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Running head: CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY 1

Classroom Applications of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

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Austin Peay State University

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Classroom Applications of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Introduction

Cognitive development in children and its impact on classroom learning have been

explained from diverse of points of view by a number of theories. The main constructs of

sociocultural theory rest on social experiences and interaction set in the framework of culture, as

they influence learning and, therefore, cognitive development. Lev Vygotsky, the father of

sociocultural theory, based these ideas on his experiences and observations as a classroom

teacher further extending his theory with research studies that included observation as well as

testing (Mooney, 2000). However, Vygotsky died at the young age of 38 before many of his

theories were fully developed. Still, his thoughts on cognitive development and learning continue

to be a major influence in education today and are the foundation for many teaching strategies

(Mooney, 2000; Ormrod, 2014; Wertsch & Tulviste, 1992).

Summary of Theory

Sociocultural theory provides a multifaceted view of learning and cognitive development.

Vygotsky’s analysis of the interdependence of cognitive development and learning is central to

sociocultural theory. According to Vygotsky (1978), “although learning is directly related to the

course of child development, the two are never accomplished in equal measure or in parallel” (p.

35). While cognitive development and learning occur concurrently, building on each other, they

do not always occur at the same rate. This led to the discovery of a key aspect of Vygotsky’s

theory, the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

The ZPD is a range of an individual’s ability to complete tasks starting with actual

development, as measured by tasks completed independently, through potential development, as

measured by tasks completed successfully with some assistance (Mooney, 2000; Ormrod, 2014;

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Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky (1978) discovered this by observing that children of the same age

could complete similarly complex tasks independently placing them at the same level of actual

development. Though, the same students differed in the level of complexity of tasks that could

be completed with some adult assistance (Vygotsky, 1978). Thus, children with similar levels of

actual development can have greatly varied levels of potential development.

This space in between actual development and the upper limit of potential development is

where learning happens and cognitive growth is stimulated. Working in the ZPD is important

because, according to Vygotsky (1978), “The only good learning is that which is in advance of

development” (p. 89). By offering children support in completing tasks they would not yet be

able to complete independently, the child’s developmental limits are stretched resulting in

growth. The supports provided to learners in helping them acquire a new skill are referred to by

others as scaffolding; although, Vygotsky did not use that term himself (Mooney, 2000).

Working in the zone of proximal development also necessitates a more knowledgeable

other (MKO) making the MKO an essential part of the learning process (Vygotsky, 1978). The

MKO can be anyone who has mastered a skill who provides assistance to another who has not

yet mastered that skill. By providing scaffolding, the MKO allows the learner to work in their

zone of proximal development supporting the acquisition of new skills resulting in cognitive

growth. In an educational setting, this role may be another student, a teacher or other adult in the

school, and even technology (Cicconi, 2014).

Work in the ZPD cannot happen without communication between the MKO and the

learners. Therefore, language also plays an important role in sociocultural theory. According to

Vygotsky (1978), talking is also essential in clarifying new knowledge; and, as children

internalize language, cognitive development transpires.

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Consequently, social interaction is also essential in facilitating students’ cognitive

development during the construction of new knowledge. “Learning awakens a variety of internal

developmental processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in

his environment and in cooperation with his peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 35). Cognitive

development does not take place in isolation. In order for students to experience cognitive

growth during learning, they need to collaborate with peers, teachers and others.

Rationale of Selection

When evaluating theorists for this paper, I looked at how each theory fit with my

philosophy of teaching. I chose Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory because it fits with my current

teaching philosophy in many ways. First, when thinking about my future classroom, I imagine a

place where students are working in small groups, interacting with each other and building new

knowledge. As supported by Vygotsky’s theory, working in groups and discussing ideas and

content are essential to not only mastery of content standards but to social and cognitive growth

as well (Klecker, 2003, Vygotsky 1978).

Secondly, it is important to me that my students not only grow in knowledge, but that

they grow developmentally as individuals, too. To Vygotsky (1978), a child’s cognitive

development and educational learning cannot happen independently of each other. In this way,

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory supports the growth and development of the whole child. As a

teacher, my goal will not only be to teach my students new concepts, but to facilitate cognitive

development as well.

Lastly, it is important to me that each child is provided with work that challenges them.

In a single classroom of children of a similar age, there can be a wide range of ability levels. The

concept of the ZPD, provides a theoretical foundation to the fact that children of a similar age in

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a single grade level can each be working in such a wide range of levels. Sociocultural theory also

posits that students should be provided with challenging tasks, work they cannot yet do

independently but can accomplish with some help, in order to nurture cognitive growth. Thus,

providing each student with challenging work is essential in meeting each student’s needs. I

believe the application of ZPD in the classroom provides a mechanism through which a teacher

can differentiate learning for each student fostering each student’s unique potential.

Implementation of Theory

Working in Small Groups

Creating opportunities for students to work cooperatively with peers in small groups to

problem solve and analyze information through discussion is one way teachers can apply

sociocultural theory in the classroom. Group work provides opportunity for interaction with

others, which, according to Vygotsky (1978), provides the pathway for learning to stimulate

cognitive development. For example, older elementary school students may be assigned to small

groups to discuss similarities and differences between their own culture and that of a country

they are studying in social studies. When groups are carefully chosen by a teacher who knows

the students in the classroom well, group work can be coordinated to provide students with a

peer or peers in the role of the MKO providing space for students to work in their ZPD.

Using a Variety of Assessment Tools

Teachers must take into account both tests that measure actual development and

assessments of a student’s level of potential development as determined by working in

collaboration with adults and peers in order to assess each individual student’s ZPD (Vygotsky,

1978). Thus, a variety of assessment tools should be used in addition to traditional paper and

pencil testing. Conferencing is one assessment technique which allows the teacher to work with

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students individually and in small groups to determine what they are capable of independently and

then with assistance from a MKO. Teachers can also do checks for understanding during lessons

while they are modeling new concepts. For example, when learning a new math concept by

mirroring what the teacher is writing, students can hold up their personal whiteboards and the

teacher can do a quick visual check of each student’s understanding of the new material.

Technology as a More Knowledgeable Other

Traditionally, in a school setting, the role of the MKO has been filled by a teacher or a

more advanced student. However, since the advent of web 2.0, the internet and computer

programs have begun to serve in the role of a more knowledgeable other offering students yet

another way to learn and practice new skills (Cicconi, 2014). One example of technology in the

role of the MKO that is often used in today's classroom are adaptive computerized tutoring

programs (Cicconi, 2014). These adaptive computer programs use an algorithm to customize

learning to be challenging but not too difficult for each student based on that student’s answers to

earlier questions. In this way it tailors learning to each individual student’s ZPD.

Another example of how technology can be used as a more knowledgeable other is

through online early reading books. When using these online books students can choose to listen

to the words and follow along or read independently and click only on the words they need help

sounding out. While Web 2.0 tools can be useful tools in providing students opportunities to

work in their zone of proximal development in a differentiated classroom, it should be noted that

they do not replace interaction with teachers or other students.

Choices in Tasks

By offering a choice in activities to complete an assignment or project, a teacher can

encourage each student to work in their ZPD. For example, spelling homework could take the form

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of a BINGO style choice card with activity options chosen by the teacher specifically considering

the students in that class. Choices could include drawing images of spelling words, writing a poem

or commercial using a certain number of spelling words, and traditional options such as using

spelling words in sentences or rainbow writing. If a student is choosing tasks that are too easy or

too difficult, the teacher should help the student make better choices in the tasks selected to ensure

the student is working in his or her ZPD.

Learning Centers

Learning centers are another way teachers can offer their students opportunities to work in

their ZPD and learn through interacting with each other. Learning centers are areas of the

classroom in which students engage in activities independently or in small groups. When teachers

place students in groups based on ability level for work in learning centers it allows the teacher to

adjust the activities at each center to be in each group’s ZPD. For example, for a math center, one

group of students might be working together to solve single digit number addition while another

group is working on addition with double digit numbers. Centers also offer students opportunities

for discussion and collaboration that, according to sociocultural theory, is important in learning

translating into cognitive growth (Mooney, 2000).

Task Modeling

Sociocultural theory can also be applied when the teacher is instructing the class as a whole

group through task modeling. In modeling, a new task is demonstrated by the teacher and mirrored

by the students. For example, a kindergarten teacher may model how to write a certain letter by

both demonstrating how to draw the letter and verbally describing the steps involved in forming

the letter. When using modeling, the teacher will ask the class to imitate his steps by both drawing

the letter and repeating the verbal steps. During checks for understanding, the teacher offers

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feedback and asks guiding questions supporting the students in becoming more independent in

writing the letter. Eventually, the language will be internalized and the students will have learned

how to write the letter without support from the teacher.

Conclusion

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory lays a firm foundation upon which today’s teachers can

base their practice. The concept of the zone of proximal development gives a theoretical basis to

the variety of ability levels a teacher will encounter in a given classroom of students of a similar

age. Further, Vygotsky outlines the interdependence of learning and cognitive growth

emphasizing the importance of teaching students in their ZPD in stimulating cognitive growth.

Sociocultural theory also provides a means by which this can be accomplished through the role

of a more knowledgeable other, scaffolding and interactions with others.

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References

Cicconi, M. (2014). Vygotsky meets technology: A reinvention of collaboration in the early

childhood mathematics classroom. Early Childhood Education Journal, 42(1), 57-65.

doi:10.1007/s10643-013-0582-9

Klecker, B. M. (2003). Formative classroom assessment using cooperative groups: Vygotsky and

random assignment. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 30(3), 216-219. Retrieved from

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&db=eft&AN=507848369&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Mooney, C. (2000). Theories of childhood: An introduction to Dewey, Montessori, Erikson,

Piaget and Vygotsky. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Ormrod, J.E. (2014). Educational psychology: Developing learners (8th ed.). Upper Saddle

River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. In Mind and Society: The

development of higher psychological processes (pp. 79-91). Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press.

Wertsch, J. V., & Tulviste, P. (1992). L. S. Vygotsky and contemporary developmental

psychology. Developmental Psychology, 28(4), 548-557. doi:10.1037/0012-

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