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Paradigm, Theory and Method Defined

Communication Theory

Functions and Development of theory

5 Major Theoretical Paradigms in Communication

Empirical Laws Paradigm

Human Rules Paradigm

Systems Theory Paradigm

Rhetorical Theory Paradigm

Critical Theory Paradigm

Communication Research Methods

Seven Basic Steps of Research

3 Broad Categories of Research Methods

Rhetorical

Quantitative

Qualitative

Agenda

Everyday we use information that we know to inform our decisions—this information come from the paradigms, theories and methods that we have learned.

We use paradigms, theories and methods in our life almost every day…but we just don’t call them that.

Think about it: What do you base your perspective on?

Have you ever assumed that the nurse will be a woman?

This is a paradigm

Do you base your route to school/work on the traffic patterns you have experienced in the past?

This is a theory you have on traffic patterns

Do you have a specific way of getting ready in the bathroom in the morning because you know it is efficient?

This is your method for getting ready

Paradigms, Theories and Methods

Based on the examples that I just gave you, write down your definition or basic understanding of a …

Theory=

Paradigm=

Research Method=

Activity: Define Paradigms, Theories and Methods

Theories are a way of looking at events, organizing them, and representing them. 

They can take the form of a set of statements that explain a particular phenomenon

Theories are used as tools for understanding, explaining and making predictions about a given subject matter

Example: The Big Bang Theory attempts to explain how the universe was created. This theory is based on scientific evidence and observation. Not everyone agrees with this theory.

Discussion: What are other theories that you can think of?

Theory

One way to simplify the understanding of complex theories is to categorize multiple theories into broader categories, or paradigms.

A paradigm is a collection of concepts, values, assumptions, and practices that constitute a way of viewing reality for a community that shares them, especially an intellectual community. 

Example: The role of women in the 1950s—the basic paradigm, or common sense assumption is that women should be in the home.

Discussion: What are other paradigms you can think of?

Paradigm

Methodology=the actual process of doing research 

There are different types of research methods so scholars will collect and analyze data in different ways to prove or disprove theories

Rhetorical, Quantitative, and Qualitative methods are the primary types of research methodologies in communication

EX: The Scientific Method is one of the most widely used research practices that allows scholars to standardize their research practices

Research Methods

Communication Theory

Survey of Communication Study, Hahn and Paynton, chpts. 5

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Survey_of_Communication_Study/Chapter_5_-_Communication_Theory

1. Theories help us organize and understand our communication experiences

We use theories to organize a broad range of experiences into smaller categories by paying attention to “common features” of communication situations 

2. Theories help us choose what communicative behaviors to study

Theories guide where we choose to look, what we look at, and how we look at communicative phenomenon

5 Functions of Communication Theory

3. Theories help us broaden our understanding of human communication

Scholars who study communication share theories with one another online, through books, journal articles, and at conferences

The sharing of theories generates dialogue, which allows us to further refine the theories developed in this field 

4. Theories help us predict and control our communication.

When we communicate, we try to predict how our interactions will develop so we can maintain a certain level of control.

5 Functions of Communication Theory

5. Theories help us challenge current social and cultural realities by providing new ways of thinking and living.

People sometimes make the mistake of assuming that the ways we communicate are innate rather than learned. This is not true.

In order to challenge the communicative norms we learn, people use critical theories to ask questions about the status quo of human communication

5 Functions of Communication Theory

5 Functions of Communication Theory: Summary

When developing “good” theories communication researchers use the following criteria to ensure that their work in valuable:

Scope refers to how broad or narrow a theory is

If a theory is too broad it may not account for specific instances that are important for understanding how we communicate.

If it is too narrow, we may not be able to understand communication in general terms. 

Developing Theories

Parsimony refers to the idea that, all things being equal, the simplest solution takes precedence over a more complicated one.

A theory is valuable when it is able to explain, in basic terms, complex communicative situations.

If the theory cannot be explained in simple terms it is not demonstrating parsimony.

Heuristic Value means that a theory prompts other theorists to engage in further study and theorizing about a given problem.

The Greeks used the term heurisko, meaning “I find” to refer to an idea, which stimulates additional thinking and discovery. 

Developing Theories

Openness is the quality that a theory allows for, and recognizes, multiple options and perspectives.

The openness of a theory should allow a person to examine its multiple options and perspectives in order to personally determine if the theory holds up or not.

Appropriateness refers to the fit between the underlying theoretical assumptions and the research question.

Theories must be consistent with the assumptions, goals, and data of the research in question. 

Developing Theories

Validity refers to the worth and practical nature of a theory.

The question should be asked, “is a theory representative of reality?”

There are three qualities of validity — value, fit, and generalizability.

Is a theory valuable for the culture at large?

Does it fit with the relationship between the explanations offered by the theory and the actual data?

Finally, is it generalizable to a population beyond the sample size? 

Developing Theories

Developing Theories: Summary

There are 5 general theoretical paradigms in communication.

Each paradigm contains various theories

Each paradigm may have several different names which will be noted

Communication Paradigms:

Empirical Laws Paradigm

Human Rules Paradigm

Systems Theory Paradigm

Rhetorical Theories Paradigm

Critical Theories Paradigm

Theoretical Paradigms

Are there any “laws” that govern how we communicate?

For example, when you say to someone “Hi, how are you?

How do you expect them to respond?

Probably, “Fine, how are you?”

Does this always happen?

No, it does not, but your expectation is guided by your assumption of communication laws

Discussion/Think about it Empirical Laws Paradigm

The premise of Empicial Laws Paradigm can be stated as a simple equation of causation: If X, then Y.

If X=“Hi, how are you?”

Y then = “Fine, how are you?”

Empirical Laws Paradigm

Theories in the Empirical Laws Paradigm approach Communication from the perspective that there are universal laws that govern how we communicate.

Other names for Empirical Laws include: hard science, the positivist approach, and the classical approach.

Natural scientists look for universal laws to understand and explain our world.

Ex: The laws of gravity

Communication scientists look for universal laws to understand how we communicate.

Ex: When we say “how are you?” someone responds “Fine”

Empirical Laws Paradigm

One example of a Empirical Laws Paradigm is Trait Theory

Trait Theory posits that there are certain physical, personality, and communicative characteristics that make one person more likely to be a leader over another

Discussion: What do you think are traits that will make someone a good leader?

Trait theory propose that people in western societies who are physically tall, charismatic, intelligent, white, and male are more likely to be leaders, be perceived as leaders, be placed in more leadership positions, and make better leaders than those who don’t exhibit these characteristics

Do you agree?

Empirical Laws Paradigm Example Theory

Strengths:

This paradigm helps us determine cause and effect relationships in our communication with others

It helps us predict the outcomes of our interactions with others

Useful for understanding simple interactions

Weaknesses:

It can oversimplify or fail to explain situations where a number of variables exist

It does not account for the variety of human choices and behaviors

It is impossible to predict, control, and generalize how communication will unfold

“How are you?” --- “Horrible!”

It operates under the assumption that, given the same context, people bring the same things to the context each time.

Empirical Laws Paradigm Strengths and Weaknesses

What is the difference between a LAW and a RULE?

You are familiar with the phrase: “rules are meant to be broken”

This simple statement highlights the difference between empirical laws and human rules approaches to communication

If you break a law in the physical world there is always a consequence

However, if you break a rule, it may not have the same consequences as breaking a law

Discussion/Think about it Human Rules Paradigm

Some scholars believed empirical laws theories could not explain communication effectively so they began developing theories around the idea of rules rather than laws

Human Rules Paradigm approaches communication from the perspective that we follow shared rules of communication, not strict laws 

Human Rules theories share similar assumptions with empirical laws, but are more flexible

Believe we follow general rules of communication rather than absolute laws that apply 100% of the time to our interactions.

Human rules theories believe that communication rules are created by people, and are therefore always open to change

Human Rules Paradigm

Social Exchange Theory, which theorizes that people participate in relationships when there is a fair exchange of costs and rewards, is an example of the human rules paradigm

Social Exchange Theory claims that when the rules of exchange are violated in a relationship, participants may choose to terminate the relationship.

Example: Your friend began dating a new boyfriend or girlfriend and they “did not have time for you anymore.”

You were upset because your friend violated the rules of social exchange; in this case the exchange was time spent together.

What do you do? Stop being friends, accept it and be happy for them or wait from them to inevitably break up? Social Exchange Theory say you MAY choose to terminate the friendship, but would you?

Human rules theories helps us to predict how people might respond, much like empirical laws theories.

However, unlike empirical laws theories, rules are bound by context and not universal to all situations.

Human Rules Paradigm Example Theory

Strengths:

Human Rules Paradigm accounts for choice in communication behaviors.

We are not merely controlled by laws but instead we develop rules to help facilitate and understand our interactions,

Rules of communication help guide our interactions, but we have flexibility to “play” with the rules because they are dynamic and contextual.

Weaknesses

Human Rules Paradigm cannot fully predict behavior or outcomes

Rules are culturally and contextually bound

For example, when we develop theories about something like communication anxiety as it relates to public speaking, we do so under the framework of our cultural perspective.

These same theories often do not apply to other cultures.

Human Rules Paradigm Strengths and Weaknesses

How do you bake a cake?

When you get out your box of Duncan Hines cake mix, do you have a cake?

NO, you must open the box, add the egg and water, beat the mixture and then put it in a pan and put it in a pre-heated oven for a certain amount of time

It is only when you follow the directions and combine the ingredients in a particular way that you have a cake.

The sum of the ingredients is greater than the parts…this is systems theory

Discussion/Think about it Systems Theory Paradigm

Systems thinking began in the 19th century with George Hegel and was more fully developed by biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy in the 20th century.

Von Bertalanffy argued that everything is interconnected and therefore, we should study interconnectedness as a means of understanding the world.

“The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” 

Instead of looking at individual components, we must look at something from the whole.

Systems Theory Paradigm

When applied to communication, the Systems Theory Paradigm seeks to understand the interconnectedness of human communication rather than looking at just one part

Organizational Communication is a field of communication studies that uses Systems Theory thinking

Organization Communication looks at the interaction of people to see how they create what we know as organizations

We will be looking more at Organizational Communication and these connections later in the class

Systems Theory Paradigm Example Theory

Strengths

seeks to understand a more complete picture by examining multiple layers of communication as interconnected rather than looking at isolated people or communication acts.

does not try to predict human behavior, but rather explain it in ways that highlight the interconnectedness of people and their communicative acts

Weaknesses

can be too broad in its focus--If everything is interconnected, how do we know what to study?

because it is a relatively new approach it has yet to produce a definitive body of research to help “prove” assumptions

Systems Theory Paradigm Strengths and Weaknesses

If you are trying to persuade someone to do something, what methods or tactics to you use to convince them?

How do you know what is truly effective or ineffective? 

Maybe you have tried a tactic before, or because you know the person so well, you know what will appeal to them the most.

You are using Rhetorical strategies when you do this—you just probably didn’t call them that!

Rhetorical theories guide the way we craft messages everyday.

Discussion/Think about it Rhetorical Theories Paradigm

The oldest tradition of the Communication field

Rhetoric= “any kind of human symbol use that functions in any realm—public, private, and anything in between” 

Rhetorical Theories Paradigm =“a way to understand and account for the way any kind of human symbol use functions in any realm.” Scholars have historically used rhetorical theories as a way to produce and evaluate messages.

Rhetorical Theories scholars study ways to produce an effective message

Rhetorical Theories Paradigm

 Aristotle gave us his ideas of ethos (credibility), logos (logic), and pathos (emotions) as fundamental components for constructing persuasive messages

Cicero gave us the five canons of rhetoric, or the five necessary steps for putting together an effective message

In recent years, Stephen Toulmin developed the Toulmin model as a means for constructing persuasive arguments

Toulmin’s model of message production includes a claim, grounds, warrant, backing, modal qualifier, and rebuttal.

Rhetorical Theories Paradigm Producing Effective Messages

Claim =the conclusion or argument being made.

Grounds = the data and facts offered to support the claim

Warrant = logically connect the grounds to the claim, a

Backing = support the warrant 

Qualifiers = make a statement about the strength of the claim

Words such as “possible,” “certainly,” and “definitely” are examples of qualifiers.

Rebuttal = any exception to the claim is the rebuttal.

Rhetorical Theories Paradigm Toulmin Model

Strengths

helps us produce and evaluate effective messages

highlights the importance of considering context as essential for understanding messages

provides a way for us to foster multiple perspectives in the evaluation and construction of messages.

Weaknesses

With such an intense focus on messages, it is possible to overlook alternative interpretations of messages.

Some theories of message evaluation are not critical enough to reveal power dynamics at work in message exchanges

often not generalizable across a variety of communication contexts.

Rhetorical Theories Paradigm Strengths and Weaknesses

Does everyone have the same amount of power in society?

Are certain groups afforded more power to speak than others?

How do power dynamics influence what is communicated?

Discussion/Think about it Critical Theories Paradigm

Critical Theories Paradigm helps us understand how communication is used to oppress, and provides ways to foster positive social change

challenge the status quo of communication contexts

Critical Theories Paradigm puts the question of power at the central point of discussion

By examining power dynamics in society, and in communication, critical theory is an overtly political paradigm that seeks to foster a more just and equal society

These theories differ from other theoretical approaches because they seek praxis as the overarching goal. 

Praxis is the combination of theory and action. Rather than simply seeking to understand power structures, critical theories actively seek to change them in positive ways. 

Critical Theories Paradigm

Cultural Studies focus on understanding the real-life experiences of people, examining communication contexts for hidden power structures, and accomplishing positive social change as a result

Political economy focuses on the macro level of communication--the way media as text are situated in a given cultural context, and the political and economic realities of the cultural context.

In the U.S., we would note that the political economy is one marked with gender, racial, and class inequities.

Critical Theories Paradigm Cultural Studies and Political Economy Theories

“Mickey Mouse Monopoly”-a critical theory documentary that investigates the role of Disney media in influencing children’s perceptions.

This documentary is considered critical cultural studies

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=byaMd_PNyIY

Discussion: What is your response to this clip from the film “Mickey Mouse Monopoly”?

Do you agree with the arguments being made or do you disagree?

Critical Theories Paradigm: An Example

Strengths

it combines theory and practice, seeking to create actual change from theoretical development

The intent behind these theoretical perspectives is to help empower those whose world-views and ideological perspectives have not found equality in social contexts.

Weaknesses

dependence on social values that can be highly subjective

the question of, “whose values are better?” can be asked

Critical Theories Paradigm Strengths and Weaknesses

Communication Research

Survey of Communication Study, Hahn and Paynton, chpt. 6

https ://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Survey_of_Communication_Study/Chapter_6_-_Communication_Research

Research can be messy.

And no, it does not mean an untidy lab

Instead, research is not an easy pursuit and doesn’t always involve a pristine lab and white coats

Albert Einstein once said “If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be called research, would it?” 

Think about it

Researching something as complex as human communication can be an exercise in creativity, patience, and failure

Like experiments you may do in a science class, communication research should be systematic, rational, self­-correcting, self-­reflexive, and creative to be of use

Unlike like your science experiments, no beakers or test tubes are usually involved.

Instead, communication researcher study people—something a lot harder to control for than elements on the periodic chart!

Communication Research

Identify a focus of research.

Develop a research question(s)

Define key terms

Select an appropriate research methodology

Establish a sample population or data set

Gather and analyze data

Interpret and share results

Seven Basic Steps of Research

Theoretical Preferences--Remember that theoretical paradigms offer different ways to understand communication.

Methodological Preferences--While most researchers have preferences for certain theoretical paradigms, most researchers also have preferred methodologies for conducting research in which they develop

There are a large number of methodologies available for conducting research—our reading divides them into 3 catagories

1) rhetorical methodologies

2) quantitative methodologies

3) qualitative methodologies.

Connecting Theoretical Paradigms and Research Methods

Rhetorical Research Methods

Rhetorical methods of research are sophisticated and refined ways to evaluate messages

Think about it: Have you ever told a friend about why you like a show or film? What types of things did you comment on when discussing your opinion of the show or film?

Did you talk about characters, plot, costumes perhaps?

Then you have used a form of rhetorical methods

There are many forms of rhetorical methods—our reading focuses on the following:  1) Neo-Aristotelian, 2) Fantasy-Theme, 3) Narrative, 4) Pentadic, 5) Feminist, and 6) Ideological

Rhetorical Methods

The neo-Aristotelian method uses Aristotle’s ideas to evaluate rhetorical acts

First, a researcher recreates the context for others by describing the historical period of the message being studied

Messages are typically speeches or other forms of oral rhetoric

Second, the researcher evaluates the message using the canons of rhetoric.

For example, the researcher may examine what types of logic are offered in a speech or how its delivery enhances or detracts from the ethos of the speaker.

Finally, the researcher assesses the effectiveness of the message given its context and its use of the canons.

Rhetorical Methods Neo-Aristotelian

In Fantasy Theme analysis the focus is on groups rather than individuals

A fantasy is a playful way of interpreting an experience

well-suited for analyzing group messages that come from social movements, political campaigns, or organizational communication.

Fantasy theme research looks for words or phrases that characterize the shared vision of a group in order to explain how the group characterizes or understands events around them

Fantasy theme analysis offers names and meaning to a group’s experience and presents outsiders with a frame for interpreting the group’s rhetorical response

Ex: What do the various costumes of Cosplay member signify?

Rhetorical Methods Fantasy Theme Criticism

Narrative criticism contends that people learn through the sharing of stories.

A researcher using this method examines narratives and their component parts—the plot, characters, and settings—to better understand the people (culture, groups, etc.) telling these stories

This research approach also focuses on the effects of repeating narratives

Rhetorical Methods Narrative Criticism

Kenneth Burke developed the idea of the pentad using the metaphor of drama.

As in a dramatic play, the pentad contains five elements—the act, agent, agency, scene, and purpose.

act = what happened

agent =who performed the act

agency = the tools/means the agent used to perform the act

scene =the context for the act

purpose =why the act occurred

By using the elements of the pentad to answer questions of who, what, when, where, and why, a rhetorical researcher may uncover a communicator’s motives for her or his rhetorical actions.

Ex: 2 min Video on Kenneth Burke’s Pentadic Criticsm

https :// www.youtube.com/watch?v=iYjpjVDG6zs#t=15

Rhetorical Methods Pentadic Criticism

Feminist rhetorical research, “is the analysis of rhetoric to discover how the rhetorical construction of gender is used as a means for oppression and how that process can be challenged and resisted”

Although many think of “women” in reference to feminism, it is important to note that many men consider themselves feminists and that feminism is concerned with oppression of all forms—race, class, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, and gender.

Rhetorical Methods Feminist Criticism

Ideology= is a collection of values, beliefs, or ethics that influence modes of behavior for a group or culture

Rhetorical scholars interested in understanding a culture’s values often use ideological methods

Ideologies are complex and multifaceted

Popular culture such as movies, television shows, etc. are often the focus of this research as they are the sites at which struggles about meanings occur in the popular culture

Ex: Mickey Mouse Monopoly Documentary is an example of Ideological Criticism

Rhetorical Methods Ideological Criticism

Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative refers to research in which we can quantify, or count, communication phenomena.

Quantitative methodologies draw from research methods in the physical sciences

The collection and analysis of numerical data

Researchers often count how often something appears or how many times a words is said.

Discussion: What can we learn by counting acts of human communication?

Quantitative Methods

Experimental Research uses the principles of research in the physical sciences to conduct experiments that explore human behavior.

Researchers choose whether they will conduct their experiments in lab settings or real-world settings.

How can the location effect an experiment?

Experimental research generally includes a control group (the group where variables are not altered) and the experimental group(s) (the group in which variables are altered)

The groups are then carefully monitored to see if they enact different reactions to different variables.

Types of Quantitative Methods Experimental Research

Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll study

http ://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHHdovKHDNU

Experimental Research Example

Survey Research is used to ask people a number of questions about particular topics

Surveys can be online, mailed, handed out, or conducted in interview format.

After researchers have collected survey data, they represent participants’ responses in numerical form using tables, graphs, charts, and/or percentages.

Discuss: What are some problems or challenges with writing and administering surveys?

Types of Quantitative Research Survey Research

Content Analysis = count the number of occurrences of their particular focus of inquiry.

For example, to count at the statistical repetition of things in the media

Content analysis is extremely effective for demonstrating patterns and trends in various communication contexts.

Types of Quantitative Research Content Analysis

Watch from 5:00-8:00 to see an example of George Gerbner performing a content analysis of violence in the media

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=msfu8YCCc8Q&feature=results_video&playnext=1&list=PL29396EBCDC7BD0AF

Perform a simple content analysis yourself and count the number of times different people are represented in photos in your textbooks or a magazine you have around the house

Are there more men than women?

Are there more Caucasians or Blacks represented than other groups?

What do the numbers tell you about how we represent different people?

Content Analysis Example

Perform a content analysis this clip of the film “Resident Evil”

What do we need to do before we count the acts of violence?

Define violence

Violence=rough or injurious physical force, action, or treatment

Now let’s count….

https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=hBAFeANc2QA

What did you get? Probably some very different numbers!

Maybe you even gave up and stopped counting!

Think about it: What are some potential issues or problems with performing content analysis?

Content Analysis Activity

Can you see any problems with using content analysis as a methodology to study the content of the media?

Problems with definition—can we all agree what = violence?

Problems with what to count—does one dead body equal an act of violence or does each bullet = an act of violence?

Content analysis doesn’t connect to the “so what?” question—so we have an extreme amount of violence in the media—so what?

Problems of Content Analysis

Meta-Analysis analyzes existing statistics found in a collection of quantitative research to demonstrate patterns in a particular line of research over time.

Meta-analysis is research that seeks to combine the results of a series of past studies to see if their results are similar, or to determine if they show us any new information when they are looked at in totality

Types of Quantitative Research Meta-Analysis

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research methodologies draw from the social sciences, particularly the fields of Anthropology, Sociology, and Social-Psychology

Rather than statistically analyzing data, or evaluating and critiquing messages, qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the subjective lived-experience of those they study

Qualitative research is truly a “messy” process and often can’t be generalized to larger phenomenon

Qualitative Research Methods

Ethnography places researchers in the midst of whatever it is they study

Ethnographers try to understand the communicative acts of people as they occur in their actual communicative environments

Researcher immerse themselves in that culture

Types of Qualitative Research Methods Ethnography

Researchers who use focus group interviewing meet with groups of people to understand their communication characteristics.

These interviews foster an environment for participants to discuss particular topics of interest to the group and/or researcher

Types of Qualitative Research Methods Focus Groups

Qualitative Researchers often combine methods in their work

Communication Professor Janice Radway used both ethnography and focus group interviews to complete the research for her book “Woman Reading the Romance” (1984)

She wanted to know why women read romance novels—as she herself was also a fan

Methods:

She performed ethnographic interviews of a romance novel book club in a central midwestern state.

Radway conducted sixty hours of interviews from June 1980-Feb. 1981.

She talked extensively with the owner of a romance novel bookstore and observed her interactions at the bookstore

Radway conducted both group and individual interviews with 16 regular customers

Discussion: What do you think she found? Why do women read romance novels?

Findings: Relaxation; Escapism; Fantasy; Pleasure; Advice (yikes!); and as a declaration of independence from the social roles of wife and mother

Ethnography and Focus Group Interviewing Example

Action Research seeks to create positive social change through “a highly reflective, experiential, and participatory mode of research in which all individuals involved in the study, researcher and subject alike, are deliberate and contributing actors in the research enterprise”

Unobtrusive Research=to examine and assess human traces. We can learn a great deal about the behavior of others by examining the traces humans leave behind as they live their lives.

Ex: what does the content of graffiti written in university bathrooms say about that school?

Historiography= discovering, from records and accounts, what happened during some past period.

Rather than simply putting together a series of facts, research from this perspective seeks to gain an understanding of the communication in a past social group or context. 

Case Studies= gathering significant information about particular people, contexts, or phenomena to understand a particular case under investigation

This approach uses many methods for data collection but focuses on a particular case to gain “holistic description and explanation”

Other types of Qualitative Research Methods