in g
o f
affirm ativ
e a c tio
n p
ro g
ra m
s, n e w
u n
io n
p
re sp
n t w
o rk
e rs b
u t p
e n
a liz
e IlC
'W e
m p
lo y
e e s, a
n d
th e d
isb a n
d in
g o
f fu
n d
e d
tr,lin
in g
p
ro g
ra m
s." It a
p p
e a rs th
a t th
e forcl~s
sh a p
in g
e n
try
m o
b ility
ru k ';; fo
r tlw se
m a rk
e ts w
ill c o
n tin
u e to
rd n
fo rc
e th
e c
u rrp
n t race
o rd
e r.
1 7
T h
e n
' a n
' o th
e rs w
h o
a rg
u c th
a t d
isc rim
in a tio
n , a
lth o
u g
h it m
a y
ex ist, is n
o l
a n
d W
,l<; n o
l ,1 stru ctu
r,ll p a ri o
f th e la
b o
r m a rk
e t. T
h is n~c('ntly (re
jd e v
l'io p
e d
sch
o o
l o
f th
o u
g h
t h,15
b e c n
u
se d
in
a n
a ly
se s
c o
n c e rn
in g
tlw
e v
id e n
t stratific,l tio
n of racial· e
th n
ic g
ro u
p s in
th e U
n ite
d S
t,ltes (S o
w ell, 1Y
81). R id
in g
o
n th
e id
eo lo
g ic'll W,lVl~ o
f e n
tre p
re n
e u
rsh ip
, p ro
p o
n p
n ts o
f th is p
o in
t o f v
iew
a rg
u p
th ,lt th
l' d iffl'rl'l1
C es b
e tw
e e n
r,K i,ll/l'th
n ic g
ro u
p s ,H
l' d u
e to
e n
tre p
re
n e u
ria l ab
ility , o
r th e ab
ility o
f g ro
u p
s to ta
k e a
d v
a n
ta g
e o
f th e frep
m a rk
e t.
A c c o
rd in
g to
th is p
e rsp
e c tiv
e , th
isis w h
a t h
a s g
iv e n
so m
e g
ro u
p s a b
e tte
r p lace
in th
is so ciety
, th ,)t is, a
c u
ltu ra
l « lp
ilill ed g
(': so m
(' g ro
u p
s hiw L
' farl'd
b p
U ('r th
,lll o tlw
r" bl'C allS
l' th e re
h,lV l' beL
'n d iffn
in g
"in d
iv id
u a l" effo
rts o n
th", lld
rt o f th
e se
g ro
u p
s. (F o
r d critiq u
(' o f th
is p crsp
l'ciiv l.', SL'C l.(o
d rig
llcz,
lR
T a b
b
to
rd l'rr,ll
u n
io n
s) th
,lt b
l'd r
o u
t th
e
in (t'rta
in u
n io
n s,
143, 14:1), w h
o fo
u n
d th
,ll B
lacks< 1nd L
a tin
o s fro
m a
c h
ie v
in g
lY
o f
2 ()
rl'pn~Sl'nt'lti()n o f L
illin o
s in s\,lle g o
v e rn
m e n
t, ,m d
ta
k e s n
o tl' o
i th i" situ
a tio
n \v
ith rl'g
ard to
I .atin il" in
N e w
21
e h
,m g
l'" in tIll' S hM
l'S o
fg ro
ss n iltio
n n
l p ro
d u
c t
S p
l'lld lllg
sh o
w
Ih a t
th ree' ilre,lS
h
,IV (,
in n
l'a sl'd
b
P lw
e e n
d
d (,llS
l' l'x p
l'n d
itu fl's (b
y I
)'1" o
f lo lal C
N P
sh ,lrv
), in l('rl",t
1 .0
% ),
a n
d
M ed
ic,lIT d
n d
soei,,1
s('cu rity
(b v
O .·l%
j. A
ll o
lh e r ,lfL
'dS h
a v
e
d l'd
ilw d
, in c lu
d in
g so
cial sp e n
d in
g . w
h ic
h d
('rii!ll'd b
y ·_(l.W
?;,. T h
e se
.H
l' b d
S l'd
o n
U ffiet' o
f M ,l n
ag l'm
L 'n
t a n
d B
u d
g l'l, l1
isto rica
l 7 :lb
iL 's
, 1Y
H 6, T
d b
ll's 1 .2
, 2 .1
,2 .2
,3 .2
, ritl'd in C
l'lltl'rfo r P
o p
u l,lr E
co llo
m ics, ]lJR
6: 22
S c e F
ald lll-I.(o
d rfg
u l'z (1 Y
R 7:
% , 110) f(lr ddt,)
su b
st,lI1 tiatin
g thL
' g ro
w th
" u
n to
R ic,1I1S in
th (' h
u m
,lIl se rv
ic e s M
l',)S in N
l'w Y
o rk
b d
w l'l'n
IY 70 a
I1d IYH O
. 2
]
C o
l(J\l-W arren
(IY R
4 :
4 (5
) p o
in ts (lu
t th,1I
l"'lp it,d
ists h ire w
o rk
e rs w
h o
,ln '
d isc
rim in
a te
d ,lg
,lin st
l1 L
'C ,1
U S
e th e y
,111ow lo
w e r la
b o
r co sts. T
h is, h
o v
v l'v
er, d
o l'S
n o
t 1llL '']]) tll<
lt cap italists M
l' co lo
r, Sl'X , o
r n .ltio
n ,)lity
b lin
d , fo
r th e re
,ln '
o tlw
r llccd c;io
n s w
lw n
d isc
rim in
a tio
n is u
se d
d S
d n
W ,lIls
o f J1
l,lin tain
in g
a I,n g
er in
d u
stria l l"es{'fV
l' <1rm y a
n d
lo w
l'in n
in g
s. 24
A m
O rt' p
recise d l'fin
itio n
o f th
e in
fo rm
al s('rio r is g
iv e n
b y
P o
riP s ,m
d S
,lssen
K n
o b
(1 9
8 7
: 3 ]): "
th e su
m to
tal o f in
c o
m e -e
a rn
in g
activ ities w
ith th
e e
x c lu
sio n
o
f thos~' th a t in
v o
lv e c
o n
tra c tu
a l a
n d
leg ally
re g
u la
te d
e m
p lo
y m
e n
t."
1 0
4
T H
E P
O L
lT IC
t\L -E
C O
N O
M IC
C O
N T
E X
r
25 A
n in
te re
stin g
e x
a m
p le
o f su
c h
d isp
la c e m
e n
t o c c u
rre d
recen tly
v .'h
en a lo
n g
tim
e P u
e rto
R ican
w o
rk e r in
th e g
a rm
e n
t in d
u stry
a sk
e d
to b
e p
aid fo
ro v
e rtim
e
w o
rk . T
h e b
o ss, n
o t k
n o
w in
g th
e e m
p lo
y e c w
a s P
u c rto
R ican
, said th
e tim
e d
id n
't cO lln
t b ecau
se th e a
d d
itio n
a l h
o u
rs h a d
n o
t b een
fu lly
c o
m p
le te
d each
d
ay .
W h
e n
th
e w o
m a n
in sisted
o n
h
ein g
p aid
p
ro p
o rtio
n a te
ly ,
th e h
o ss
in d
icated h
e d
id n
't lik e tro
u b
lc m
a k
e rs a
n d
w o
u ld
" rq
m rt h
e r" (th
e
tio n
b e in
g th
a t h
e w o
u ld
co n
tact th e im
m ig
ratio n
au th
o rities). T
h e w
o m
a n
fo
u g
h t fo
r h e r rig
h ts a
n d
d id
g et h
e r o
v ertim
e, a lth
o u
g h
sh e lo
st h e r jo
b a
n d
h
a s b
een u
n e m
p lo
y e d
l'v er sin
ce. 26
R etw
l'en 1970 a
n d
1 9
8 0
, th e re
w a s a d
l'd in
e o
f isla n
d -b
o rn
m e n
in serv ice
e m
p lo
y m
e n
t w ith
in th
e fo o
d serv
ices secto r in
N e
w Y
o rk
, w hiIL
' m a in
la n
d
b o
rn ,m
d
n o
n -H
isp a n
ic W
h ill'
m e n
reg
istered a n
incre< ls('
in th
ese "re a s
(F a1
ctin -R
o d
rig u
ez, 1987:
110). T
h is w
o u
ld S
l'em
to in d
icate th l're is so
m e
"y u
p p
ific a tilln
" o
f re
sta u
ra n
t jo
b s
g o
in g
o
n
in
N e w
Y
o rk
. T
h e
recen t
re fu
rb ish
in g
o f tlw
fa m
o u
s 21 C lu
b in
N e w
Y llrk
C ity
also re
su lte
d in
th e o
u ste
r o
f lo n
g -tin
w em
p ln
y l'l's w
h o
W l're p
re d
o m
in a n
tly L
H in
o s a
n d
o ld
e r w
o rk
e rs.
A la
w su
it w a s b
ro u
g h
t b y
th e fired
e m
p lo
y e e s (N
c w
sd a
y , M
ay 14, 1987, p. 6
; N
e w
Y (Jrk D
. ~ i f y N
e w
s, M ay
15,1< )87, p. 20).
27 T
o so
m e l'x
ten l, th
e g
ro w
in g
n u
m b
e rs o
f P u
e rto
R ican
s (a n
d B
lack s) in
th e
h e a lth
a n
d
h o
sp ital
sl'rv ices
m ig
h t
b e
se e n
,1
5
a fo
rth co
m in
g
p arallel
p h
e n
o llw
n o
n .
In th
is case,
h O
W t'V
l'f, g
o v
e rn
m e n
t su
b sid
y
is th
e
la rg
e r
d e te
rm in
in g
facto r in
w h
e tlw
r O f n
o t th
is in d
u stry
sta y
s 111 N l'w
Y o
rk . T
h l'sl'
serv ices a
re e
q u
iv a le
n t to
u tilities -th
e y
d o
n o
t h a v
e th
e o
p tio
n o
f leav in
g th
e
city ; th
eir o n
ly a
lte rn
a tiv
e s a
re to
g ro
w o
r d e te
rio ra
te .
28 T
h e H
a rv
a rd
stu d
y o
f th e N
e w
Y o
rk m
etro p
o lit,1
I1 reg
io n
to o
k n
o ll' o
f th is ro
le in
th e 1<)50s: "T
h e ratl' o
f P llt'rto
R ican
m ig
ratio n
to N l'w
Y o
rk is o
n e o
f th e
fa d
o rs
th a t
d e te
rm in
e
h o
w
lo n
g
a n
d
h o
w
su ccessfu
lly
th e
N e w
Y
o rk
reg
io n
w
ill retain
in
d u
strie s
w h
ic h
a re
u
n d
e r
co m
p l'titiv
e p
re ssu
re fro
m o
th e r areas. T
o th
e e
x te
n t th
a t so
m e o
f th e se
in d
u strie
s h a v
e
h u
n g
o n
in th
e area, th
ey h
a v
e d
e p
t'n d
e d
o n
rn v
n tly
arriv ed
P u
e rto
R ican
w
o rk
l'rs, w h
o h
av (' p
n terp
d th
e jo
b m
a rk
e t o
f th e N
e w
Y o
rk area ,1t th
e rate o f
a b
o u
t 1 3
,0 0
0 p
ach v
e a r" (V
ern o
n ,
2<) In
1<)72, th
e N
e w
'Y o
rk T im
e s (N
o v
e m
b e r 26: s('c. 3
, p .
1) p o
in te
d o
u t th
ai th
e n u
m b
l'r o f g
a rn
w n
t firm s d
e c lin
e d
in th
e 19605, th
l' re m
a in
in g
firm
s w p
re larg
er a n
d fin
an cially
strlln g
er. S assen
-K o
o b
(1983: 1
9 1
-1 9
2 ) h
a s
m o
re
recen tly
a rg
u l'd
th
a t
it w
a s
th e
larg er
sh o
p s
w ith
sta
n d
a rd
iz e d
p
ro d
u c tio
n th
a t m
o v
e d
, w h
ile th
e less m e c h
a n
iz e d
b ra
n c h
e s, a
s w ell a
s th e
in d
u stry
's m a rk
e tin
g a n
d d
e sig
n o
p e ra
tio n
s, re m
a in
e d
in N
t'w Y
ork. (S ee also
W
ald in
g er, 1<)85, w
h o
m ain
t,1 in
s th at N
Y C
still c o
m p
e te
s su ccl'ssfu
lly in
th e
p ro
d u
c tio
n o
f u n
sta n
d a rd
iz e d
g o
o d
s.) In e
ith e rcase, th
e in
d u
stry is still a v
ery
v iab
le p art o
f N e w
Y o
rk C
ity .
30 S
ee S taffo
rd (1985: 6
-1 1
ff.), w h
o sa
y s th
a t th
e 1
9 8
0 s h
a v
e se
l'n a d
ism a n
tlin g
o
f train in
g p
ro g
ra m
s, less p u
b lic se
c to
r e m
p lo
y m
e n
t, a n
d less a
tte n
tio n
to a
n d
e n
fo rc
l'm e n
t o f affirm
ativ e actio
n
p ro
g ra
m s (see also
C e n
te r fo
r P
o p
u la
r E
co n
o m
ics, 1986).
105
