History assignment 1

This page intentionally left blank

The middle ground Indians, empires, and republics

in the Great Lakes region, 1650-1815

An acclaimed book and widely acknowledged classic, The Middle Ground steps out­ side the simple stories oflndian-white relations - stories of conquest and assimilation and stories of cultural persistence. It is, instead, about a search for accommodation and common meaning. It tells how Europeans and Indians met, regarding each other as alien, as other, as virtually nonhuman, and how between 1650 and 1815 they constructed a common, mutually comprehensible world in the region around the Great Lakes that the French called pays d ’en haut. Here the older worlds of the Algonquians and of various Europeans overlapped, and their mixture created new' systems of meaning and of exchange. Finally, the book tells of the breakdown of accommodation and common meanings and the re-creation of the Indians as alien and exotic. First published in 199 T, the twentieth anniversary edition includes a new preface by the author examining the impact and legacy of this study.

Richard White holds the Margaret Byrne Professorship in American History at Stanford University and is widely regarded as one of the nation’s leading scholars in three related fields: the American West, Native American history, and environmental history. Professor White is the author of five books, including The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-181$ (1991), which was named a finalist for the T992 Pulitzer Prize. Among other honors, he is the recipient of a MacArfhur Foundation fellowship.

This page intentionally left blank

STUDIES IN NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN HISTORY

Editors Frederick Hoxie, University o f Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

Neal Salisbury, Smith College Tiya Miles, University o f /Michigan, Ann Arbor

Ned Blackhawk, Yale University

This series is designed to exemplify new approaches to the indigenous history ofNorth America and the United States. In recent years scholars have begun to appreciate the extent to which American Indians and other indigenous peoples, whose cultural roots extended back for thousands of years, shaped the continent’s and the American nation’s landscapes. In addition, because native peoples continually adapted their cultural traditions to the realities of the Euro-American presence, their histories add a thread of non-Western experience to the tapestry of American culture. Cambridge Studies in North American Indian History brings outstanding examples of this new scholar­ ship to a wide audience. Books in the scries link Native Americans and other indigenous peoples to broad themes in American and transnational histories.

Also in the scries:

John Bowes Exiles and Pioneers: Indians in the Trans-Mississippi West Colin G. Calloway The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and

Diversity in Native American Communities Sidney I,. Marring Crow Dog’s Case: American Indian Sovereignly, Tribal

Law, and United States Law in the Nineteenth Century Frederick E. Hoxie Parading through History: The Making oft he Crow Nation

in America, 18 0 5 -r 935 Jean M. O'Brien Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick,

Massachusetts, 1650-1790 Jeffrey Ostler The Plains Sioux and U S . Colonialism from Lewis and Clark to

Wo u nded Knee Claudio Saunl A New Order o f Things: Properly, Power, and the 'Transforma­

tion o f the Creek Indians, 17 3 3 -1 Hi 6 David J. Silverman Faith and Boundaries: Colonists, Christianity, and the

Community among the Wampanoag Indians o f M artha’s Vineyard, 1600 1871

Gary Warrick A Population History o f the Huron-Petun, A.D. 500-1650

The middle ground Indians, empires, and republics

in the Great Lakes region, 1650-1815

Twentieth Anniversary Edition

R IC H A R D W H IT E

Stanford University

C a m b r id g e UNIVERSITY PRESS

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,

Sâo Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo, Mexico City

Cambridge University Press 32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10013-2473, USA

www. cambrid ge. org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521183444

© Cambridge University Press T99T, 201T

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written

permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 1991 Twentieth anniversary edition 2011

Printed in the United States of America

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.

Library o f Congress Cataloging in Publication data

White, Richard, 1947 The middle ground : Indians, empires, and republics in the Great Lakes region, 1650 1815 /

Richard White. 2nd ed. p. cm. — (Studies in North American Indian history)

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-T07-00562-4 — ISBN 978-0-521-18344-4 (pbk.)

1. Algonquian Indians - Great Lakes Region (North America) - History. 2. Algonquian Indians - First contact with Europeans - Great Lakes Region (North America)

3. Indians of North America - Great Lakes Region (North America) - History. 4. Indians of North America - First contact with Europeans - Great T.akcs Region (North America) 5. Great

Lakes Region (North America) — History. I. Title. IT. Scries. E99.A35W48 2011

977; .oo4973-dc22 2010034929

ISBN 978-1-107-00562-4 Hardback ISBN 978-0-521-18344-4 Paperback

Cambridge University Press has 110 responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee

that any content on such W eb sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Contents

List o f abbreviations Page l\ Preface to the twentieth anniversary edition XI

Intro duct ion XXV

i Refugees: a world made of fragments I

2 The middle ground 5o 3 The fur trade 94 4 The alliance 142 5 Republicans and rebels 186 6 The clash of empires 223 7 Pontiac and the restoration of the middle ground 269 8 The British alliance 315 q 'The contest of villagers 366

io Confederacies 4 '3 i i The politics of benevolence 469 Epilogue: Assimilation and otherness 518

Index 525

vu

Abbreviations

DH N Y Documentary History o f the State of New York, edited by E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany, N.Y.: Weed, Parsons, 1850-51)

H BN 1 Handbook o f North American Indians, edited by William C. Sturtevant (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1978-)

IHC Collections of the Illinois Historical Library (Springfield, III.: The Trustees of the Illinois State Historical Library, T g T 5—40)

f P The Papers of Sir William Johnson, edited by James Sullivan et al. (Albany: University of the State of New York, 1921-65)

J R The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, edited by Reuben Gold Thwaitcs (Cleveland, Ohio: Burrows Brothers, 1898)

MPA Mississippi Provincial Archives, French Dominion (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1927-84)

MPHC Michigan Pioneer Historical Society: Collections and

Researches (Lansing, Mich.: The Society, 1877-1929)

N Y CD Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the Slate of New York: Procured in Holland, England and France, by John R. Brodhead, edited by E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany, N.Y.: Parsons, Weed, 1853-87)

PA Pennsylvania Archives (Philadelphia, Pa.: Joseph Severns; Harrisburg: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 1852—1949)

PCR Minutes o f the Provincial Council o f Pennsylvania from the Organization to the I ermination o f Proprietary Government, edited by Samuel I Iazard (I Iarrisburg, Pa.: Thcophilus Fcnn, 1838-53)

RAPQ Rapport de F Archiviste de ta Province de Québec (Quebec: Ls-A. Proulx, 1921-28; Rcdcmpti Paradis, 1929-44)

WIIC Collections of the Stale Historica l Society of Wisconsin, edited by Lyman C. Draper and Reuben G. Thwaitcs (Madison, Wis.: The Society, 1855-1911)

IX

This page intentionally left blank

Preface to the twentieth anniversary edition

Tl has been twenty years sinee I wrote The Middle Ground, and sinee then the book has led an interesting life without me. it has jumped disciplines, moving into literary criticism, anthropology, archaeology, and political science, and it has traveled the world - not just to other parts of North America, where I expected it to go, but also to Africa, Asia, Australia, and Europe. And it has time traveled, all the way back to antiquity in some cases.

I recognized soon after the book was published and achieved its initial success that what was good for a book might not be so good for its author. The danger in my case was that I would be trapped in the book and would spend the rest o f my career sitting as the judge in the court of The Middle Ground. I would have to rule on whether any given example dragged into my court was an actual middle ground or a set of ordinary compromises posing as something grander.

There were several reasons why I wanted no part of this. The first was that the suspects came from worlds that 1 often knew' little about. It took me ten years to write The Middle Ground, and the joy of it was the basic pleasure of writing any history: T went to places that seemed strange to me, and gradually the people there came alive and familiar enough so that they seemed more real to me than the people among whom I passed my days. This worried my wife. It still does. But I did not know nearly so well the worlds of these suspects from Africa, Asia, South America, Australia, New Zealand, and more. 1 low could 1 judge whether they, too, created middle grounds? 1 had my suspicions, of course, but not enough to acquit or convict.

The second reason for my hesitation was purely practical. I had other things to do. Ï have been, professionally at least, a lucky man. There is more that 1 want to research than 1 will ever be able to explore. 1 want the books that I write to speak for themselves so I can go on to other things. As soon as it was published, The Middle Ground was largely on its ow n.

fhe final reason w as based on neither my ignorance, like the first reason, or my selfishness, like the second, but on what I understood the concept to be. The Middle Ground is a book about, among other things, mutual misunderstandings and the ways that new meanings are derived from them. It is about the virtues of misreading. This puts an author who acts as a judge and accuses his readers o f misreading in an awkward position. This is not to

XI

XII

say that there have been misreadings of the book. T think there have. But one of the things that I learned in writing the book was that such misreadings can be fruitful in their own right.

Those scholars who have used and critiqued the concept of the middle ground have done me a great honor and a great service. They have helped me to clarify my own thinking about the concept. I can refine my own use of the term without claiming that 1 am the final judge of its use or that there are no other quite legitimate, and perhaps even more useful, ways to employ the concept. By middle ground T meant, I realized in ways that I did not fully grasp when writing the book, two twinned things. First, 1 was trying to describe a process that arose from the willingness “ of those who. . . [sought] to justify their own actions in terms of what they perceived to be their partner's cultural premises." Such actors sought out cultural “ congruencies, either perceived or actual." These “ often seemed - and, indeed, were results of misunderstandings or accidents." Such interpretations could be ludicrous, but it did not matter. “ Any congruence, no matter howr tenuous, can be put to work and lake on a life of its own if it is accepted by both sides." This was and is a process of mutual and creative misunderstanding.1

But in developing this idea, I did not always separate it from a second aspect of The Middle Ground. I was trying to describe - and this look up the bulk of the book — a quite particular historical space that was the outcome of this larger process. This space was the pays d'en haut,. Because the middle ground is itself a spatial metaphor, the term has allowed a conflation between the process o f expedient and creative misunderstanding and the actual space that I was discussing: the pays d ’en haul or the upper country of French Canada.

I think I was fairly specific about the elements that were necessary for the construction of such a space: a confrontation between imperial or state regimes and non-state forms of social organization, a rough balance o f power, a mutual need or a desire for what the other possesses, and an inability of one side to commandeer enough force to compel the other to do what it desired. Force and violence are hardly foreign to the process of creating and maintaining a middle ground, but the critical element is mediation.

The mediation process is something more than compromise. If all the middle ground meant was compromise between opposing interests, then it would be a concept with little or no utility because compromise is widely recognized by scholars, political actors, and the general public. Why invent

1 I have in mind here the sympathetic but quite trenchant critique by Philip j. Dcloria, “ What Is the Middle Ground, Anyway?,” William and Mary Quarterly 63 (January 2006); Richard White, Middle Ground, 52—53.

Preface to the twentieth anniversary edition

XIII

a new name for it? A middle ground is the creation, in part through creative misunderstanding, of a set of practices, rituals, offices, and beliefs that although comprised of elements of the group in contact is as a whole separate from the practices and beliefs o f all o f those groups. In a partial sense, it is a form of what Lévi-Strauss referred to as a bricolage: using materials at hand to overcome a new obstacle, but Lévi-Strauss, as 1 will discuss later, also set limits on what bricoleurs could do and the tools available to them that makes the middle ground something more than his concept of bricolage}

1 always thought that the middle ground as a process was present in other places and other times: 1 did not, however, think that every time you find this process at work you would find the construction of a coherent space that is the equivalent of pays d'en haut. There are instances in which the process can be evident, but the space may fail to emerge. The French penetrated deep into North America, and west o f the Missouri River many of the practices of the middle ground - alliance chiefs, the calumet ceremony, gift exchanges, Catholic missionaries — went with them. There were, too, numerous examples o f expedient and creative misunderstandings, but there was no long-lasting equivalent of the pays d ’en haul.-'' The space of the middle ground depended on the creation of an infrastructure that could support and expand the process, and this infrastructure was possible only when there was both a rough balance of power and a mutual need between the parties involved. Middle grounds as coherent spaces were difficult to produce, but I am not surprised that scholars have found other areas of the Western Hemisphere that contained middle grounds, as has, for example, Claudia Garcia, who has employed the concept in studying the Mosquito Indians at the end of the seventeenth century.4

The ways in which the processes of the middle ground produce coherent spaces equivalent to the pays d ’en haut do not have to follow the exact model that I described in The Middle Ground. I am perfectly willing to admit that the process o f the middle ground and what Jonathan Lipman in his Familiar Strangers: A History o f Muslims in Northwest China calls “ a place in which peoples adjust to their differences while positioned between cultures” do not necessarily depend on an exact replication o f the sequences of development in the pays d ’en haul or a reliance on the same or even similar institutions. When Lipman finds a “ long process of sometimes expedient, sometimes deadly, mutual misunderstandings,” I feel like I am in familiar territory,

~ Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 16—17. Richard White, “ Creative Misunderstandings and New Understandings,” William and Mary Quarterly 63 ( January 2006): 9-T4. Claudia Garcia, “Ambi Valencia de las re pres en ta ci ones colonials: Lideres indios y zainbos de la costa dc Mosquitos a fines del siglo XVITI,” Revis!a de Indias LXVtl: 24T (2007): 673-94.

Preface to the twentieth anniversary edition

XIV

even though I know nothing except what Lipman tells his readers of the Muslims in his particular section of Northwest China. '

I have been particularly pleased when other scholars underline aspects of the process that I recognized but did not fully explore and make their own original use o f il. I have long admired and used the work of James C. Scott, but when he in The Art o f Not Being Governed emphasizes the “ case for beginning with the elementary unit of the household and treating villages, tribes, and confederations as provisional and shaky alliances,” he underscores a particular aspect o f the pays d 'en haul that, although he credits me with using it to “ brilliant effect,” he uses far more effectively. 1 le takes my sometimes naïve empiricism and turns it into a much more formidable comparative analysis with fuller theoretical insight.6 Scott is interested in “ zones of insubordination,” particularly shatter zones in which fragments of larger groups seek sanctuary and opportunity beyond the reach of states or conquerors. His larger project is an attempt to understand Zomia - a name for an area that includes the highlands of Southeast Asia in Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Burma but stretches into India and includes four Chinese provinces. These areas were used as a refuge over centuries for people in flight from state-making projects who came to form “ a vast stale-resistant periphery.” 7 He links Zomia to similar regions of refuge in Latin America, Brazil, the Andes, and elsewhere.8 Tn Zomia, as in the pays d'en haut, identities are often plural, local groups are often autonomous, and groups readily fragment.9

1 am nearly as pleased when people fail Lo find a middle ground as when they do, for a negative finding also involves an effort to take the concept seriously. 1 lenry Reynolds states flatly that “ [t]here was no ‘middle ground’ in Australia.” 10 The concept is imperial in that it is often found in the company of empires, but I never had imperial ambitions for the concept itself. After all, if the middle ground was everywhere, then it might as well be nowhere at all. The best historical concepts are those that are good to think with, and when I find scholars actively engaging the concept, rigorously applying it to their own material, and then explaining why what they found

Jonathan N. Lipman, Familiar Strangers: A History o f Muslims in Northwest China (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997), xxxiii. For the different use of the term lo understand Mongol relations with the Manchu, see Johan Elverskog, Our Créa t Qing: The Mongols, Buddhism, and the State in l,ate Imperial China (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2006), it.

f> Janies C. Scott, The Art o f Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History o f Upland Southeast Asia (New- Haven, C T : Yale University Press, 2009), 38. Scott, Art o f Not Being Governed, ix, 129-31 Scott, Art o f Not Being Governed, t3 t—37.

9 Scott, Art o f Not Being Governed, 2 10 - 1 1. 10 Henry Reynolds, The Other Side o f the Frontier (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press,

2006), 7.

Preface to the twentieth anniversary edition

XV

was not really a middle ground, I am proud of the book. Tl is doing its work well. In a book such as Pekka Hamalainen’s recent The Comanche Empire, no middle ground emerges, but to the extent that the concept helped Hamalainen refine his own ideas about the quite interesting and important social formation that he found in Comancheria, it did its work well.11

When the concept of the middle ground has moved over into other dis­ ciplines, the scholars using it have usually, but not always, been concerned with American Indian peoples. Literary critics such as Amelia V. Katanski have found emergent middle grounds in Indian boarding schools and used the concept to interpret texts about these boarding schools.12 And llarwig Isernhagen has found echoes, but hardly a recreation, of the middle ground in Federal Writer’s Projects texts from the 1930s and 1940s in the Midwest.1 ' And scholars have found the middle ground useful in describing contempo­ rary political developments. Beth A. Conklin and Laura R. Graham found the concept useful in understanding environmental conflicts in the Ama­ zon, particularly in “ arenas where Amazonian Indians and environmentally concerned outsiders interact.” Their middle ground is “ a political space, an arena of intercultural communication, exchange, and joint political action.” 14

The book has hardly been uncontroversial, but the attacks on it, both implicitly and quite explicitly, have not led me to change my mind about Lhe concept itself or its particular manifestation in the pays d ’en haul. I f anything, they have hardened my position because I think there are very important issues at stake. 1 have no intention of answering all the criticisms of The Middle Ground. I am perfectly content to have readers determine the merits o f such critiques, but 1 will address two works that raise larger issues about both the nature of relations between empires and pre-state societies and the possibilities of cross-cultural understanding and accommodation. These are issues of considerable importance and continuing interest to me.

The major empirical attack on The Middle Ground has been from Giles I lavard, who, surveying the early period covered by the book, asserts, in effect, that there was no middle ground in the pays d ’en haut. Havard also makes an interesting theoretical attack. The strongest conceptual attack, however, has come from James Merrell. Our books share some common

II Pekka I Iamalainen, The Comanche Empire (New I Iaven, C T : Yale University Press, 2008), 8, 54,

12 . . ........................... ...... Amelia V. Katanski, Learning to Write “ Indian The Boarding-School Experience and American Indian Literature (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2005), 17 ,105.

13 Harrwig Isernhagen, “ Identity and Exchange: The Representation of ‘the Indian’ in Federal Writers Project and in Contemporary Native American Literature,” in Grelchen M. Bataille (ed ), Native American Representations: First Encounters, Distorted Images, and Literary Appropriations (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001), 186-87. Beth A. Conklin and Laura R. Graham, “ 't he Shifting Middle Ground: Amazonian Indians and E co -P o lilicsAmerican Anthropologist, New Series, 97 (Dec. 1995): 695-710.

Preface to the twentieth anniversary edition

XVI

figures, but he only touches on the fringes of the pays d ’en haul, and he barely mentions The Middle Ground. He does, however, challenge the possibility of successful mediation and the creation of the common world that I describe.

Havard makes his most detailed criticism of The Middle Ground in his Empire el métissages: Indiens el Français dans le Pays d ’en Haul, rô ô o -r jjy , and a second more nuanced criticism in his recent review of the French edition o f my book. I Iavard is a formidable scholar and Empire et métissages is an impressive book, but its argument of a Pax Gallica, and French mastery is in many ways a recon ceptualization o f exactly the concept of imperial power and dominance that 1 set out to critique in The Middle Ground. To the extent that Havard recognizes the operation of a middle ground, he sees it only as a tool of French manipulation of Indians. Indeed, he regards interpretations that stress Indian manipulation of Europeans as an imposition of a Western point of view' on Indian actions that proceed from quite different cultural premises.15

When Havard argues that mediation itself can be an instrument of power, I do not disagree. This is one of the theses of The Middle Ground. The book does not deny the power o f empires, but rather it limits and complicates that power. Where Havard and I differ is in seeing mediation as a French invention and imposition. Mediation had European equivalents, but its forms and inspiration in the pays d ’en haul were largely native. As Bacqueville de la Potherie (also known as Claude-Charles Le Roy) noted in his Histoire de F Amérique septentrionale, the Potawatomis were the original mediators and rivals of the French. European politics of empire persisted, but the alliance, as I arg ued, “merged the French politics of empire with the kinship politics of the village.” F'ar from being a simple tool of empire, mediation was a time-consuming, expensive, often frustrating endeavor that French officials, particularly those new to Canada, often rebelled against. As Louis Antoine de Bougainville complained, it was a work of “ eternal little detail, petty, and one o f which Europe has no idea.” 16 Mediation was power, but in the pays d ’en haut it was a paradoxical power.

The French were at their strongest when they appeared, at least to themselves, the most weak. When they offered goods freely, when they mediated quarrels, when they stayed Algonquian hatchets and covered the dead, then they achieved a status that no other group could rival. They were, conversely, at their weakest when they appeared the most dangerous and powerful. When Ononlio, either for his own reasons oral

Preface to the twentieth anniversary edition

* Gilles Havard, Empire et métissages: Indiens et Français dans le Pays d'en Haut, i66o~ i j j 5 (Sillery, Quebec: Les Éditions du Septentrion, 2003), 400-03, 759. Revue D ’Histoire Moderne Et Contem­ poraine 57 1 (2010): 204 06. Middle Ground, 3.5 ,37,173.

Preface to the twentieth anniversary edition XVII

the urging of his allies, abandoned mediation and deployed force, then his special status began to dissipate. One welcomed a kind father; one sought protection against a vengeful father. The logic of the alliance could not easily encompass a father who participated in, rather than settled the quarrels of his children.

Havard not only wants to resurrect a quite old-fashioned imperialism in which Europeans always command, but he also appeals to a now old- fashioned structuralist anthropology rooted in a simplification of the more problematic assumptions of Claude Lévi-Strauss. Havard has caused me to return to the w ork of Lévi-Strauss, who at one point had a great influence on my thinking, and w hose work and boldness 1 admire. When Havard accuses me of ignoring the differences between hot societies (historical, progressive, cumulative) and cold societies (so-called primitive societies removed from “ history” and progress and devoted to cyclical repetition), he is right. T do not accept rigid distinctions between people of history and people both “ without history” and who refuse to understand their experiences historically. The societies that created the middle ground were hybrid. They certainly have ritual means to deny the disruptions of history, to restore all to a balanced and anterior state, but not only are these rituals themselves very often new and historical, but they could be consciously created and manipulated to achieve new ends. They were meant to shape events and create, if necessary, new structures. T think virtually all societies contain aspects o f cyclical and historical thinking, but in this I am not that different from Lévi-Strauss at his more nuanced.

Lévi-Strauss was a brilliant, complicated, and, over the course of a long­ life, not always consistent thinker. I Ms structuralism made him inclined to begin with binaries, and he certainly believed that the “ characteristic feature of the savage mind is its timelessness; its object is to grasp the world as both a synchronic and a diachronic totality.” 18 Llis views became more nuanced and complicated over time. It is easy to miss this nuance because the connotation o f the very term savage mind, the English title of his classic work, distorts his arguments. He intended to distinguish between ways of thinking - mythical or “ wild,” on the one hand, and “ scientific” on the other - in all human beings rather than create a typology of societies, but because virtually all of his examples were drawn from premodern and non-state societies where his “ wild” thinking predominated, it became very easy to read him as creating a dichotomy between “ savage” societies and the civilized. He had so often to deny the accusations of formalism and idealism leveled against him and to

1 ‘ Middle Ground, 182 83. 18 Lévi-Strauss,^ avage M in d, 263.

XVIII

cite his advocacy of historical interpretations because his histories sometimes seemed so hypothetical and his categorical thinking was so pronounced.19

To see an historian such as Havard citing the more ahistorical aspects of Lévi-Strauss is doubly odd. First, because the received idea of Indian peoples as being either a people without history or a cold society incapable of thinking historically would seemingly be the first thing an historian would question, and, second, because it neglects the odd dance Lévi-Strauss did with history. He embraced it in one place and implicitly denied its reach in others. He defined the ambition o f the historian as striving “ to reconstruct the picture of vanished societies as they were at the points which for them corresponded to the present, while the ethnographer does his best to reconstruct the historical stages which temporally preceded their existing form.” Typically, he began with a simple binary division. Anthropologists studied diversity in contemporary space; historians studied diversity across time.20 Phis is a division of labor few modern historians would accept, but neither is it one that Lévi-Strauss clung to very consistently. He often made a more expansive history part o f his anthropology. In a i960 interview Lévi-Strauss clarified his explanation of what he meant by a “ hot” society. “ We try to define,” he said, “ ourselves in opposition to our ancestors. Change is thus much more rapid. We are not only aware o f the existence of history but we wish with the knowledge we have of our past to reorientate the future, legitimize or criticize the evolution of our society.” 21 “ I lot,” in this sense of ourselves as living in a world different from our ancestors and using the “ knowledge we have of our past to reorientate the future,” is quite close to w hat many historians mean when they use the term modern. Hot and cold societies were to Lévi-Strauss poles, and actual societies existed along a continuum. lie did not intend to describe societies with utterly discrete and incommensurate ways of thinking.

A fundamental 1 hrusl of The Middle Ground is to assert that Indian peoples in the pays d ’en haut were modern, a people of history whom events had forced to charter a new and dangerous route into the future. They were not captured and imprisoned in some state beyond history. I do not expect that Lévi-Strauss would have agreed with me, but neither would I expect him necessarily to take Havard’s position. When Lévi-Strauss attacked Sartre for creating an ahistorical prison in which “ each subject’ s group and period now takes the place of timeless consciousness,” and for the “ egocenlricity and naivety” ol thinking that existential truth lies in a single historical epoch in the

Preface to the twentieth anniversary edition

19 Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked: Introduction to a Science o f Mythology (New York: Harper and Row, 1970) 1:8—11 . Lévi-St rauss, Savage Mind, 256.

1 Manuel Osorio, “ Interview with Claude Lévi-Strauss,” UNESCO Courier (Oct. 1990).

XIX

W est, he was arguing for porous and social boundaries and comprehension across lime and space.22

In 1952, with the shock o f World War II and fascism still quite fresh, Lévi- Slrauss wrote a little book, a pamphlet really, for U N ESCO entitled Race and History.2 ' Parts o f it are now quite dated, but much of it remains com­ pelling and fresh. Embedded in it is an argument against the idea of cultures as hermetically sealed containers incapable “ of a true judgment of any other, since no culture can lay aside its own limitation.” 24 His ideas of how colo­ nized peoples adjust to the presence of colonizers were sketchy, schematic, and anecdotal, but he clearly recognized that the results were in large part a product of power, and that in conditions of roughly equal power soci­ eties adjusted without necessarily surrendering their “ Weltanschauung."1 ' But more than this, he asserted that “ all cultural progress depends on a coalition o f cultures,” and that the paradoxical challenge of historical change is that human progress in the widest sense depends on both overcoming difference through coalitions and reproducing difference — because human vitality depends on diversity. In this very broad sense, what Lévi-Strauss thought as ihe modern challenge was the one prefigured in the pays d ’en haul and on the middle ground.26

Whether I cite a debt to or a difference from Lévi-Strauss thus depends on what particular aspect o f his thought is at issue. When he deals in typologies, then 1 make little use o f his work, but he often creates concepts and metaphors that can be expanded beyond his own use o f them. 1 lis idea of bricolage is a brilliant metaphor, but to the extent that he imagined it as a mark of a closed system in which those within are unable to imagine the kind of design and technique that he takes as a mark of science, then the concept is not very helpful to me. But there is no reason that bricolage has to be kept pure and confined to premodern societies. Bricolage can reach out to include new elements — including those Lévi-Strauss marked as modern or “ scientific.” 27 In such combinations it can create the kind o f calculated change that we see as a mark of modernity. A leader such as Tecumseh could be, for example, considered a bricoleur, but he was also modern and revolutionary.

James MerreH’s critique of The Middle Ground in his book Into the Amer­ ican Woods is more implicit than explicit. It is in some respects virtually the opposite of Havard’s because where Havard sees overwhelming colonial power and portrays mediation as a successful European tool that ensured

77 Lévi-Strauss, Savage Mind, 249, 254. l?' Claude Lévi-Strauss, Race and History (Paris: UNESCO, 1952).

Lévi-Strauss, Race and History, 30. Lévi-Strauss, Race and History, 31. Lévi-Strauss, Race and History, 47 48. Lévi-Strauss, Savage Mind, 22.

Preface to the twentieth anniversary edition

XX

domination, Morrell portrays mediation as relying heavily on Indian diplo­ matic practices. And in the broadest sense Morrell’s trajectory of Indians as a people who once mattered to Europeans because they were both threat­ ening and necessary but who became “ specimens to be pitied or studied" is the trajectory of the middle ground.28 In its ultimate implications, however, it is quite similar because he too questions the possibility of accommoda­ tion in contests between imperial powers and non-state actors. But on the Pennsylvania frontier, an area on the edges of the pays d ’en haut, Merrell sees no evidence of a middle ground and regards mediation as ultimately a failure. The mediators themselves “ were unable to see past their differences in order to embrace their similarities” 29 If all Merrell contended was that mediation failed and no middle ground emerged in Pennsylvania, it would hardly count as a critique of The Middle Ground because I never claim that the whole colonial world was the pays d'en haut, and my middle ground emerged among the French, not the British. But M errelfs study is not so easily dismissed. Some of the figures in his book - the Montours, George Croghan — arc also central figures in mine, but again it is entirely possible that people who succeed in one arena (ail in another. What is more significant is that Merrell not only blames the failure in part on the mediators but also sees misunderstanding and distrust as simply dead ends. In Pennsylvania he finds that “ misunderstanding and mistrust ruled.” ’0 Misunderstanding and mistrust also ruled in the pays d ’en haut, but they were put to creative uses. For Merrell, however, misunderstanding and mistrust seem incapable of generating anything beyond misunderstanding and mistrust. There was no possibility of mutually comprehensible worlds. The very tools - treaties and councils - designed to create a common world made it impossible. The paths through the woods led nowhere.' 1

In order to make sure that Merrell and I are not talking past each other, it is best to reiterate my position in the middle ground and understanding between cultures. One of the books that most helped me in thinking about the middle ground was Greg Dening’s wonderful Islands and Beaches. Dening was quite literally describing contact along the beaches of Polynesia, but he turned it into a metaphor of contact zones - beaches —and the existing native cultures not fully visible from the beaches. In The Middle Ground I was far less interested in examining the interior cultural world - the native islands- than in exploring the beaches from which the vast majority of surviving historical sources survive. In Dening’s terms, the middle ground was a kind

‘ Lévi-Strauss, Savage Mind, 58,314. James H. Merrell, Into the American Woods: Negotiators on the Pennsylvania Frontier (New York: W.W. Norton, 1999), 294.

y Merrell, Into the American Woods, 37. 3 Merrell, Into the American Woods, 256, 278-79.

Preface to the twentieth anniversary edition

XXI

o f beach. A native world existed beyond it and was sometimes visible from it, but the existence o f the beach did not depend on Europeans fully grasping or sympathizing with what went on within the island.>2

The middle ground did not involve the achievement of a widespread mutual understanding and appreciation between Europeans and Indian peo­ ples. People did not come together to love one another. Nor does the concept o f a middle ground envision the elimination o f either native cultures or of European cultures and their replacement by some common hybrid. I pre­ sume the persistence of many aspects o f the old alongside the creation o f the new. As I wrote,

Although identifiable Frenchmen and identifiable Indians obviously continued to exist, whether a particular practice or way of doing things was French or Indian was, after a time, not so clear. This was not because individual Indians became “Frenchified” or because individ­ ual Frenchmen went native, although both might occur. Rather, it was because Algonquians who were perfectly comfortable with their status and practices as Indians and Frenchmen, confident in the rightness of French ways, nonetheless had to deal with people who shared nei­ ther their values nor their assumptions about the appropriate way of accomplishing tasks. They had to arrive at some common conception of suitable ways of acting.1'1

James Merrell and T share the same question. Can the peoples of two different cultures understand each other to a degree that they can accommo­ date their differences? In two similar historical contexts we not only arrived at different answers but seem to be looking for different things. I contend that in the pays d ’en haul the French and the people I lump together as Algonquians created a hybrid world that, although derived from existing French and Indian worlds, was something new. I don’t claim the two groups did Lhis by understanding and appreciating the other's cultural perspective, but rather 1 claim they did it by capitalizing on creative misunderstandings. Merrell seems much more focused on seeing mutual understanding as the route to accommodation.

In this regard, Merrell and I are looking for two different and incom­ mensurate things, and 1 could leave it at that, but to do so would slight the very serious issues that Merrell raises. In a single sentence at the end of his book, perhaps written more for effect than anything else, he took a question about the impossibility of “ Indians and White people” living together on the

Greg Dening, Islands and Beaches: Discourses on a Silent Land, Marquesas, 1 774 1880 (I lonolulu: University Press of Ha waii, 1980). Middle Ground, 50.

Preface to the twentieth anniversary edition

32

Pennsylvania frontier without ua perpetual Scene o f quarreling" and univer­ salized it across all American history. In contrast to his careful consideration of the Pennsylvania woods, he offered no evidence for this. He mentioned Wounded Knee, indicated that nothing has changed in the twentieth cen­ tury, and moved on. The question is as close as he comes to saying directly that a middle ground never emerged in North America, but asked in the context of Into the American Woods it lias implications for the middle ground. If accommodation and understanding were not achieved in Pennsylvania, and if they were never achieved elsewhere during the centuries o f contact on the continent, then the inevitable conclusion seems to be that such accom­ modation is dismayingly difficult, if not impossible, for Western cultures when in contact with non-Western peoples.'4

I obviously do think that mutual comprehension and accommodation, although hardly without quarreling or violence, has been historically possible between Indians and Europeans and their descendants; that, after all, is what The Middle Ground is about. But what interests me is less how Merrell and I read our particular slices o f the historical record than the premises that lay behind his assertion o f nearly half a millennia of incomprehension and conflict seemingly so total that comprehending and accommodating the other in North America seems for all practical purposes impossible.

To make a historical claim that eighteenth-century Indians and colonists never could understand and accommodate each other, despite their belief that they at least on occasion did, necessarily involves a claim by historians that they can understand things in the past that historical actors themselves did not understand. In principle, I agree with this claim, and there are easy examples of cases in which this is true. When people in the eighteenth century were describing physical phenomena - eclipses, earthquakes, epidemics - that we can also directly observe, there is certainly reason to make a claim for our superior understanding. When, however, they are describing cultural phenomena for which they are often our only source, the situation is different. What is at issue is less absolute truth claims than their ability to derive mutually comprehensible meanings and, in effect, to communicate and to act together. When an historian denies that such communication existed, both we and they descend into a fog, and we, as much as them, are faced with all kinds of interpretative difficulties. How can we know what is going on?

I presume that Merrell wrote his book because he thought he had come to understand both colonists and Indians. Authors often fail to understand their subjects, but it would be a strange book whose purpose was to demonstrate the author’s failure to understand his subjects. Because Merrell achieves what his subjects supposedly could not do, the question becomes how. He

XXII Preface to the twentieth anniversary edition

J4 Merrell, Into the American Woods, 301.

XXIII

is, after all, laboring under formidable difficulties. He is separated by two centuries or more from a native society that left few or no written records o f its own. There are colonial sources of Indian actions but by Merrell’s account these are largely records of the writers’ bewilderment and incomprehension.

There seems to be only two ways that we can claim to know about eighteenth-century Pennsylvania Indians. The first is through surviving historical accounts, virtually all of which are either by non-Indians or tran­ scribed by non-Indians. Merrell sees them as evidence of misunderstanding and incomprehension. To know that they are records of incomprehension, he must have some other way o f knowing about colonists and Indians. This leads to a second common claim made by ethnohistorians. They know the past through knowing the present. A native cultural tradition has persisted intact over lime into the present or near present and either has entered the anthropological record or survives among particular Indian peoples or native intellectuals. There are all kinds of thorny methodological issues here, but all that concerns me is the claim that a common understanding is possible. At some point, modern historians claim to understand an American Indian cultural tradition and to have reached some kind of working accommodation with Indian peoples. They think the meanings they have derived can be read back into the past.

F.lh no historians have sought to combine the persistence of cultures with the fragmentary evidence of the past to yield a hybrid knowledge of the past. The ethnohistorical technique of upstreaming - reading contemporary cultural practices back onto the past - makes use of the assumption that modern scholars can do what Merrell contends eighteenth-century colonists could not - understand the Indian other and share common practices with them. I have grave problems with upstreaming that are not germane here, but I have no problem with the underlying assumption that Indian peoples can and do teach scholars alien to their communities much about those communities.

I extend that assumption into the past and presume that people could create common understandings and common practices across cultural boundaries in the past just as they do in the present. I don't think people in the past, any more than in the present, fully understood each other. To me that is the beauty of the middle ground: it allowed people to forge mutual understanding out of similarity and misunderstanding. For a scholar to deny this possibility is to appropriate to ourselves an ability that we deny to the people we study. Such an assumption seems both arrogant and unlikely. Knowing that cultural practices traveled; knowing that individuals passed from one community to another, happily or unhappily; and knowing that people married, traded, fought together, and more, it is hard for me to conceive of the impossibility of successful communication and occasional accommodation. That it did

Preface to the twentieth anniversary edition

XXIV

not always or usually lead to a middle ground is not the issue. Tt is the possibility that I want to leave open. The safest approach is to assume that our sources must be a product of, and thus a preservation of, some degree of reliable communication between past actors. I am not arguing that everything in them reflects accurate understandings, but only that they do reflect communication and thus at least partial understandings. To claim otherwise is to cut off the intellectual branch that we are sitting on. All goes dark. The only honest response of an historian would be to say nothing or to write only of those who produced the records and assert that colonial records produce only knowledge about colonists. The postmodernist turn that took this position was honest, but it also led to a kind of cultural solipsism. It is what Lévi-Strauss critiqued even before postmodernism.

The question of speaking across cultural boundaries and forging new systems o f meaning seems so important to me in the early twenty-first century for much the same reason that similar problems seemed so important to Lévi- Strauss in the mid-twentieth century, when he wrote Race and History. The Middle Ground is a work of history, but it is also something more. It is an exploration of accommodation and social change, of the constant and related production of common meaning and difference. It is a concept that I would hope has work to do in the world. As Jonathan Lipman notes, “ Most, if not all, of the contemporary world’s nation-slates are coming to terms with domestic minorities — people who belong to more than one culture simultaneously; people who live in the ‘middle ground’ and who have created new and syncretic cultures there.” ' ' And more than that, in a world where once again pundits, with many opinions and less knowledge, assign whole peoples to alien pasts that are unable to comprehend modernity, the middle ground seems to me a place of hope.

Preface to the twentieth anniversary edition

35 Lipman, Familiar Strangers, xxxvi.

Introduction

Stories of cultural contact and change have been structured by a pervasive dichotomy: absorption by the other or resistance to the other. A fear of lost idenlily, a Puritan taboo on mixing beliefs and bodies, hangs over the process. Yet what if identity is conceived not as [a] boundary to be maintained but as a nexus o f relations and transactions actively engaging a subject? The story or stories o f interaction must I hen be more complex, less linear and teleological.

James Clifford, The Predicament o f Culture

The history of Indian-white relations has not usually produced complex stories. Indians are the rock, European peoples are the sea, and history seems a constant storm. There have been but two outcomes: The sea wears down anti dissolves the rock; or the sea erodes ihe rock but cannot finally absorb its battered remnant, which endures. The first outcome produces stories of conquest and assimilation; the second produces stories of cultural persistence. The tellers of such stories do not lie. Some Indian groups did disappear; others did persist. But the tellers of such stories miss a larger process and a larger truth. The meeting of sea and continent, like the meeting of whites and Indians, creates as well as destroys. Contact was not a battle of primal forces in which only one could survive. Something new could appear.

As many scholars have noted, American myth, in a sense, retained the wider possibilities that historians have denied American history. Myths have depicted contact as a process of creation and invention. With Daniel Boone and his successors, a “ new man” appeared, created by the meeting o f whites and Indians, a product of the violent absorption of the Indians by the whites. Myth, however, only partially transcended the stories of conquest and resis­ tance. Only wlutes changed. Indians disappeared. Whites conquered Indians and made them a sacrifice in what Richard Slotkin called a “ regeneration through violence.”

The story told in this book steps outside these simpler stories and incor­ porates them in a more complex and less linear narrative. The book is about a search for accommodation and common meaning. It is almost circular in form. It tells how Europeans and Indians met and regarded each other as alien, as other, as virtually nonhuman. It tells how, over the next two cen­ turies, they constructed a common, mutually comprehensible world in the

x x v

XXVI Introduction

region around the Great Lakes the French called the pays d ’en haul. This world was not an Fden, and it should not he romanticized. Indeed, it could he a violent and sometimes horrifying place. But in this world the older worlds of the Algonquians and of various Europeans overlapped, and their mixture created new systems of meaning and of exchange. But finally, the narrative tells of the breakdown o f accommodation and common meanings and the re-creation of the Indians as alien, as exotic, as other.

In this story, the accommodation I speak of is not acculturation under a new name. As commonly used, acculturation describes a process in which one group becomes more like another by borrowing discrete cultural traits. Accul­ turation proceeds under conditions in which a dominant group is largely able to dictate correct behavior to a subordinate group. The process of accom­ modation described in this book certainly involves cultural change, but it takes place on what 1 call the middle ground. The middle ground is the place in between: in between cultures, peoples, and in between empires and the nonstate world of villages. It is a place where many of the North American subjects anti allies o f empires lived. It is the area between the historical fore­ ground of European invasion and occupation and the background of Indian defeat and retreat.

On the middle ground diverse peoples adjust their differences through what amounts to a process of creative, and often expedient, misunderstand­ ings. People try to persuade others who are different from themselves by appealing to what they perceive to be the values and practices of those oth­ ers. They often misinterpret and distort both the values and the practices of those they deal with, but from these misunderstandings arise new meanings and through them new practices — the shared meanings and practices of the middle ground.

This accommodation took place because for long periods of time in large parts of the colonial world whites could neither dictate to Indians nor ignore them. Whites needed Indians as allies, as partners in exchange, as sexual partners, as friendly neighbors. The processes of the middle ground were not confined to the groups under discussion here. Indeed, a middle ground undoubtedly began among the Iroquois and the Hurons during a period earlier than the one this book examines. The middle ground was not simply a phenomenon of the pays d'en haut, but this mutual accommodation had a long and full existence there. The pays d ’en haut, or upper country, was the land upriver from Montreal, but strictly speaking it did not begin until the point where voyageurs passed beyond I luronia on the eastern shore of Lake Huron. The pays d'en haut included the lands around Lake Erie but not those near southern Lake Ontario, which fell within Iroquoia. It took in all the Great Lakes and stretched beyond them to the Mississippi. In the seventeenth century, the pays d'en haut included the lands bordering the

Introduction XXVII

rivers flowing into the northern GreaL Lakes and the lands south of the lakes to the Ohio. As the French fur trade expanded, the pays d ’en haul expanded with it, but in the frame of this book, the pays d'en haut retains its original boundaries.

T have, with some reluctance, referred to the people living within the pays d ’en haut as Algonquians. The term is admittedly problematic. Algo­ nquian refers to a language group the domain of whose speakers stretched far beyond the pays d ’en haut. And not all the peoples of the pays d ’en haut were Algonquian speakers. TheHuron-Petuns were Troquoian as, later, were the offshoots of the Iroquois - the Mingos. The Winnebagos were Siouan. I have, however, taken the term as a collective name for the inhabitants of the pays d ’en haut because Algonquian speakers were the dominant group, and because with the onslaught of the Iroquois, the Algonquians forged a collective sense o f themselves as people distinct from, and opposed to, the Five Nations, or the Iroquois proper. Most, and often all, o f these villagers of the pays d ’en haut were also enemies o f the Sioux and of the peoples south of the Ohio. A collection of individually weak groups - originally refugees — these villagers created a common identity as children o f Onontio, that is, o f the French governor. I have imposed the name “ Algonquian” on them to distinguish them from Ononlio’s other children, with whom they often had little contact.

In writing this history ofthe pays d ’en haut, I am practicing the “ new Indian history.” But as new' histories age, they become, in part, new orthodoxies w hile surreptitiously taking on elements of the older history they sought to displace. This book is “ new Indian history” because it places Indian peoples at the center of the scene and seeks to understand the reasons for their actions. It is only incidentally a study of the staple of the “ old history” - white policy toward Indians. But this book is also, and indeed primarily, a study of Indian-white relations, for I found that no sharp distinctions between Indian and white worlds could be drawn. Different peoples, to be sure, remained identifiable, but they shaded into each other.

For the purposes of this book, many of the conventions of both the newr history and the old are of dubious utility for understanding the world I seek to explain. I am, for example, describing imperialism, and I am describing aspects of a world system. But this is an imperialism that weakens at its periphery. At the center are hands on the levers of power, but the cables have, in a sense, been badly frayed or even cut. It is a world system in which minor agents, allies, and even subjects at the periphery often guide the course o f empires. This is an odd imperialism and a complicated w orld system. Similarly, the European writings of the period on Indians - the endless dissertations on the sauvage (savage) - become of marginal utility for understanding a world where Europeans living alongside Indians of necessity

HlCHlLl IMAC

FT CHI'

piMrroLX j bl> OUIATE-NOM Kl I

ABBREVIATION! TR10E HURpN tU J N O lS MJAM.L Ot t a w a

TiowoNT^P

A HCJ AIL À K l a or AT'

FT ST LOD'S ifc92-?l

TV.KAR.OA- CAHOIOA

' i TXmA RPA

J.KD̂AN G5Ç fo ftf PA VS O 'fM H A ^T

P0MCHA3ÇJ-RAIN',701

NOI*cne QCOJPICD fM J-'TO l.K A y HAVÊ- E^ST&D ÊARUER. Oft DA7ER.

I£f7 DATE ÊSTASUSWKP, OCOUps> BE VON D 17OI

1682_'2fe esrjAansHEP ANDABANDONED ? OAjt UNCEKTAln o r UNKNOWN

o t o 90 HjLA**£TfK£

XXX Introduction

d e v e lo p e d a far m o re in tim a te an d so p h is t ic a te d k n o w le d g e o f In d ia n p e o p le s

than d id K u ro p ean sa v a n ts . W h at R o u sse a u th o u g h t a b o u t In d ia n s m a tte rs ,

b u t to u n d e rsta n d th e pays d ’en haut, it d o e s not m a tte r as m u c h as w h at th e

h a b ita n ts o f V in c e n n e s o r K a s k a s k ia th o u g h t, o r w h a t O n o n tio , th e F r e n c h

g o v e r n o r at Q u e b e c , th o u g h t.

T h e u su a l c o n v e n t io n s o f w r it in g ab o u t In d ia n s w e re a s u n h e lp fu l as

u n m o d ifie d id e a s ab o u t im p e r ia lis m , w o r ld sy s te m s , o r s a v a g e ry . E th n o -

h isto ria n s h ave in c re a s in g ly c o m e to d is tru st th e tr ib e as a m e a n in g fu l h is­

to rica l u n it, an d the pays d ’en haul w as c e r ta in ly n ot a p la c e w h e re tr ib a l

lo y a lt ie s c o n tro lle d h u m a n a c tio n s . 1 h ave u sed tr ib a l d e s ig n a tio n s th ro u g h ­

o u t th is b o o k , b u t th e y sh o u ld b e u n d e rsto o d la r g e ly as e th n ic ra th e r th an

p o lit ic a l o r e v e n c u ltu ra l d e s ig n a tio n s . T h e m e a n in g fu l p o lit ic a l u n it in th is

s tu d y is the v i lla g e , an d In d ia n v illa g e s u su a lly c o n ta in e d m e m b e rs o f se v e ra l

tr ib e s , ju s t as A n g lo -A m e r ic a n v illa g e s in th e b a c k c o u n tr y u s u a lly c o n ta in e d

m e m b e rs o f se v e ra l d iffe re n t e th n ic g ro u p s .

I h ave a lso tr ie d to a v o id th e e th n o h is to r ic a l te c h n iq u e o f u p s tre a m in g ,

a lth o u g h d ilig e n t re a d e rs w ill, 1 am su re , fin d p lace s w h e re I h ave in d u lg e d

in it . U p s tre a m in g is a te c h n iq u e o f u s in g e th n o lo g ie s o f p re se n t-d a y o r

n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry In d ia n g ro u p s to in te rp re t In d ia n so c ie t ie s o f th e p ast. I f

a ss im ila tio n isl s tu d ie s h ave a b u ilt - in b ia s to w a rd the d isa p p e a ra n c e o f e a r lie r

c u ltu r e , then u p stre a m in g has a b ia s to w a rd c o n t in u ity .

I h a v e s im ila r ly tr ie d to a v o id u s in g th e te rm traditional to c o n v e y a n y

m e a n in g b u t o ld . T h e In d ia n p e o p le I d e sc r ib e in th is b o o k h ave no e sse n tia l

In d ia n n e ss . T h e y a re p e o p le w h o fo r a lo n g t im e re s o lu te ly fo u g h t th e E u r o ­

pean te n d e n c y to c re a te th em as the o th e r. T h e y a sse rte d a se p a ra te id e n t ity ,

b u t th e y a lso c la im e d a c o m m o n h u m a n ity in a sh are d w o r ld . T h e y lo st th e

fig h t to e sta b lish th a t c la im , an d th is b o o k is in p art th e s to ry o f that loss.

J u s t a s a n th ro p o lo g is ts an d e th n o lo g is ts h a v e co m e to re c o g n iz e h o w th e y ,

th ro u g h th e ir re se a rc h , cre a te th e o th e r as o b je c t , it is t im e fo r h is to r ia n s and

e th n o h is to r ia n s to p a y m o re a tte n tio n to su c h c re a t io n s in th e p ast and th e ir

o w n ro le s in p e rp e tu a tin g and a d d in g to th e m .

T h e w o rld o f the pays d ’en haut, th e n , is n ot a tra d it io n a l w o r ld e ith e r se e k ­

in g to m a in ta in i t s e l f u n c h a n g e d o r e ro d in g u n d e r the p re s s u re o f w h ite s . It

is a jo in t In d ia n -w h ite c re a tio n . W ith in it w e ll-k n o w n E u ro p e a n an d A n g lo -

A m e r ic a n n a m e s a p p e a r : th e C o m te de F r o n t e n a c , S i r J e f f r e y A m h e rs t ,

W illia m Jo h n s o n , D a n ie l B o o n e , G e o r g e W a sh in g to n , B e n ja m in F r a n k lin ,

an d T h o m a s Je f fe r s o n . S o , to o , d o w e ll-k n o w n In d ia n n a m e s su ch as P o n tia c

an d T e c u m s e h . 'I 'h a t so m a n y n a m e s s ig n ific a n t in th e la rg e r A m e ric a n h is­

to ry o c c u r in th is s to ry w ith o u t d o m in a tin g it in d ic a te s th at th e p a ra m e te rs o f

A m e r ic a n h is to ry need re a d ju s t in g . C o lo n ia l an d e a r ly -A m e r ic a n h isto ria n s

h ave m a d e In d ia n s m a rg in a l to th e p e r io d s th e y d e sc r ib e . T h e y h ave treated

th em as c u r io s it ie s in a w o r ld th a t In d ia n s a lso h e lp e d cre a te .

Introduction XXXI

T h is w a s a w o r ld c re a te d in the m id st o f g re a t an d fa r - re a c h in g c h a n g e s .

T o re a d e rs it m a y se em a w o r ld in p e rp e tu a l c r is is , h u t th is is p a r t ia lly an

a rt ifa c t o f the w a y I te ll th e s to ry an d o f th e n a tu re o f th e re c o rd s . I o p e n

w ith th e o n sla u g h t o f th e Iro q u o is , w h o m a y a p p e a r in it ia lly as a d e u s e x

m a c h in a . T h e w a rs o f th e Ir o q u o is p ro p e r , o r th e F iv e ( la te r S ix ) N a t io n s ,

w e re , h o w e v e r , a re su lt o f c h a n g e s as c o m p lic a te d as a n y I p re se n t h ere.

T h e re a d e r sh o u ld not m istak e th e ir w a r fa re fo r “ n o rm a l” In d ia n w a r fa re

in N o rth A m e r ic a . I t , to o , w a s a c o m p le x p ro d u c t o f E u ro p e a n e x p a n s io n .

B y d e v o tin g a key p art o f the first p o rtio n o f th e hook to th e F o x , an d h y

fo c u s in g a m id d le p o rtio n o f th e b o o k on th e c o n fro n ta t io n a lo n g th e O h io , 1 e m p h a s iz e th e m a jo r c r is e s o f th e a llia n ce . T h i s ta c tic is n e c e ssa ry b e c a u se in

c r is e s th e re la t io n s a m o n g th ese p e o p le e m e rg e d m o s t c le a r ly and a lso b e c a u se

th e c r ise s g e n e ra te d th e m o st re c o rd s . It sh o u ld b e re m e m b e re d , h o w e v e r ,

that d u r in g m o st o f th e tim e b e tw e e n 16 8 0 an d 17 6 3 , th e v a s t m a jo r ity o f

A lg o n q u ia n s re m a in e d O n o n tio ’ s lo y a l c h ild re n .

T h e real c r is is an d th e fin a l d isso lu tio n o f th is w o r ld ca m e w h e n In d ia n s

ce a se d Lo h ave th e p o w e r to fo rce w h ite s o n to th e m id d le g ro u n d . T h e n the

d e s ire o f w h ite s to d ic ta te th e te rm s o f a c c o m m o d a tio n c o u ld b e g iv en its

h ead . A s a c o n se q u e n c e , th e m id d le g ro u n d e ro d e d . T h e A m e r ic a n R e p u b ­

lic su cc e e d e d in d o in g w h at th e F r e n c h and E n g lis h e m p ire s c o u ld not do .

A m e r ic a n s in v e n te d In d ia n s an d fo rce d In d ia n s to liv e w ith th e c o n se q u e n c e s

o f th is in v e n t io n . It is th e A m e r ic a n s ’ s u c c e ss th at g iv e s the book its c ir c u la r ­

ity . E u r o p e a n s m e t th e o th e r , in v e n te d a lo n g - la s t in g a n d s ig n ific a n t c o m m o n

w o r ld , b u t in th e e n d re in v e n te d th e In d ia n as o th e r. E v e r s in c e , w e h ave seen

th e h isto ry o f th e co lo n ia l an d e ar ly re p u b lic a n p e rio d th ro u g h that p rism o f

o th e rn e ss .

1 w o u ld n ot h a v e u n d e rta k e n th e re se a rc h fo r , a n d w r it in g o f, th is b o o k i f

I had re c o g n iz e d th e a m o u n t o f la b o r it w o u ld in v o lv e . In d e e d , th is v o lu m e ,

w h ic h I o r ig in a lly e n v is io n e d as c e n te r in g o n T e c u m s e h , h as b e co m e a Tris­ tram Shandy o f In d ia n h is to ry . It e n d s w ith w h a t w a s o n c e to b e its b e g in n in g .

T e c u m s e h b e c o m e s th e p ro d u c t o f an o ld e r h is to ry , not th e c re a to r o f a n e w

o n e .

fh e b o o k is th e re su lt o f e x te n s iv e re se arc h in F r e n c h , C a n a d ia n , B r it is h ,

an d A m e r ic a n a rc h iv e s . I d e c id e d to u se the m o st a c c e ss ib le so u rce w h e n e v e r

p o ss ib le in c it in g th e re su lt o f m y la b o rs in fo o tn o te s . H e n c e I c ite p u b lish e d

d o c u m e n ts w h e n th e y a re a v a ila b le an d m a n u s c r ip t d o c u m e n ts o n ly w h e n

Lherc is no re lia b le p u b lish e d v e rs io n . W h e n a tran sla tio n se e m s u n re lia b le

o r in c o m p le te , I sa y so in th e fo o tn o te an d u se th e m a n u s c r ip t d o c u m e n t.

B e c a u s e I fo u n d so m u c h th at s u rp r is e d m e an d fo u n d m y p e rs p e c t iv e

o n the p erio d c h a n g in g as th e re se arch fo r th is b o o k p ro c e e d e d , I h ave ,

w ith o n e m in o r e x c e p t io n , re fra in e d fro m p u b lis h in g an y o f th is m a te r ia l

in an e a r lie r fo rm fo r fe a r 1 w o u ld o n ly h ave to re p u d ia te it la ter. 1 h ave ,

XXXII Introduction

h o w e v e r , p re se n te d p a rts o f th is re se arc h as p a p e rs at v a r io u s fo ru m s at th e

U n iv e rs ity o f C h ic a g o , th e U n iv e r s ity o f A r iz o n a , M ic h ig a n S t a le U n iv e r s ity ,

th e U n iv e r s i t y o f U ta h , th e U n iv e r s i t y o f C a lifo rn ia at S a n D ie g o , and th e

D 'A r c y M c N ic k le C e n te r o f th e N e w b e r r y L ib r a r y . I w o u ld lik e to th an k

th o se w h o re ad all o r p arts o f th e m a n u s c r ip t . F i r s t , o f c o u rs e , a re th e e d ito rs

o f th e se r ie s in w h ic h th is v o lu m e a p p e a rs , F r e d l l o x i e an d N e a l S a l is b u r y ,

an d F r a n k S m it h o f C a m b r id g e U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , b u t a lso B il l C ro n o n , J a m e s

C lifto n - w h o , lu c k ily , d e m o lish e d so m e o f m y e a r lie r fo rm u la t io n s - M a r t y

Z a n g e r , R am o n G u t ie r r e z , P a l A lb e r s , an d B e v e r ly P u rr in g lo n . I w o u ld

a lso lik e to th an k D e a n A n d e rs o n , w h o se e x c e lle n t d isse rta tio n a t M ic h ig a n

S ta te U n iv e r s i t y , fo r tu n a te ly , c o in c id e d w ith m y o w n e x a m in a tio n o f th e

fu r trad e . D e a n ’ s w o rk o n th e m a te ria l e x c h a n g e in v o lv e d in th e trad e is fa r

m o re d e ta ile d an d c o m p re h e n s iv e th an the sm all p a r ts I h ave c ite d h e re , and

in te re ste d re a d e rs sh o u ld c o n su lt h is d isse rta tio n . H e le n F a n n e r ’ s Atlas of Créât Lakes Indian History se rv e d as th e b a s is fo r th e m a p s in th is b o o k , and

T o w e h er a sc h o la r ly d eb t.

T w o u ld a lso like to th an k fo r th e ir fin an c ia l a ss is ta n c e th e R o c k e fe lle r

F o u n d a t io n , th e G u g g e n h e im F o u n d a t io n , an d the U n iv e r s i t y o f U ta h ,

w h e re I ta u g h t m o st o f th e t im e w h ile th is b o o k w as b e in g p re p a re d . T h e

R o c k e fe lle r an d G u g g e n h e im fo u n d a tio n s , in p a r t ic u la r , w e re b o th g e n e ro u s

an d p a tie n t, an d T am g ra te fu l fo r th e ir a id . A t U ta h , L a r r y G e r la c h , w h o

c h a ire d the 1 l is to r y D e p a rtm e n t , m a d e th e d e p a rtm e n t b o th a p le asan t an d a

s t im u la t in g p la c e to w o rk . T h i s is an a c h ie v e m e n t th at o n ly th o se w h o h ave

had e x p e r ie n c e w ith th e h ig h e r a d m in is tra t io n at th e U n iv e r s i t y o f U ta h , and

th e c o n stra in ts on e d u c a tio n in U ta h , can a p p re c ia te .

1

Refugees: a world made o f fragments

Human populations construct their cultures in interaction with one another, and not in isolation.

Eric Wolf, Europe and the People Without History

I

T h e F re n c h m e n w h o trav e le d in to the pays d ’en haut, a s th ey ca lle d the lan d s

b e yo n d H u ro n ia , th o u g h t th ey w e re d isc o v e r in g n ew w o rld s . T h e y w e re ,

h o w e v e r, d o in g so m e th in g m o re in te re stin g . T h e y w e re b e c o m in g co c re a to rs

o f a w o rld in the m ak in g . T h e w o r ld that h ad e x isted b e fo re th ey a rr iv e d w as

n o m o re . It h ad b e e n sh a tte re d . O n ly fra g m e n ts re m a in e d . L ik e a k n ife

sc o r in g a p an e o f g la ss , w a r fa re a p p a re n tly fa r m o re b ru ta l th an an y k n o w n

p re v io u sly a m o n g th ese p e o p le s h ad e tc h e d th e first fin e d a n g e ro u s lin es

a c ro ss th e re g io n in the 16 4 0 s . B ro a d c ra c k s h ad a p p e a re d , as e p id e m ic s o f

d ise a se s u n k n o w n b e fo re in th e se la n d s c a rr ie d o f f ten s o f th o u sa n d s o f

p e o p le . A n d th e n , b e tw e e n 16 4 9 an d the m id - 16 6 0 s , Iro q u o is a ttack s had

fa lle n lik e h a m m e r b lo w s a c ro ss the le n g th an d b re a d th o f the lan d s

b o rd e r in g th e G r e a t L a k e s an d d e sc e n d e d d o w n in to the O h io V a lle y .

T h e Iro q u o is d e s ire d b e a v e r an d the h u n tin g lan d s th at y ie ld e d th em , and

th ey w an ted c ap tive s to re p la c e th e ir d e a d o r to aton e at the to rtu re stake

fo r th e ir lo ss . T h e c o u p lin g o f the d e m a n d s o f the fu r trad e w ith Iro q u o is

c u ltu ra l im p e ra tiv e s fo r p r is o n e rs an d v ic tim s c re a te d an e n g in e o f d e stru ctio n

th at b ro k e u p th e re g io n ’s p e o p le s . N e v e r aga in in N o rth A m e r ic a w o u ld

In d ia n s fig h t each o th e r o n th is sca le o r w ith th is fe ro c ity . A m id the s la u g h te r

p eo p le fle d w est. T h e la rg e ly A lg o n q u ia n -s p e a k in g w o r ld w e st o f Iro q u o ia

b ro k e u p , an d the Iro q u o is p u sh e d th e fra g m e n ts w e s t . 1

S h a tte re d p e o p le s u su a lly v a n ish fro m h isto ry , an d m an y o f the Iro q u o ia n

p e o p le s - th e E r ie s , the N e u tra ls - w h o fe ll b e fo re the e p id e m ic s an d the

1 For recent accounts o f the Iroquois wars, see Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Em pire (New York: W. W. Norton, 1984), 8 4 - 1 1 3 ; Daniel Richter, “ War and Culture: The Iroquois Experience,” W illiam and M ary Q uarterly 40 (1983): 528 -59 ; and Bruce Trigger, The Children ofAataentsic: A History o f the Huron People to 16 6 0 ,1 vols. (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1972), 2 :767-97, 8 2 0 -2 1.

1

2

w a rfa re , d isa p p e a re d as o rg an iz e d g ro u p s . B u t m o st A lg o n q u ia n s d id not

d isap p e a r. In ste a d , to g e th e r w ith F r e n c h m e n , th ey p ie c e d to g e th e r a n ew

w o rld fro m sh attered p ie c e s . T h e y u se d w h a t am o u n te d to an im p o rted

im p eria l g lu e to re c o n stru c t a v illa g e w o rld . T h is v illa g e w o rld su sta in e d , and

w as in tu rn su sta in e d b y, th e F r e n c h e m p ire .

T h e sto ry o f the c re a tio n o f th is w o r ld fo rm s th e b e g in n in g o f th is b o o k ,

and it m u st b e g in w ith th e o ften h o rr ific frag m e n ts le ft b y th e sh a tte r in g o f

th e o ld . T o w rite a c o h e re n t sto ry o f th e Iro q u o is h a m m e r s tr ik in g A lg o n q u ia n

g lass , h isto ria n s h ave traced th e b lo w s o f the h a m m e r. W h e n th ey h ave fe a ­

tu red th e v ic tim s o f the Iro q u o is , th ey h ave w ritte n ab o u t o th e r Iro q u o ia n s -

th e F lu ro n s , P e tu n s , N e u tra ls , an d E r ie s - b e c a u se th ese g ro u p s e ith e r had

Je s u it m iss io n arie s a m o n g th em o r lived b e s id e n e ig h b o rs that d id . T h e y

h ave n o t c o n c e n tra te d o n th e sh a tte r in g A lg o n q u ia n w o rld , b e c a u se it is h ard

to te ll a storyr o f frag m e n ta tio n . A n d in an y c a se , the v e ry e ven ts g re w va g u e

as the Iro q u o is b lo w s fe ll fa rth e r an d fa rth e r w e st a m o n g p e o p le s the F re n c h

b a re ly kn ew . W h e n th e F r e n c h d id co m e to kn o w th ese p e o p le s , the b lo w s

w e re still fa llin g an d the s to ry se e m e d o n ly ch ao s.

T h e re su lt is a h isto rica l la n d sc a p e that co n s is ts la rg e ly o f d im sh ad o w s.

T h e r e a rc trib a l trad itio n s c o lle c te d a ce n tu ry an d a h a l f o r m o re a fte r the

fact. T h e r e a re the m e m o rie s o f F r e n c h trad e rs - th e ir re c o lle c tio n s in o ld

age o f a yo u th a m o n g stra n g e rs . T h e r e a re c o n te m p o ra ry a c c o u n ts , v iv id

re n d e r in g s o f e ven ts in w h ich d eta ils a re u n fa m ilia r an d w ith o u t ap p a re n t

m ean in g . T h u s a fra c tu re d so c ie ty h as b e e n p re se rv e d in frac tu re d m em o ry .

T o p re te n d th is w o rld e x ists o th e rw ise is to d e c e iv e . A n d in an y c a se , th is

frag m e n ta ry , d isto rted w o rld is , fo r the h isto rian , g o o d e n o u g h . F o r the

h isto ry in q u estio n d u r in g th e h o rrib le y e a rs o f the m id an d la te se ve n te en th

cen tu ry is a h isto ry o f p e rc e p tio n s , o f a ttem p ts to m ak e se n se , o f attem p ts to

cre a te c o h e re n c e fro m sh a ttered p arts . F o r the F r e n c h an d the re fu g e e s

a lik e , o ld e r p attern s an d o ld e r ro u tin e s w e re in c o lla p se . F o r all c o n c e rn e d

th is w a s a w o rld w h e re d re a m s an d n ig h tm a re s h a p p e n e d . It w a s a d e sp e ra te

w o rld w h e re acc id e n ta l c o n g ru e n c e s and te m p o ra ry in te re sts b e ca m e the

s t u f f fro m w h ich to fo rg e m e a n in g an d stru c tu re . T h e fra g m e n ts are the

history'. It is , th e re fo re , a w o rld b e st in itia lly p e rc e iv e d in fra g m e n ts , as both

A lg o n q u ia n s an d F re n c h m e n p e rc e iv e d it and tried to m ak e se n se o f its

d a n g e r , s tra n g e n e ss , an d h o rro r .

T h e h o rro r that the Iro q u o is w o u ld b r in g to the pays d'en haut w as first

p re fig u re d b y a n o th e r c o n fe d e ra t io n o f Iro q u o ia n -s p e a k in g p e o p le s . T h e

N e u tra ls , so o n th e m se lv e s to b e co m e Iro q u o is v ic tim s, o b ta in e d iro n w e a p o n s

fro m E u ro p e a n s w h e n th e ir e n e m ie s to the w e st still re lie d on sto n e. In the

m id - 16 4 0 s a la rg e N e u tra l w a r p arty “ to th e n u m b e r o f 2 ,0 0 0 ” a ttack ed a

s to ck a d e d A lg o n q u ia n v illa g e in M ic h ig a n . T h e s e A lg o n q u ia n s w ere a

The middle ground

p e o p le the N e u tra ls c a lle d the N a tio n o f F ir e . M o s t lik e ly , th ey w e re F o x o r

M a sc o u tc n s . A fte r a s ie g e o f ten d ays, the N e u tra ls c a p tu re d the fort. T h e y

k illed m an y on th e spot, b u t th ey re ta in e d e ig h t h u n d re d ca p tiv e s - m en ,

w o m e n , an d c h ild re n . O f th e se , th ey b u rn e d se ve n ty w a rr io rs . T h e o ld m en

h ad a c r u d e r fa te . T h e N e u tra ls p u t o u t th e ir e yes an d g ird le d th e ir m o u th s,

le av in g th em to starve in a lan d th ey c o u ld no lo n g e r s e e .2 3

A s Iro q u o is a ttack s d e p o p u la te d the la n d s a ro u n d L a k e O n ta rio , re fu g e e s

fled w e st an d the Iro q u o is fo llo w e d . R e fu g e e O ttaw as an d re m n a n ts o f the

H u ro n s an d P c tu n s fled in s ta g e s as p re s s u re fro m the Iro q u o is in c re a se d . In

1 6 5 3 e ig h t h u n d re d Iro q u o is c o rn e re d th e ir p re y at G r e e n B a y , o n e o f the

sto p s on th is s ta g g e re d flig h t w est. M a n y o f the b e s ie g e rs w e re , it tu rn e d out,

“ th e o ffs p r in g o f the p e o p le w h o m th e y h ad co m e to a tta c k .” F a r fro m th eir

o rig in a l h o m e, H u ro n s ad o p te d b y the Iro q u o is a ttack ed re fu g e e H u ro n s .

F o r a lo n g tim e, the Iro q u o is b e s ie g e d th e fo rt an d v illa g e s . B u t in th is s iege

it w as th e a tta ck e rs ra th e r th an th e b e s ie g e d w h o g re w h u n g ry , an d so

even tu ally the tw o s id e s n e g o tia ted a tru c e . In e x c h a n g e fo r fo o d an d a sa fe

w ith d raw a l, the Iro q u o is a g re e d to s u r r e n d e r the H u ro n s w h o w e re a m o n g

them .

S o m e o f th ese H u ro n s , h o w e v e r, h ad d e v e lo p e d ties to th e ir ca p to rs . O n

the eve o f the d e p a rtu re o f the Iro q u o is , th e O ttaw as at G r e e n B a y g av e e ach

Iro q u o is w a rr io r a lo a f o f p o iso n e d c o rn b re a d . A H u ro n w o m a n , w h o h ad

m a rrie d an Iro q u o is m an b u t h ad fle d w e st w ith the re fu g e e s , knew' the

se cre t. S h e to ld h e r so n , w h o , a p p a re n tly , h ad co m e w ith the Iro q u o is , not to

e at th e b re a d . T h e son in fo rm e d the Iro q u o is o f th e p lo t, an d th ey e sca p e d .

T h e sa lva tio n o f th e Iro q u o is p ro v e d te m p o rary . T h e y d iv id ed in to tw o

p artie s . T h e sm a lle r p arty w e n t n o rth , w h e re w a rr io rs fro m the b a n d s o f the

p e o p le w h o w e re to b e co m e the C h ip p e w a s an d the M is s is s a u g a s attacked

an d d e fe a te d th em . F e w e sc a p e d . T h e m ain fo rc e p u sh e d so u th in to the

p ra ir ie co u n try . T h e y re a c h e d a sm a ll I llin o is v illa g e . T h e m en fle d , and the

Iro q u o is k illed the w o m e n an d c h ild re n . B u t o th e r Illin o is w e re n e arb y , an d

the w a rr io rs su rp r ise d an d o v e rw h e lm e d the Iro q u o is . In th is w a r fa re th eir

d e a th s o n ly b e c a m e the se e d s fo r n e w a tta ck s .'

T h e Iro q u o is o n s la u g h t d id n o t h a lt o th e r W'ars in the pays d'en haut, an d

so m e tim e d u rin g th e Iro q u o is w a rs , fo u r o r five h u n d re d M ia m i w a rr io rs

m a rc h e d a g a in st th e ir so u th e rn e n e m ie s . In th e ir a b se n c e , a b an d o f S e n e c a s

d e stro y e d th e ir v illag e . O n ly o n e o ld w o m a n , le ft fo r d e a d , su rv iv e d . S h e told

2 J R 27 :25-27- 3 Nicolas Perrot, M em oiron the M anners, Customs, and Religion o f the Savages o f North Am erica, in

Emma Helen Blair (ed.), The Indian Tribes o f the Upper M ississippi Valley and Region o f the Great Lakes, 2 vols. (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark, 19 1 1) , 1 : 1 5 1 - 5 6 .

Refugees 3

4 The middle ground

Although such portraits emphasized the exoticism of Indians, the trade blanket, the trade beads, and the breech cloth all testily to the mixing of European and Indian worlds. (Mackinac State Historic Parks)

the re tu rn in g M ia m is that th e S e n e c a s h ad m a rc h e d the w o m e n and

c h ild re n east.

E v e ry n ig h t a s the S e n e c a s trav e le d h o m e , th ey k illed and ate a M ia m i

c h ild . A n d e ve ry m o rn in g , th ey to ok a sm a ll c h ild , th ru st a stick th ro u g h its

h ead an d sa t it up on the p ath w ith its face to w ard the M ia m i to w n th ey had

le ft. B e h in d the S e n e c a s c a m e the p u rsu in g M ia m is , an d at e v e ry S e n e c a

ca m p site , b ro k e n h e a rte d p a re n ts re c o g n iz e d th e ir ch ild .

W h e n the S e n e c a s w e re w ith in a d a y ’ s m arch o f th e ir o w n v illa g e , th ey

se n t th e ir p e o p le a m e ssa g e te llin g th em to p re p a re a g re a t kettle an d sp o o n

to e n jo y the g o o d b ro th th ey w e re b r in g in g th em . It w a s at th is last c am p site

that the p u rsu in g M ia m i w a rr io rs a t la st c a u g h t the S e n e c a s . B u t the S e n e c a s

h ad g u n s an d the M ia m is d id not, an d so the M ia m is d e c id e d to s e t an

a m b u sh ra th e r than a ttack the cam p d ire ctly .

T w o M ia m i sp ie s w a tc h e d the S e n e c a cam p . A n d th at n igh t, as u su a l, fo r

the e v e n in g m ea l o n e o f the S e n e c a s d e c ap ita te d a c h ild an d p re p a re d its

b o d y fo r the kettle . H e a r in g a n o ise o u ts id e the c a m p , the c o o k to ssed the

h ead in to the b u sh e s an d to ld the w o lf he im a g in e d lu rk in g th ere that h e w as

g iv in g it the h ead o f a M ia m i fo r its su p p e r . T h e M ia m i sp ie s c a rr ie d the

h ead b ack to th e ir c o m p a n io n s w h o so rro w fu lly re c o g n iz e d it.

W h e n the h eav ily la d e n S e n e c a s re a c h e d the M ia m i a m b u sc a d e , th ey

w e re o v e rw h e lm e d . T h e M ia m is k illed all b u t six . T w o e sc a p e d . F o u r w e re

taken p riso n e rs . T h e M ia m is k illed tw o o f th e ir c ap tive s an d b e h e a d e d them .

T h e y ran a s tr in g th ro u g h th e e a rs o f the h e a d s an d h u n g the h e a d s aro u n d

the n e ck s o f the re m a in in g tw o p r is o n e rs w h o se h a n d s , n o s e s , an d lip s th ey

cu t o ff. T h e y th en se n t th em h o m e to te ll o f the v e n g e a n c e o f th e M ia m is . A t

the S e n e c a v illa g e all w a s h o rro r an d c o n fu s io n . T h e M ia m is re tu rn e d h o m e

w ith th o se o f th e ir re la tiv e s w h o m the S e n e c a s h ad s p a r e d .4

P ie r re E s p r it R a d isso n an d h is b ro th e r - in - la w M e d a r d C h o u a r t , b e tter

kn ow n as D e s G r o s e il l ie r s , w e re the b ra v e st an d m o st e x p e r ie n c e d o f the

F r e n c h w h o fo llo w e d the re fu g e e s w e st . In the la te 1 6 5 0 s an d e ar ly 16 6 0 s

w h e n Iro q u o is w a r p a rtie s h a u n te d the riv e rs an d p o rta g e s , th ey m a d e

se v e ra l v o y a g e s , g o in g as fa r as the M is s is s ip p i in se a rc h o f fu rs . S o m e tim e s

th ey trav e le d w ith Je s u it s in se a rc h o f so u ls ; a lw ays th ey trav e le d w ith

H u ro n -P e tu n s , O ttaw as, a n d o th e r re fu g e e s w h o had c o m e to M o n tre a l fo r

g u n s an d o th e r g o o d s. T h e i r trav e ls to o k th em in to a w o r ld o f h o rro rs . T h e y

re c o rd e d e ven ts that th ey c o u ld n o t fu lly d e c ip h e r .

In 1 6 5 8 R a d isso n an d D e s G r o s e il l ie r s d e p a rte d on the vo y a g e w h ich

e ve n tu a lly took th em to the M is s is s ip p i. T h e i r ow n p arty c o n ta in e d tw en ty-

n in e F r e n c h m e n , w h o d e s ire d “ b u t to do w e ll” fo r th e m se lv e s , an d s ix

In d ia n s , all o r m ostly H u ro n s . A s w a s cu sto m a ry , th ey fo rm e d a co n vo y , w ith

o th e rs g o in g w est. O f the F r e n c h , o n ly R a d is s o n an d D e s G r o s e il l ie r s h ad

e x p e rie n c e in the w e ste rn w o o d s . T h e n o v ice v o y a g e u rs a d v a n c e d c a re le ss ly

Refugees 5

4 C. C. Trowbridge, M eearm eear Traditions: Occasional Contributions from the .Museum o f Anthropology o f the University o f M ichigan, no. 7, ed. Vernon Kinietz (Ann Arbor; University o f Michigan Press, 1938): 7 5 -7 6 .

6

u p riv e r , la u g h in g at the ca u tio n o f R a d is s o n an d D e s G r o s e il l ie r s an d c a llin g

th em w o m e n . A fte r th re e d a y s ’ trav e l, a s in g le Iro q u o is a p p e a re d on sh o re

w ith a h a tch e t in h is h an d , s ig n a lin g the F r e n c h to lan d . E v e n a fte r the

Iro q u o is th re w h is h atch et aw ay an d sa t on the g ro u n d , the n o v ic e s fe a re d to

a p p ro a c h h im . T h e Iro q u o is fin a lly ro se , a d v a n c e d into th e w a te r , an d sa id

(in the fra c tu re d E n g lish o f the R a d is s o n m a n u sc rip t) : “ I m ig h t h ave e sc a p e d

y o u r s ig h t, b u t that I w o u ld h ave sa v e d y o u . I fe a r n o t d e a th .” W h e n the

c a n o e s fin a lly c lo se d on h im , an d th e ir o cc u p a n ts , b in d in g h im , to ok h im on

b o a rd , h e b e g a n to s in g h is d eath so n g .

W h e n he h ad fin ish e d s in g in g , h e m ad e a sp e e c h . “ B r e t h r e n ,” h e b e g a n ,

“ the d ay the su n is fav o ra b le to m e [it] a p p o in te d m e to te ll yo u that yo u are

w it le ss , b e fo re I d ie .” T h e e n em y, h e to ld th em , w as all a ro u n d . T h e e n e m y

w a tc h e d the F r e n c h ; it lis te n e d to th e m . It re g a rd e d th em a s e a sy p re y .

“ T h e r e fo r e I w a s w illin g to d ie to g ive y o u n o t ic e . . . . I w o u ld p u t m y s e lf in

d e a th ’ s h a n d s to save y o u r l iv e s .” H e in stru c te d th em on h o w to p ro c e e d i f

th ey w e re to save th e m se lv e s . T h e “ p o o r w re tc h ,” w ro te R a d is s o n , “ sp o k e

the tru th an d g ave go o d in stru c t io n s .” T h e n ext d ay , the p arty m et Iro q u o is

w a rr io rs o n th e r iv e r . A fte r in itia l p a n ic , the F r e n c h an d H u ro n s fo rte d up.

T h e y th en b ro u g h t in th e p r is o n e r “ w h o so o n w a s d isp a tc h e d , b u rn e d an d

ro aste d , an d e aten . T h e Iro q u o is h ad so se rv e d th e m .” W h y th e Iro q u o is

w a rr io r h a d s u rre n d e re d to save th e F r e n c h , the F r e n c h n e v e r k n ew . In the

e n d , a ll the F r e n c h b u t R a d is s o n an d D e s G r o s e il l ie r s d e c id e d to re tu rn to

th e F r e n c h se ttlem e n ts . T h e tw o b ro th e r s - in - la w , e n d a n g e re d a n d sa v e d by

e ve n ts th ey d id n ot u n d e rsta n d , c o n tin u e d in co m p an y w ith th e In d ia n s .

T h e y c o u ld e x p la in c ru e lty ; th ey c o u ld n ot m ak e se n se o f k in d n e ss , i f that is

w h at th e Iro q u o is b y th e riv e r h ad in ten d ed .

T h e re fu g e e v illa g e s in th e W e s t w e lc o m e d R a d is s o n an d D e s G r o s e il l ie r s

an d th o se w h o fo llo w e d . T h o s e w h o h ad no trad e rs e a g e r ly so u g h t th em . In

the 16 6 o s , the M ia m i an d M a s c o u te n re fu g e e s w h o h ad se ttle d in lan d fro m

G r e e n B a y in v ited N ic o la s P e rro t an d a co m p a n io n to v is it th em . W h e n the

F r e n c h la n d e d a t the M a s c o u te n v illa g e , an o ld m an c a rry in g a re d sto n e

c a lu m e t - a lo n g -s te m m e d p ip e d e c o ra te d w ith fe a th e rs - an d a w o m a n w ith

a b a g c o n ta in in g a p o t o f c o m m c a l m e t th em . B e h in d the o ld m an an d the

w o m a n ca m e tw o h u n d re d y o u n g m e n w ith “ h e a d re sse s o f v a r io u s so rt, an d

th e ir b o d ie s . . . c o v e re d w ith ta tto o in g in b la c k , re p re se n tin g m an y k in d s o f

f ig u re s .” T h e y o u n g m en c a rr ie d w e a p o n s . T h e o ld m an firs t p re se n te d the

c a lu m e t to the F r e n c h o n th e s id e n e x t to the su n . H e th en p re se n te d the

ca lu m e t to the su n , the e a rth , an d all the d ire c tio n s . H e ru b b e d P e rr o t ’ s

h e a d , b a c k , le g s , an d feet. 5

The middle ground

5 Arthur Adams (cd.), The Explorations o f Pierre Esprit Radisson (Minneapolis: Ross & Haines, 1967), 80-84; also see Introduction.

T h e o ld m an sp re ad a p a in te d b u ffa lo sk in an d sat P e rro t an d his

co m p a n io n u p o n it, b u t w h e n he tried to k in d le a fire w ith flin t, he fa iled .

P e rro t d rew fo rth h is fire s te e l an d im m e d ia te ly m a d e fire . “ T h e o ld m an

u ttere d lo n g e xc la m a tio n s ab o u t the iro n , w h ic h se e m e d to h im a sp ir it .” H e

lig h ted th e c a lu m e t an d th ey sm o k e d . T h e y ate p o rr id g e an d d r ie d m eat

an d su ck e d the ju ice o f g re e n co rn . T h e y re fille d the c a lu m e t, an d the

M a sc o u te n b lew r sm o k e into P e r r o t ’ s fa c e . P e rro t fe lt h im s e lf b e in g sm o k ed

lik e d ry in g m eat, b u t he u ttere d n o c o m p la in t. W h en the M a s c o u te n s tried to

ca rry the F re n c h m e n in to the v illa g e , h o w e v e r, P e rro t sto p p ed th e m . M e n

w h o c o u ld sh ap e iron , P e rro t sa id , h ad the stren g th to w alk .

A t the v illa g e the c e re m o n ie s w e re re n e w e d . T h e M ia m i c h ie fs , en tire ly

n ak ed e x c e p t fo r e m b ro id e re d m o c c a s in s , m et th em at its e d g e . T h e y cam e

s in g in g an d h o ld in g th e ir c a lu m e ts . A w a r c h ie f ra ise d P e rro t to h is

sh o u ld e rs an d c a rr ie d h im in to th e v illa g e w h e re he w a s h o u se d an d fe aste d .

T h e n ext day the F r e n c h g av e a g u n an d a kettle as p re se n ts , an d P e rro t

told the M ia m is an d M a s c o u te n s that a c q u a in ta n c e w ith the F r e n c h w o u ld

tran sfo rm th e ir lives. “ I am the d aw n o f that lig h t, w h ic h is b e g in n in g to

a p p e a r in y o u r la n d s , as it w e re , th at w h ic h p re c e d e s the su n , w h o w ill so on

sh in e b rig h tly an d w ill c a u se y o u to b e b o rn aga in , as i f in a n o th e r lan d ,

w h e re yo u w ill fin d m o re e a s ily an d in g re a te r a b u n d a n c e , all that can b e

n e c e ssa ry to m a n .” T h e g u n , h e sa id , w a s fo r the y o u n g m en , the kettle w a s

fo r the o ld ; an d he to sse d a d o ze n aw ls an d k n ives to the w o m e n , a d d in g

so m e c lo th fo r th e ir c h ild re n . T h e F r e n c h e x p e c te d g ifts o f b e a v e r in re tu rn ,

b u t it tu rn e d o u t that the M ia m is s in g e d th e ir b e a v e r in the fire , b u rn in g o f f

th e ir fu r , b e fo re e atin g th em . T h e y h ad n o b e a v e r sk in s.

A w e e k la te r a le a d in g c h ie f o f the M ia m is g ave a fe a st to th an k the su n fo r

h av in g b ro u g h t P e rro t to th em . H e m a d e th e fe ast in h o n o r o f a m e d ic in e

b u n d le w h ich co n ta in e d “ all that in sp ire s th e ir d re a m s .” P e rro t d id n ot

a p p ro ve o f the a lta r. H e to ld th e c h ie f th at h e a d o re d a G o d w h o w o u ld n ot

let h im e at fo o d sa c r ific e d to ev il sp irits o r the sk in s o f a n im als . T h e M ia m is

w e re g re a tly su rp r ise d . T h e y a sk e d P e rro t i f he w o u ld e at i f th ey c lo se d the

b u n d le s . H e a g re e d . T h e c h ie f th en a sk e d to b e c o n se c ra te d to P e rr o t ’s sp irit

“ w h o m h e w o u ld . . . p r e fe r to h is o w n w h o h ad n o t tau g h t th em to m ake

h a tch e ts , k e ttle s , an d all e lse that m en n e e d e d .” P e rro t d e p a rte d le av in g the

M ia m is an d M a sc o u te n s to m ak e se n se o f h im w h ile h e tr ie d to m ak e se n se

o f th em . N e ith e r P e rro t n o r the In d ia n s w e re su re o f the in ten tio n s o f the

o th er. B o th s id e s , h o w e v e r, k n ew w h at th ey w a n te d fro m e ach o th e r .6

R e fu g e e s w e re n e v e r q u ite su re w h at to m ak e o f C a th o lic p r ie s ts . O n A u g u st

8 , 1 6 6 5 , F a th e r C la u d e - Je a n A llo u e z e m b a rk e d fro m T h r e e R iv e r s w ith s ix

6 Claude Charles I ,e Roy, Sicur dc Bacqueville de La Potherie, History o f the Savage Peoples Who A rc the A llies o f New France, in Blair (ed.), Indian Tribes, 1 :3 2 2 -3 2 . Hereafter cited as La Potherie, History,

Refugees 7

8

o th e r F r e n c h m e n an d fo u r h u n d re d In d ia n s w h o h ad co m e to T h r e e R iv e r s

to trad e . T h e In d ia n s o b je c te d to tak in g A llo u e z . T h e y th o u g h t h e w a s a

w itch . T h e y th o u g h t the b ap tism that h e a d m in is te re d c a u se d c h ild re n to

d ie . A h e a d m a n th re a te n e d to a b a n d o n the Je s u it on an is la n d i f h e p e rs is te d

in fo llo w in g th em . W h e n A llo u e z ’ s c an o e b ro k e , the H u ro n s re lu c tan tly

a g re e d to c a rry h im . T h e y ch an g e d th e ir m in d s the n e x t d ay , h o w e v e r , an d

A llo u e z an d h is c o m p a n io n s h a d to re p a ir the b ro k e n c a n o e a n d fo llo w as

b e st th ey co u ld .

E v e n tu a lly the In d ia n s re le n te d ag a in a n d a g re e d to take all the F r e n c h

e x c e p t fo r A llo u e z . H e , th ey sa id , d id n o t h ave the sk ill to p a d d le n o r the

stren g th to ca rry lo a d s o n a p o rta g e . O n ly a fte r A llo u e z p ra y e d fo r d iv in e

a ss is ta n c e d id the In d ia n s co n se n t to take h im , b u t h e b e c a m e the b u tt o f

th e ir jo k e s , a n d th ey sto le e v e ry item o f h is w a rd ro b e that th e y c o u ld lay

h a n d s o n .

A llo u e z e n d u re d the u su a l h a rd sh ip s o f the d a n g e ro u s p a ssa g e to the

la k e s , an d h e c re a te d o th e r h a rd sh ip s fo r h im se lf. T h e In d ia n s ate lich e n

so u p ; th ey o n c e ate a ra n c id d e e r th at h a d b e e n d e a d fo r five d ays . W flien the

In d ia n s w e re c a re le s s w ith the p o w d e r th ey w e re tran sp o rtin g , it b le w u p an d

b a d ly b u rn e d fo u r w a rr io rs . A llo u e z in te r fe re d w ith the sh a m a n ’ s a ttem p t to

cu re a b u rn e d m an . F u r io u s , the sh a m a n sm a sh e d the can o e that c a rr ie d

A llo u e z .

In S e p te m b e r A llo u e z re a c h e d the m iss io n o f S a in t E s p ir it at

C h e q u a m e g o n . H e d isc o v e re d that th e In d ia n s th ere h ad a b a n d o n e d th e ir

b e l ie f th at b ap tism b ro u g h t d eath . T h e y n o w th o u g h t the rite e sse n tia l fo r a

lo n g life . N o t a ll In d ia n s p ro v e d to b e so tak en w ith C h ris t ia n c e re m o n ie s .

A llo u e z p re a c h e d to m o re th an ten v is it in g n a tio n s o n ly to be o ften g re e te d

w ith co n tem p t, m o ck e ry , sc o rn , an d im p o rtu n ity .7

A llo u e z o n ly tasted the h a rd sh ip s the n o rth e rn G r e a t L a k e s o ffe re d ;

R a d is s o n an d D e s G r o s e il l ie r s d ra n k m o re d e e p ly o f th em . In 1 6 6 1 - 6 2 th ey

w in te re d w ith a b a n d o f H u ro n -P e tu n s , a fa rm in g p e o p le d r iv e n to the

in h o sp ita b le sh o re s o f L a k e S u p e r io r . T h e H u r o n -P e tu n m en w e re n o t as

sk ille d h u n te rs as the su rro u n d in g C r é e s , O jib w a s , o r e ve n the O ttaw as.

T h e y h ad fe w fo o d re se rv e s . S n o w u su a lly a id e d h u n te rs , b u t th is w in te r the

sn o w fe ll in su c h q u an tit ie s an d w a s o f su c h a lig h tn e ss th at the h u n te rs

c o u ld n o t go fo rth . E v e n th o u g h th ey m a d e sn o w sh o e s s ix fe e t lo n g an d a

fo o t an d a h a l f w id e , th e sn o w w o u ld n o t su p p o rt th em . T h o s e w h o d id

stru g g le o u t m ad e su ch n o ise flo u n d e r in g in the sn o w th at the a n im a ls h e a rd

th em at a d is ta n c e an d fle d . F a m in e o v e rto o k the H u ro n -P e tu n s .

A p p a re n tly (the b ro k e n E n g lish o f R a d is s o n ’s m a n u sc r ip t is u n c le a r) , the

The middle ground

7 JR , 1666-67, 50:249-99.

a lre a d y h u n g ry H u ro n -P e tu n s w e re jo in ed b y 1 5 0 O ttaw a fa m ilie s w h o had

even le ss fo o d th an the H u ro n s . T h e y , too , h ad to h ave th e ir sh a re , a lth o u gh

R a d isso n re g a rd e d th em as the “ c u rs e d e s t , u n a b le st, th e u n fa m o u s, and

c o w a rd lie st p e o p le I h ave e v e r se e n a m o n g st fo u r sc o re n a tio n s .” T h e

In d ia n s ate th e ir d o gs. T h e y re tra c e d th e ir ste p s to e a r lie r k ills to eat the

b o n e s an d e n tra ils that th ey h ad d isc a rd e d . T h e m en ate th e ir b o w str in g s ,

la ck in g stre n g th to d raw the b ow . S ta rv in g , the w o m e n b e c a m e b a rre n . T h e

fa m ish e d d ied w ith a n o ise that m ad e th e su rv iv o rs ’ h a ir stan d o n e n d . T h e

liv in g sc ra p e d b a rk fro m tre e s , d r ie d it o v e r fire s , an d m ad e it in to a m eal.

T h e y ate sk in s ; th ey b o ile d an d ate sk in c lo th in g . T h e y ate the b e a v e r sk in s

th e ir c h ild re n h ad u sed as d ia p e rs , a lth o u gh the c h ild re n h ad “ b e sh it th em

above a h u n d re d t im e s .” F iv e h u n d re d d ie d b e fo re th e w e a th e r c h an g e d .

T h e n th e sn o w cru ste d , an d the d e e r , b re a k in g th ro u g h th e c ru st , b e ca m e

trap p e d . H u n te rs co u ld w a lk u p to th em an d cu t th e ir th ro a ts w ith k n iv e s .8

F o u r y e a rs a fte r h is d iffic u lt p a ssa g e in to th ep û jtf d'en haut, the F o x g re ete d

F a th e r A llo u e z as a m an ito u , o r an o th e r- th a n -h u m a n p e rso n . T h e p re v io u s

w in ter, S e n e c a s h ad a ttack e d a F o x v illage w h ile the w a rr io rs w e re aw ay

h u n tin g . T h e S e n e c a s h ad s la u g h te re d se v e n ty w o m e n an d c h ild re n an d the

fe w m en in the v illag e . T h e y h ad led th irty m o re w o m e n in to captiv ity .

A llo u e z gave th e F o x p re se n ts to d ry th e te a rs c a u se d b y the Iro q u o is attack .

H e th en e x p la in e d to th em “ the p r in c ip a l A rt ic le s o f o u r F a ith , an d m ad e

k n o w n the L a w an d the C o m m a n d m e n ts o f G o d .”

L a t e r , in p riv a te , a F o x to ld A llo u e z that h is a n c e s to r h ad co m e fro m

h eav en , an d that “ he h ad p re a c h e d the u n ity an d S o v e re ig n ty o f a G o d w h o

had m ad e all the o th e r G o d s ; that he h ad a ssu re d th em that he w o u ld go to

H e a v e n a fte r h is d eath , w h e re h e sh o u ld d ie no m o re ; an d that h is b o d y

w o u ld n ot b e fo u n d in the p la c e w h e re it h ad b e en b u r ie d .” A n d th is , in d e e d ,

the F o x sa id , h ad h a p p e n e d . T h e m an in fo rm e d A llo u e z that he w as

d ism iss in g all h is w iv e s b u t o n e an d w a s re so lv e d to p ra y an d o b e y G o d .

A s fo r the o th e r F o x , A llo u e z w ro te h is su p e rio r , “ O h , m y G o d ! W h at

id e a s an d w ays co n tra ry to th e G o s p e l th ese p o o r p e o p le h ave , an d h o w

m u ch n e ed th ere is o f v e ry p o w e r fu l g ra c e to c o n q u e r th e ir h e a r ts .” T h e y

a c c e p te d the u n ity and so v e re ig n ty o f G o d , b u t “ fo r the re st, th ey h ave not a

w o rd to sa y .” A llo u e z c re d ite d th e ir re s is ta n c e to an e a r lie r v isit b y “ tw o

trad e rs in B e a v e r - s k in s .” I f th e se F r e n c h “ h ad b e h a v e d as th ey o u gh t, I

w o u ld h ave h ad le ss tro u b le g iv in g th e se p o o r p e o p le o th e r id e a s o f the

w h o le F r e n c h n a tio n .” T h e F o x a sk e d A llo u e z to stay n e a r th em , to teach

th em to p ra y to “ the g reat M a n ito u .” A llo u e z c o u ld p ro te c t th e m fro m th e ir

e n e m ie s an d in te rc e d e w ith the Iro q u o is to re sto re th e ir re la tiv es . A llo u e z

Refugees 9

8 Adams (ed.), Radisson, 1 3 1 - 3 3 .

1 0

p o stp o n e d h is a n sw e r , te llin g th em in the m e a n tim e to o b e y the tru e G o d ,

“ w h o a lo n e c o u ld p ro c u re th em w h at th ey a sk e d fo r a n d m o r e .” T h a t

e v e n in g fo u r M ia m i w a rr io rs b ro u g h t m o re im m e d ia te co n so la tio n . T h e y

gave th re e Iro q u o is sc a lp s an d a h a lf- sm o k e d arm to the re la tiv e s o f the

d e a d .9

A fe w d ays la ter , e n te r in g th e v illa g e o f the M a s c o u tc n s , A llo u e z re c e iv e d

the sam e tre a tm e n t e a r lie r a c c o rd e d P e rro t. T h e y su m m a riz e d in th e ir

re q u e sts to h im th e h o rro rs o f the p e r io d :

This is well, black Gown, that thou contest to visit us. Take pity on us; thou art a Manitou; we give thee tobacco to smoke. The Nadouessious and the Iroquois are eating us; take pity on us. We are often ill, our children are dying, we are hungry. Hear me, Manitou; I give thee tobacco to smoke. Let the earth give us corn, and the rivers yield us fish; let not disease kill us any more, or famine treat us any longer so harshly!

T o w a r d e v e n in g , A llo u e z g a th e re d the M a s c o u tc n s to g e th e r . H e w a s n ot, he

to ld th em , the m an ito u w h o w as m a ste r o f th e ir lives. H e w as the m a n ito u ’ s

c re a tu re . T h e M a s c o u te n s , he re p o rte d , o n ly “ h a lf u n d e rs to o d ” h im , b u t

th ey “ sh o w e d th e m se lv e s w e ll sa tis fie d to h ave a k n o w le d g e o f th e tru e

G o d . ” 10

O n h is w ay to th e Illin o is c o u n try in th e late w in te r o f 1 6 7 7 , F a th e r A llo u e z

p a sse d n e a r the P o taw ato m i v illa g e s a ro u n d G r e e n B a y . H e le a rn e d that a

y o u n g m an w h o m h e h ad b a p tiz ed h ad b e e n k illed b y a b e a r in a p a rtic u la r ly

g ru e so m e m a n n e r. T h e b e a r h ad “ torn o f f h is sc a lp , d ise m b o w le d h im , an d

d ism e m b e re d h is e n tire b o d y .” T h e b e a r h ad , in sh o rt, treated the y o u n g

m an as a w a rr io r trea te d the b o d y o f an e n e m y . A llo u e z , b e in g a c q u a in te d

w ith the h u n te r ’ s p a re n ts , d e to u re d to c o n so le th em . H e p ra y e d w ith the

p a re n ts , c o m fo rtin g the d is tre sse d m o th e r as b e s t he c o u ld .

A fte rw a rd , “ b y w a y o f a v e n g in g . . . th is d e a th ,” th e re la tiv e s an d fr ie n d s o f

th e d e a d m an d e c la re d w a r on the b e a rs . T h e y k illed m o re th an five h u n d re d

o f th em , g iv in g the Je s u it s a sh a re o f the m eat an d sk in s b e c a u se , th ey sa id ,

“ G o d d e liv e re d the b e a rs in to th e ir h a n d s as sa tis fa c tio n fo r the d eath o f the

Y o u n g m an w h o h ad b e e n so c ru e lly trea te d by o n e o f th e ir n a t io n .” 11

I I

In th ese fra g m e n ts o f c o n ta c t an d c h a n g e a re g lim p se s o f b oth a w o rld in

d iso rd e r an d the a ttem p ts o f p e o p le to re o rd e r it th ro u g h an a m alg a m o f

The middle ground

9 JR 54: 2 ,9- 2 7* 10 Ib id ., 229-31 . 11 J R 6 0 :15 1-53 .

old an d n ew lo g ics . T h e v e ry n a tu re o f the Iro q u o is a ssa u lt sh a p e d the

A lg o n q u ia n re sp o n se . B e c a u s e d ista n c e fro m Iro q u o ia c re a te d so m e m e a ­

su re o f sa fe ty , th e A lg o n q u ia n s an d the re m n a n ts o f o th e r Iro q u o ia n p e o p le s

- fo r the Iro q u o is w e re ju st o n e o f m an y Ir o q u o ia n -s p e a k in g g ro u p s - fled

w est. B e c a u s e the Iro q u o is h ad g u n s a n d th e ir o p p o n e n ts in itia lly d id not,

the re fu g e e s c lu ste re d to g e th e r h o p in g to c o u n te r Iro q u o is f ire p o w e r w ith

th e ir o w n n u m b e r s .12

T h is c lu ste r in g p ro d u c e d re fu g e e c e n te rs that o cc u p ie d a strip ru n n in g

n o r t h - s o u t h b e tw e e n the w e ste rn G r e a t L a k e s and the M is s is s ip p i. A s

re fu g e e s m o ved w e st to avo id the Iro q u o is h a m m e r, th ey e n c o u n te re d an

anvil fo rm e d by the S io u x , a p e o p le w h o m the Je s u it s ca lle d the Iro q u o is o f

the W e st. A n ta g o n ize d b y re fu g e e a g g re ss io n , the S io u x p ro v e d m o re than

c ap ab le o f h o ld in g th e ir o w n a g a in st the H u ro n s , P e tu n s , an d the va r io u s

A lg o n q u ia n g ro u p s w h o o p p o se d th e m .13

T h e re fu g e e s re c o ile d an d c o n c e n tra te d th e m se lv e s w ith in an in verted

trian g le w h o se p o in t re ste d o n S ta rv e d R o c k in the Illin o is co u n try and

w h o se b ase ran b e tw e e n S a u lt S a in te M a r ie an d M ic h ilim a c k in a c in the east

an d C h e q u a m e g o n in the w est. G r e e n B a y w as ap p ro x im a te ly at its cen ter.

In h a b itin g th is tr ian g le w e re Ir o q u o ia n -s p e a k in g g ro u p s (H u ro n -P e tu n s)

an d S io u a n sp e a k e rs (W in n e b ag o s), b u t, fo r c o n v e n ie n c e , its p e o p le s can be

re fe rre d to as A lg o n q u ia n s , s in ce A lg o n q u ia n -s p e a k in g g ro u p s - O ttaw as,

P o ta w a to m is , F o x , S a u k s , K ic k a p o o s , M ia m is , Illin o is , and m an y o th e rs -

d o m in ate d th ese se ttlem e n ts . T o the e ast an d so u th o f th is c o re o f v illage

c lu ste rs w a s a h u g e area b e tw e e n the O h io R iv e r an d the n o rth e rn sh o re s o f

the G r e a t L a k e s em p tied o f in h ab itan ts by the Iro q u o is . G e o g ra p h ic a lly

b ifu rc a te d in to tw o se ctio n s - re fu g e e an d e m p tied lan d s - an d p e o p le d b y

in h ab itan ts w h o se o rig in a l c o h e re n c e cam e la rg e ly fro m the h o m e s th ey h ad

lo st an d the e n e m ie s they sh a re d , the pays d ’en haut th us h ad m e a n in g n ot

b e c a u se o f its iso la tio n fro m o u tsid e fo rc e s , b u t b e ca u se o f the v e ry im p act o f

th o se fo rc e s .

T h is c lu s te r in g o f d iv e rse p e o p le s had its o w n so cia l an d e n v iro n m e n ­

tal c o n se q u e n c e s . It d isru p te d o ld e r n o tio n s o f te rr ito ry ; g e o g ra p h ic a l

b o u n d a r ie s b e tw e e n re fu g e e s b e c a m e d iffic u lt to m ain ta in . K th n ic o r loca l

d istin ctio n s re m a in e d , b u t n o w v illa g e s o f d iffe re n t g ro u p s b o rd e re d on e ach

12 For these attacks, see Trigger, Children o f Aalaetitisic, 2:767-9 7 , 8 2 0 -2 1 ; J R 4 7 :14 5-4 9 ; 62:209; 53 :24 5-4 7 , 255; 5 4 :1 15 —17; Lettre du découvreur à un de ses associes, 1679, 29 sept. 1680, in Pierre Margry, Découvertes et établissements des Fran çais. . . de l'Am erique Septentrionale, 16 14 -16 9 8 , 6 vols. (Paris: Maisonneuve et Cic, 1879, repr., New York, AM S, 1974), 2:33. Hereafter cited as Margry, Découvertes. For the wars around Green Bay, see La Potherie, History, 1:29 3-9 4 , 3 10 .

1 ’ For the flight o f some of the Ottawas and Petuns to the Mississippi and subsequent war with the Sioux, sec Perrot, M em oir 1 :15 9 -6 5 ; Adams (ed.), Radisson, 95-96 ; J R 49:249;^/? 50:279; J R 5 1:5 3 ; J R 54:115-

Refugees 1 1

ABBREVIATION TRIBE A HU hurpn A TL tUJNcxS A IQ OCRAfco A He IM&CqL’rEN A MS M^Nof*\IMtZ. A MRS KÉSQOAKE (fOX.) A Kl K'AK1 A Oj <qji8WA, A OT OTTAWA A Po RTAWATDKI A 5A &AU<. A 7 1 'HoNONriAri * Wl

• o

1697

INblAU VIU AÇE ■ Fort

--------- RI' I 'L ^ g e ARF-V

NO j:*JÇ OCCUPIER Ifeft-I70<, MAV HAVE e x js fc c - ea*j 4 ef?_ o r . la ter . DATE ESTABLISHED 0 =COPl££> b eyo n d 1701 PATE ABANDONED OCCUPIED BEpORE Ifefl

!<«*--%> DATES S7AB U SH ÊO ANO ABANDctsid? OCCopieD AT TEAT DATE, F-ARMCA OR. lAJ-ER- C A rO b e t w e e n 14,44 a n d 1701 UNKNOWN ^ DATÉ o s CERTAIN OR, UN TRjeES At VILLAGESAT Di FFERE-itT TÏVSÊâ WTFUH pERjco

•U 14 4 8

1670*

OT T l m

,Scaj_e o 30 o 30 6û

<r° Ktues

uo Sy

1

14 o th e r, o r p re v io u sly se p a ra te g ro u p s m in g le d in a s in g le v illa g e . T h e s e

su rv iv o rs o f the Iro q u o is sh a tte r zo n e an d o f the e p id e m ic s that p re c e d e d ,

a c c o m p a n ie d , a n d im m e d ia te ly fo llo w e d the Iro q u o is a ttack s cam e to be

in tim ate n e ig h b o rs an d k in sp e o p le .

D u r in g the 16 5 0 s a n d 16 6 0 s , fo r e x a m p le , the F o x , the S a u k s , the

M a s c o u te n s , the P o ta w a to m is , the K ic k a p o o s , th e N o q u e ts , the A tc h a t-

c h a k a n g o u e n s (o r M ia m is p ro p e r) , so m e W e as an d m e m b e rs o f o th e r g ro u p s

o f the M ia m i c o n fe d e ra tio n , the O ttaw as, a n d re fu g e e P e tu n s an d H u ro n s

in v a d e d la n d s at G r e e n B a y p re v io u s ly h e ld b y the n ative W in n e b a g o s an d

M e n o m in e e s . R e d u c e d in n u m b e rs by d ise a se an d w a r w ith o th e r n atio n s,

the M e n o m in e e s a n d W in n e b a g o s h ad little c h o ic e b u t to a c c e p t the

n e w c o m e rs . E v e n tu a lly e ve n a fe w Illin o is se ttle d in the re g io n . T h e p re c ise

m ix o f the a re a c h a n g e d c o n stan tly as so m e g ro u p s m o v ed aw ay an d o th e rs

e n te re d . T h e re g io n b e c a m e a h o d g e p o d g e o f p e o p le s , w ith se v e ra l g ro u p s

o fte n o c c u p y in g a s in g le v illa g e . O th e r g ro u p s in h a b ite d se p a ra te v illa g e s ,

b u t th e se v illa g e s w e re o ften co n tig u o u s . O n G r e e n B a y p ro p e r in the m id -

1 6 5 0 s , fo r e x a m p le , a m ix e d v illa g e o f K is k a k o n O ttaw ras , a g ro u p id en tified

as th e N e g a o u ic h ir in io u e k , an d so m e P e tu n s lived to g e th e r n e a r a la rg e

P o ta w a to m i v illa g e , w ith a th ird v illa g e o f M e n o m in e e s , W in n e b a g o s ,

N o q u e ts , a n d , a p p a re n tly , o th e r O ttaw as c lo se by. C o n d it io n s w e re s im ila r in

1 6 7 0 w h e n th e Je s u it s fo u n d a m ix e d v illage o f S a u k s , F o x , P o ta w a to m is , an d

W in n e b a g o s liv in g n e a r tw o o th e r , se p a ra te v illa g e s . F u r th e r in lan d g ro u p s

o f M ia m is an d M a s c o u te n s liv ed w ith in a s in g le p a lisa d e , a n d se v e ra l o th e r

n a tio n s h ad jo in e d w ith the F o x to m ak e th e ir v illa g e a se e m in g B a b y lo n o f

tr ib e s an d d ia le c ts . In su ch c o n d itio n s , th ere w e re n o se p a ra te h o m e la n d s at

G r e e n B a y . A c c o rd in g to J e s u it e stim ate s o f the 1 6 7 0 s , 1 5 ,0 0 0 - 2 0 ,0 0 0

p e rso n s lived in th e se se ttle m e n ts , all o f w h ic h w e re in itia lly c ith e r a lo n g

G r e e n B a y o r w ith in a tw o - o r th re e -d a y jo u rn e y o f it. A ro u n d S ta rv e d R o c k

in the Illin o is c o u n try d u r in g the 16 8 0 s e ve n g re a te r n u m b e rs liv ed in a m ore

c o n fin e d a r e a . 14

W ith in th is m ix in g o f p e o p le s lay the e le m e n ts o f th e pays d'en haut as a

d istin c t so c ia l fo rm a tio n , b u t a p o litica l g lu e w a s n e e d e d to h o ld the

fra g m e n ts to g e th e r . A c o m m o n re s id e n c e an d a c o m m o n e n e m y c o u ld n ot

a lo n e p ro d u c e so c ia l b o n d s a m o n g the re fu g e e s ; in d e e d , p ro x im ity an d

te n s io n m o re o ften than n o t p ro d u c e d co n flic t. In the se v e n te e n th ce n tu ry ,

w e s te rn A lg o n q u ia n s re p e a te d ly m u rd e re d o n e a n o th e r in th e h u n tin g

g ro u n d s . O n o c c a s io n , d iffe re n t n atio n s th o u g h t it b e tte r to d iv e rt the

Iro q u o is th re a t by b e tra y in g o th e r p e o p le s th an to u n ite ag a in st the F iv e

N a tio n s . M o u r n in g the lo ss o f re la tiv e s to d ise a se an d s e e k in g a re a so n fo r

th e ir lo ss , th e re fu g e e s o fte n a c c u se d e ach o th e r o f w itc h c ra ft . F o r th ese

14 For mixed and contiguous villages, see J R 44:245-49; JR 54:197; J R 55:199, 219.

The middle ground

A lg o n q u ia n s , th ere w ere fe w a c c id e n ts ; m o st c a u se s w e re p e rso n a l an d they

traced th em e ith e r to o th e r h u m a n s o r to m an ito u s - the o th e r-th a n -h u m a n

p e rso n s w ith w h o m th ey sh a re d the lan d . B la m e h ad to b e a ss ig n e d . I f the

p e rp e tra to rs w e re h u m an , th en d e a th s an d in su lts w e re re m e m b e re d , aw aitin g

e ith e r re v e n g e o r c o m p e n sa t io n .1 '̂

N ic o la s P e rro t, a F r e n c h tra d e r w h o lived m u ch o f h is life a m o n g the

A lg o n q u ia n s , k n ew firsth an d the stre n g th o f th e h a tre d b e tw e e n d iffe re n t

g ro u p s an d th e b itte rn e ss o f th e ir q u a rre ls . H e ca m e to th in k o f th e re fu g e e s

as u n ifo rm ly tre a c h e ro u s , b u s ily p lo tt in g o n e a n o th e r ’s d e stru c tio n w h e n

they w e re n ot co n te m p la tin g k illin g the F r e n c h . T h is a sse ssm e n t, o ve rsta te d

as it m ig h t b e , is b a se d on th e o b se rv a tio n s o f a m an w h o lived a m o n g the

w e ste rn A lg o n q u ia n s fo r m o re than fo rty y e a rs , k n e w th em w e ll, an d w as

re sp e c te d by th em . It a lso re fle c ts h is u n d e rsta n d a b le fru stra tio n . P e rro t

sp en t m u ch o f the p e rio d re so lv in g c o u n tle ss q u a rre ls an d th w artin g m an y

p lo ts, an d h e n e a rly e n d e d h is d ays in the m id st o f the s lo w to rtu re fire o f the

sam e M a s c o u te n s w h o h ad first w e lc o m e d h im as a m an ito u . H is o u tb u rsts

are e x a g g e ra t io n s , b u t th ey are e x a g g e ra t io n s that u n d e rlin e the re a lity o f the

d e e p an im o sit ie s sm o ld e r in g a m o n g th ese p e o p le s . It w a s p re c ise ly b e ca u se

the d iv is io n s, su sp ic io n s , d a n g e rs , an d riv a lr ie s in h e re n t in the re fu g e e

ce n te rs w e re so in ten se that A lg o n q u ia n s w o rk e d so p u rp o se fu lly to o v e r­

co m e th e m .15 16

E a c h g ro u p o f re fu g e e s so u g h t ties w ith s tran g e rs p re c ise ly b e c a u se th ey

fe a re d o u ts id e rs . T h e w h o le lo g ic o f A lg o n q u ia n a c tio n s w as that d a n g e ro u s

s tra n g e rs h ad to b e tu rn e d into e ith e r a c tu a l o r sym b o lic k in sp e o p lc i f the

re fu g e e s w e re to su rv ive h u n g e r , d ise a se , an d Iro q u o is attack . T h e c re a tio n

o f su ch tics h ad a lso b e e n p o ss ib le in th e o ld e r A lg o n q u ia n w o r ld , b u t the

n e e d fo r th em h ad se e m e d le ss p re s s in g in that ro o m ie r an d m o re se cu re

past. T h e n a p e o p le co u ld attack s tra n g e rs o r w ith d raw fro m th em , b u t in the

re fu g e e c e n te rs b o th v io le n c e an d w ith d raw a l w e re fa r m o re d ifficu lt .

T o c re a te real o r m e tap h o rica l k in sp e o p le , the A lg o n q u ia n s tu rn e d to

fa m ilia r c u ltu ra l fo rm s an d b o rro w e d n ew o n es. G i f t e x c h a n g e s , th ro u g h the

co n ve n tio n s o f re c ip ro c ity , c re a te d c h a n n e ls o f m u tu al a id . In te rm a rr ia g e

c re a te d b o n d s o f k in sh ip an d o b lig atio n . T h e A lg o n q u ia n s e a g e rly ad o p te d

the ca lu m e t c e re m o n y , a p o litica l ritu a l o f re c o n c ilia tio n . It s taye d v e n g e fu l

h an d s, b ro u g h t re fle c tio n , an d e sta b lish e d ties o f sy m b o lic k in sh ip . A d e n se

15 For murders, see I .a Potheric, H istory, 1 : 3 1 0 - 1 1 , J R 58:49, 55;Jam cs Clifton, The Prairie People: Continuity and Change in Potawatom i Indian Culture (Lawrence: Regents Press, 1977): 6 2 -6 3 ; Perrot, M em oir, 163, 182. For personal causes, see Irving Ilallowell, “ Ojibwa Ontology, Behavior, and Worldview,” in A. Irving Hallowell, Contribution to Anthropology: Selected Papers o f A . Irving H allow ell (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 3 8 1-8 3 ; JfR 57.233; J/? 6 1:14 9 . La Potherie,//ftto73', 2:83. For manitous as cause, see J R 56 :125—27.

16 Perrot, M em oir, 252, 258, 260; La Potherie, History, 2:83.

Refugees 1 5

1 6

n e tw o rk o f m u tu a l o b lig atio n g ra d u a lly d e v e lo p e d in e ach re fu g e e cen ter .

C u m u la tiv e ly , e ac h p e rso n m a rry in g o u ts id e h is o r h e r g ro u p , e ach ca lu m e t

sm o k e d , e a c h g ift o ffe re d an d a c c e p te d tied th ese d isp ara te p e o p le s c lo se r

to g e th e r th an b e fo re . W a r, fa m in e , an d d ise a se , w h ich h ad b e e n the e x e c u ­

tio n e rs o f the o ld e r , fa m ilia r w o rld o f the A lg o n q u ia n s , w e re a lso the

g ru e so m e m id w iv e s a tte n d in g the b irth o f the n ew w o rld o f the pays d'en haut.

In o u r attem p ts to u n d e rsta n d th e se b o n d s , the co n v e n tio n a l u n its o f

d isc o u rse ab o u t In d ia n s - tr ib e s w ith th e ir d istin ct te rr ito rie s an d th e ir

c h ie fs - a re m is le a d in g . T h e s e p e o p le s a re a lm o st c la ss ic e x a m p le s o f the

c o m p o site g ro u p s d e sc r ib e d b y E lm a n S e r v ic e as the p ro d u c t o f “ rap id

d e p o p u la tio n b y d ise a se w h ic h , w h e n c o m b in e d w ith the e n d in g o f h o stilities

a m o n g th e a b o r ig in e s th e m se lv e s u n d e r th e d o m in a n c e o f the co m m o n

en em y, re su lte d in the m e rg in g o f p re v io u s ly u n re la ted p e o p le s .” A t th e ir

m o st e n d u rin g , the c o n n e c tio n s b e tw e e n g ro u p s w e re n o t so m u c h d ip lo m atic

ties b e tw e e n c le a r p o litica l en titie s as so c ia l b o n d s b e tw e e n m u ch sm a lle r

so c ia l u n its .17

T h e e th n o lo g ica l d eta ils c o n c e rn in g th e se p e o p le s h ave to b e e xa m in ed

w ith c a re . T h e re fu g e e s ra n g e d fro m h u n tin g b a n d s su ch as the v ar io u s

O jib w a g ro u p s to the M ia m is , w h o in itia lly m ay have v e rg e d o n b e in g a

c h ie fd o m . S tru c tu ra lly , th ey ra n th e g am u t fro m re m n an ts o f e aste rn c o n ­

fe d e ra tio n s lik e the H u ro n s an d P c tu n s to re la tiv e ly in tact w e ste rn tr ib e s like

th e F o x . E x c e p t fo r th e H u r o n -P e tu n s , w h o w e re m a trilin e a l, an d the

O jib w a s and O ttaw as, w h o se e m to h ave o r ig in a lly la ck e d c la n s , th ey w e re all

p atr ilin e a l v illag e p e o p le s w h o w e re o rg a n iz e d in to e xo g a m o u s c la n s w h ich

o ften h ad ritu al fu n ctio n s. S u c h c la n s w e re so m e tim e s g ro u p e d in to p a ire d

m o ietie s an d so m e tim e s o rg a n iz e d in to m an y p h ra trie s . T h e a c c o u n ts o f

early e th n o lo g ists w h o stu d ie d th ese tr ib e s an d c o d ifie d th em are fu ll o f

in tern a l co n tra d ic tio n s b e c a u se th ey so u g h t to free ze an d c o d ify w h at w as, in

fact, a w o r ld in f lu x .18

W h at is c le a r is that, so c ia lly an d p o lit ica lly , th is w as a v illa g e w o rld . T h e

u n its ca lle d tr ib e s , n atio n s, an d c o n fe d e ra c ie s w e re o n ly lo o se le a g u e s o f

v illag e s . T h e n atu re o f au th o rity w ith in a P o taw ato m i v illag e an d that w ith in

a M ia m i v illa g e m ig h t, at le a st in itia lly , d if fe r s ig n ifica n tly , b u t in n e ith e r case

d id au th o rity e xten d b e y o n d the v illa g e . N o th in g re se m b lin g a state e x isted

in the pays d'en haut. T h e en titie s that the F r e n c h ca lle d n atio n s, an d w h ic h

w e re la te r ca lle d tr ib e s , th u s h ad o n ly the m o st c irc u m sc r ib e d p o litica l

17 Elman Service, Prim itive Social Organization: A n Evolutionary Perspective (New Y ork: Random House, 1972), 97.

18 Charles Callender, Social Organization o f the Central Algonkian Indians, Milwaukee Public Museum, Publications in Anthropology 7 (Milwaukee: Milwaukee Public Museum, 1962): 19 -2 8 , 3 4 -3 5 , 38 -4 U 65, 70, 8 2-8 3 .

The middle ground

stan d in g . N a tio n s sh a re d a c o m m o n la n g u a g e , cu ltu re , an d e th n ic id en tity ,

b u t the v a r io u s v illa g e s o f a n atio n d id n o t n e c e ssa r ily sh a re a co m m o n

h o m e lan d . W h a te v e r d istin ct h o m e la n d s th e se v illa g e rs h ad o n c e p o sse sse d ,

the d ia sp o ra p ro v o k e d by th e Iro q u o is h ad m ad e irre le v a n t. T h e re fu g e e

n atio n s n o w lived in c o n tig u o u s v illa g e s o r even in m ix e d v illa g e s . T o

d e c id e , fo r e x a m p le , w h at w a s I Iu ro n o r P c tu n o r O ttaw a o r O jib w a te rrito ry

at C h e q u a m e g o n w as both im p o ss ib le an d m e a n in g le ss . W ith o u t a c le a r

n ation al te rr ito ry an d la c k in g e v e n th e m o st ru d im e n tary n ation al g o v e rn ­

m en t, v illa g e s o f th e sa m e n atio n , o fte n lo ca te d in se p a ra te re fu g e e c e n te rs ,

c o u ld an d d id p u rsu e in d e p e n d e n t p o lic ie s . T h e O ttaw as o f G r e e n B a y at a

g iven m o m e n t m ig h t h ave c lo s e r re la tio n s to , an d a g re a te r co m m u n ity o f

in te re st w ith , th e ir P o taw ato m i n e ig h b o rs th an they d id w ith O tta w as at

C h e q u a m e g o n .19

L a c k in g p o lit ica l c o h e re n c e b e y o n d the v illag e , g ro u p s h ad to fo rge

c o n n e ctio n s a t th e v illa g e le ve l. B y s ta n d a rd e th n o lo g ic a l re c k o n in g , d e sc e n t

fro m m ale a n c e sto rs fo rm e d the key c le m e n t in c o n c e p tu a liz in g a p e r s o n ’ s

p lace in th is v illa g e w o rld . T h e stru ctu ra l p r in c ip le b e h in d the F o x , S a u k ,

P o taw ato m i, an d K ic k a p o o k in sh ip sy ste m s, fo r e xa m p le , h as b e e n d e sc r ib e d

as “ th e u n ity an d so lid arity o f th e p a tr ilin e a l l in e a g e ,” an d th e se sa m e trib es

h ad e x o g a m o u s p atr ilin e a l c la n s “ c o m p o se d o f e ith e r actu a l k in o r c o n ­

c ep tu a lly re la te d l in e a g e s ,” as d id the M e n o m in e e an d S h a w n e e . M o s t lik e ly

a ll the o th e r p e o p le o f the pays d ’en haut, e x c e p t the Iro q u o ia n , m atrilin ea l

H u ro n -P e tu n s , sh a re d in th is syste m , b u t not e n o u g h in fo rm atio n is a v a il­

ab le to b e s u r e .20

T h is s tro n g co n c e p tu a l p a tr ilin e a l e m p h a s is is n ot, h o w e v e r, m u ch o f a

g u id e to p ra c tic e . T h e s e p e o p le re c k o n e d d e sc e n t p a tr ilin e a lly , b u t th ey w e re

n ot p a tr ilo c a l; th at is , w h e n a m an m a rr ie d , h e d id n o t n e c e ssa r ily live w ith

h is o w n lin e a g e . H e o ften m o v ed in w ith h is w ife ’s l in e a g e ; in p ra c tic e , th ese

p e o p le s w e re b ilo c a l. T h is b ilo ca lity tak es on g re a t s ig n ific a n c e g iv en the

p re v a le n ce o f in tertrib a l m a rr ia g e s . In te rtr ib a l m a rr ia g e s , as F re n c h m e n

su ch as P c r ro t co rre c tly p e rc e iv e d , c re a te d a la rg e r c o m m u n ity o f in tere st

a m o n g the re fu g e e s . In te rm a rr ia g e so lid ifie d ties w ith o u ts id e rs w h o co u ld

a ss ist a p eo p le in tim es o f w a r an d h u n g e r , b u t th e p r ic e p a id w a s a

w e a k e n in g o f th e p a tr ilin e ag e s - a d u lt m e n le ft th eir o w n p a tr ilin e a g e s and

th e ir o w n v illa g e s to re s id e in v illa g e s w h e re th ey h ad o n ly a ffin a l re la tives.

S u c h b ilo ca lity m attered le ss in the m ix e d v illa g e s o f the re fu g e e c e n te rs ,

w h e re a m an re s id in g w ith h is w ife ’s p e o p le in itia lly re m a in e d in c lo se touch

w ith h is o w n lin e a g e , than it d id la te r w h e n v illa g e s d isp e rse d . A s v illag e s

Refugees 1 7

|y Patricia Albers and Jeanne Kay, “ Sharing the Land: A Réévaluation of Native American Territoriality,” unpublished paper.

2U Callender, Social Organization, 25 — 27, 35-

i8 se p a ra te d , th e so c ia l u n it w ith w h ic h a m an lived w a s m a d e up o f h is w ife ’ s

re la tiv es ra th e r th an h is ow n .

T h e r e w e re o th er su rp r is in g tw ists in th is p a tr ilin e a l so c ie ty . W h e n a m an

m a rrie d o u t o f h is o w n g ro u p , h is c h ild re n d id not n e c e ssa r ily take h is c lan

id en tity . U n le s s , as so m e tim es h a p p e n e d , th e ir fa th e r b e g a n a n e w c lan , the

c h ild re n o f in te rm a rr ie d fa th e rs b e lo n g e d to the c lan o f th e ir m o th e r. H e r

c la n ad o p te d th e m . A m o n g the W in n e b a g o s , S a u k s , M e n o m in e e s , F o x , and

P o ta w a to m is , w h e re a n e p h e w w a s u n d e r stro n g o b lig atio n s to a ss is t h is

m a te rn a l u n c le in w ar, th is co m b in a tio n o f c lan ad o p tio n and o b lig a tio n to

m a te rn a l u n c le s lin k ed the c h ild re n o f in te rm a rrie d m en to th e ir m o th e r ’ s

v illage d e sp ite p a tr ilin e a l d e s c e n t .21

T r ib a l identity ' and the te c h n ic a lit ie s o f k in sh ip re c k o n in g th u s d id n o t

d ictate p o lit ica l b e h a v io r in th is w o rld o f re fu g e e s . A ll k in sh ip o b lig a tio n s

w e re in a se n se co n tin g e n t, s in c e th ey h ad to be activated an d m ain ta in e d by

th e p e rso n w h o e m b o d ie d th em . A t b irth e v e ry A lg o n q u ia n , by v irtu e o f h is

o r h e r d e sc e n t , c le a r ly b e lo n g e d to a p a tr ilin e a g e and p a tr ilin e a l c lan , b u t in

d a ily life , that c lan o r lin eag e w a s n o t e ffe c tiv e ly co m p o se d s im p ly o f th ose

g e n e a lo g ic a lly a ss ig n e d to it. A p e r s o n ’ s o b lig atio n s to p a tr ilin e a l re la tiv e s

w e re n e c e ssa r ily in o p e ra tiv e on a d a ily b a s is i f he o r sh e liv e d fa r aw ay in a

d iffe re n t re fu g e e c o n c e n tra tio n . B u t in an e m e rg e n c y , su ch ties b e ck o n e d

an d k in sp e o p le m ig h t v e ry w e ll a ttem p t to a id e a c h o th e r. L o s s o f p o p u la tio n ,

lo ss o f te rr ito ria lity , e x ten sive in te rm a rr ia g e , an d the c re a tio n o f m u ltip le ties

o f actu a l an d sy m b o lic k in sh ip b e tw e e n n e ig h b o r in g p e o p le s h eav ily

m o d ifie d actu a l p a trilin e a l o rg an iz a tio n .

In p ra c t ic e , k in sh ip as an o rg a n iz in g p rin c ip le m o v e d fa r aw ay fro m

actu a l d e sc e n t . T h e w id e sp re a d c u sto m o f a d o p tio n fo rg e d so c ia l ties that

h ad n o th in g to d o w ith b irth . I f o n e p e rso n ad o p te d an u n re la te d p e rso n as a

re la tiv e , the a d o p te e a c q u ire d su b s id ia ry k in sh ip re la tio n s - a n e w m o th e r,

fa th e r , s is te rs , an d b ro th e rs - w h ile m a in ta in in g h is o r h e r o ld o n e s . In the

case o f a c a p tiv e , ad o p tio n su p p o se d ly e ra se d the so c ia l id en tity o f the

cap tive an d re p la c e d it w ith the p re e x is t in g so c ia l id en tity o f a d e ad p e rso n .

T h is p ro c e s s , w h ile o ften e ffe c t iv e , w a s a p p a re n tly ra re ly co m p le te . M a n y

ca p tiv e s , th o u g h in teg rate d in to a n e w g ro u p , re ta in e d l in g e r in g ties o f

a ffe c tio n to th e ir o ld o n e s . O n a d iffe re n t le v e l, so d a litie s o r p a n -tr ib a l

o rg an iz a tio n s fo rm e d o th e r u n its th at tra n sc e n d e d k in sh ip . T h e C a th o lic

C h u r c h to ok o n asp e c ts o f an in tertr ib a l so d a lity d u rin g th is p e r io d , b u t the

21 For intermarriage, customs, and ties, see Perrot, Memoir, 69, 188, 270; Callender, Social Organization, 23, 26; La Potherie, History, 1:277, 30 1 - Conference between Frontenac and the Ottawas, 15 Aug. 1682, NYCD 9:176. For nephew, see H BNI 15 :6 12 . For clans, see ibid., 6 14 , 694-95. Also see Marshall Sahlins, Tribesmen (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1968), 54-

The middle ground

m o st fam o u s p a n -tr ib a l o rg an iza tio n w a s the m id e w iw in so ciety . Its lo d g e s

a n d c u r in g ritu a ls c o u ld be fo u n d in m o st o f the v illa g e s o f the pays d'en haut.

A s the F r e n c h cam e to re a liz e , the b o u n d a r ie s b e tw e e n the v a r io u s

tr ib e s w e re not a lw ays c le a r . P e rro t , in a p ro p o se d sp e e c h to the w e ste rn

A lg o n q u ia n s o f G r e e n B a y , e m p h a siz e d the c o n se q u e n c e s o f the re fu g e e

e x p e rie n c e an d w id e sp re a d in te rm a rr ia g e s at that re fu g e e c e n te r : “ T h o u

P o u te o u a tim a is , th y trib e is h a l f S a k is ; th ou S a k is a re p art R e n a r d s ; thy

co u sin s an d thy b ro th e r - in - la w a re R e n a r d s an d S a k is .” S im ila r ly , the

W in n e b ag o s , a c c o rd in g to L a P o th e r ie , w e re c o m p o se d la rg e ly o f a d o p te e s

an d in te rm a rrie d p e o p le s .22 23

T h e e x tre m e p o lit ica l re su lt o f th e se d e n se r c o n n e c tio n s b e tw e e n re fu g e e

g ro u p s w a s th e d isso lu tio n o f o ld g ro u p s an d th e c re a tio n o f n e w o n es.

V a rio u s p a tr ilin e a l b a n d s - the A m ik w a s , M a ra m e g s , an d o th ers - c o a le sc e d

to fo rm the tw o la rg e d iv is io n s o f the O jib w a s - the C h ip p e w a s , o r the

S o u th w e ste rn O jib w 'as, an d the M is s is s a u g a s , o r the S o u th e a s te rn O jib w a s .

T h e e a r lie r b a n d s a p p a re n tly b e c a m e c la n s w ith in the n ew a g g re g a te v illa g e s .

T h is p ro c e ss w as n o t co m p le te u n til a fte r the e n d o f the re fu g e e p e r io d , bu t

its b e g in n in g s a re a p p a re n t in the m e rg in g o f se v e ra l p ro to -O jib w a g ro u p s

w ith th e S a u lte u rs at S a u lt S a in te M a r ie .24

F ra g m e n ts o f la rg e r g ro u p s a lso m e rg e d . T h e re m n a n ts o f the P e tu n s

o r T io n o n ta t i (the T o b a c c o N a tio n ) an d sm a lle r n u m b e rs o f H u ro n s w h o

h ad fled w e st m e rg e d to fo rm the H u ro n -P e tu n s , w h o m the F r e n c h ca lled

the H u ro n s . Iro q u o ia n in la n g u a g e an d m atrilin e a l in so c ia l o rg an iza tio n ,

th e se re fu g e e s re ta in e d a se n se o f th e ir se p a ra te n e ss from the p a trilin e a l

A lg o n q u ia n sp e a k e rs w h o su rro u n d e d th em . T h e i r u n io n w as in th is se n se

n atu ra l. In th e co lla p se o f re m n a n ts o f tw o la rg e le a g u e s in to a s in g le v illage

m u c h d isa p p e a re d . T h e H u r o n -P e tu n s o rg an ize d th e m se lv e s in to th re e

p h ra tr ie s , tw o o f w h ic h , the D e e r an d the W o lf, c le a r ly ca m e fro m the

P e tu n s. T h e H u ro n s p ro p e r fo rm e d a lin e a g e , the H a tin n io n e n (T h o s e o f

the B e a r ) , w ith in th e D e e r p h ra try . T h e o rig in o f the th ird p h ra try , the

T u r t le , re m a in s u n c le a r an d is a m atte r o f c o n tro v e rsy , b u t it p ro b ab ly

Refugees 1 9

22 For adoption, see Callender, Socia l Organization, 64. For connections between behavior and formal relations, see Ladslav Holy, “ Kin Groups: Structural Analysis and the Study of Behavior,” A nn ual Revietv o f Anthropology (1976): 10 7 - 3 1 . For midewiwin, see Harold Hickerson, “ The Sociohistorical Significance of Two Chippewa Ceremonials,” Am erican Anthropologist 65 (1963): 6 7-8 5.

13 For quotation, see Perrot, M em oir, 270. For intermarriage as bond, see La Potherie, History, 1:277. For Winnebagos, see La Potherie, History, 1 :30 1. French sources, using the original French sense of the word alliance, often identify intermarriage with political alliances.

24 Harold Hickerson, “ The Feast of the Dead among the Seventeenth-Century Algonkians of the Upper Great Lakes,” Am erican Anthropologist 62 (i960): 8 1 - 10 7 .

20

c o m p rise d o u ts id e rs w h o a ffilia te d w ith the H u r o n -P c t u n s . S a s ta re tsy , the

ritu al n a m e fo r the le a d e r o f th e se n io r lin ea g e o f the D e e r p h ra try , w a s

a lw a y s the titu lar h ead o f the H u r o n -P e tu n s .25

M u lt ip le tie s , the d isso lu tio n o f so m e so c ia l u n its , an d the c re a tio n o f

o th e rs - a ll m a d e the n e tw o rk o f so c ia l an d p o lit ica l lo y a lt ie s w ith in the

re fu g e e c e n te rs e x tre m e ly c o m p lic a te d . In a g iv en s itu a tio n , p eo p le m ig h t

v e ry w e ll h ave h ad to c h o o se b e tw e e n se v e ra l c o m p e t in g so c ia l g ro u p s that

h ad c la im s on th e ir loyalty . A s a re su lt , in th e h isto r ic a l re c o rd the s im p le

c a te g o r ie s o f tr ib e , v illa g e , an d c la n so m e tim e s h o ld an d so m e tim e s b re a k

d o w n as p e o p le c o n sc io u s ly e v a lu a te d th eir c o n flic t in g lo y a ltie s .

T h e F r e n c h c h ro n ic le r L a P o th e r ie re c o rd e d a d isp u te a m o n g the

P o ta w a to m is at G r e e n B a y that illu s tra te s th e c o m p le x ity o f th e se c o n n e c ­

tio n s. A F r e n c h tra d e r a ssa u lte d a le a d e r o f th e R e d C a r p c lan o f the

P o ta w a to m is , w h ic h le d to a b raw l in w h ic h R e d C a r p w a rr io rs k n o ck ed

a n o th e r F re n c h m a n u n c o n sc io u s . T h e u n c o n sc io u s F re n c h m a n w a s , h o w ­

e v e r , a g re a t fr ie n d o f the “ h e a d o f th e B e a r fa m ily ” (o r c lan ). T h e le a d e r o f

th e B e a r c la n se ized a h a tch e t an d d e c la re d that h e w o u ld p e rish w ith the

F r e n c h m a n . T h e d a u g h te r o f th e h e a d o f the B e a r d a n h ad m a rr ie d a S a u k

h e a d m a n an d h e, o n h e a r in g the b ra w l, g a th e re d h is S a u k fo llo w e rs an d

ca m e to jo in h is fa th e r - in - la w an d the P o taw ato m i B e a r c la n w a rrio rs . O n ly

the re c o v e ry o f the F re n c h m a n p re v e n te d b lo o d le tt in g b e tw e e n tw o g ro u p s

fo r w h o m c la n m e m b e rsh ip an d re la tio n s th ro u g h m a rr ia g e o v e rro d e trib a l

a ffilia tio n . T r ib a l a ffilia tio n w a s a lw ays an u n re lia b le p re d ic to r o f so c ia l o r

p o litica l a c tio n in the pays d ’en haut. T h e r e w e re too m a n y o th e r p o ten tia l

lo y a lt ie s .26

In te rm a rr ia g e an d ad o p tio n fo rm e d one p ath to p e a c e an d so lid arity , b u t

the c a lu m e t w a s p art o f a m o re o vertly p o lit ica l an d c e re m o n ia l w a y o f

a c h ie v in g p e a c e . T h e c a lu m e t w a s the g re a t to ken o f p e a c e . T h e n am e

r e fe r r e d to the d e c o ra te d stem o f a p ip e su ch as th e o n e o ffe re d to P e rro t

an d to A llo u e z w h e n th ey a p p e a re d as s tra n g e rs in th e v illa g e s o f the

The middle ground

25 The organization of the Huron-Petuns is a matter o f some controversy. See Lucien Campeau, La Mission des Jésuites chez les Hurons, rô jç -y o (Montreal: Editions Bellarmin, 1987), 36 2-6 7 . See also H BN I 15 :4 0 4-05, and James Clifton, “ The Re-emergent Wyandot: A Study in Lthnogenesis on the Detroit River Borderland, 1747,” The Western District: Papers from the Western District Conference, ed. K. G. Pryke and I.. L . Kulisek (Essex County Historical Society and Western District Council, 1983): 7 -8 , 1 2 - 1 3 . Also see Raudot lettres, AN, C i iA , v. 122 (carton 64), f. 2oof. Parolles, 14 juillet 1703, AN, C i 1 A, v. 2 1. Part o f this document appears in NYCD 9 :7 5 2 -53 . Claude Charles Le Roy, Sieur de Bacqueville de la Potherie, Histoire de l ’Amerique septentrionale. . . (Paris: J - L Nion & F. Didot, 1722, microcard, Lost Cause Press, Louisville, 1967), 3:298-99. Where the full French text is referred to instead of the abbreviated English text, the reference will hereafter be La Potherie, Histoire.

2t> La Potherie, History, 1 : 3 1 9 - 2 1 .

M a s c o u te n s an d M ia m is . F a th e r H e n n e p in d e sc r ib e d the c a lu m e t it s e lf in

16 7 9 as

a large Tobacco-pipe made of red, black or white marble [catalanite] : the head is finely polished, and the quill, which is commonly two foot and a half long, is made of a pretty strong reed or cane, adorned with feathers of all colors, interlaced with locks of women’s hair. They tic to it two wings of the most curious birds they find which makes their calumet not much unlike Mercury’s wand or that staff ambassadors did formerly carry when they went they went to treat of peace. The sheath that reed into the neck of birds they call huars [loons]. . . or else of a sort of ducks who make their nests upon trees___However, every nation adorns the calumet as they think fit according to their own genius and the birds they have in their country.27

T h e r e w as a p ip e fo r p e a c e , o n e fo r w a r, an d o th e rs fo r o th e r p u rp o se s , each

d istin g u ish ed b y the c o lo r o f its fe a th e rs . T h e c a lu m e t, a c c o rd in g to F a th e r

G r a v ie r , an e ar ly m iss io n ary , w as “ the G o d o f p e a c e and o f w a r, the a rb ite r

o f life an d o f d eath . It su ff ic e s fo r o n e to c a rry an d sh o w it to w a lk in sa fe ty

in the m id st o f e n e m ie s w h o in th e h o tte st figh t lay d o w n th e ir w e a p o n s

w h e n it is d isp la y e d .” S im ila r ly , H e n n e p in c a lle d it a “ p ass and sa fe c o n d u c t

a m o n g st the a llie s o f the n ation w h o h a s g iv e n it .” P e rro t, w h o u sed the

ca lu m e t o ften , w ro te that it c o m p e lle d o b e d ie n c e fro m th o se w h o co n d u c te d

the c e re m o n y to the p e rso n in w h o se h o n o r it w a s “ s u n g .” It h a lted the

w a rr io rs o f th o se w h o sa n g it and a rre ste d th e ir v e n g e a n c e . W h e n o ffe re d to

a n o th e r p e o p le an d a c c e p te d , it s to p p e d h o stilit ie s so that n e g o tia tio n s c o u ld

take p la c e .28

T h e ca lu m e t h ad o rig in a te d b e y o n d the M is s is s ip p i a m o n g the P a w n e e s

w h o c la im e d to h ave re c e iv e d it fro m the su n . It h ad sp re a d to the S io u x and

to th e Illin o is an d w a s , d u rin g the m id an d late se v e n te en th c en tu ry , ad o p te d

b y the n atio n s o f th e G r e a t L a k e s . T h e F r e n c h , too, w o u ld u se it, an d ,

e ve n tu a lly , in th e fo rm o f the E a g le D a n c e , so w o u ld th e Ir o q u o is .29

T h e im p o rta n ce o f the c a lu m e t c e re m o n y c a n h ard ly b e o ve rsta te d . It

fo rm e d a p art o f a c o n sc io u s fra m e w o rk fo r p e a c e , a llia n c e , e x c h a n g e , an d

fre e m o v em e n t a m o n g p e o p le s in the re g io n . B y a rre st in g w a rr io rs , the

ca lu m e t p ro d u c e d a tru ce d u r in g w h ich n e g o tia tio n s took p la c e ; w h e n

27 Reuben Gold Thwaites (ed.), Father Louis H ennepin''s A N ew Discovery o f a Vast Country in Am erica (facsimile ed., Toronto: Coles, 1974 repr. of 1903 cd.), 125.

2R For Gravier quote, see J R 63:123. See also Perrot, M em oir, 185 ; J R 6 5 :12 3 -2 5 ; Reuben Gold Thwaites (cd.), N ew Voyage to North Am erica by the Baron de Lahonlan , 2 vols. (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1905), 1:7 5 -7 6 .

29 Perrot, M em oir, 186; Clifton, P rairie People, 124; William Fenton, The Iroquois F.agle Dance: A n Offshoot o f the Calumet Dance (Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 56, Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1953).

Refugees 2 1

22

n e g o tia tio n s w e re s u c c e ss fu l, the fu ll c a lu m e t c e re m o n y ra tifie d the p eace

and c re a te d a fic tive k in sh ip re la tio n b e tw e e n the p e rso n o ffe r in g the p ip e

an d the p e rso n sp e c ific a lly h o n o re d b y the ca lu m e t. T h e s e p e o p le b e ca m e

re sp o n s ib le fo r m a in ta in in g that p e a c e .30

A c c o rd in g to P e rro t, v io la tio n o f the c a lu m e t w as a c r im e that c o u ld n o t be

p a rd o n e d . Y e t , as P e rro t ad m itted an d w itn e sse d , the ca lu m e t w as v io la ted .

It a p p e a rs that in p ra c tice the ca lu m e t w a s fa r m o re e ffe c t iv e in se ttlin g

d isp u te s a m o n g p e o p le s a lre a d y a llie d - in th is case a llie d ag a in st the S io u x

an d Iro q u o is - th an b e tw e e n th o se a llie s an d th e ir e n e m ie s . T h is w a s n ot the

fau lt o f the S io u x , w h o a p p a re n tly h o n o re d the ca lu m e t fa r m o re d ilig en tly

th an an y o th e r g ro u p , b u t w h o fo u n d th e ir fa ith b e traye d b y the A lg o n q u ia n s .

S o m e tim e ab o u t 16 6 9 , the S in a g o O tta w as k illed an d ate th e a m b a ssa d o rs

that th e S io u x h ad sen t th em . T h is attack w a s c o u n te n a n c e d b y th eir

h e a d m a n , S in a g o , to w h o m the S io u x h ad s u n g the c a lu m e t. H e v io la te d the

c a lu m e t at the u rg in g o f the H u r o n -P e tu n s , the lo n gtim e a llie s o f the

O ttaw as. H e re a llia n ce tr iu m p h ed o v e r the ca lu m e t, b u t to the S io u x the

p o w e r o f the p ip e w a s v in d ic a te d w h e n th ey d e fe a te d the O tta w as , ca p tu re d

S in a g o , an d su b je c te d h im to a g ris ly d e a th .31

In th e ir re la tio n s w ith the Iro q u o is , h o w e v e r, it w a s th e w e ste rn

A lg o n q u ia n s w h o p a id the g re a te r h o n o r to th e c a lu m e t. R e n é -R o b e r t

C a v e lie r , S ie u r d e L a S a lle , re p o rte d that the c a lu m e t w a s by 16 8 0 the

o rd in a ry m e a n s o f te rm in a tin g w a rs in the Illin o is co u n try . T h e w e a k e r p arty

b ro u g h t th e c a lu m e t an d b e sto w e d p re se n ts on the “ c o n q u e ro rs ,” th us

p re v e n tin g v e n g e a n c e k illin g s fro m e sc a la t in g in to p ro lo n g e d wrars. S u c h

m e th o d s , h o w e v e r, d id n ot w o rk w ith the Iro q u o is w h o c o n tin u e d th e ir

a ttacks e v e n a fte r a c c e p tin g the p ip e .32

In te rm a rr ia g e , g ift e x c h a n g e s , an d c e re m o n ie s su ch as the ca lu m e t

e x e rte d th e ir g re a te st fo rce a m o n g p e o p le s liv in g in a s in g le re fu g e e c e n te r ;

th e ir s tre n g th d im in ish e d w ith d istan ce . T h e y d id , n o n e th e le ss , lin k one

re fu g e e c e n te r w ith an o th e r. T h e O ttaw as o f C h e q u a m e g o n , fo r e x a m p le ,

d e p e n d e d o n k in sh ip to o b ta in a id fro m the p e o p le s o f G r e e n B a y ag a in st

the S io u x , an d the Illin o is in te rm a rr ie d a s fa r aw ay as M ic h ilim a c k in a c . In

the en d , h o w e v e r , it w o u ld n o t b e A lg o n q u ia n s w h o w o u ld b e a r p rim a ry

30 Perrot, Memoir, 1 86; Donald Blakeslee, “ The Calumet Ceremony and the Origin of Fur Trade Rituals,” Western Canadian Journal o f Anthropology 7 (1977): 8 1-8 2 . Also see Alice C. Fletcher, “ The Hako: A Pawnee Ceremony,” Twenty-Second Annual Report o f the Bureau o f American Ethnology to the Secretary o f the Smithsonian Institution, içoo- içoi (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904), pt. 2.

31 Perrot, Memoir, 186-90 . 32 Lettre du découvreur à un de ses associes, 29 sept. 1680, and Lettre de Cavelier de La

Salle, automne de 168 1, in Margry, Découvertes, 2:33, 14 1 - 4 2 , 145; Narrative o f . . . Occurrences. . . 1695, 1696, in NYCD 9:644.

The middle ground

re sp o n sib ility fo r c re a tin g a la rg e r a llia n ce o f all th e re fu g e e c e n te rs . It w o u ld

b e the F r e n c h .33

Refugees 23

Ill

T h e first F re n c h m e n w h o a p p e a re d in th e W e st in the fo o tste p s o f fle e in g

H u ro n s an d O ttaw as d id not co m e w ith any c o n sc io u s d e s ire to u n ite the

re fu g e e s . Je s u it s cam e in se a rc h o f e a r lie r c o n ve rts d isp e rse d b y th e Iro q u o is

an d fo r n ew so u ls to save . T r a d e r s cam e fo r fu rs . T h e tra d e rs o b ta in e d th e ir

fu rs an d the Je s u it s th e ir c o n v e rts , b u t th ey a lso b e c a m e the m e d ia to rs o f a

re g io n a l A lg o n q u ia n a llia n ce .

T h e fu r trad e an d the m iss io n s e n h a n c e d the ap p ea l o f e x is t in g re fu g e e

c e n te rs . F r e n c h m e n w ith th e ir sm all b u t d a z z lin g su p p lie s o f g o o d s, th e ir

c ru d e fo rts , th e ir g u n s, an d th e ir p o w e r fu l sh a m a n s - the B la c k R o b e s (the

Je s u its ) - b e c a m e p o w e r fu l f ig u re s w ith in the c lu ste rs o f re fu g e e v illa g e s . B u t

th e F r e n c h p re se n c e m u st b e k ep t in co n tex t. M is s io n s an d fo rts w e re n ot

m ag n ets that p u lle d th e In d ia n s to g e th e r . M is s io n s d id n o t attract In d ia n s;

In d ia n s a ttracted m iss io n a r ie s w h o u su a lly cam e to e x is t in g se ttlem en ts.

W h e n m iss io n s d id p re c e d e In d ia n s , th e m iss io n a r ie s w e re c le a r ly an tic ip a tin g

m o v e m e n ts b y the In d ia n s . A Je s u it m iss io n , fo r e x a m p le , p re c e d e d the In d ian

re se ttle m e n t at S a u lt S a in te M a r ie in th e late 16 6 0 s , b u t the Je s u it s k n ew

that th is w a s an o ld v illage s ite w h o se p r im a ry attraction w a s the fish e rie s .

R e n e w e d w a r w ith the S io u x an d tem porary- p e a c e w ith the Iro q u o is m ad e its

re se ttle m e n t a ttractive b e c a u se it w a s fa rth e r aw ay fro m the S io u x co u n try

than e ith e r K ew een aw - o r C h c q u a m e g o n . T h e J e s u i t m iss io n w a s , at b e st, a

se co n d a ry attractio n . T o a rg u e that e ith e r th is m iss io n o r th e la te r fo rt an d

m iss io n at M ic h ilim a c k in a c led the In d ia n s to settle the a re a is like a rg u in g

that p e o p le go to a irp o rts to be so lic ite d by re lig io u s z ea lo ts an d on ly

in c id e n ta lly to ca tch a irp la n e s .34

M is s io n s an d fo rts c o u ld b u ttre ss b u t n o t su sta in p o p u la tio n c o n c e n -

33 Pcrrot, M em oir, 1 88, 270; La Potherie, H istory, 1:277, 30 1 ; Conference between Frontenac and the Ottawas, Aug. 15, 1682, N Y C D 9:176.

34 The classic statement o f European dominance is in I .ouise Kellogg, The French Regime in Wisconsin and the Northwest (Madison: State Historical Society ofWisconsin, 1935), 13 7 -3 8 . Other, more recent scholars have taken roughly similar positions; see IIB N I603-04 ; Harold Hickerson, “ Fur Trade Colonialism and the North American Indians,” Jo u rn a l o f Ethnic Studies 1 (1973): 2 1 - 3 1 .

For Sault Stc. Marie as a summer fishing ground in the 1660s, s ce J R 50:266. By 1669 there were 2,000 people at the Sault and a Jesuit mission had been established there, but whether this was a permanent population or only a summer fishing population is not clear, JR 52 :2 13. For overstatement o f French role, see H B N I603. For Jesuit recognition that the mission was not the reason for settlement, se e j f R 55 :16 1;^ /? 5 6 : 1 1 5 - 1 7 .

24

tra tio n s. C e r ta in ly the s tre n u o u s a tte m p ts o f the Je s u it s to h o ld th e In d ia n s at

M ic h ilim a c k in a c la te r fa ile d . S im ila r ly , at S ta rv e d R o c k , in the Illin o is

co u n try , L a S a l le d id h e lp c re a te th e la rg e re fu g e e c o n c e n tra tio n that

n u m b e re d 1 8 ,0 0 0 - 2 0 ,0 0 0 p e rso n s b y th e m id to late 16 8 0 s , b u t this

re p re se n te d o n ly th e re se ttle m e n t o f the e a r lie r re fu g e e c e n te r o f the G r e a t

V illa g e o f the K a s k a s k ia s w h ic h h ad b e e n d e stro y e d b y th e Iro q u o is . A s

Iro q u o is p re s s u re le s s e n e d , L a S a l le w a s u n ab le to h o ld th e se ttlem e n t

to g e th e r . In te rn a l te n sio n s sp lit th e co m m u n ity , it d isb a n d e d , an d the

F r e n c h a b a n d o n e d th e ir fo rt an d fo llo w e d the Illin o is to L a k e P e o r ia .35

S im ila r ly , th e ab ility to o b ta in v a lu e d F r e n c h g o o d s c e rta in ly in c re a s e d the

attractio n o f re fu g e e c e n te rs fo r the A lg o n q u ia n s , but su ch g o o d s d id not

re o rie n t A lg o n q u ia n life a ro u n d th e fu r trad e . A s th e F r e n c h re p e a te d ly

d isc o v e re d , n o m atter h o w m u ch the re fu g e e s d e s ire d th e ir g o o d s , the

A lg o n q u ia n s ’ m o st p re ss in g n e e d s re m a in e d fo o d an d d e fe n s e . W h e n F r e n c h

g o o d s h e lp e d fill th o se n e e d s , the re fu g e e s w o u ld g o to g re a t e n d s to obtain

th e m ; w h e n th e y d id n ot, the re fu g e e s d id w ith o u t th em . H u n tin g b e a v e r fo r

e x c h a n g e an d u n d e rta k in g th e lo n g an d a rd u o u s jo u rn e y to tran sp o rt the

b e a v e r to M o n tre a l c o u ld b e ju stifie d o n ly in y e a rs fre e fro m the th re a t o f

Iro q u o is a ttack , w h e n a m p le fo o d su p p lie s w e re a v a ilab le . T h e p rio rity

A lg o n q u ia n s g av e sa fe ty an d se c u r ity re p e a te d ly o v e rro d e the F r e n c h d e s ire

to in c re a se th e sc a le o f e x c h a n g e in the 1 6 5 0 s an d 16 6 0 s . A s L a P o th e rie

c o m p la in e d o f th o se n atio n s liv in g a ro u n d G r e e n B a y in the la te 16 6 0 s : “ A s

the sa v a g e s g ive e v e ry th in g to th e ir m o u th s, th ey p re fe r re d to d evo te

th e m se lv e s to h u n tin g su ch w ild b e asts a s c o u ld fu rn ish su b s is te n c e fo r th e ir

fa m ilie s ra th e r th an se e k b e a v e rs o f w h ic h th ere w e re n o t e n o u g h .”

T h e F r e n c h u rg e d the In d ia n s to c o m e to M o n tre a l to trad e fo r iron

w e a p o n s an d g u n s to d e fe a t th e ir e n e m ie s . In d ia n s b a la n c e d th e ad m itted

ad v a n tag e s o f the w e a p o n s a g a in st th e v irtu a l certa in ty o f co m b at w ith the

Iro q u o is w h o a w aited th em a lo n g th e O ttaw a R iv e r . In the 1 6 5 0 s an d 16 6 0 s ,

as o fte n as n ot, th ey p re fe r re d to stay h o m e . E v e n a fte r the fu r trad e w as

firm ly e s ta b lish e d d u rin g a p e r io d o f p e a c e w ith the Iro q u o is in the late

1 6 6 0 s an d e a r ly 1 6 7 0 s , d e fe n se o fte n ca m e first. In 1 6 7 5 P o ta w a to m i e ld e rs

The middle ground

35 For Starved Rock, see Le Clercq Memoir in Isaac J . Cox, The Journeys o f Robert C avelier tie La Salle, 2 vols. (New York: A. S. liâmes, 1905), 2 :155 ; Récit de Nicolas de La Salle, 1682, Margry, Découvertes, 1:570; De La Salle arrive aux Illinois, c. 1682, Margry, Découvertes, 2 :17 5 -7 6 ; Lettre de Cavelier de La Salle, 22 août a l’automne de 168 1, Margry, Découvertes, 2 :14 9 -58 ; Feuille détaché, n.d., ib id ., 2 :2 0 1-0 2 . La Salle à M. de la Barre, nov. 1683, ibid., 2:314 , 3 1 7 - 1 8 . Tonty à M. Caban de Villermont, 24 aoust 1686, ib id ., 3:559; “ Voyage of St. Cosmc” in Kellogg (cd.), N arratives, 350. For movements in the Illinois country in the 1680s and 1690s, see Emily J . Blasingham, “ The Depopulation of the Illinois Indians,” Ethnohistory 3 (Summer 1986): 19 8 -2 0 1. For later French attempts at relocation, see Narrative o f . . . Occurrences, 1694, 1695, N Y C D 9:623.

b lo c k e d trad in g an d tra p p in g e x p e d it io n s a m o n g the y o u n g m e n b e c a u se

th ey n e e d e d th em at h o m e fo r d e fe n s e ag a in st th e S io u x .36 37

In c o u n te rin g su c h c o n c e rn s in d iv id u a l F r e n c h tra d e rs q u ick ly d isc o v e re d

that th eir m ost e ffe c tiv e tactic w a s to c la im that trad e a lo n e m a d e v ic to ry in

the w a r ag a in st the Iro q u o is and S io u x p o ss ib le . T h e fa ilu re o f an y n atio n to

su sta in the trad e w o u ld le ad the F r e n c h to lo o k fo r o th e r a llie s and c u sto m e rs .

S u c h a th reat ce rta in ly gave the A lg o n q u ia n s g re a te r in cen tive to h u n t and

trad e b e a v e r , b u t it a lso c le a r ly co m m itte d the F r e n c h to h e lp in g d e fe n d

th em . T h e trad e v o y a g e s o f the 1 6 7 0 s a lso b e c a m e d ip lo m atic m iss io n s

c e m e n tin g the a llia n ce b e tw e e n the tra d in g In d ia n s an d the F r e n c h . F o r

b o th the F r e n c h an d th e In d ia n s trad e an d a llia n ce th us b e c a m e in - i n

se p a ra b le .

Y e t in th e 16 6 0 s and 16 7 0 s it w a s still too e a r ly fo r a p a n -A lg o n q u ia n

a llian ce u n d e r the le a d e rsh ip o f th e F r e n c h . In ste a d , th ere w e re in p ra c tic e

o n ly a se r ie s o f in d iv id u a l a llia n ce s . T h e id e a o f a la rg e r re g io n a l a llian ce w a s

a t le ast p re se n t b y 1 6 7 1 , w h e n the In te n d an t T a lo n w a n te d to e stab lish the

F r e n c h as the m e d ia to rs o f all In d ia n q u a rre ls , b u t n e ith e r a g re e m e n t on

su ch an a m b itio n n o r the m ea n s to fu lfill it w e re ye t ap p aren t. T h e F r e n c h

w e re a fo rm id a b le p e o p le in the W e st, b u t th e ir e a r ly statu s d e p e n d e d as

m u c h o n A lg o n q u ia n m isp e rc e p tio n s o f th em as on th eir re a l m ateria l

a d v a n tag e s .38

T h e A lg o n q u ia n s re c e iv e d the first F r e n c h m e n w h o arriv ed in the la n d s

b e tw e e n L a k e M ic h ig a n an d the M is s is s ip p i d u rin g th e 1 6 5 0 s an d 16 6 0 s as

manidowek, o r m a n ito u s . A s a n o u n , manitou m ean t an o th e r-th a n -h u m a n

p e rso n , a sp ir itu a l b e in g c ap ab le o f tak in g m a n ifo ld p h y s ic a l fo rm s. In

g re e tin g P e rro t o r A llo u e z , h o w e v e r, the A lg o n q u ia n s se e m to h ave u se d the

w o rd m o re ten tative ly , a s an a d je c tiv e : T h e s e w e re s tran g e an d p o w e r fu l

m en w h o se re a l s ig n ific a n c e w a s n o t ye t ap p a re n t. T h e O ttaw as, H u ro n s ,

an d P e tu n s , w h o k n ew all too w e ll th e lim its o f F r e n c h m e n , w e re in itia lly apt

36 For quotation, see La Potherie, H istory, 3 3 6 -3 7 . For fears o f trade voyage, see La Potherie, H istory, 3 7 1 - 7 2 , and Adams (ed.), Radisson, 9 9 -10 0 . For Potawatomi elders restraining young men, see J R 59:165. For Mascouten concern with subsistence hunting, see La Potherie, H istory, 372.

37 For French arguments, see Adams (ed.), Radisson, 9 8 -10 0 ; La Potherie, History, 337; Lettre du découvreur à un de ses associes, 16 7 9 - 29 septembre 1680, Margry, Découvertes, 2:39; W. J. Eccles, “ The Fur Trade and Eighteenth-Century Imperialism,” W illiam and M ary Quarterly 40 (July 1983): 3 4 1-6 2 . This linkage of trade and alliance has inspired some controversy. For major statements o f two positions, see Abraham Rotstein, “ Trade and Politics: An Institutional Approach,” Western Canadian Jo u rn a l o f Anthropology 8 (1972): 1 - 2 8 . Arthur Ray and Donald Freeman failed to find any such linkage in the Hudson’s Bay region, but this settles little since the groups in this area were hunting and gathering bands, not the settled agricultural peoples farther south. Arthur J . Ray and Donald Freeman, G ive Us Good M easure: A n Economic Analysis o f Relations Between the Indians and the Hudson's Bay Company Before 1763 (Toronto: University o f Toronto Press, 1978), 6, 232.

38 Talon au roi, 2 nov. 16 7 1. AN, C i 1 A, v. 3, f. 159 -6 0 .

Refugees 25

to treat the first m iss io n a r ie s h a rsh ly . T h e y sc o rn e d A llo u e z fo r b e in g u n ab le

to ro w o r d o h is sh a re on a p o rta g e . B u t th e m o re w e ste r ly p e o p le s re g a rd e d

the Je s u it s a s m en o f p o w e r an d trea te d th e m an d the e a r ly tra d e rs w ith

c o u rte sy . A s the P o ta w a to m is to ld P e rro t w h e n he cam e a m o n g th em :

“ T h o u a re o n e o f the c h ie f sp ir its , s in c e th o u u sc s t iro n , it is fo r th ee to ru le

an d p ro te c t a ll m en . P ra ise d b e the S u n , w h o h as in stru c te d th ee an d sen t

th ee to o u r c o u n try .” 39

T h e A lg o n q u ia n s e xp e cte d b e n e fits fro m th ese m e n o f p o w e r , b u t the

p o ss ib ilit ie s th ey e n v is io n e d c le a r ly w e n t b e y o n d the a c q u is it io n o f trad e

g o o d s. T h e Je s u it s re c o g n iz e d , fo r in sta n c e , that th ey w e re in v ited to m an y

fe asts “ n ot so m u ch fo r th e sak e o f e a t in g as o f o b ta in in g th ro u g h u s, e ith e r

re c o v e ry fro m th e ir a ilm e n ts , o r g o o d s u c c e s s in th eir h u n tin g an d w a r .” T h e

A lg o n q u ia n s e x p e c te d p ro te c tio n , a id aga in st th e ir e n e m ie s , c u re s , an d a

se c u re s u b s is te n c e . T h e y e x p e cte d , in sh o rt, fa r m o re th an the F r e n c h

m iss io n a r ie s o r trad e rs c o u ld e v e r d e liv e r .40

T o e sca p e th is d ile m m a , th e p rie sts d e n ie d that th ey w e r e m a n ito u s and

p re se n te d th e m se lv e s o n ly as a m b a ssa d o rs o f C h r is t , the M a s te r o f L i fe .

T h e y so u g h t to e m p h a siz e the tran sfo rm ativ e a sp e c ts o f C h r is t ia n ity , b u t in

s e e k in g to c o n v e rt A lg o n q u ia n s b y a tta ck in g n ative b e lie fs , th ey , fo r tactica l

re a so n s , o ften th e m se lv e s a c c e p te d n ative p re m ise s . T h e Je s u it s r id ic u le d

the m an ito u s, b u t th ey d id so in A lg o n q u ia n te rm s. T h e y o fte n d id n o t

c h a lle n g e the A lg o n q u ia n lo g ic o f w h y fish o r g am e a p p e a re d o r d id n ot

ap p ear. In ste a d , th ey d e n ie d c re d it to the m an ito u s an d gave it to C h r is t .

S u c c e s s in w a r , s u c c e ss in th e h u n t, su rv iv a l a fte r fa llin g th ro u g h th e ic e , all

w e re e v id e n c e o f the p o w e r o f C h r is t . V ic to ry in su ch d e b a te s o v e r the

c a u se s o f e ve n ts in the A lg o n q u ia n w o rld o n ly m ean t that h e a d s o f an im als

o n c e o ffe r e d to the m an ito u s at fe asts w e re n ow o ffe re d to C h r is t . P u b lic

o ffe r in g s w en t to the c ro ss and to the C h r is t ia n G o d , the “ G r e a t M a n ito u .”

In d ia n s w e re not so m u ch b e in g co n v e rte d to C h r is t ia n ity as C h r is t w as

b e in g c o n v e rte d in to a m an ito u . A s a S a u k h e a d m a n to ld F a th e r A llo u e z :

“ W e c a re v e ry little w h e th e r it b e the d evil o r G o d w h o g iv e s u s fo o d . W e

d re a m so m e tim e s o f o n e th in g , so m e tim e s o f an o th e r; an d w h a te v e r m ay

a p p e a r to u s in o u r s le e p , w e b e lie v e that it is the m an ito u in w h o se h o n o r the

fe ast m u st be g iv e n , fo r he g iv e s u s fo o d , h e m a k e s u s s u c c e s s fu l in fish in g ,

h u n tin g an d all o u r u n d e rta k in g s .” 41

39 La Potherie, History 1:309. J R 54:219, 229; Perrot, Memoir, 37, 332; Adams (ed.), Radisson, 128, 130 ; J R 55 :20 3-0 5 , 2 17 . J R 50 :2 55-57 , 30 3-0 5 .

40 J R 55:203. 41 The newer literature on missions stresses the ways in which missionaries transformed Indian

cultures, but these authors emphasize that these people’s lives had to be already severely disrupted by whites and that for success, domination by whites was a prerequisite, not a result. See Neil Salisbury, “ Red Puritans: The Praying Indians o f Massachusetts Bay and John Eliot,” William and Mary Quarterly 3 1 (1974): 2 7 -5 4 ; Robert Conkling, “ Legitimacy

26 The middle ground

T h e in itia l In d ia n a sse ssm e n t o f F re n c h m e n and th e ir G o d w a s qu ite

p ra g m a tic . A n d the p re d ic ta b le re su lt o f a F r e n c h fa ilu re to d e liv e r all that

th ey h ad p ro m ise d w a s an A lg o n q u ia n re a sse ssm e n t o f F r e n c h ca p a b ilit ie s .

T h e Je s u it s , fo r in stan ce , c la im e d that C h r is t , ra th e r than e ith e r the m an ito u

M its ip e (the G r e a t W a te r S p ir it) o r the su n , b ro u g h t th e stu rg e o n in the

sp rin g . A n d fo r a se aso n o r m o re p ra y e r m ig h t y ie ld fish , b u t lin k in g C h r is t ’ s

in flu e n c e to the m atin g h ab its o f a la rg e fish d id n ot c o n trib u te g re a tly to

la stin g J e s u i t su c c e ss in th e re g io n . W h e n th e fish fa ile d , C h r is t fa ile d . H e

w a s an d re m a in e d a p o ten t m an ito u , b u t In d ia n s so u g h t h is a id so lo n g as he

d e liv e re d it re liab ly . S im ila r ly , the Je s u it s d e c lin e d fro m sp irits to, at b e st,

p o w e r fu l sh a m a n s. A t w o rst, In d ia n s re g a rd e d th em as d a n g e ro u s w itc h e s .

In tim e the Je s u it s w o u ld p ro fo u n d ly a lte r the w a y so m e A lg o n q u ia n s v iew e d

the w o rld , b u t fo r v e ry m an y o th e rs th e se p r ie s ts and th e ir G o d c o u ld fit

e a s ily into the e x is t in g re lig io n .42

T h e sta tu s o f o th e r F re n c h m e n d e c lin e d m o re p re c ip ito u s ly th an d id that

o f the Je s u it s , s in c e trad e rs fa ile d fa r m o re ra p id ly an d se r io u s ly to fu lfill

A lg o n q u ia n e xp e cta tio n s . In 16 8 6 N ic o la s P e rro t gave the m iss io n o f S a in t

F r a n ç o is -X a v ie r at G r e e n B a y a s ilv e r so le il w h o se b rillian t su n w ith a c ro ss

ab o ve it w a s m ean t to evo k e the g lo ry o f the S u n K in g , L o u is X IV . F o r the

A lg o n q u ia n s , h o w e v e r, th e o rn a m e n t p ro b a b ly re c a lle d P e r r o t ’ s o rig in a l

re c e p tio n , as an e m issa ry n ot o f the S u n K in g b u t o f the su n itse lf. B y the

1 6 8 0 s su ch a sta tu s w a s la rg e ly a m e m o ry . T h e F r e n c h h ad n o t ac ted as

m an ito u s. T h e y w e re n ot, a fte r a ll, p o w e r fu l an d w e a lth y b e in g s w h o h ad

co m e to gran t th e A lg o n q u ia n s p ro te c tio n an d a id . T h e F r e n c h w e re g re e d y

an d o ften q u ite v u ln e ra b le m e n w ith an in sa tiab le d e s ire fo r o ld , g re a sy

b e a v e r ro b e s . A c c o rd in g to P e rro t , In d ia n s w h o h ad in itia lly w e lc o m e d the

F r e n c h as p o w e r fu l b e n e fa c to rs ca m e to “ re g a rd th o se o f the F r e n c h n atio n

as w re tc h e d m en ia ls an d the m o st m ise ra b le p e o p le in the w o r ld .” 43

Refugees 27

and Conversion in Social Change: The Case of French Missionaries and the Northeastern Algonkian,” F.thnohistory 21 (1974): 1 - 2 4 , James P. Ronda, “ We are Well as We Are: An Indian Critique o f Seventeenth-Century Christian Missions,” W illiam and M ary Q uarterly 34 (1977); 66-82. For missionaries as emissaries of Master of Life, see J R 55:201. For denials of mantiou status, see La Potherie, History 30 9 -10 ,7/? 54:231. For claims of efficacy of Christ’s aid, see J R 57:209, 223, 2 3 1 - 3 3 , 261, 289;^/? 5 5 :12 3 —31 6 0 :15 1 ;7r/? 58:61;

J R 61:14 9 ; 56:145. For feasts and offerings to Christ instead of manitous, see J R 57:23, 2 8 7 -9 1; J R 58:63; “Jolliet and Marquette,” 2 3 3 -3 4 . For the Sauk quotation, see J R 57:283.

42 For sturgeons, see J R 57:287-89 , 2 q y ,J R 58:275. For Jesuit claims of conversions, see J R 61:69, 7 1 , 103, 15 3 -5 4 , v $ r , J R 57:233. For doubts about how Catholic such converts were, see “Journey of Dottier and Galinec,” in Milo Quaife (ed.), The Western Country in the Seventeenth Century: The M em oirs o f Lanothe C adillac and Pierre l dette (Chicago: Lakeside Press, 19 17), 206.7/? 59:229.

43 For the soleil, see facing page,7/? 65. For Perrot quotation, see Perrot, M em oir, 6 3-6 4 . Sec also La Potherie, H istory, 319 , 333 ; 7^ 54:225;7 ^ 5 5 :18 5 -8 7 ; Th waites (ed.), H ennepin’s A N ew Discovery, 82; Duchesneau to de Seignelay, zo Nov. 1679, N Y C D 9 :133, Duchesneau’s

28

O n c e th ey c e a se d to b e m a n ito u s , the F r e n c h w e re in d a n g e r o f b e co m in g

m e re ly rich , p o w e r fu l, a rro g a n t, an d q u a rre lso m e stra n g e rs to be a p p e a se d

w h e n n e c e ssa ry an d lo o te d w h e n p o ss ib le . T h e y w e re as y e t in n o p o s it io n to

u n ite the A lg o n q u ia n s . H o w c o u ld th ey b e , w h e n th ey th e m se lv e s o ften

se e m e d m o re d iv e rse an d fra c tio u s th an an y sin g le A lg o n q u ia n gro u p ? T h e

F r e n c h , a fte r a ll, h ad c o n flic t in g p u rp o se s fo r c o m in g w e st . S a v in g so u ls ,

g a th e rin g fu rs , an d g a th e rin g a llie s aga in st th e Iro q u o is w e re e n d e a v o rs that

c o u ld n o t a lw ays b e e a s ily re c o n c ile d . F o r e x a m p le , c o u re u rs d e b o is - the

ille g a l tra d e rs w h o d e sp ite F r e n c h e ffo rts c o u ld n o t b e re m o v e d fro m the

W e st - d iv e rte d M ia m i w a r p a rtie s ag a in st the Iro q u o is b y fa lse ly te llin g

th em O n o n tio , the F r e n c h g o v e rn o r, w ish e d th em to h u n t b e a v e r in ste a d .44

E v e n a c u rso ry e xa m in a tio n o f the a c c u sa tio n s o f J e s u i t m iss io n a r ie s

a g a in st tra d e rs an d c o u re u rs d e b o is , o f the g o v e rn o r a g a in st the Je s u it s , o f

the M o n tre a l tra d e rs ag a in st the g o v e rn o r , an d o f the v a r io u s trad in g factio n s

ag a in st e ach o th e r re v e a ls the d e p th s o f F r e n c h su sp ic io n . A m an like L a

S a lle , w h o so u g h t to ca rv e o u t h is o w n fu r trad e e m p ire in the pays d'en haut, m ig h t b e m o re w illin g in th eo ry than the A lg o n q u ia n s to a d m it the ro le o f

ch an ce o r a c c id e n t in h u m a n a ffa ir s , b u t in p ra c tic e h e w a s ap t to d e tect

m a le v o le n t a g e n ts b e h in d e v e ry m isfo rtu n e . H e su sp e c te d that the Je s u it s

h ad sen t the Iro q u o is a g a in st the Illin o is in o rd e r to ru in h im . H e th o u gh t

that riva l trad e rs m ig h t h ave c o n sp ire d to s in k h is sh ip , w h ic h h ad v a n ish e d

w ith o u t a trace in L a k e M ic h ig a n , an d that th ey w o rk e d a c tiv e ly to lu re aw ay

h is m en , w h o s e e m e d to d e s e r t h im e ve ry tim e he tu rn e d h is b ack . H is

su p p o rte rs th o u g h t that the Iro q u o is had p illa g e d F re n c h m e n on the o rd e r

o f the g o v e rn o r o f C a n a d a , L a B a r re . T h e F r e n c h , to o , so m e tim e s se e m e d

fa r m o re e th n ic a lly d iv e rse an d cu ltu ra lly m ism a tch e d th an the re fu g e e s .

F a th e r H e n n e p in w o n d e re d in 1 6 7 8 h ow the m ix o f Ita lia n s , N o rm a n s ,

F le m in g s , a n d F r e n c h (all o f “ d iffe re n t in tere sts . . . an d . . . h u m o u rs ” ) g o in g

w e s t w ith L a S a lle c o u ld e v e r h o p e to c o o p e ra te . T h e y c o u ld n ’ t. M o s t o f

th em d e se r te d an d le ft L a S a lle in the lu rch . F o r g in g a c o h e re n t p o lic y in

su c h co n d itio n s w as d iffic u lt an d the in ab ility o f the F r e n c h to d isc ip lin e an d

co n tro l the c o u re u rs d e b o is w a s o n ly the m o st p ro m in e n t s ig n o f th is .43

Memoir on the Western Indians, Sept. 13 , 16 8 1, NYCD 9 :16 1-6 2 ; Perrot, Memoir, 26 3-6 4 ; Denonville à M. de Seignelay, aoust 1688, AN, C 11A , v. 10.

44 For diversion o f war party, see La Potherie, History, 2:97. 45 For Jesuit conflicts with Frontenac, see W. J . Eccles, The Canadian Frontier (Albuquerque:

University o f New Mexico Press, 1974), 126. For differences between civil officials, see Duchesneau to Seignelay, Nov. 10, 1679, NYCD 9 :13 1 . For accusations revolving around the La Salle expeditions, see “ Le Clercq Memoir,” Cox, Journeys o f La Salle, 98, 10 9 - n o , 12 6 -2 7 . Lettre de La Salle au Ft. Frontenac, 22 aoust 1682, Margry, Découvertes, 2 :2 14 -2 0 , Lettre de Cavelier de La Salle à un de ses amis, Oct. 1682, ibid., 2 :2 9 5 -30 1 and Extrait du mémoire (1682), ibid., 2 :347-48 ; De la Barre à Colbert, 14 nov. 1682, Margry, Découvertes, 2 :303-04 . La Salle à M. de la Barre, 2 avril 1683, Margry, Découvertes, 2 :3 2 0 -3 1 , Lettre de Cavalier de La Salle (1681), ibid., 2: 1 16, 1 2 1 , and Lettre de Cavalier

The middle ground

29

T h e p o litica l c o h e re n c e o f A lg o n q u ia n an d F r e n c h so c ie t ie s m ig h t n e v e r

h ave e x te n d e d b e yo n d the in d iv id u a l re fu g e e c o n c e n tra tio n s i f th e Iro q u o is

had n o t o n ce aga in fo rc e d the p e o p le s o f th c/w y* d'en haut, both F r e n c h and

A lg o n q u ia n , to m o ve to w ard a la rg e r u n ity . T h e F r e n c h h ad m ad e th e ir ow n

p e a c e w ith the Iro q u o is as e arly as 16 6 7 , an d th is p e a c e had b e e n e xten d ed

u n easily o v e r m u ch o f the W e st in the late 16 6 0 s an d the 1 6 7 0 s . A t the tim e

the Iro q u o is h ad o th e r w ars o n th e ir h an d s. T h e e n d o f th e fig h tin g w ith the

S u s q u c h a n n a s o f P e n n sy lv an ia an d the d e c is io n o f th at p e o p le to re lo ca te in

Iro q u o ia , h o w e v e r , both re in fo rc e d th e Iro q u o is an d a llo w e d the F iv e

N a tio n s to tu rn o n ce m o re to w ard the W e st. In 16 8 0 th ey la u n ch e d the

se co n d p h a se o f the Iro q u o is w a rs by a ttack in g the Illin o is , d e stro y in g the

G r e a t V illa g e o f the K a s k a s k ia s an d th re a te n in g to e m b ro il the e n tire u p p e r

co u n try in re n e w e d w a r fa re .46

T h e s e attacks p ro m p te d a c r is is b o th in the re fu g e e ce n te rs an d Q u e b e c .

D u r in g the y e a rs o f d w in d lin g Iro q u o is p re s s u re , A lg o n q u ia n r iv a lr ie s had

re e m e rg e d . T h e F o x had a n tag o n ized m o st o f th e n atio n s at G r e e n B a y . T h e

M ia m is , as it tu rn e d out, h a d c o n sp ire d w ith the Iro q u o is to d e stro y the

Illin o is b u t h ad th e m se lv e s b e e n b e tra y e d by the Iro q u o is , w h o , a fte r th eir

su c c e s s fu l attack o n the G r e a t V illa g e o f th e K a s k a s k ia s , h ad fa lle n o n the

M ia m is . T h e O ttaw as and th e ir a llie s at M ic h ilim a c k in a c , in stead o f a id in g

the v ic tim s o f th e Iro q u o is a ttack s, d e sp e ra te ly so u g h t to co n c ilia te the

Iro q u o is an d e scap e re n e w e d w a r fo llo w in g the m u rd e r o f a S e n e c a c h ie f,

A n n a n h a e , b y an Illin o is at the K is k a k o n O ttaw a v illa g e at M ic h ilim a c k in a c .

D iv id e d a m o n g th e m se lv e s , the A lg o n q u ia n s w ere e q u a lly at o d d s w ith the

F r e n c h , w h o se trad e rs h ad so d e e p ly an tag o n ized A lg o n q u ia n h u n te rs that

m u rd e r h ad b e c o m e a co m m o n p la c e o f th e tra d e .47

T h e O ttaw as an d Illin o is th u s d e sp e ra te ly n e e d e d F r e n c h a id , b u t they

d e e p ly d istru ste d th e F r e n c h . In 1 6 8 1 th e O ttaw as p ite o u s ly ap p e a le d to the

Refugees

de La Salle, 22 aoust 16 8 0 - automne 168 1, ibid., 2 :14 5 -4 7 . For Hennepin quotation, see Thwaites (ed.), Hennepin's A New Discovery, 73. Mémoire . . . 1687, Margry, Découvertes, 2 :346-47 ; Relation des découvertes and des voyages, 16 7 9 -8 1, Margry, ibid., 1 :5 0 4 - 13 .

46 For Iroquois, see Jennings, Ambiguous Empire, 13 7 -4 0 , 15 5 -5 6 . Chrétien Le Clercq, The First Establishment o f the Faith in New France, 2 vols. (New York: J . Ci. Shea, 1881), 13 9 -4 5 ; Relation du voyage de Cavelier de La Salle, du 22 Août 1680 a l’automne de 168 1, Margry, Découvertes, 2 :12 8 -3 5 . Duchesneau’s Memoir on Western Indians, Sept. 13 , 16 8 1, NYCD 9 :16 3-6 4 . De la Barre au Ministre, n.d. (1682), AN, C i iA, v. 6, f. 6 0 -6 1 ; F.njairan to de la Barre, Aug. 26, 1683, WHC 1 6 : 1 1 0 - 1 3 . The Iroquois, in an attempt to maintain peace with the French, argued that they did not wish war in the West but would defend themselves. Conference de M. de Frontenac avec un deputation des Iroquois, 1 1 sept. 1682, AN, C i 1 A, v. 6, f. 14.

47 For Miamis, see Le Clercq, First Establishment o f the Faith, 139; La Salle, Relations des découvertes, Margry, Découvertes, 1 :5 2 5 -2 9 . For La Salle’s original wish for neutrality, see Relation des découvertes, Margry, ibid., 1 :5 0 2 -0 3 ; for Ottawas, Duchesneau’s Memoir on Western Indians, Sept. 13, 16 8 1, NYCD 9 :16 3-6 4 ; for Fox, La Durantaye, 22 avril 1684, AN, C 11A , v.6, f. 5 2 1; for murders, see next chapter.

F r e n c h fo r p ro te c tio n . W ith o u t it th ey c o n s id e re d th e m se lv e s , in th e ir w o rd s ,

a lre a d y d e a d , y e t th ey w e re n o t su re that so m e F r e n c h m e n w e re n o t p lo ttin g

w ith the Iro q u o is to d e stro y th em . R u m o rs , b e lie v e d by b o th F re n c h m e n an d

In d ia n s , w e re ram p an t in the u p p e r co u n try that v a r io u s F r e n c h fa c tio n s h ad

e n c o u ra g e d the Iro q u o is a ttack s. It w a s tru e that H en ry ' de T o n t i , L a S a l le ’ s

lie u te n an t, h ad b e e n w o u n d e d by th e Iro q u o is d u r in g the a ttack on the

Illin o is , b u t it w a s a lso w id e ly b e lie v e d , b y L a S a lle a m o n g o th e rs , that the

Je s u it s h ad c o n d o n e d the Iro q u o is a ssau lt. In Q u e b e c G o v e r n o r F ro n te n a c

e q u iv o c a te d ; he attem p ted to se c u re p e a c e w ith th e Iro q u o is w h ile p ro m is in g

the A lg o n q u ia n s n ew p ro te c tio n that he d id n o th in g v is ib le to p ro v id e .48

A t Q u e b e c an d M o n tre a l F r e n c h o ffic ia ls re c e iv e d th ese p le a s fo r aid

fro m the W e st an d c o n s id e re d th e ir o p tio n s. S lo w ly th ey ca m e to re co g n ize

the n e e d fo r u n ity a m o n g the A lg o n q u ia n s an d a jo in t F r e n c h - In d ia n

a llia n ce to d e fe a t the Iro q u o is . I f the Illin o is w e re lost, F r e n c h strateg ists

re a so n e d , G r e e n B a y an d the O ttaw as w o u ld fo llo w . T h e fu r trad e w o u ld

v a n ish . C a n a d a w o u ld b e iso la te d an d v u ln e ra b le to Iro q u o is a ttacks, and

E n g la n d , w h o m th e F r e n c h re g a rd e d as the sp o n so r o f the Iro q u o is , w o u ld

co n tro l the co n tin e n t.4^

A s th ese d isc u ss io n s p ro c e e d e d , F r e n c h d iv is io n s d id n o t d isap p e a r,

b u t a m o n g th o se active in the W e st, th o se d e b a tin g p o lic y in Q u e b e c and

M o n tre a l, an d th ose o v e rs e e in g th e p olicy in P a ris a c o n se n su s on the n e ed

to u n ite the w e s te rn tr ib e s b e g a n to e m e rg e . S u c h an a llia n c e , they a g re e d ,

d e p e n d e d on th e ab ility o f th e F r e n c h to p ro te c t an d su p p ly th e ir a llie s an d ,

30 The middle ground

4K For Tonti’s actions, see Tonty Memoir, in Cox, Journeys o f La Salle, 1 :8 - 1 3 . For Frontenac’s attempts to secure peace, see Discours de M. de Frontenac au député de Iroquois, 12 sept. 1682, AN, C 1 1A , v. 6, f. 46. J R 6 2 :15 1 - 5 5 ; lettre à M. de la Barre, 14 aoust 1684, AN, C 11A , v .6, f. 293-94 , Enjairan à M. La Barre, 7 mai 1684, AN, C u A , v. 6; Presents Made by the Onnontagues to Onontio. . . 5 Sept. 1684, D H NY 1 : 1 19 . For La Salle’s accusations against Allouez and other Jesuits, see Lettre de La Salle au Ft. Frontenac, 22 aoust 1682, M argry,Découvertes, 2 :2 14 -2 0 , Lettre de Cavelier de La Salle à un de ses amis, oct. 1682, ibid., 2 :2 9 5 -3 0 1, and Extrait du mémoire (1682), ibid., 2 :347-48 .

4g La Salle’s actions encouraged an alliance of western villagers, Le Clercq, First Establishment o f Faith, 156; Relation des découvertes, Margry, Découvertes, 1 :5 2 5 -3 4 . Other officials and La Salle, fearing for his trade, wanted peace with the Iroquois, Lettre de Cavelier de La Salle à un de ses amis, oct. 1682, ibid., 2 :294-96. Duchesneau’s Memoir on Western Indians, Sept. 13 , 16 8 1, NYCD 9 :16 4 -6 5 ; Conference on Intelligence Received from Iroquois, Mar. 23, 1682, NYCD 9 :17 1, also J R 6 2 :15 7 -6 5 . For Frontenac’s decision to accord “ la nouvelle protection” against the Iroquois, see Mémoire . . . à l’egard des sauvages ___ , 12 sept. 1682, RAPQ, 1948-49, 14 1 -4 2 . For king’s orders to maintain peace among allies and defend them from Iroquois, see king to La Barre, May 10, 1682, in Theodore C. Pease and Raymond C. Werner (eds.), The French Foundations, 1680-93, Collections o f the Illinois Historical Library (Springfield 111.: Illinois State Historical Library, 1934), IH C 23 :17 . For La Barre’s measures, Abstract of Letters Received from Canada, NYCD 9 :19 6 -9 7 . He, like other French officials, thought the English were behind Iroquois attacks, De la Barre au ministre, n.d. (1682), AN, C 1 1A , v.6, f. 6 0 -6 1 ; M. de la Barre au ministre, nov. 1683, Margry, Découvertes, 2 :33 1.

above a ll, to m ed ia te the d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n th em . In 1 6 8 1 the In ten d an t

D u c h e sn e a u ad v ised that it w as in “ o u r in te re st to k e ep th ese p e o p le u n ited

and to take c o g n iz an ce o f all th e ir d iffe re n c e s , h o w e v e r tr iflin g th ese m ay b e ,

to w atch c a re fu lly th at n o t o n e o f th em te rm in ate w ith o u t o u r m ed ia tio n an d

to con stitu te o u rse lv e s in all th in g s th e ir a rb ite rs an d p ro te c to rs .” F r o m the

W e st, F a th e r L e C le r c q , w h o h ad a c c o m p a n ie d L a S a l le , re a c h e d s im ila r

c o n c lu s io n s : “ I f w e w ish to settle in th o se c o u n tr ie s an d m ake a n y p ro g re ss

fo r the fa ith , it is ab so lu te ly n e c e ssa ry to k e e p all th ese tr ib e s, a s w ell as

o th ers m o re rem o te in p e a c e an d u n io n a g a in st the c o m m o n e n em y - that is,

the Ir o q u o is .” F in a lly , in 16 8 4 , an a n o n ym o u s m e m o ria lis t re sta te d the

p o licy w h ile w a rn in g ag a in st the se lfish in te re sts that m ig h t u n d e rm in e it:

Take heed of their plans, of their disagreements, and do not allow any of them to terminate without the participation and without the orders of those who, representing the person of the king, ought not to be so mean as to sell them [the Indians] their mediation at so high a price that they [the Indians] are forced to disregard it and come to terms without having recourse [to us].

E v e n as th e F r e n c h in Q u e b e c d e b a te d u n ify in g the w e ste rn tr ib e s , the

F r e n c h in the W e st, w h o w e re m o re im m e d ia te ly th re a te n e d by the Iro q u o is

than o ffic ia ls at Q u e b e c , to ok the first h e s ita n t ste p s to se cu re su ch an

a llian ce . In o rd e r to re s is t the F iv e N a tio n s , th ey m o ved so m e w h a t c lu m sily

tow ard h e a lin g d iv is io n s b o th b e tw e e n th e m se lv e s an d the A lg o n q u ia n s an d

b e tw e e n the va r io u s A lg o n q u ia n g ro u p s . A s Iro q u o is w a rr io rs p lu n d e re d

F re n c h m e n in the W e st, L a S a lle fo rt ifie d an d g a rr iso n e d S ta rv e d R o c k and

g a th e re d lM iam is, I llin o is , an d S h a w n e e s a ro u n d h im . D a n ie l G r e y s o lo n

D u lh u t a c te d fo rc e fu lly to h a lt the m u rd e rs that p la g u e d the trad e an d to try

to re c o n c ile w a rr in g A lg o n q u ia n g ro u p s . G o v e r n o r L a B a r r e , w h o h ad

s u c c e e d e d F ro n te n a c , g a rr iso n e d an d p ro v is io n e d M ic h ilim a c k in a c . In 16 8 4

F re n c h m e n an d A lg o n q u ia n s in co n c e rt tu rn e d b a c k an Iro q u o is attack on

the Illin o is , and G o v e rn o r L a B a rre su m m o n e d w e ste rn w a rr io rs fo r an

a ssa u lt o n Iro q u o ia . W o rk in g d e ftly o u t o f M ic h ilim a c k in a c , the first F r e n c h

c o m m a n d e r in the W e st, O liv e r M o r e l d e la D u ra n ta y e , se c u re d the

w a rrio rs . T h e a llia n ce se e m e d a re a lity .50 51

50 For divisions, see Lettre de La Salle au Ft. Frontenac, 22 aoust 1682, Margiy, Découvertes, 2 :2 14 -2 0 , Lettre de Cavelier de La Salle à un de ses amis, oct. 1682, ibid., 2 :2 9 5 -30 1 and Extrait du mémoire (1682), ibid. , 2 :347-48 ; Lettre M. de la Barre à M. Colbert, 14 nov. 1682, ibid., 2 :303-04 . For Duchesneau quotation, see Duchesneau’s Memoir on Western Indians, Nov. 13 , 168 1, NYCD 9:162. For Le Clercq quotation, see First Establishment o f Faith, 156. Mémoire sur quelques. . . dans la ferme de Canada (1684), AN, C 11A , v.6, f.480.

51 Récit de Nicolas De La Salle, 1682, Margry, Découvertes, 1:570, Tonti Memoir in Cox, Journeys o f La Salle, 1 :3 1 ; M. de la Barre to M. de Scignclay, 4 Nov. 1683, NYCD 9:202; De Baugy, 24 mars 1684, AN, C 11A , v.6; Memoir of M. de la Barre, Oct. 1, 1684, D H NY

Refugees 3 1

32

U n fo rtu n a te ly L a B a r r e ’ s a ttack fa ile d m ise ra b ly . T h e F r e n c h m ilitia fe ll

s ick , G o v e r n o r L a B a r r e p a n ic k e d an d s ig n e d an e m b a rra ss in g treaty

a b a n d o n in g the Illin o is to the Iro q u o is , an d the w o rst A lg o n q u ia n fe a rs o f

F r e n c h c ra v c n n e ss an d u n tru stw o rth in e ss se e m e d tru e . T o re c o u p , the

F r e n c h co u rt re m o v e d G o v e r n o r L a B a r r e an d re n o u n c e d h is treaty . H is

s u c c e s s o r , J a c q u e s - R e n é d e B r is a y D e n o n v ille , a tta ch e d g re a t im p o rta n ce

b o th to p ro te c tin g the w e ste rn a llie s an d m o b iliz in g th em ag a in st the

Iro q u o is . H e g av e g ifts o f g u n s to the Illin o is an d o th e r a llie s , m a in ta in e d

fo rtifie d p o sts n o t o n ly at M ic h ilim a c k in a c an d S ta rv e d R o c k , b u t a lso at

S a in t Jo s e p h , M a ra m e k (n e a r p re s e n t-d a y K a la m a z o o ) an d e ve n tu a lly m an y

o th e r p la c e s , an d su m m o n e d the A lg o n q u ia n s fo r a se c o n d jo in t attack on

Iro q u o ia in 1 6 8 7 .52

A ll o f th is o n ly p artia lly re a ssu re d the a llie s . T h e O ttaw as, in p a rtic u la r ,

n e v e r lo st th e ir fe a r that the F r e n c h w o u ld ab a n d o n th em . T h e Iro q u o is

p re y e d on th is fe a r a n d , w ith E n g lis h e n c o u ra g e m e n t, so u g h t to tra n s fo rm it

in to tem p tatio n . T h e Ir o q u o is a ssu re d th e O tta w as an d a lso th e H u ro n -

P e tu n s that i f th ey d e se rte d the F r e n c h , the F iv e N a t io n s w o u ld se c u re th em

a trad e w ith th e E n g lis h that w o u ld p ro v id e b e tte r E u r o p e a n g o o d s at

c h e a p e r p rice s . E v e n as the F r e n c h - Ir o q u o is w a r re su m e d w ith D e n o n v ille ’ s

attack , even as it b e c a m e su b su m e d in a la rg e r im p e r ia l w a r b e tw e e n F r a n c e

an d E n g la n d in 16 8 9 , the m u tu a l d istru st o f the F r e n c h an d th e w e ste rn

In d ia n s , p a rtic u la r ly the O ttaw as an d H u ro n -P e tu n s , p e rs is te d . B o th n atio n s

re p e a te d ly s e e m e d o n the v e rg e o f d e se rtin g th e F r e n c h . T h e In d ia n s w e re

m o tivated so m e tim e s b y the lu re o f E n g lis h g o o d s , at o th e r tim es b y the

re a so n a b le fe a r th at the F r e n c h w o u ld b e tra y th em . S e p a ra te F r e n c h p e a c e

n e go tia tio n s w ith the Iro q u o is d isp o se d the a llie s to m ak e a se p a ra te p e a c e o f

th e ir o w n .53

T h e F r e n c h -A lg o n q u ia n a llia n ce re ste d o n a d e lic a te b a la n c e o f fe a r an d

tem p tation . R e n e w e d Iro q u o is a ttack s c re a te d th e im p e tu s fo r the a llian ce ,

The middle ground

1 : 10 9 - 16 . For Dulhut, see Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan's Voyages, 1:73 ; Enjairan to M. de la Barre, 26 aug. 1683, Margry, Découvertes, 5 :3 -7 . For Durantaye, see M. de la Barre to M. de Seignelay, 4 Nov. 1683, NYCD 9:202.

52 For La Barre’s failure, see Presents Made by the Ononotagues to Onontio, 5 Sept. 1684, D H N Y 1 : 1 1 7 - 1 9 ; De Meulles to Minister, Oct. 10, 1684, D H N Y 1 : 1 2 0 - 2 7 1 . For crown’s disavowal, sec Instructions to M. de Denonville, Mar. 10, 1685, IIIC 23 :68-78 ; Mémoire: De Denonville, Sept. 8, 1686, AN, F3, Moreau-St. Mery, v. 6, f. 2 7 0 -7 1 ; Mémoire instructif, AN, F3, Moreau-St. Mery, v. 2, f. 218.

52 For discontent of allies, see Denonville Memoir Concerning Present State of Canada, Nov. 12, 1685, D H N Y 1 :19 9 -2 0 0 . Instruction to M. Denonville, Mar. 10, 1686, IH C 23:68-78. See also Denonvillc’s letter to Seignelay and reply, Aug. 20, Sept. 3, Nov. 12 , 1685, NYCD 9:274; For initial English threat and French response, see Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan’s Voyages, 1 :9 8 - 10 1 ; Denonville au Ministre, 13 nov. 1685, AN, C i iA , v. 7, f. 105; Denonville to Seignelay, May 8, 1686, NYCD 9 :287-92, and Oct. 9, 1686, NYCD 9 :286-303; Denonville to Seignelay, June 8, 1687, NYCD 9 :32 4 -2 5 ; ibid., Aug. 25, 1687, NYCD 9 :336 -37 ; Denonville au Ministre, 15 juillet 1687, AN, C i 1 A, v. 9, f. 36. For Huron-Petun

b u t trad e w ith the E n g lish a llie s o f the Iro q u o is p e rp e tu a lly th re a ten ed its

d isso lu tio n . F r e n c h d e n u n c ia tio n s o f th e ir a llie s as u n fa ith fu l an d tre a c h e ro u s

w e re as s e lf- s e r v in g as th ey w e re c o m m o n , h u t th ey a lso co n ta in e d s ig ­

n ifican t e le m e n ts o f tru th . P a rt ic u la r ly fo r the H u ro n -P e tu n s an d the

O ttaw as at M ic h ilim a c k in a c , a llia n ce w ith the F r e n c h a lw ays h ad to be

w e ig h e d ag a in st its a ltern ative : ra p p ro c h e m e n t writh th e Iro q u o is an d trad e

w ith th e E n g lish . T h e F r e n c h c o u ld n o t a ssu m e loyalty o r d ictate to the

A lg o n q u ia n s as lo n g as that r isk y a lte rn ative re m a in e d .34

F r o m its in cep tio n , th en , the a llia n ce w a s not s im p ly the n atu ra l re su lt o f

p o o r an d sh a tte re d p e o p le s ’ se e k in g to sh a re F r e n c h wrea lth an d p o w e r b u t,

ra th e r, an in itia lly p re c a r io u s co n stru ctio n w h o se m a in te n a n c e s e e m e d as

e sse n tia l to C a n a d ia n as to A lg o n q u ia n su rv iva l. T h e a llia n c e e n d u re d not

b e c a u se o f so m e m ystica l a ffin ity b e tw e e n F re n c h m e n an d In d ia n s , n o r

b e c a u se A lg o n q u ia n s h ad b e e n re d u c e d to d e p e n d e n c y on the F r e n c h , b u t

ra th e r b e c a u se tw o p e o p le s c re a te d an e lab o ra te n e tw o rk o f e co n o m ic ,

p o lit ica l, c u ltu ra l, and so c ia l ties to m e e t the d e m a n d s o f a p a rtic u la r

h is to rica l s itu ation . T h e s e ties kn it th e re fu g e e c e n te rs to e ach o th e r and

each c e n te r to the F r e n c h . C e n tra l to th is w h o le p ro c e ss w as the m ed ia tio n

o f co n flic ts b o th betw e en the F r e n c h an d th e ir v a r io u s a llie s an d a m o n g the

a llie s th em se lve s . In th e en d the a llia n ce that the F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n s

c re a te d in the last tw o d e c a d e s o f th e se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry re ste d on the

w illin g n e ss o f the F r e n c h to u n d e rta k e su ch m ed iatio n an d th e ir ab ility to

p e r fo rm it e ffe c tiv e ly . A s in an In d ia n c o n fe d e ra c y , the m o b iliza tio n o f fo rce

ag a in st o u ts id e rs w as o n ly a se c o n d a ry a c h ie v e m e n t o f the a llia n ce . P r im a rily ,

the a llia n ce so u g h t to in su re p e a c e a m o n g its m e m b e rs . Id e a lly , o f c o u rse , all

the a llie s w o u ld a g re e to figh t a c o m m o n e n em y, b u t b e fo re that co u ld

h ap p en , all h ad to ag re e n o t to figh t e ach o th er. A s G o v e rn o r D e n o n v ille

re a liz e d , it w as “ a b so lu te ly n e c e ssa ry to re c o n c ile th em b e fo re th in k in g o f

d e riv in g an y ad van tag e fro m th e m .” B e c a u s e m ed ia tio n se c u re d p e a c e ,

m ed ia tio n w a s at the h ea rt o f the a llia n c e .55

IV

It is h ard , a c c u sto m e d as w e are to th in k o f E u ro p e a n d o m in a n ce in term s

o f c o n q u e st an d co m m e rc ia l a d v a n tag e , to a c c e p t m ed ia tio n as a so u rc e o f

measures to disrupt French-lroquois negotiations, see Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan’s Voyages, 1:2 2 0 -2 5 ; also Mémoire: Chevalier de Callicres, 1689, AN, C i i A, v. 10. For separate peace, see Relation de ccqui s’est passe d l’anneé 1694 jusqu’au mois de nov. 1695, AN, F3, Moreau-St. Mery, v. 7, f .3 4 1.

54 For both recognition of and frustration at this situation, see Mémoire instructif de l’estât des affaires de la Nouvelle France . . . Denonville à M. de Seignelay, aoust 1688, AN, C n A , v. 10, f. 64-70 .

55 Memoir of Denonville, Nov. 12, 1685, DH NY 1:19 8 -9 9 .

Refugees 33

p o w e r , b u t p o w e r it w as. A d m itte d ly , w ith o u t g o o d s to g ive as p re se n ts o r

F r e n c h tro o p s to aid the A lg o n q u ia n s ag a in st the Iro q u o is , m ed ia tio n w o u ld

h ave b e e n im p o ss ib le . B u t it is e q u a lly tru e that n e ith e r trad e n o r m ilita ry

fo rc e a lo n e co u ld h ave h e ld the a llia n c e to g e th er. It w as the ab ility o f the

F r e n c h to m ed ia te p e a c e b e tw e e n c o n te n tio u s an d v e n g e fu l a llie s th at d id

that. A n y o n e w h o h as a tte m p te d to fo llo w in L a P o th e r ie ’ s History the

tan g led an d d a n g e ro u s n e g o tia tio n s c o n d u c te d b y m en su ch as P e rro t o r h as

lo o k ed a t th e c a re e r o f H e n ry d e T o n t i o r o f D a n ie l G r e y s o lo n D u lh u t h as

so m e se n se o f b o th the im m e n sity o f the task and th e d iffic u lty o f the

a c h ie v e m e n t. E v e n w ith n e w Iro q u o is a ttack s im m in e n t, T o n t i in 16 8 5 had

to m ak e a p re se n t o f a th o u san d e c u s w o rth o f m e rc h a n d ise to re c o n c ile the

M ia m is an d Illin o is . In e f fe c t in g su ch re c o n c ilia tio n s the F r e n c h fo u n d a

n ich e in A lg o n q u ia n p o lit ica l sy ste m s, w h o se o rg an iz a tio n , as th e In te n d an t

R a u d o t la te r n o ted , m a d e it e a s ie r to d e c la re w a r than to s e c u r e p e a c e .56

T h e a llia n c e th at to ok sh ap e fo llo w in g the Iro q u o is a ttack s o f 16 8 0

su rv ived the se e m in g ly e n d le ss s tr in g o f in tern a l c r ise s that a fflic te d it d u rin g

the 1 6 8 0 s an d 1 6 9 0 s to b e c o m e th e v e h ic le fo r the d e fe a t o f th e Iro q u o is . It

tra n s fo rm e d th e A lg o n q u ia n s fro m a te rr ifie d p e o p le c o n fin e d to a fe w

c ro w d e d an d im p o v e rish e d se ttle m e n ts to a c o n fid e n t an d e x p a n d in g p e o p le

re o c c u p y in g c o u n try lo n g d e n ie d th em by the Iro q u o is . O n c e a rm e d an d

o rg a n iz e d , th e A lg o n q u ia n s th e m se lv e s b e ca m e the p ro te c to rs o f C a n a d a .

T h e y c a rr ie d the w a r h o m e to th e F iv e N a tio n s . It w a s th ey , a s G o v e r n o r

P h ilip p e de R ig a u d de V a u d re u il w o u ld stre ss in the e a r ly e ig h te e n th

ce n tu ry , w h o h ad d e fe a te d th e Iro q u o is . It w a s th e y w h o m the Iro q u o is m o st

fe ared - It w a s o n th em th at F r e n c h se c u r ity cam e in la rg e m e a su re to

d e p e n d . T h e re fu g e e s re c o g n iz e d fu ll w ell the im p lica tio n s o f th e ir m ilita ry

v ic to r ie s an d ca m e to p o sse ss , as P e rro t sa id , the “ a rro g a n t n o tio n that the

F r e n c h c a n n o t g et a lo n g w ith o u t th em an d that w e c o u ld n o t m ain ta in

o u rse lv e s in th e co lo n y w ith o u t th e a ss is ta n c e that th ey g iv e u s .” 57

T h e a llia n ce w a s b a se d o n m e d ia tio n , b u t m ed ia tio n w a s o n ly p o ss ib le

b e c a u se o f w h a t m ig h t b e ca lled the in fra s tru c tu re th at su p p o rte d the

a llia n ce itse lf. In the late se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry th is in fra s tru c tu re c o n siste d o f

the re fu g e e c e n te rs th e m se lv e s , w h ic h c o n c e n tra te d In d ia n s in la rg e , e as ily

a c c e ss ib le n u m b e rs ; F r e n c h m iss io n s an d fo rts lo ca te d in th ese re fu g e e

c e n te rs ; an d the congé, o r p e rm it , system o f trad in g , w h ic h n ot o n ly su p p lie d

56 For Perrot, see La Potherie, History, 1 :3 0 9 ,3 1 1 ,2 :6 1 - 7 8 ,8 4 - 8 5 , h i - 13 . For others, see Boisguillot à M. de la Barre, 7 mai 1684, AN, C 11A , v. 6, f. 528; Tonti à M. de Villermont Margry, Découvertes, 3:559; Raudot lettres, AN, C n A , v. 122 (carton 64) f. 20off.

57 For examples o f attacks, see Narrative . . . of Occurrences, 1697-98 , NYCD 9 :6 8 0 -8 1; Narrative . . . of Occurrences, 16 9 6 -9 7 , ibid., (i-jz-, Vaudreuil 8c Raudot to Minister, Nov. 14, 1708 ,M PH C 33:402; Yves Zoitvany, “ New France and the West, 1 7 0 1 - 1 3 , ” Canadian Historical Review 46 (1965): 304. See also Tonti à M. de Villermont, 28 mars 1689, Margry, Découvertes, 3:564; J R 64:37. For quotation, see Perrot, Memoir, 262,

34 The middle ground

g o o d s to the W e st but, b y g iv in g o ffic ia ls so m e c o n tro l o ve r tra d e rs , m ad e

th em p o ten tia l F re n c h e m issa r ie s an d d ip lo m ats . F r e n c h w ea lth and

A lg o n q u ia n an d F re n c h m ilita ry s tren g th su sta in e d th is in fra s tru c tu re . A n d

the co m b in atio n o f F r e n c h lite ra c y - at le ast a m o n g Je s u it s , o ff ic e r s , an d a

fe w trad e rs - an d the p re se n c e o f F re n c h m e n in all the m a jo r re fu g e e

ce n te rs b o u n d it to geth er. T h e F r e n c h e sta b lish e d a c o m m a n d o f d istan t

e ven ts that a llo w e d th em to in terve n e p ro p it io u s ly in In d ian p o litic s at c ritica l

m o m en ts an d c o o rd in a te th eir o w n a c tio n s w ith a p re c is io n an d se c re c y

In d ia n s c o u ld not m atch . T h e m an y o c c a s io n s on w h ich F re n c h m e n d is ­

ru p ted In d ia n “ p lo ts ” that th re a te n e d to d e stro y the a llia n ce o r g ath e re d

w id e ly se p a ra te d n atio n s fo r c o m m o n e n d e a v o rs testify to the im p o rta n ce o f

th is co m m u n ica tio n n etw o rk .^ 8

L o o k e d at fro m th is p e rsp e c tiv e , th e a llian ce w as a F r e n c h co n stru ctio n ,

b u t o th er a n g le s o f e xam in atio n y ie ld o th e r p e rsp e c tiv e s . T h e u n d e rly in g

p re m ise o f the a llia n ce - m ed iatio n as a so u rc e o f in flu e n c e - w a s e sse n tia lly

A lg o n q u ia n . T h e p re c u rso rs o f the a llia n c e w e re the P o taw ato m is w h o , in

e ffe c t , sh o w e d th e F r e n c h th e p o ss ib ilit ie s o f m ed ia tio n . A c c o rd in g to L a

P o th e r ie , th e P o ta w a to m is ’ ro le as m e d ia to rs h ad m a d e th em the m o st

in flu e n tia l g ro u p at G r e e n B a y .

The old men are prudent, sensible, and deliberate; it is seldom that they undertake any unseasonable enterprise. As they receive strangers very kindly, they are delighted when reciprocal attentions are paid to them. They have so good an opinion of themselves that they regard other nations as inferior to them. They have made themselves arbiters for the tribes about the bay, and for all their neighbors; and they strive to preserve for themselves that reputation in every direction.59

In the early 16 8 0 s , the P o ta w a to m is re sp o n d e d to Iro q u o is a ttack s an d to

th e ir ow n co n flic ts w ith the F r e n c h b y a tte m p tin g to e xp a n d th e ir ro le as

m e d ia to rs to in c lu d e b oth the Illin o is a n d the M ia m is , w h o h ad b y th en o n ce

m o re m o ved so u th o f L a k e M ic h ig a n . T h e s e attem p ts, h o w e v e r, e xa c e rb a te d

co n flic ts w ith th e F r e n c h - w ith b o th the Je s u it s at G r e e n B a y an d L a S a lle ,

w h o w a s e s ta b lish in g the F r e n c h a s th e d o m in a n t p e o p le at S ta rv e d R o c k -

an d o v e rta x e d P o taw ato m i re so u rc e s . A n d w h e n , in re ta lia tio n fo r e p id e m ic s

th ey b e lie v e d to h ave b e e n c a u se d b y J e s u i t w itc h c ra ft , the P o taw ato m is

Refugees 35

For examples, see Boisguillot à M, de la Barre, 7 mai 1684, AN, C i 1 A, v. 6, f. 528; M. De la Barre au Ministre, g juillet 1684, AN, C i 1 A, v. 6, f. 284; Denonville à M . de la Durantaye, 6 juin 1686, AN, C i i A, v .8, f. 5 1 - 5 6 ; Tonty Memoir in Cox, Journeys o f La Salle, 1 :3 7 -3 8 ; Mémoire instructif des mesures que M. Denonville a prises pour la guerre . . . 26 aoust 1686, AN, C 11A , v.8, f .98. Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan’s Voyages, 1 :14 9 -6 3 . Denonville to Seignelay, Jan. 1690, NYCD 9:440.

sy La Potherie, History, 1:302.

m u rd e re d Je s u it d o n n é s , a d isp lay o f F r e n c h fo rce at G r e e n B a y le d th em to

c o n c e d e le a d e rsh ip to the F r e n c h .60

T h e F r e n c h , not the F o ta w a to m is , w o u ld lead the a llia n c e . T h e

A lg o n q u ia n s a c k n o w le d g e d the F r e n c h g o v e rn o r o f C a n a d a , w h o b o re the

title o f O n o n tio , as the h e a d o f the a llia n c e . Onontio w a s an Iro q u o is w o rd

m e a n in g g re a t m o u n ta in . It w as the M o h a w k re n d e r in g o f the n am e o f

C h a r le s Ja c q u e s d e H u a u lt d e M o n tm a g n y , an e arly F r e n c h g o v e rn o r . B o th

the Iro q u o is an d the A lg o n q u ia n s a p p lie d the n a m e to a ll la te r F re n c h

g o v e rn o rs . O n o n tio w a s a p e rso n o f re a l p o w e r, b u t n o n e o f the F r e n c h

g o v e rn o rs w h o led the a llia n ce w as re g a rd e d as a c o n q u e re r . In stead ,

w e s te rn In d ia n s re g a rd e d O n o n tio an d the F re n c h m e n w h o fo llo w e d h im as

th e ir a llie s , p ro te c to rs , su p p lie rs , an d as the m ed ia to rs o f th e ir d isp u te s . O r,

in A lg o n q u ia n te rm s, O n o n tio w a s th e ir fa th er an d th us th ey a d d re sse d h im

in c o u n c il. B e c o m in g fa th e rs w as, in a se n se , a d e m o tio n fo r the F r e n c h .

T h e y o rig in a lly h ad b e e n m a n ito u s - that is, in m e tap h o ric a l k in sh ip

re c k o n in g , g ra n d fa th e rs . T h e y h ad tak en a step d o w n the g en e ratio n a l

la d d e r .61

O n o n tio d e p lo y ed h is p o w e r b y d ire c tin g F r e n c h re s o u rc e s a lo n g

A lg o n q u ia n ch an n e ls . O r, ra th er, g o o d s that o rig in a te d in F r e n c h so c iety

w e re d istrib u te d a c c o rd in g to c u sto m s that o rig in a ted in A lg o n q u ia n so c ie ty

fo r , as w e sh a ll se c , it in c re a s in g ly b e ca m e m e a n in g le ss to sp e a k o f the

a llia n ce as F r e n c h o r A lg o n q u ia n . It w a s b o th . A s P e rro t n o ted , lib e ra lity w as

h ig h ly re g a rd e d a m o n g the A lg o n q u ia n s ; it w a s b o th a m a rk o f an d a rou te

to sta tu s an d p o w e r. K o re q u e st h ad s ig n ific a n c e an d no a g re e m e n t

w a s b in d in g w ith o u t an e x c h a n g e o f p re se n ts . In th e w o rd s o f In ten d an t

D u c h e s n e a u , “ T h e s e trib es n e v e r tran sac t an y b u s in e s s w ith o u t m ak in g

p re se n ts to illu stra te an d c o n firm th e ir w o rd s .” T h e im p o rta n c e o f any

a g re e m e n t w a s m e a su re d in te rm s o f the g ifts w h ich a c c o m p a n ie d it. G o o d s ,

b e sto w e d w ise ly , w e re the m ark o f le a d e rsh ip an d th e ro u te to in flu e n c e ; it

w a s the ro u te the F r e n c h to o k .62

F r e n c h agen ts o f th e a llia n c e - the p rie sts , o ff ic e r s , an d tra d e rs - co u ld ,

36 The middle ground

60 Lettre du Fere Enjairan à M, de la Barre, 26 aoust 1683, Margry Découvertes, 5 :3 -7 ; Perrot, Memoir, 188.

61 For origin of Onontio, see Eccles, Canadian Frontier, p. 201, n. 15 . I ’d like to thank Ray Fogelson for pointing out the generational progression here. There remains much interest­ ing work to be done in sorting Out the complex metaphorical network the Algonquians used to govern political and social relations. For an attempt to do this for the Iroquois, see Mary A. Druke, “ Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy,” in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600-1800, ed. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1987).

62 Perrot, Memoir, 29 1; for quotation, see Duchesneau’s Memoir on the Western Indians, Nov. 13, 168 1, NYCD 9 :16 1. Frontenac to Duchesneau, July 28, 1682, NYCD 9 :175, Lettre de Cavelier de La Salle, 22 août à l ’automne de r681, MargTy, Découvertes, 2:150. Callières au Ministre, 20 oct. 1699, AN, C 11A , v. 17 , f. 7.

h o w e v e r, o n ly act w ith the c o o p e ra tio n o f A lg o n q u ia n le a d e rs . T h e a llian ce

e sse n tia lly m e rg e d the F r e n c h p o lit ic s o f e m p ire w ith the k in sh ip p o litic s o f

the v illa g e . T h e m e n - F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n - w h o tran s la te d o n e p o litics

into the o th e r w e re the p e o p le the d o c u m e n ts re fe r to as c h ie fs . F re n c h m e n

so o ften u se d the term chief as a g e n e r ic tag fo r an y In d ian w h o sh o w e d sig n s

o f h av in g in flu e n c e w ith in h is o w n so c ie ty that try in g to g ive the w o rd an

o p e ra tio n a l m e a n in g is h o p e le ss . T h e r e w as no m o re an o ffic e o f c h ie f

in A lg o n q u ia n so c ie tie s than th ere w a s in F r e n c h so ciety . T h e m en , an d

so m e tim es w o m e n , o f in flu e n c e w h o m the F r e n c h m o st o ften to ok fo r c h ie fs

w e re okarnas, o r v illa g e c iv il le a d e rs . In m o st o f th ese g ro u p s , le a d e rsh ip w as

c la n - an d l in e a g e -b a s e d , w ith se p a ra te le a d e rs fo r w a r an d fo r p e a c e .63

L e a d e r s in the a llian ce w e re th u s o fte n le a d e rs in th e ir o w n so c ie ty as w e ll.

J u s t a s O n o n tio w a s the g o v e rn o r o f N e w F r a n c e , w ith d u tie s , o b lig atio n s,

and in te re sts to ta lly d istin c t fro m th o se o f th e a llian ce , so c h ie fs co u ld h o ld

p o sitio n s b o th w ith in th e ir o w n so c ie ty an d w ith in the a llia n c e . B u t A lg o n q u ia n

v illa g e le a d e rs , u n lik e O n o n tio an d h is F r e n c h o ffic ia ls , w e re n ot ru le rs . T h e

F re n c h e q u a te d le a d e rsh ip w ith p o lit ica l p o w e r , an d p o w e r w ith c o e rc io n .

L e a d e r s c o m m a n d e d ; fo llo w e rs o b e y e d . B u t wrhat d is t in g u ish e d m o st

A lg o n q u ia n p o litics fro m E u ro p e a n p o lit ic s w as the a b se n c e o f c o e rc io n .

O n ly a m o n g the M ia m is d id the F r e n c h re c o g n iz e le a d e rs w h o se e m e d to

p o sse ss p o w e r in the F r e n c h se n se . T h e firs t J e s u it a c c o u n ts th o u g h t the

le a d in g m an o f the M ia m is w as “ the K in g o f th e n a tio n .” A n d C h ic h ik a to lo

o f the M ia m is la te r se e m e d to th e F r e n c h a fo rm id a b le le a d e r o f a h ie ra rc h ia l

so ciety . O n s e e in g C h ic h ik a to lo a t M o n tre a l in 1 7 0 1 , L a P o th e r ie re p o rte d

that he c a rr ie d h im s e lf w ith the b e a r in g o f a R o m a n e m p e ro r . W h e n

C h ic h ik a to lo g av e o rd e rs , h is p e o p le o b e y e d th em , o r so , a t le ast, the

F r e n c h th o u gh t. B u t C h ic h ik a to lo w a s an e xce p tio n a l fig u re ; no la te r M ia m i

c h ie f e q u a le d h im .64

T h e n o rm a l in flu e n c e o f an A lg o n q u ia n okama w a s fa r d iffe re n t. A s

C h ig a b e , a S a u lte u r c h ie f, an d p ro b a b ly a lin e a g e h ead o f o n e o f the p ro to -

O jib w a b a n d s o f L a k e S u p e r io r to ld G o v e r n o r F ro n te n a c : “ F a th e r : It is n ot

the sam e w ith u s a s w ith yo u . W h e n yo u c o m m a n d , a ll th e F r e n c h o b ey

an d g o to w a r. B u t I sh a ll n o t b e h e e d e d an d o b e y e d b y m y n atio n in a

like m a n n e r. T h e r e fo r e , I c a n n o t a n sw e r e x c e p t fo r m y s e lf an d fo r th o se

im m e d ia te ly a llie d o r re la te d to m e .” 65

E x c e p t fo r w a r le a d e rs d u rin g a w a r e xp e d itio n , c h ie fs c o u ld c o m m an d

no o th e r m e n . T h e r e w e re p e o p le o f p o w e r an d in flu e n c e a m o n g the

A lg o n q u ia n s , b u t th eir p o w e r w a s , a s P ie r re C la s tre s h a s a rg u e d , n o n -

“ H BN I 15:649, 693, 7 1 2 - 1 3 , 732. 64 For Miami chiefs, see La Potherie, History 2 :3 3 0 -3 1 . For talk at Detroit, July 30, 1704, see

M P IIC 33 :192 ,7/? 55 :2 15 . For Chichikatolo, see La Potherie, Histoire, 4:202, 207-8 . 65 For Chigabe quotation, see Narrative o f . . . Occurrences, 1694—95, NYCD 9:612.

Refugees 37

c o e rc iv e ; it w a s a type o f p o w e r that E u ro p e a n s fa ile d to re c o g n iz e . In

A lg o n q u ia n v illage so c ie t ie s , p e o p le c o n c e iv e d o f p o w e r a s a r is in g fro m

o u tsid e . P o w e r ca m e fro m m a n ito u s, w h o gave it to in d iv id u a ls o r to

a n c e sto rs o f the g ro u p . T h e p o w e r o f c la n s u su a lly d e r iv e d fro m an a n ce stra l

v is io n , an d that p o w e r w a s ac tu a lize d in a ritu a l b u n d le c o n sist in g o f o b je cts

that sy m b o liz ed the o rig in a l v is io n . E a c h b u n d le h ad its a tte n d an t c e r e m o n ­

ie s . A c lan c h ie f w as the p e rso n re sp o n s ib le fo r th ese c e re m o n ie s , A v illa g e

c h ie f o ften w a s the h e a d o f th e se n io r lin e a g e o f the c h ie fly c lan , b u t th is w as

n o t a lw ays so . O fte n le a d e rsh ip w a s n o t h e re d ita ry , a n d , e ve n w h e n it w as,

th e le a d in g c a n d id ate m ig h t b e u n su ita b le . In su ch c a se s a v illa g e c o u n c il

c o m p o se d o f the e ld ers an d le a d in g m e n m e t to s e le c t an d to ra tify the

o cc u p a n t o f the o ff ic e .66

T o b e a c h ie f w ith in a v illag e se e m e d to m an y F r e n c h o b s e rv e rs a

th an k le ss task . T h e c h ie f w as u n d e r an o b lig atio n to g ive to all w h o ask ed .

V illa g e s w e re n o t h o m o g e n e o u s ; th ey co n ta in e d m e m b e rs o f d iffe re n t lin ­

e a g e s , c la n s , an d fa m ilie s . T h e c h ie f in terv e n e d to m e d ia te q u a rre ls b e tw e e n

th em , b u t th ey w e re u n d e r n o o b lig a tio n to listen to h im . C h ie fs an d e ld e rs

d e lib e ra te d o n w h at c o u rse a v illa g e sh o u ld p u rsu e , b u t n o o n e w a s o b lig e d

to o b ey th em . C h ie fs w e re m en w ith la rg e re sp o n s ib ilit ie s an d fe w re so u rc e s .

B u t c h ie fs w e re a lso w id e ly a c k n o w le d g e d as m en o f in flu e n c e ; th ey w e re not

th e sam e as o th e r m e n .67

T h e F r e n c h d e s ire d to tra n sfo rm th is n o n c o e rc iv c le a d e rsh ip in to a

c o e rc iv e le a d e rsh ip . L ik e the m an ito u s the A lg o n q u ia n s o rig in a lly e q u a te d

th em w ith , the F r e n c h b ro u g h t p o w e r in fro m o u tsid e . T o c h ie fs in n e e d o f

g o o d s to re d istr ib u te to fo llo w e rs an d in n e e d o f h e lp in p ro te c tin g the

v illa g e , an a llia n c e w ith the F r e n c h w a s n a tu ra l. A n d as the F r e n c h s in g le d

o u t c e rta in le a d e rs to b e the c h a n n e ls b y w h ic h F r e n c h p o w e r e n te re d the

v illa g e s , th ey c re a te d a n e w k in d o f c h ie f w h ic h can b e st b e d ist in g u ish e d as

an a llia n c e c h ie f.

A s u se d w ith in the F r e n c h a llia n c e in the se v e n te e n th an d e ig h tee n th

c e n tu r ie s , the w o rd chief c a m e to re fe r to b o th A lg o n q u ia n s an d F r e n c h m e n .

A llia n c e c h ie fs w e re p eo p le w h o re p re se n te d th e ir so c ie ty to o u ts id e rs . T h e y

m e d ia te d d isp u te s a m o n g a llie s an d a c te d to fo cu s the m ilita ry p o w e r o f the

a llia n ce ag a in st o u ts id e e n e m ie s . A n y m an w h o p e r fo rm e d su ch ta sk s , no

66 The most intriguing and suggestive discussion o f chieftanship and politics in North and South America is Pierre Clastres, Society Against the State; Essays in Political Anthropology (New York: Zone Books, 1987); see particularly 7 -4 7 .

Clastres’s argument that the chief was the speaker for the group does not always literally apply to Algonquians. Chiefs usually employed special speakers to speak for them in council. Similarly, polygamy, while important among Algonquians, did not seem to have the same political significance as it did for Clastres’s South American villagers, but this is a matter for additional research. For Algonquians, see HBN1 15 :6 17 - 18 , 649-50, 661, 732.

67 For a discussion of chiefs as mediators, see Clastres, Society Against the State, 59-60.

38 The middle ground

m atte r w h at p o litica l o r so c ia l p o sit io n h e h e ld w ith in h is o w n so c ie ty , w as an

a llian ce c h ie f. B o th the S ie u r d e L o u v ig n y , a m ilita ry o ff ic e r w h o c o m ­

m an d e d the F r e n c h e xp e d itio n se n t ag a in st the F o x , an d N ic o la s P e rro t, a

trad e r , w e re F r e n c h c h ie fs d e sp ite the s iz e a b le d iffe re n c e s o f th e ir statu s

w ith in F r e n c h so c ie ty . A s a llia n ce c h ie fs , h o w e v e r , th ey , in e ffe c t , lo st th eir

F r e n c h a ttr ib u tes o f p o w er: th e ab ility to co m m a n d . T h e y a c q u ire d the

A lg o n q u ia n o b lig atio n s o f p o w e r : the o b lig atio n to m ed ia te an d to g ive g o o d s

to th ose in n e e d . A llia n c e c h ie fs a m o n g the A lg o n q u ia n s d id n ot c la im the

p o w e r to c o m m a n d . T h e y a lw ays n e e d e d th e c o n se n t o f th e ir c o u n c ils .68

T h e p ro to typ e o f A lg o n q u ia n a llia n c e c h ie fs w as O n a n g h isse o f the

P o taw ato m is . H is e xa c t so c ia l p o sit io n a m o n g the P o taw ato m is is d iffic u lt to

d e te rm in e . L ik e h is F r e n c h e q u iv a le n t, P e rro t, O n a n g h isse , h o w e v e r, in ­

c re a se d h is in flu e n c e a m o n g h is p e o p le b e c a u se o f h is su c c e s s as an

in te rm e d ia ry w ith fo re ig n e rs . O n a n g h isse h ad led P o taw ato m i attem p ts to

n ego tiate an a n t i-F r e n c h ax is w ith th e M ia m is an d Illin o is in the e arly 16 8 0 s ,

b u t w ith the b irth o f the F r e n c h a llia n c e , he h ad b e co m e o n e o f its le a d in g

fig u re s . H is s ta n d in g in c re a se d as he m e d ia te d a m o n g n e ig h b o r in g p e o p le s

an d the F r e n c h as w e ll as a m o n g h is o w n p e o p le . H is ac tiv ities at the g re a t

p e a c e c o n fe re n c e o f 1 7 0 1 w h ic h e n d e d the Iro q u o is w a rs a re typ ica l. H e

sp oke to the F r e n c h fo r the S a u k s in o rd e r to a rra n g e co m p e n sa tio n fo r a

F re n c h m a n the S a u k s h a d k ille d a m o n g the S io u x . H e sp o k e fo r the

M a sc o u te n s w h o w ish e d to m ak e re tr ib u tio n fo r p illa g in g P e rr o t ’ s g o o d s an d

attem p tin g to b u rn h im at th e to rtu re stak e . O n d iffe re n t o c c a s io n s at the

sam e c o n fe re n c e , he sp o k e fo r the P o ta w a to m is , F o x , an d W in n e b a g o s . H e

w as, in sh o rt, a m e d ia to r fo r the a llia n ce a m o n g all the p e o p le s g a th e re d

ab o u t G r e e n B a y , and h is ac tiv itie s e x te n d e d b e yo n d it in to the Illin o is

Refugees 3 9

b8 For Indian reference to French chiefs, see Marcst to Vaudront, Aug. 14, 1706, M PHC 33:268; Marcst to Vaudreuil, July 2, 17 12 , M PH C 33:557; Speech of Illinois, 1725, WHC 16 :4 56 -57 ; Narrative o f de Boucherville, 17 2 8 -2 9 , WHC 17:40. For the king as a great chief, sec La Potherie, History, 1:347. For French use of the term, sec Pontchartrain to Vaudreuil, June 9, 1706, NYCD 9:777; Parolles des Outtauois de Michilmakina . . . 23 juillet 1708; Réponse, AN, C 11A , v. 28, f. 2 15 ; Bcauharnois & D ’Aigremont au Ministre, 1 oct. 1728, AN, C i 1 A, v. 50, f.32.

For examples o f chiefs saying their authority was delegated by the council or by the elders, see Narrative o f . . . Occurrences, 16 9 4 -9 5, NYCD 9:610; Conseil, 27 sept. 1703, AN, Cx xA, v. 21 (Nîquimar); Words o f Ottawas, Sept. 24, 1707, M PH C 33 :34 6 -4 7 ; Words of Ottawas, 23 June 1707, M PH C 33:327.

The Algonquian system of alliance chiefs and native okamas did not parallel the Pueblo system of an internal religious leadership and a separate set of leaders to deal with the Spanish. Algonquian alliance chiefs might or might not be okamas, shamans, or clan leaders. Nor does this Algonquian system parallel the absorption of native leaders as vassals by the Spanish in Florida; sec Amy Turner Bushnell, “ Ruling ‘the Republic of Indians’ in Seventeenth-Century Florida,” in Peter W'ood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hadey, Powhatan’s /Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989), 13 4 -5 0 .

co u n try . It w a s no w o n d e r th at he id e n tifie d so stro n g ly w ith F r e n c h c h ie fs ,

te llin g G o v e rn o r d e C a ll iè re s that P e rro t w a s h is “ b o d y ,” a id in g h im in all

the la n d s o f A lg o n q u ia n s to autoriser the parole o f O n o n tio .69

T h e a llia n c e g ra fte d to g e th e r im p eria l p o lit ic s an d the v illa g e p o lit ic s o f

k in sh ip ; th e tw o b e c a m e b ra n c h e s o f a s in g le tree . T h e p o lit ic s o f k in sh ip

re m a in e d stro n g e st w ith in the v illa g e s an d a m o n g c o n tig u o u s p e o p le s . T h is

w as not a h a rm o n io u s p o lit ic s . F a c t io n a lism d iv id ed the v illa g e c o u n c ils ; and

b e c a u se v illa g e b o u n d a r ie s th e m se lv e s w e re p e rm e a b le , fac tio n s fo rm e d

lin ks w ith o u ts id e rs . T h e c h ie fs s tru g g le d to m ed iate th ese q u a rre ls , b u t the

p o litics o f k in sh ip g re w w e a k e r w ith d ista n c e . Im p e ria l p o lit ic s th u s g re w

m o re s ig n ific a n t as g e o g ra p h ic a l sc a le in c re a se d . D is ta n t g ro u p s w e re u n ite d

w ith in the F r e n c h a llia n c e n ot so m u c h b y th e ir rea l o r m e tap h o ric a l k in sh ip

re la tio n s w ith o n e a n o th e r as b y th e ir c o m m o n sta n d in g as c h ild re n o f

O n o n tio , w h o w a s the re p re se n ta t iv e o f th e F r e n c h k in g . T h e a llian ce h ad a

c e n te r , an im p e r ia l ce n te r , an d fro m th is c e n te r the F r e n c h fo c u se d th e ir

e ffo r ts to in flu e n c e p e o p le s w h o w e re a llie s ra th e r th an su b je c ts o f the

e m p ire . W h e re th e b o n d s o f k in sh ip fa ile d , F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n a llian ce

c h ie fs in te rc e d e d . T h e y ca m e w ith th e ir c a lu m e ts , th e ir p re se n ts to c o v e r

(that is, to o ffe r co m p e n satio n for) the d e a d , an d th e ir c ap tive s to re p la c e o r

ra ise u p th e d e a d . T h o s e w h o re fu s e d to a c c e p t the m e d ia tio n o f the a llian ce

c h ie fs r isk e d th e th reat o f h a v in g the u n ited fo rce o f the a llia n ce b ro u g h t

a g a in st th e m .70

40 The middle ground

V

T h e so c ia l an d p o litica l b o n d s fo rg e d b y the re fu g e e s an d the F r e n c h , fo r all

th e ir s tre n g th , c o u ld n ot h o ld the re fu g e e c e n te rs to g e th er. T h e c e n te rs w ere

the c re a tio n s o f d e sp e ra te p e o p le w h o in se e k in g to cre a te p o lit ica l and

m ilita ry se cu rity c re a te d e co lo g ic a l an d e co n o m ic in stab ility . T h e c e n te rs

c o n c e n tra te d la rg e n u m b e rs o f p e o p le w h o w e re o ften h u n g ry an d o fte n sick .

T h e y b e ca m e e asy ta rg ets fo r the v irg in so il e p id e m ic s ra v a g in g the W e ste rn

H e m isp h e re .

A m o n g A m e r ic a n In d ia n p e o p le s th ere h ad b e e n no p r io r e x p o su re to

69 James Clifton, “ Potawatomi Leadership Roles: On Okama and other Influential Per­ sonages,” in William Cowan (ed.), Papers o f the Sixth Algonquian Conference, 1974, National Museum of Man, Mercury Series, Canadian Ethnology Service Paper no. 23 (Ottawa: National Museum of Canada, 1975), 4 3-9 9 , Onanghisse, 58, 6 3 ,6 5 -6 9 . See also Lettre du Pcre Enjalran à M. de la Barre, 26 aoust 1683, Margry, Découvertes, 5 :3 -7 ; La Potherie, Histoire, 4 :2 0 8 - 1 1 , 2 1 2 - 1 3 , 224> 234i Le Clcrq, Memoir from Membre Papers, in Cox, Journeys o f L aSa lle, 125.

70 As Marshall Sahlins observes, tribes overcome local cleavages only insofar as necessary to prevail militarily, Sahlins, Tribesmen, 45.

d ise a se s lo n g e n d e m ic to E u r o p e . In d ia n p o p u la tio n s h ad n o t b e e n se le c te d

o v e r tim e fo r re s is tan c e to su ch d ise a se s , n o r h ad in d iv id u a ls d e v e lo p e d

a n tib o d ies to th ese d ise a se s fro m p re v io u s e x p o su re d u rin g ch ild h o o d .

S m a llp o x an d m e a s le s stru ck v irg in p o p u la tio n s in th e W e ste rn H e m is p h e re ,

and th ese s o -c a lle d v irg in so il e p id e m ic s c a rr ie d o f f h u g e n u m b e rs o f p e o p le .

N o m atter h o w w e ll fe d o r se cu re th e In d ia n s m igh t h ave b e e n , a s ig n ific a n t

p ro p o rtio n o f th em w e re d o o m e d to d ie in su ch e p id e m ic s , b u t w h e n v irg in

so il e p id e m ic s hit h u n g ry p e o p le fo rc e d in to c ro w d e d an d co n tig u o u s

se ttlem e n ts by w a rfa re , the to ll b e ca m e e n o rm o u s. T h e Iro q u o is , in e ffe c t ,

p u sh e d th e A lg o n q u ia n s onto a k illin g g ro u n d w h e re sm a llp o x an d m e a sle s

to o k a fa r g re a te r toll than Iro q u o is m u sk e ts o r sc a lp in g k n iv e s d u rin g the

late se ve n te en th cen tu ry . T h e r e a re n o re lia b le estim ate s o f h o w m an y d ie d ,

bu t ca lcu la tio n s o n se le c te d tr ib e s in d ica te a d e c lin e o f an y w h e re fro m 2 5

p e rce n t to o v e r 90 p e rc e n t in th e late se v e n te e n th an d e arly e ig h te e n thn « cen tu rie s .

H u n g e r e xa c e rb a te d d ise a se , an d th e re fu g e e s w e re o fte n h u n g ry b e c a u se ,

in se e k in g to cre a te a sa fe an d fa m ilia r w o r ld , th ey taxed the n a tu ra l w o r ld to

its lim its . T h e p re d ic ta b ility o f the n a tu ra l w o r ld b e ca m e u n c e rta in . T h e

A lg o n q u ia n s h ad re c o g n iz e d an d d e p e n d e d o n se aso n s o f p le n ty an d se a so n s

o f sc a rc ity that w e re d e te rm in e d by the g re a t n a tu ra l rh yth m s o f the p lan et.

T h e r e w e re se a so n s w h e n fish sp aw n e d an d d e e r ru tted , an d b o th c o u ld be

taken m o re e asily . T h e r e w e re se a so n s w h e n gam e an im als w e re fat, th e ir

coats s le e k , th e ir fu r h eavy , an d se a so n s w h e n th ey w e re w e a k an d e m ac ia ted

and p ro v id ed little fo o d . T h e r e w a s sp rin g w h e n w o m e n c o u ld p lan t an d fa ll

w h e n th ey co u ld h arve st. T h e su b s is te n c e cy c le s o f the re fu g e e s , w ith

varia tio n s a c c o rd in g to sk ills , te c h n o lo g ie s , an d cu ltu ra l ta ste s , m o v ed to

th ese rh yth m s. T h e s e la rg e r p a tte rn s w e re re c u rre n t an d p re d ic ta b le .

In d ia n s n o ted th em an d p ro v id e d a g a in st e xp e cte d tim es o f d e arth .

In the G r e a t L a k e s se ttlem e n ts sc a rc ity cam e in the la te w in te r an d early 71

Refugees 41

71 Disease was depopulating the Ottawas in the mid 1660s, (JR 50:287). A little later the Mascoutens prayed for relief from the diseases killing their children (JR 53:229); in 16 7 0 -7 1 “ bloody flux” was among the Ottawas (JR 5 5 :1 17 - 3 1 ) . In 1672 the people at the Sault Sainte Marie had been reduced to extremity by disease (JR 57:223). In 1676 disease followed a poor harvest among the Fox (JR 60:199, 15 1) . In 1677 many died of an unnamed sickness around Lake Huron (JR 6 1:69-70). In 16 7 9 -8 1 there was smallpox among the Iroquois and at Montreal (NYCD 9:129, 154). This probably spread west. There was an epidemic that killed many at Green Bay in 1683 (La Potherie, History, 1:354), and there was sickness among the Menominees in the early 1680s, but it is unclear if this was smallpox (JR 62:205).

For Winnebagos, see La Potherie, History, 293-300 . For Sauks, Fox, Winnebagos, and Menominees, see Jeanne Kay, “ The Fur Trade and Native American Population Growth,” Ethnohistory 3 1 (1984): 265-87 . For a discussion of Iroquois demography, sec Ann F. Ramenofsky, Vectors of Death: The Archaeology o f European Contact (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987), 71 — 102.

42

sp r in g w h e n g am e a n im a ls w ere e m ac ia ted an d y ie ld e d little m eat. H o rt i-

c u ltu ra lis ts In th is a re a d e p e n d e d on th e ir c a c h e d c o rn to p u ll th em th ro u g h

u n til the s tu rg e o n ran an d p le n ty re tu rn e d . In the Illin o is c o u n try the se aso n

o f sc a rc ity e x te n d e d fro m late w in te r in to e arly su m m e r. T h is w a s the p e rio d

b e tw e e n b u ffa lo h u n ts an d b e fo re n ew c ro p s c o u ld b e h a rv e ste d . T h e n the

Illin o is d e p e n d e d o n d rie d b u ffa lo m ea t an d sto re d co rn . In d ia n s c o u ld an d

did m e e t p re d ic ta b le se aso n s o f sc a rc ity by s to r in g a su rp lu s fro m the

se a so n s o f p le n ty .72

In the re fu g e e ce n te rs th is e n v iro n m e n ta l stab ility fa ile d . W e ll b e fo re the

Iro q u o is w a rs th ere h ad in ev itab ly b e e n b ad g am e y e a rs d u e to d ro u g h t o r

b itte r w in te rs . F is h p o p u la tio n s flu c tu a te d n atu ra lly . P o o r w e a th e r d isru p te d

sp a w n in g ru n s an d G r e a t L a k e s sto rm s p re v e n te d fish in g in late fa ll. A n d

d ro u g h t, p e sts , o r e a r ly fro sts c o u ld k ill o r lim it c o rn c ro p s . A n y su ch fa ilu re

o f one c o m p o n e n t o f th e system o b v io u sly in c re a se d re lian ce on the o th e rs .

In th is se n s e , th ere h ad n e v e r b e e n a s in g le , “ n o rm a l” su b s is te n c e cyc le .

T h e r e w e re o n ly se r ie s o f c o n tin g e n c ie s as an n u a l va r ia tio n s sh a p e d fo o d

p ro c u re m e n t. T h e re fu g e e ce n te rs s u ffe r e d th ese n o rm a l flu ctu a tio n s, b u t in

the c e n te rs , p re c is e ly b e ca u se th e y w e re in m a rg in a l a g r ic u ltu ra l an d o v e r­

c ro w d e d h u n tin g a re a s , re so u rc e d e p le tio n c o m p o u n d e d the u su a l se a so n s

o f sc a rc ity . F ro m n e c e ss ity , the A lg o n q u ia n s cam e to re ly on a n a rro w e r

ra n g e o f re so u rc e s .

B y v irtu a lly all F r e n c h a c c o u n ts , it w a s c o rn an d fish that m ad e the re fu g e e

c o n c e n tra tio n s p o ss ib le o u ts id e o f the Illin o is co u n try . A lo n g th e G r e a t

L a k e s th ere w as no c o n c e n tra tio n o f re fu g e e s w h e re the fish e rie s a n d the

p o te n tia l fo r c o rn a g r ic u ltu re d id n o t c o in c id e . A c c o rd in g to the J e s u it s , the

p e o p le o f C h e q u a m e g o n lived o n ly o n c o rn an d fish . A t G r e e n B a y c o rn w a s

the P o ta w a to m i p ro tec tio n ag a in st the fa m in e “ that is o n ly too c o m m o n in

th ese re g io n s .” T h e lan d c le a re d fo r c o rn fie ld s s tre tc h e d fo r th ree le a g u e s

a ro u n d the F r e n c h p o st at M ic h ilim a c k in a c , and at b o th G r e e n B a y an d

M ic h ilim a c k in a c th e F r e n c h re lie d on In d ia n s u rp lu se s fo r th e ir o w n co rn

s u p p ly .73

The middle ground

72 For storage of food, see Lettre du découvreur à un de ses associes. . . 29 sept. 1680, Margry, Découvertes, 2 :36 -3 7 . De Gannes (Delictte) Memoir, IH C, 2 3 :3 10 - 14 ; Thwaites (ed.), Hennepin’s A New Discovery, 154; J R 54:223 , J R 5 1 :2 7 ; J R 57:265; JW 55: I I L Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan’s Voyages, 1 :14 3 -4 8 , 168, Sufficient corn was available at Michilimackinac and Green Bay for sale to the French; see Le Clercq Memoir and Joutel’s Journal, both in Cox, Journeys o f La Salle, 1:12 8 , 2 :228-29 .

73 Perrot, Memoir, 120; La Potherie, History, 305 , J R 5 4 :15 1, 166; Thwaites (ed.), Hennepin’s A New Discovery, 1 16 ; Thwaites (cd.), Lahonlan's Voyages, 1 :14 6 -4 8 . For Michilimackinac, sec “Journey of Dollicr and Galinee,” 207; and “ The Memoir of Lamothe Cadillac” in Quaife (ed.), The Western Country, 1 2 - 1 5 ; and Letter of Cadillac, Aug. 3, 1695, >n E. M. Sheldon, The Early History o f Michigan from the First Settlement to 1815 (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1956), 74; Narrative o f . . . Occurrences in 1694, NYCD 9:587. For Green Bay, see JR

C u ltu ra lly , the co n su m p tio n o f c o m an d the id e a o f se cu rity w e re c lo se ly

in tertw in e d . A s P e rro t n o ted :

The kinds of food which the savages like best and which they make the most effort to obtain are the Indian com, the kidney bean, and the squash. If they are without these, they think they are fasting, no matter what abundance of meat and fish they have in their stores, the Indian com being to them what bread is to the French.'4

T h is n e e d fo r co rn p ro m p te d th e se f le e in g an d d e sp e ra te p e o p le s to se e k

arab le la n d s in u n p ro m is in g re g io n s w h e re a g r ic u ltu re y ie ld e d o n ly a te n u o u s

su b siste n c e . T h e sk illed H u ro n an d P e tu n h o rticu ltu ra lis ts w h o fled in to the

L a k e S u p e r io r re g io n w e n t w e ll b e yo n d the c lim a tic e d g e o f the re lia b le 1 6 0 -

d ay g ro w in g se aso n n e e d e d fo r c o rn a g r ic u ltu re . T h e r e w e r e , h o w e v e r,

p o ck e ts o f lan d w h e re m ic ro c lim a te s su itab le fo r a g r ic u ltu re e x is te d . T h e s e

a re a s o ffe r e d 14 0 - d a y g ro w in g se a so n s th at m ad e a g ric u ltu re r isk y bu t

p o ss ib le . A t e ach o f th ese p o c k e ts a lo n g so u th e rn L a k e S u p e r io r and

n o rth e rn L a k e M ic h ig a n - C h e q u a m e g o n , K e w e e n a w , M ic h ilim a c k in a c ,

an d S a u lt S a in te M a r ie - re fu g e e s e v e n tu a lly se ttled . F a r t h e r so u th , at

G r e e n B a y , the lin e o f re fu g e e v illa g e s h u g g e d a lm o st e x a c tly the e d g e s o f

the 16 0 - d a y g ro w in g se aso n . B e c a u s e the re fu g e e s lived a lo n g the m a rg in s o f

the la n d s w h e re c o m co u ld b e g ro w n , h o w e v e r, c ro p fa ilu re s w e re a co n stan t

p o ssib ility . A g r ic u ltu re , p a r tic u la r ly at C h e q u a m e g o n and M ic h ilim a c k in a c ,

ran g re a t r isk s o f la te - s p r in g an d e a r ly - fa ll fro sts . R e p e a te d lo sse s o f c o m

cro p s at M ic h ilim a c k in a c in the 16 9 0 s h e lp e d to p ro m p t the even tu al

a b an d o n m en t o f that p la c e b y the O tta w as an d the H u ro n -P e tu n s . A t G r e e n

B a y h a rv e sts w e re m o re certa in , b u t the h a rv e st fa ile d th ere in 1 6 7 5 . It

a p p e a rs , too , that the c ro p fa ilu re s lik e th o se at M ic h ilim a c k in a c la te r in the

cen tu ry m ay a lso h ave o c c u rre d at G r e e n B a y , w h e re the F r e n c h In ten d an t

R a u d o t c la im ed that c o m n o lo n g e r p ro v id e d m u c h se cu rity to the F o x ,

M a sc o u te n s , an d K ic k a p o o s .75

W ith the p re c a r io u sn e ss o f c o m g ro w in g an d the la rg e p o p u la tio n s the

Refugees 43

5 6 :12 1; J R 57 :265-67. For evidence that Indians regarded fish and corn as necessary staples, see Perrot, Memoir, 237, and Narrative o f . . . Occurrences, 1695, NYCD 9:606.

74 Perrot, Memoir, 102. 75 A vivid graphic representation of how village sites related to climatic zones is available in

Helen Ilombeck Tanner (ed.), Atlas o f Great Lakes Indian Histoiy (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 2 0 -2 1 . The climate appears to have grown colder and moister beginning about 1400 A.n.-David Bacrreis, Reid Bryson, and John Kutzbach, “ Climate and Culture in the Western Great Lakes Region,” Mid-Continental Journal o f Archaeology 1 (1976): 52. For crop losses, see Narrative o f . . . Occurrences. . . 1695, NYCD 9:607;.JR 60:199; Antoine Raudot, “ Memoir Concerning the Different Indian Nations o f North America,” in W. Vernon Kinietz, The Indians o f the Western Great Lakes (Ann Arbor: University o f Michigan Press, 1965); Cadillac’s Account of Detroit, Sept. 25, 1702, M PHC, 33 : 138 .

fish e rie s b e c a m e a c ritica l re so u rc e . F r a n ç o is D o llic r d c C a s s o n an d R e n é e

d e B r é h a u t d e G a lin é e c la im e d that th e f ish e r ie s a lo n e c o u ld su p p o rt 10 ,0 0 0

p e rso n s at M ic h ilim a c k in a c . A n d A n to in e L a u m e t d e L a M o th e , S ie u r de

C a d illa c , w a s o n ly slig h tly m o re c o n se rv a tiv e w h e n he c la im e d that fish a lon e

c o u ld su p p o rt m o st o f the 6 ,0 0 0 - 7 ,0 0 0 In d ia n s th ere . A t G r e e n B a y , the

F r e n c h w e re m o re re stra in e d in th e ir c la im s. T h e y th o u g h t the n et fish e rie s ,

sn a g g in g as th ey d id fish , d iv in g b ird s , an d w a te rfo w l o n th e ir flyw ays,

su ffic e d fo r th re e m o n th s ’ su b s is te n c e , an d th is a p p a re n tly d id n ot in c lu d e

the s tu rg e o n taken in the sp rin g at fish in g w e irs o r the fa ll ca tch o f h e rrin g ,

w h ic h , sm o k e d an d sto re d , fe d p e o p le o v e r the w in te r . F a th e r A n d ré in

N o v e m b e r 1 6 7 2 fo u n d the P o ta w a to m i c a b in s at C h o u sk o u a b ik a so fu ll o f

n e ts an d h e rr in g that h e c o u ld h a rd ly e n te r th e m .76

T h e fis h e r ie s te n d e d to b e m o re re liab le than a g r ic u ltu re b e c a u se the

A lg o n q u ia n s w e re not at the m a rg in s o f the fish e rie s b u t at th e ir c e n te rs . A ll

the g re a t co n c e n tra tio n s o f re fu g e e p o p u la tio n on the G r e a t L a k e s w e re

lo ca te d at the b e st fish in g sites o n L a k e S u p e r io r an d L a k e M ic h ig a n .

M ic h ilim a c k in a c , th e lo n g e st liv ed o f th ese se v e n te e n th - an d e ig h te e n th -

c e n tu ry se ttle m e n ts , w a s, in A lg o n q u ia n te rm s, the “ n ative c o u n try ” o f the

fish th e m se lv e s . Y e t f is h in g a lso re m a in e d a p re c a r io u s e n d e a v o r that

d e m a n d e d p re c ise sk ills an d a su itab le te c h n o lo g y that n o t all re fu g e e s

p o sse sse d . T h o s e tr ib es w h o d id fish e x te n siv e ly w e re at the m e rc y o f the

w e a th e r. S to rm s d u rin g sp a w n in g se a so n , o r a w a rm w in te r an d w e a k ice ,

c o u ld d o o m a fish e ry . F is h e r ie s at th e ir m o st s u c c e s s fu l c o u ld p ro v id e o n ly

se a so n a l a b u n d a n c e . A lg o n q u ia n te c h n iq u e s o f d ry in g c o u ld p re s e rv e th e fa ll

c a tc h o f h e r r in g an d w h ite fish th ro u g h the w in te r , b u t th e y ie ld s o f th e sp rin g

ru n s o f s tu rg e o n c o u ld not b e p re se rv e d lo n g d u rin g the w a rm an d h u m id

s u m m e rs .77

T h e h u n t, the last m a jo r e le m e n t in th e fo o d cyc le o f the re fu g e e c e n te rs ,

w a s the least im p o rtan t in te rm s o f y ie ld , b u t still a c r it ic a l se a so n a l re so u rc e

an d the last d e fe n se ag a in st fa m in e . In m ost y e a rs the la rg e ly h u n tin g

p e o p le s re g u la r ly re so rte d to fish e rm e n an d h o rtic u ltu ra lis ts fo r fo o d , b u t in

76 La Potherie, History, 305. JR 54 :15 1, 167; Thwaites (ed.), Hennepin's A New Discovery, 116 ; Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan’s Voyages, 1 :14 6 -4 8 . For Michilimackinac, see “Journey o f Dollier and Galinee,” 207; and “ The Memoir of Lamothe Cadillac” in Quaife (ed.), The Western Country, 1 2 - 1 5 ; and Letter o f Cadillac, Aug. 3, 1695, in Sheldon, Early History o f Michigan, 74; Narrative o f . . . Occurrences in 1694, NYCD 9:587. For Green Bay, see J R 5 6 :12 1 \ JR 57 :265-67.

77 Charles Cleland, “ The Inland Shore Fishery of the Northern Great Lakes: Its Development and Importance in Prehistory,"Am erican Antiquity 47 (1982): 7 6 1-8 4 , particularly map on 765; For quotation, see J R 5 5 :15 9 -6 1 . The Beil site, an early historic Fox village, shows numerous fish remains, but most o f those came from rivers and from smaller lakes near the Fox village. Paul W. Parmalee “ Vertebrate Remains from the Bell Site, Winnebago County, Wisconsin,” The Wisconsin Archeologist, NS 44 (March 1963): 62. For lack of ability to use canoes, see J R 58:63. La Potherie, History, 2:20,

44 The middle ground

Refugees 4 5

This sketch by Decard de Granville shows Indian fishing techniques and equipment on the Great Lakes about 1700. (New York Public Library)

y e a rs w h e n c ro p s o r fish e rie s fa ile d o n ly h u n tin g an d g a th e rin g sto od

b e tw e e n the A lg o n q u ia n s an d starvatio n . T h e an o m aly o f h u n te rs c lu ste r in g

o n o v e rc ro w d e d la n d s, w h o se m a jo r a ttractio n is f ish e r ie s that the h u n ters

th e m se lv e s d o n o t e ffic ie n tly e xp lo it is e xp la in e d as so o n as the c o n tex t is

b ro a d e n e d . C o m an d fish su sta in e d la rg e se ttle m e n ts , an d a ro u n d th ese

se ttlem e n ts h u n te rs cam e fo r trad e an d p ro te c tio n . A ro u n d the h o rticu ltu ra l

v illa g e rs w h o re lie d h e a v ily on the fish e r ie s , th e re fo re , w e re o th e r v illa g e rs ,

so m e h o rtic u ltu ra l, so m e n o t, w h o re lie d m o re h e a v ily on the h u n t. T h is

p attern p re d a te d th e fu r tra d e , b u t the fu r trad e re in fo rc e d it .78 *

T h is c o m b in a tio n o f m a rg in a l a g r ic u ltu re , so m e tim e s p re c a r io u s fish in g ,

and the c lu s te r in g o f h u n te rs fo r d e fe n se an d trad e se t the stag e fo r

e n v iro n m e n ta l d isa ste r . A s h u n te rs d e p le te d gam e a ro u n d the re fu g e e

c e n te rs , h u n g e r an d fa m in e e n su e d w h e n the fish e rie s o r the c o rn h a rv e st

fa ile d . P ie r re E s p r it R a d is s o n an d the H u ro n -P e tu n s e n d u re d su ch a

fa m in e . F iv e h u n d re d d ie d , an d h u n g e r c o n tin u e d in to the su m m e r o f 1 6 6 1 ,

w h e n F a th e r M e n a rd d ie d try in g to re a c h the H u ro n -P e tu n s . In 1 6 7 0 the

Je s u it s fo u n d the P o taw ato m is an d o th e r tr ib e s o f G r e e n B a y p ro p e r p in c h e d

w ith h u n g e r . T h e M a s c o u te n s , F o x , an d o th e r o u tly in g v illa g e rs co m p la in e d

o f h u n g e r d u rin g th e 16 7 0 s . E v e n in th e b e st y e a rs , th e su rp lu s sto re d fro m

h o rtic u ltu re w a s re la tiv e ly sm a ll. In 1 6 7 1 , F a th e r A llo u e z c la im e d that a

fa m ily w ith ten o r tw elve b a g s o f c o m c o n s id e re d it s e lf w e a lth y . T h e

P o ta w a to m is m ig h t strive to fill th e ir c a b in s w ith h e rr in g , bu t b y la te w in te r 7 0

th e fish w e re g o n e an d they a n x io u sly aw aited the c o m in g o f the s tu rg e o n .

W in te r b e c a m e a tim e o f p a r t ic u la r h o rro r . T h o s e g ro u p s that d id n o t fish

e x te n s iv e ly re g u la r ly d e p a rte d on w in te r h u n ts , b u t w h e n c o rn an d fish w ere

a b u n d a n t, the fish in g p e o p le s p re fe r re d to rem ain in th e ir v illa g e s tak in g

w h a t g am e th ey c o u ld o b ta in n e a rb y . B y stay in g h o m e th ey a v o id e d the

p ro lo n g e d w in te r h u n ts th at h ad b e c o m e the m o st d a n g e ro u s p o in t in the

re fu g e e su b s is te n c e cyc le . T o e m b a rk on a w in te r h u n t w a s to leave sto red

46 The middle ground

78 The tribes who did not fish have been cited previously. The Ojibwa groups around Chequamegon, Keweenaw, Green Bay, and Sault Sainte Marie usually did not plant crops. The Fox, who did plant crops, also relied heavily on hunting, Parmalee, “ Vertebrate Remains,” Wisconsin Archeologist, 65. For game animals at each location, see ibid., 65, and James E. Fitting, “ Patterns o f Acculturation at the Straits o f Mackinac,” in Charles Cleland (ed.), Cultural Change and Continuity: Essays in Honor o f James B. Griffin (New York: Academic Press, 1976).

7y For the Radisson account, see Adams (ed.), Radisson, 1 3 1 - 3 4 ; and for death o f Father Menard, J R 4 8 :12 7 -3 7 . Exact dates are hard to determine from the Radisson manuscript; Adams dates the starving winter of 16 6 1-6 2 , but the Jesuit Relations clearly date it as 16 6 0 -6 1. That this was the same winter seems certain because both accounts have it followed by a Feast of the Dead with the Sioux. J R 46:143. For other accounts of famine diets, see Perrot, Memoir, 10 2 -0 3 ; J R 4 8 : 1 1 9 ; ^ 50 :177; Adams (ed,), Radisson, 13 0 -3 3 ; J R 4 6 :139 -4 3 ,J R 48 :119 , 2 6 1-6 5 ; J R 5 1 : « 7 1 . For Green Bay in 1670, see J R 54:203, 207, 2 13 . For Mascoutens, Fox, etc., see J R 59:229. For Allouez’s claim, see JR 5 5 :1 1 1 .

su p p lie s b e h in d ; w ith o u t p ack a n im a ls an d w ith c a n o e s u se le ss on fro zen

stream s o r lak e s , o n ly sm all am o u n ts o f c o rn an d fish co u ld b e c a rr ie d on the

jo u rn e y . E c h o e s o f d isaste rs on the w in te r h u n t re v e rb e ra te th ro u g h The Jesuit Relations an d o th e r e a r ly F r e n c h so u rc e s . J a c q u e s M a rq u e tte , at the

b e g in n in g o f h is M is s is s ip p i vo yag e o f 1 6 7 3 , re p o rte d that late fa ll an d

w in te r , w h e n th ey m o ved in to th e ir h u n tin g ca m p s, w a s w h e n the

M a s c o u te n s , M ia m is , an d K ic k a p o o s m o st fe a re d fa m in e , an d he la ter

d e sc r ib e d th e fa t ig u e s o f su ch h u n ts as b e in g “ a lm o st im p o ss ib le to F r e n c h ­

m e n .” F a th e r A llo u e z , h o w e v e r, d id e n d u re th em . H e a c c o m p a n ie d e ig h ty

ca b in s o f M ia m is and so m e S h a w n e e s w h o w e re re d u c e d to a fa m in e d iet o f

su ch ro o ts as the w o m e n co u ld g ru b as th ey s ta g g e re d th ro u g h h a lf- fro z e n

m a rsh la n d s . H e c la im e d la te r that su ch e x p e r ie n c e s w e re the c o m m o n

e xp e ctatio n o f h u n ters . T h e M ia m is su rv ived th e ir o rd e a l. B u t o th e r h u n ters

starv ed w h e n g am e fa ile d th em an d th ey c o u ld n ot g et b ack to the fo o d

c a c h e s th ey h ad m ad e . S ta rv a tio n an d h u n g e r on the h u n t w e re n e v e r

p re d ic ta b le . In the w in te r o f 1 6 7 5 - 7 6 , d u r in g a lu ll in the Iro q u o is w a rs ,

s ix ty -fiv e M is s is s a u g a s starv ed to d eath n o rth o f L a k e E r ie , w h ile se v e ra l

days aw ay the O ttaw as e n jo y e d a b u n d a n t g a m e .80

S u c h d isa ste rs w e re n ot the s im p le e x ig e n c ie s o f the h u n tin g life ; they

w e re the sp e c ia l p ro b le m s o f re fu g e e s c ro w d e d in to la n d s w h ic h co u ld n ot

su sta in the h u n tin g p re ssu re p u t u p o n th em . H u n te rs e v e n tu a lly e lim in ated

la rg e g am e fro m the v ic in ity o f the re fu g e e c e n te rs . A c c o rd in g to the B a r o n

de L a h o n ta n , n o la rg e g am e e x is te d w ith in tw en ty le a g u e s o f M ic h ilim a c k in a c

by 16 8 8 , an d th is is su p p o rte d b y a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e xcav atio n s w h ic h sh o w few

re m ain s o f la rg e m am m als in v illa g e m id d e n s . B y 16 7 5 d ie F r e n c h n o ted

80 For hunting patterns, see Fox: J R 54 :223\ JR 58 :47-49 ; Miamis:7Æ 54:23\ JR 68:63; J R 59:225, 17 1 ; Perrot, Memoir, 109, 1 1 8 - 1 9 . Le Clercq says the Illinois hunted in large village groups. LeCIercq Memoir in Cox, Journeys o f La Salle, 1:102 . According to Margry (,Découvertes, 1:460), La Salle said the Illinois hunted by families “ ou par tribus” meaning, apparently, clans. Each party consisted of 200 to 300 persons. By 1699 hunting parties composed only of active men and women departed from the winter camps, J R 65:73, 83. For variable hunting patterns o f fishing peoples, see J R 5 1:29 ; J R 54 :203-05, 2 1 1, 2 13 ;

J R 5 5 :19 1; J R 57 :26 5-6 7 , 2 9 1- 9 3 ; J R 58:39, 63, 289; J R 55:43; J R 59: i 65 -6 7 J R 57 :249 -55 , 261 \ J R 6 1 :10 3 -0 5 . The demographic composition of these parties changed over time. 'Ehe large hunting party reported by the Baron de Lahontan in 1688 probably included women and children, Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan’s Voyages, 1 :14 3 . In the same area during 16 85-86 , the Iroquois had captured children as well as adults when they raided winter hunting camps. Denonville to Seignelay, June 12, 1686, NYCD 9 :293-94. La Potherie, who wrote in the early eighteenth century, indicated largely all-male hunts occurred out o f Michilimackinac in the 1690s, La Potherie, History, 1 :2 8 1-8 2 .

For Marquette’s statements, see “Jollict and Marquette” in Kellogg, (cd.). Narratives, 2 3 3 -3 4 , axtAJR 59 :17 1. For Allouez, see J R 62:207, 208. For starvation of smaller hunting bands, see Perrot, Memoir, 103, and La Potherie, History, 1:280. For praise of Fox hunting grounds, see J R 54:219. For starvation and hunger among the Fox, see J R 59:229. For death o f Mississaugas, see J R 60:215, 229. The Mississaugas died on lands apparently often hunted by the Iroquois,

Refugees 47

that d e e r g re w n o tic e a b ly m o re a b u n d a n t as o n e trav e le d aw ay fro m the

P o taw ato m i v illa g e s on G r e e n B a y . B u ffa lo h ad m a rk e d ly d im in ish e d o n the

la n d s n e a r the G r e a t V illa g e o f the K a s k a s k ia s b y 16 8 0 .

G a m e re m a in e d m o st a b u n d a n t in the la n d s the Iro q u o is h ad em p tied .

T h e s e , as F r e n c h a c c o u n ts m ak e c le a r , w e re w a r g ro u n d s w h e re a ll w ho

e n te re d w e re in d a n g e r . H u n tin g n a tio n s c o n fin e d to re la tiv e ly sm a ll a re as

th u s d e p le te d g am e lo ca lly , e ve n th o u g h a b u n d a n c e m ig h t e x is t ju st b e yo n d

th em . N o rm a l c u ltu ra l c o n tro ls fo r c o n se rv in g g am e se e m to h ave fa iled

w h e n se v e ra l n a tio n s c o m p e te d fo r , o r w e re c o m p re sse d in to , the sam e

h u n tin g a rea . B a r o n d e L a h o n ta n an d F r e n c h tra d e rs m e n tio n h u n tin g

p ra c tic e s w h ic h took c a re to sp a re b re e d in g sto ck d u r in g h u n ts , b u t su ch

m eth o d s p ro v e d in ad e q u a te in th e 1 6 7 0 s and 16 8 0 s . O n e o f th e Iro q u o is

co m p la in ts ag a in st the Illin o is w a s that th ey s la u g h te re d a ll th e b e a v e r an d g

fa iled to leave an y b re e d in g sto ck .

T h e re fu g e e c e n te rs b e c a m e b a ro m e te rs o f A lg o n q u ia n fo rtu n e s : T h e y

sw e lle d w ith d e fe a t and sh ra n k w ith victory'. T h e re q u ire m e n ts o f d e fe n se

acted as a c e n trip e ta l fo rc e , h o ld in g the re fu g e e s a ro u n d the c e n te rs , w h ile

h u n g e r an d d ise a se , ac tin g as c e n tr ifu g a l fo rc e s , p u sh e d th em o u t. T h e p rice

o f su ch d e fe n s iv e c o n c e n tra tio n s w as very7 o ften m ise ry . T h e i r re s id e n ts

e n d u re d the ce n te rs o n ly b e c a u s e the a lte rn ative s w e re w o rse . T h o s e w ho

e sc a p e d th em d id n o t se e k to re tu rn . T h r e e S h a w n e e s , p ro b a b ly fro m the

G r e a t V illa g e o f the K a s k a s k ia s , su m m a riz e d the e v e ry d a y h o rro rs fa c e d by

the re fu g e e s . C a p tu re d an d a d o p te d b y the p e o p le s o f S a in t L o u is B a y on

the G u l f o f M e x ic o d u rin g L a S a l le ’s 16 8 2 fo ra y d o w n the M is s is s ip p i, th ey

sh o w e d n o d e s ire to re tu rn to the pays d ’en haut. W h e n the F r e n c h o ffe re d

th em a c h a n c e to re tu rn to th e ir v illa g e s , the S h a w n e e s re p lie d :

They were not unnatural enough to abandon their wives and children;. . . moreover, being in the most fertile, healthy, and peaceful 81 82

81 For initial hunting on Green Bay and for Summer Island as a summer hunting station, see David S. Brose, “ Summer Island III: An Early Historic Site in the Upper Great Lakes,” Historical Archaeology 4 (1970): 24. Michilimackinac, Sault Sainte Marie and surrounding regions were praised as good hunting areas in the late 1660s and early 1670s, Perrot, Memoir, 22 x; JR 50:263. Compare this to Lahontan’s statements in Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan s Voyages, 1:14 8 ; Perrot, Memotr, 120, and Cadillac Memoir in Quaife, The Western County, 15 , and Fitting, “ Patterns of Acculturation,” 325. For deer diminishing near Potawatomis, see JR 59 :173. By 1699 St. Cosme reported a dearth of meat in the area almost all the time, “ Voyage o f St. Cosme” in Kellogg (ed.), Narratives, 343. For buffalo, see Voyage de M. de La Salle à la riviere Mississippi, Margry, Découvertes, 2:95.

82 For neutral grounds, see Lettre de Cavelier de la Salle, 1 1 aoust 1682, Margry, Découvertes, 2 :2 36 -37 , and Lettre du Découvreur à un de ses associes, 1679 - 29 sept. 1680, Margry, Découvertes, 2 :59-60, and Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan’s Voyages, 1 :3 18 -2 0 . The area around the Detroit River and Lake Erie that Father Henri Nouvel described in 1676 was an old neutral ground that was now being hunted, J R 6 0 :2 19 -2 1 , 227. For attempts to conserve game, see Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan’s Voyages, 1:82, 114 ; Mémoire que la direction . . . 16 avril 1703, AN, C i i A, v. 24. For Iroquois complaints o f Illinois, see Du Chesneau’s Memoir

48 The middle ground

49

country in the world, they would be devoid of sense to leave it and expose themselves to be tomahawked by the Illinois or burnt by the Iroquois on their way to another where the winter was insufferably cold, the summer without game, and ever in war,8'1

In the 16 9 0 s , the h o rro rs o f the pays d'en haut e a se d as the F r e n c h and

A lg o n q u ia n s p u t the Iro q u o is on the d e fe n s iv e . F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n

in vasio n s o f Iro q u o ia b u rn e d v illa g e s , k illed w a rr io rs , an d d isru p te d s u b ­

s isten ce c y c le s , le av in g the Iro q u o is h u n g ry an d p o o r. A s the lo sse s o f the

F iv e N a tio n s m o u n te d , the Iro q u o is in e ffe c tu a lly so u g h t E n g lish a id . T h e

Iro q u o is w a rs , so m e tim e s a s p art o f la rg e r im p eria l w a rs , so m e tim e s as a

sep arate s tru g g le , c o n tin u e d until 1 7 0 1 , w h e n th e e xh a u ste d Iro q u o is so u g h t

p e a c e w ith C a n a d a an d its a llie s . T h e re su lt w a s the so -c a lle d G r a n d

S e tt le m e n t o f 1 7 0 1 w h ic h e sta b lish e d a g e n e ra l p e a c e . T h e Iro q u o is e s s e n ­

tially a b a n d o n e d h u n tin g te rr ito rie s w est o f D e tro it an d a g re e d to a llow

O n o n tio to a rb itra te th e ir co n flic ts w ith h is a llie s . T h e Iro q u o is p ro m ise d to

rem ain n e u tra l in all fu tu re A n g lo -F r e n c h w a rs ,84

T h e tr iu m p h o f th e a llian ce o ve r the Iro q u o is d u r in g the 1 6 9 0 s m ean t the

d e c lin e o f the v e ry c o m m u n itie s th at h ad p ro d u c e d the a llia n ce . T h e re fu g e e

cen ters , p ro te c te d fro m Iro q u o is a ttack s, d isb a n d e d ; th e ir in h ab itan ts m o ved

in to the m o re fe rtile and te m p e ra te la n d s o p e n e d up by Iro q u o is d e c lin e .

N e ith e r the a llian ce n o r the co m m o n E u r o p e a n -A lg o n q u ia n w o rld fo rg e d in

th ese c e n te rs d ied , h o w e ve r. T h e y c o n tin u e d to g ro w .

Refugees

on Western Indians, Nov. 13 , 168 1, NYCD 9 :16 2 -6 3 ; Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan’s Voyages, 1:82.

83 Cavelier’s Account of La Salle’s Voyage to the Mouth of the Mississippi. . . , Vox, Journeys of La Salle, 277, 283.

84 For the end to these wars and the Grand Settlement, see Richter, “ War and Culture,” 546- 53-

2

The middle ground

For every time we make others part of a “ reality” that we alone invent, denying their creativity by usurping the right to create, we use those people and their way o f life and make them subservient to ourselves.

Roy Wagner, The Invention o f Culture

In action, people put their concepts and categories into ostensive relations to the world. Such referential uses bring into play other determinations of the signs, besides their received sense, namely the actual wrorld and the people concerned.

Marshall Sahlins, Inlands o f History

I

B e c a u s e the F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n s w e re tra d in g p a rtn e rs an d a llie s , the

b o u n d a r ie s o f the A lg o n q u ia n an d F r e n c h w o rld s m e lte d at the e d g e s and

m e rg e d . A lth o u g h id e n tifia b le F re n c h m e n an d id e n tifia b le In d ia n s o b v io u sly

co n tin u e d to e x ist, w h e th e r a p a r t ic u la r p ra c tic e o r w a y o f d o in g th in gs w as

F r e n c h o r In d ia n w as, a fte r a t im e, n o t so c le a r . T h is w as n o t b e ca u se

in d iv id u a l In d ia n s b e c a m e “ F r e n c h if ie d ” o r b e c a u s e in d iv id u a l F re n c h m e n

w e n t n a tive , a lth o u g h b o th m ig h t o cc u r. R a th e r , it w a s b e c a u se A lg o n q u ia n s

w h o w e re p e r fe c t ly c o m fo rta b le w ith th e ir statu s and p ra c t ic e s a s In d ia n s an d

F r e n c h m e n , c o n fid e n t in the r ig h tn e ss o f F r e n c h w a y s , n o n e th e le ss h ad to

d e a l w ith p e o p le w h o sh a re d n e ith e r th e ir v a lu e s n o r th e ir a ssu m p tio n s ab o u t

th e a p p ro p ria te w a y o f a c c o m p lish in g tasks. T h e y h ad to a rr iv e at so m e

c o m m o n c o n c e p tio n o f su itab le w ays o f a c tin g ; th ey h ad to c re a te w h at I h ave

a lre a d y re fe rre d to as a m id d le g r o u n d .1

T h e c re a tio n o f the m id d le g ro u n d in vo lved a p ro c e s s o f m u tu a l in ven tio n

b y b oth the F r e n c h an d the A lg o n q u ia n s . T h is p ro c e s s p a sse d th ro u g h

v a r io u s s ta g e s , o f w h ic h the e a r lie s t is at o n ce the m o st n o tice d an d the least

in tere stin g . It w as in th is in itia l stag e that the F r e n c h , fo r e x a m p le , s im p ly

1 The impossibility of considering any society in isolation is one of the major themes of Kric Wolf in Europe and the People Without History (Berkeley: University' of California Press, 1982), 3 - 2 3 , 385. It is also a position taken by Anthony Giddens, A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism (Berkeley : University of California Press, 1981), 2 3 -2 4 .

5°

assim ila te d In d ia n s in to th e ir ow n co n c e p tu a l o rd e r . In d ia n s b e c a m e sauvages, an d the F r e n c h re d u c e d In d ian re lig io n to d evil w o rsh ip an d w itch cra ft .

A lg o n q u ia n s , fo r th e ir p art, th o u g h t o f th e first E u ro p e a n s a s m a n ito u s. O n

b o th s id e s , n ew p eo p le w e re c ra m m e d in to e x is t in g c a te g o rie s in a

m e c h a n ic a l w a y .2

L ite ra c y gave th is in itia l stage a p o te n cy an d a d u ra b ility fo r E u r o p e a n s it

m ig h t o th e rw ise h ave lack e d . B e c a u s e the F r e n c h w e re lite ra te , k n o w led g e

o f In d ia n s w a s d iffu se d fa r fro m the site o f ac tu a l co n tact. S u c h k n o w le d g e ,

u n c h a lle n g e d b y a c tu a l e x p e r ie n c e w ith In d ia n s , su rv iv e d as a p o ten t cu ltu ra l

re lict. L o n g a fte r it c e a se d to g o v ern th e a c tio n s o f th o se w h o a c tu a lly lived

a m o n g In d ia n s , the id ea o f In d ia n s as lite ra lly sauvages, o r w ild m en

e m b o d y in g e ith e r n atu ra l v irtu e o r fe ro c ity , p e rs is te d a m o n g in te lle c tu a ls

and sta te sm en in F r a n c e . A ss im ila te d in to E u ro p e a n c o n tro v e rs ie s , th ese

im ag in ary In d ia n s b e ca m e th e In d ia n s o f C h a te a u b r ia n d an d R o u s s e a u .

T h e y to o k o n im p o rtan ce , b u t it w a s o n e d e ta c h e d fro m th e co n tin u in g

p ro c e sse s o f c o n tact b e tw e e n re a l A lg o n q u ia n s an d re a l E u ro p e a n s . In the

pays d'en haut, a c tu a l In d ia n s an d w h ite s o f w id e ly d iffe re n t so c ia l c la ss and

sta tu s h ad , fo r a v a r ie ty o f re a so n s , to re ly on e ach o th e r in o rd e r to a ch iev e

q u ite sp e c ific e n d s . It w a s th e se F re n c h m e n (fo r F re n c h w o m e n w o u ld not

a p p e a r u n til m u ch later) an d A lg o n q u ia n m en an d w o m e n w h o c re a te d a

c o m m o n g ro u n d - the m id d le g ro u n d - o n w h ich to p ro c e e d .3

T h is p ro c e s s o f c re a tio n re su lte d q u ite n a tu ra lly fro m atte m p ts to fo llo w

n o rm a l c o n v e n tio n s o f b e h a v io r in a n ew situ atio n . E a c h sid e so u g h t

d iffe re n t g o a ls in a d iffe re n t m an n e r. F r e n c h o ffic ia ls an d m e rc h a n ts so u g h t

to ra tio n a lize an d o rd e r w h at th ey saw as th e u n p re d ic ta b le w o r ld o f the

sauvage; A lg o n q u ia n s so u g h t, in a se n se , the o p p o site . T h e y w a n te d to

c h an g e o r re a d ju st the g iv e n o rd e r b y a p p e a ls fo r p e rso n a l fa v o r o r e x e m p ­

tion . In m u ch the sam e w a y th at th ey so u g h t sp e c ia l p o w e r to re a d ju st the

o rd e r o f the w o r ld o f p la n ts , a n im a ls , an d sp irits b y a p p e a lin g to the

The middle ground 5 1

2 For concentration on European images, see Bernard Sheehan, Savagism and Civility: Indians and Englishmen in Colonial America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); Olive P. Dickason, The Myth o f the Savage and the Beginnings o f French Colonialism in the Americas (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1984); Cornelius Jaenen is correct when he points out that the French lacked the power to force American Indians to acculturate. Cornelius Jaenen, Friend and Foe: Aspects o f French-Amerindian Cultural Contact in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), 195. James AxtelPs work is an exception to the usual tendency to impose static categories on Indians and whites, and Karen Kupperman disputes the extent to which cultural concepts derived from early accounts actually governed relations, Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Settling with the Indians: The Meeting o f English and Indian Cultures in America, 1580-1640 (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1980).

3 Cornelius J. Jaenen, “ Les Sauvages Ameriquians: Persistence into the Eighteenth Century of Traditional French Concepts and Constructs for Comprehending Amerindians,” Ethnohis- tory 29 (1982): 4 3 -56 .

52

m a n ito u s , so th ey so u g h t b e n e fic ia l c h a n g e s in the so c ia l w o r ld b y a p p e a ls to

the F r e n c h . O fte n , in the e x a m p le s th at fo llo w , w h e n the F r e n c h so u g h t the

im p o sitio n o f h a r d -a n d - fa s t ru le s , th e A lg o n q u ia n s so u g h t the “ p o w e r” that

c o m e s fro m k n o c k in g the o rd e r o f f b a la n c e , fro m a sse r t in g th e p e rso n a l, the

h u m a n e xce p tio n . T h e re su lt o f e ach s id e ’ s a ttem p ts to a p p ly its o w n c u ltu ra l

e xp e cta tio n s in a n ew co n text w a s o ften c h an g e in cu ltu re itse lf. In try in g to

m a in ta in the c o n ve n tio n a l o rd e r o f its w o r ld , e ach g ro u p a p p lie d ru le s that

g ra d u a lly sh ifte d to m ee t the e x ig e n c ie s o f p a r t ic u la r s itu a tio n s. T h e re su lt o f

th ese e ffo rts w as a n ew se t o f c o m m o n c o n v e n tio n s , b u t th e se co n ve n tio n s

se rv e d as a b a s is fo r fu rth e r s tru g g le s to o rd e r o r in flu e n c e the w o rld o f

a c tio n .4

T h e m id d le g ro u n d d e p e n d e d on the in ab ility o f b oth s id e s to g a in th e ir

e n d s th ro u g h fo rc e . T h e m id d le g ro u n d g re w a c c o rd in g to the n e e d o f

p eo p le to find a m e a n s, o th e r th an fo rc e , to g a in the co o p e ratio n o r c o n se n t

o f fo re ig n e rs . T o s u c c e e d , th o se w h o o p e ra te d on the m id d le g ro u n d h a d , o f

n e c e ss ity , to a ttem p t to u n d e rsta n d th e w o r ld an d the re a s o n in g o f o th ers

an d to a ss im ila te e n o u g h o f that re a so n in g to p u t it to th e ir o w n p u rp o se s .

P a rt ic u la r ly in d ip lo m atic c o u n c ils , th e m id d le g ro u n d w a s a re a lm o f

co n stan t in ven tio n , w h ich w a s ju st as c o n stan tly p re se n te d as co n ven tio n .

U n d e r the n e w co n v e n tio n s , n e w p u rp o s e s a ro se , an d so the cyc le c o n ­

t in u e d .5

P e rh a p s th e c e n tra l an d d e fin in g a sp e c t o f the m id d le g ro u n d w a s the

w illin g n e ss o f th o se w h o c re a te d it to ju stify th e ir o w n a c tio n s in te rm s o f

w h a t th ey p e rc e iv e d to b e th e ir p a r tn e r ’s c u ltu ra l p re m ise s . T h o s e o p e ra tin g

in the m id d le g ro u n d a c ted fo r in tere sts d e riv e d fro m th e ir ow n c u ltu re , b u t

th ey h ad to c o n v in c e p e o p le o f a n o th e r cu ltu re that so m e m u tu a l a c tio n w as

fa ir an d le g itim a te . In a tte m p tin g su ch p e rsu a s io n p e o p le q u ite n a tu ra lly

so u g h t o u t c o n g ru e n c e s , e ith e r p e rc e iv e d o r ac tu a l, b e tw e e n the tw o c u l­

tu re s . T h e c o n g ru e n c e s a rr iv e d at o fte n se e m e d - an d , in d e e d , w e re -

re su lts o f m isu n d e rsta n d in g s o r a c c id e n ts . In d e e d , to la te r o b se rv e rs the

in te rp re ta tio n s o ffe re d b y m e m b e rs o f o n e so ciety fo r the p ra c t ic e s o f

an o th e r can a p p e a r lu d ic ro u s . T h is , h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t m atter. A n y c o n ­

4 A useful discussion o f these processes is found in Roy Wagner, The Invention o f Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 1 - 7 0 , particularly 4 6 -52 , 87-8 8 . Many Frenchmen of peasant backgrounds were probably closer to what Wagner calls the differ­ entiating mode of tribal peoples than to the systematizing mode o f French officials.

Attempts to get around the confining model of a basically static structure which is combined with an ephemeral history has been most thoroughly developed by Anthony Giddens, Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure anti Contradiction in Social Analysis (Berkeley: University o f California Press, 1979); Critique o f Historical Materialism; and The Constitution o f Society (Berkeley: University o f California Press, 1984). It has simultaneously emerged in anthropology, see Marshall Sahlins, Islands o f History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).

5 For this, see Wagner, Invention o f Culture, 52—55.

The middle ground

g ru e n c e , n o m atte r h o w te n u o u s, can b e p u t to w o rk an d can take o n a life o f

its o w n i f it is a c c e p te d b y b o th s id e s . C u ltu ra l c o n v e n tio n s do not h ave to be

tru e to b e e ffe c tiv e an y m o re than le g a l p re c e d e n ts do . T h e y have o n ly to be

a ccep ted .

T h e m id d le g ro u n d o f the pays d'en haut e x is te d on tw o d istin ct le v e ls . It

w as both a p ro d u c t o f e ve ry d a y life an d a p ro d u c t o f fo rm a l d ip lo m atic

re la tio n s b e tw e e n d istin ct p e o p le s . F o r h isto ria n s , h o w e v e r, the m id d le

g ro u n d is in itia lly e a s ie s t to p e rce iv e a s it w a s a rtic u la te d in fo rm a l se tt in g s .6

In Ju n e 16 9 5 the a llia n ce o f the H u ro n -P e tu n s , O ttaw as, and F r e n c h w as

in o n e o f its re c u rre n t c r ise s . T h e O ttaw as an d H u ro n -P e tu n s , fe a r in g th at

the F r e n c h w o u ld m ake a se p a ra te p e a c e w ith the Iro q u o is , h ad u n d e rtak e n

se c re t n ego tiatio n s o f th e ir o w n w ith the F iv e N a tio n s . T h e s e n ego tiatio n s

h ad re c e iv e d a d d e d im p etu s fro m E n g lis h p ro m ise s o f trad e at rates c o n ­

sid e ra b ly b e lo w th ose o f the F re n c h . T h e F r e n c h c o m m a n d e r at M ic h ili-

m a ck in ac , A n to in e L a u m c t d e L a M o th e , S ie u r d e C a d illa c , su sp e c tin g the

e x is te n ce o f su ch ta lks bu t not k n o w in g the d e ta ils o f th em , a tte m p te d to halt

the n e g o tia tio n s b y so lic itin g w a r p a rtie s led b y F r e n c h p artisa n s a m o n g the

O ttaw as. T h o u g h re la tiv e ly few , the w a r p a r t ie s th re a te n e d the Iro q u o is and

th u s d isru p te d p lan s fo r p e a c e . T h e le a d e rs o f th ose w h o fa v o re d p e a c e ,

p a rtic u la r ly a H u ro n c h ie f k n o w n as th e B a r o n , so u g h t to stop the w a r p artie s

w ith o u t m e n tio n in g the H u r o n -P e tu n s ’ n e g o tia tio n s w ith the Iro q u o is . T o

su c c e e d , the B a r o n h ad to a c c o m p lish o n e o f tw o th in gs. H e had to p ro v id e

re a so n s a c c e p ta b le b o th to the F r e n c h an d to th e ir p a rtisa n s as to w h y the

w a r p artie s sh o u ld n o t d e p art. O r , fa ilin g th is , he h ad to a lie n ate the p ro -

F r e n c h O ttaw as fro m C a d illa c an d the Je s u it s . T o ach ie v e th ese e n d s , he

co n v e n ed a “ g ra n d an d n u m e ro u s” c o u n c il o f th e n a tio n s o fM ic h ilim a c k in a c

to m ee t w ith o n e a n o th e r a s w e ll as w ith C a d illa c , th e Je s u it s , and “ th e m o st

re sp e c ta b le F re n c h m e n o f the p o s t .” 7

T h e co u n c il c o n v e n e d to do little m o re than h e a r a s to ry fro m the B a ro n .

H e to ld h is lis te n e rs that re c e n tly th ere h ad b e e n d isc o v e re d in the co u n try

a ro u n d S a g in a w B a y an o ld m an an d h is w ife , e a c h ab o u t a h u n d re d y e a rs

o ld . T h e y had re s id e d th ere e v e r s in c e the e xp u ls io n o f th e H u ro n s fro m

th e ir ow n co u n try . T h e o ld m an k n ew an d h ad re la te d all that h ad p a sse d in

the w e ste rn w a rs s in ce the d e stru ctio n o f the H u ro n s an d h ad p aid p a rtic u la r

atten tio n to the e m b a ss ie s o f the Iro q u o is to O n o n tio . H e kn ew a ll th ese

th in gs b e c a u se o f h is c o m m u n ic a tio n s w ith the M a s te r o f L i fe w h o sp o k e

d ire c tly to the o ld m an an d w h o sen t h im a n im a ls an d m ad e h is f ie ld s ab o u n d

w ith c o m an d p u m p k in s . T h e o ld m an , to o , k n ew o f the p re se n t d e facto

6 The creation of'the middle ground might serve as an example of what Anthony Giddens calls structuration. Giddens, Central Problems in Social Theory, 2 -7 , 6 9 -7 3 , 82.

7 Callières au Ministre, 20 oct. 1696, AN, C 11A , v. 14, f f .2 1 6 - 17 . Narrative o f . . . Occurrences . . . 1694, 1695, NYCD, 9:604-9.

The middle ground 53

tru c e w ith th e Iro q u o is an d in s in u a te d that the first s id e to b re a k it w o u ld

in ev itab ly b e d e s tro y e d .8

T h e o ld m an e x h o rte d the In d ia n s to b e a tten tive to th e B la c k G o w n s an d

to ap p ly th e m se lv e s to p ra y e r b e c a u se , i f the M a s te r o f L i f e “ w h o is o n e in

th re e p e rso n s , w h o fo rm b u t o n e S p ir it an d o n e W ill” w a s n o t o b e y e d , he

w o u ld k ill th e c o m as h e h ad last y e ar . F in a lly the o ld m an h ad to ld th em the

e ig h th d ay sh o u ld b e o b se rv e d b y a b stin e n c e fro m w o rk an d sh o u ld be

sa n c tifie d b y p ra y e r . T h e d e a d , h e sa id , sh o u ld b e g iven s c a ffo ld b u ria ls

in ste a d o f b e in g b u rie d in the g ro u n d , so that th ey c o u ld m o re e a s ily take the

ro a d to H e a v e n . F in a lly , the o ld m an h ad u rg e d that th ey all h e a rk e n to the

v o ice o f O n o n tio an d fo llo w h is w ill. O n c o n c lu d in g h is re c ita tio n o f the o ld

m a n ’s m e s sa g e , th e B a r o n o ffe re d C a d illa c a p re se n t o f b e a v e r fro m the o ld

m a n h im se lf. C a d illa c , w h o th o u g h t th at o f the w h o le s to ry o n ly the b e a v e r

w a s n o t im ag in ary , re fu s e d the p re se n t , “ th is v o ic e b e in g u n k n o w n to h im .” 9

T h e B a r o n ’ s s to ry w a s an attem p t to u se an d e xp an d the m id d le g ro u n d so

that h is o w n in tere st - p e a c e w ith the Iro q u o is - c o u ld b e se c u re d . P e a c e

c o u ld n o t b e p ro te c te d th ro u g h n o rm al H u ro n c u ltu ra l fo rm s. I f the m atter

h ad d e p e n d e d o n ly o n n o n -C h r is t ia n O ttaw as a n d H u ro n -P e tu n s , the B a ro n

w o u ld n ot h ave had to re so rt to th e s to ry o f the o ld m a n , w ith a ll its C h r is t ia n

an d p ro p h e tic e le m e n ts . I f h e h ad b e e n a d d re ss in g In d ia n s o n ly , the co u n c il

c o u ld h ave b e e n c o n v e n e d to c o n s id e r a d re a m th at c o n ta in e d the sam e

m e ssa g e . D re a m s , h o w e v e r, a s the B a ro n re a liz e d q u ite w e ll, h ad no

le g itim a cy fo r the F r e n c h w h o w e re u rg in g th e ir p a rtisa n s to actio n . W h at

d id h ave le g itim a c y fo r th em w a s d iv in e re v e la tio n , an d so the B a ro n gave

th e m o n e . B a r o n ’ s a ttem p t fa ile d b e c a u s e , a s the c h ro n ic le r o f h is s p e e c h

h u ffily o b se rv e d , th e F r e n c h o n ly a ttach e d “ b e l ie f to c e rta in re v e la tio n s an d

v i s io n s . . . b e c a u s e th ey a re a u th o riz e d .” T h e o ld m an w a s u n a u th o riz e d an d

so p ro v e d an u n su c c e ss fu l d e v ic e fo r c o n v e y in g a m e s sa g e in a m a n n e r that

h ad le g it im a c y fo r E u r o p e a n s .10

N o n e th e le s s , th e B a r o n ’ s tactics w e re b o th c le v e r an d re v e a lin g . H e h ad

c o n sc io u s ly tried to b u ttre ss th e le g itim a c y o f the o ld m a n ’ s m e ssa g e by

fillin g it w ith frag m e n ts o f C h r is t ia n d o c trin e (the T r in it y , e xh o rta tio n s to

p ra y e r , a tte n tiv en ess to the m iss io n a r ie s) an d w ith the c o m m a n d s to fo llo w

th e w ill o f O n o n tio , the F r e n c h g o v e rn o r. T h e s e w e re a ll ite m s th e F r e n c h

c o u ld h a rd ly q u a rre l w ith . Y e t the B a ro n a lso gave the m e ssa g e a d e fin ite

H u ro n tin ge . T h e p ro p h e t w a s an In d ia n w h o ch a n g e d the S a b b a th fro m the

seve n th d ay to the e ig h th . It is u n lik e ly th is w a s a c c id e n ta l. A s e arly a s 16 7 9 ,

th e Je s u it s h ad p ra ise d th e H u r o n -P e tu n s fo r th e ir p a r tic u la r ly sc ru p u lo u s

8 Narrative of’ . . . Occurrences . . . 1694, 1695, NYCD 9:607. v Ibid.; it is interesting to note here that some Ottawas eventually did adopt scaffold burials,

H BN l 15 .777. 10 Narrative o f . . . Occurrences . . . 1694, 1695, NYCD 9:607.

54 The middle ground

o b se rv a n c e o f S u n d a y s an d fe ast d ays. T h e H u r o n -P e tu n s even h ad a sp e c ia l

o ff ic e r o f the fa ith w h o gave n o tice o f the m e e tin g d ays. It w o u ld be

su rp ris in g i f the B a r o n h ad fo rg o tten all th is. It se e m s m o re lik e ly that the

B a r o n ’ s m o v em e n t o f the S a b b a th w a s in ten tio n a l and that h e m ean t it, a lo n g

w ith th e co m m a n d fo r sc a ffo ld b u ria ls , to set the o ld m an apart as an In d ian

p ro p h e t w ith an In d ia n m e ssag e fro m the C h r is t ia n G o d . It is u n c le a r i f the

B a ro n se r io u s ly b e lie v e d th e F r e n c h w o u ld a c c e p t the le g itim a cy o f an

In d ian p ro p h e t, b u t b y fra m in g the sto ry as h e d id , he c re a te d a s itu a tio n in

w h ich e ve n th e ir re je c tio n o f the o ld m an m ig h t se rv e h is p u rp o se s . W h e n

C a d illa c an d the Je s u it s re je c te d the o ld m an , th ey re je c te d , too , e xh o rta tio n

to p ra y e r an d o b e d ie n c e to m iss io n a r ie s an d O n o n tio . M o re than that, b y

re je c tin g the sto ry , the F re n c h s e e m e d to in sin u ate that G o d sp o k e d ire c tly

o n ly to w h ite s , and n o t to In d ia n s .11 12

C a d illa c d e n o u n c e d th e sto ry as r id ic u lo u s , m o ck e d the B a r o n ’s a p p a re n t

c o n fu s io n ab o u t the S a b b a th , an d d e m a n d e d that the In d ia n s strik e the

Iro q u o is . H e le ft b e h in d a tro u b le d c o u n c il. T o the g a th e re d O ttaw a and

H u ro n -P e tu n e ld e rs it n o w se e m e d that “ the F r e n c h w e re u n w illin g to listen

to the v o ice o f th e ir p re te n d e d m an o f G o d , a lle g in g that the B la c k G o w n s

w e re v e ry d e s iro u s o f b e in g h eard w h e n th ey re c o u n te d sto ries ab o u t P a u l

an d the a n c h o rite s o f o ld e n tim es; w h e re fo re th en , th ey a sk e d , sh a ll n ot o u r

o ld m an p o sse ss th e sa m e lig h t?”

T h e co u n cil w a s m e re ly a sk irm ish w ith in the la rg e r d ip lo m atic battle

b e in g w ag e d o v e r p artic ip a tio n b y the M ic h ilim a c k in a c In d ian s in the

Iro q u o is w a r, b u t it re v e a ls the p ro c e s s th at fo rm e d the m id d le g ro u n d an d

m a d e th e b o u n d a r ie s b e tw e e n F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n so c ie t ie s so p o ro u s .

T o fu rth e r its in te re sts , each sid e h ad to atta in c u ltu ra l le g itim a cy in te rm s o f

the o th er. T h e B a ro n an d C a d illa c , as m u ch as e ac h m ig h t m a n g le the

su b tle ties o f the o th e r ’s cu ltu ra l v ie w , h ad c re a te d a fo ru m in w h ic h th ey

c o u ld sp e a k an d u n d e rsta n d each o th e r. T h e y d id so b y u sin g , fo r th e ir o w n

p u rp o se s an d a c c o rd in g to th eir o w n u n d e rsta n d in g , the cu ltu ra l fo rm s o f

the o th er. T h e B a ro n ap p e a le d to a C h r is t ia n trad itio n o f p ro p h e c y an d p u t it

to In d ian p u rp o se s . H e so u g h t to va lid ate it, in In d ia n te rm s, b y a g ift o f

b e av e r . C a d illa c , a p p e a r in g in an In d ia n co u n c il, fo llo w e d A lg o n q u ia n fo rm s

an d , k n o w in g w h a t a c c e p ta n c e o f the g ift s ig n ifie d , re fu se d it. T o accep t the

g ift w a s to a c k n o w le d g e the o ld m an , w h o m the B a r o n w o u ld th en m ake

“ talk on e v e ry o cc a s io n that he w o u ld ju d g e fav o ra b le fo r h is p e rn ic io u s

d e s ig n s .” H e re je c te d an In d ian a d ap ta tio n o f a C h r is t ia n d e v ice th ro u g h h is

o w n u se o f A lg o n q u ia n -Iro q u o ia n d ip lo m atic fo rm s. B o th u sed the c u ltu ra l

The middle ground 5 5

11 For Huron-Petuns and Sabbath, see J R 6 1:10 5 . 12 Narrative o f . . . Occurrences . . . 1694, 1695, NYCO 9:608. For a similar instance, see J R

59:223.

fo rm s o f the o th e r c le v e r ly , i f c ru d e ly . T h e c ru d e n e ss o f the B a r o n ’s

C h r is t ia n ity o r C a d il la c ’ s m a ste ry o f In d ia n d ip lo m a c y m atte re d le ss th an the

n e e d fo r e ac h to e m p lo y th ese fo re ig n e le m e n ts at a ll. T h e y m e rg e d th em

in to so m e th in g q u ite d iffe re n t fro m the A lg o n q u ia n , Iro q u o ia n , an d F r e n c h

c u ltu re s th at g av e th em b irth .

T h e B a r o n ’ s e n c o u n te r w ith C a d illa c to o k p la c e in a d ip lo m atic fo ru m

w h e re re p re se n ta t iv e s o f each cu ltu re d e a lt w ith a w e ll- fo rm u la te d b o d y o f

id eas an d p ra c tic e s . T h is w a s o n e a sp e c t o f th e m id d le g ro u n d an d the o n e in

w h ic h its m e th o d s a re b e st d o c u m e n te d an d e xh ib ite d . T h e m id d le g ro u n d

itse lf, h o w e v e r , d id n o t o rig in a te in c o u n c ils an d o ffic ia l e n c o u n te rs ; in stead ,

it re su lte d fro m the d a ily e n c o u n te rs o f in d iv id u a l In d ia n s an d F re n c h m e n

w ith p ro b le m s an d c o n tro v e rs ie s th at n e e d e d im m e d ia te so lu tio n . M a n y o f

th ese p ro b le m s re v o lv e d a ro u n d b a s ic is su e s o f se x , v io le n c e , an d m ateria l

e x c h a n g e . T h e n e e d to re so lv e th e se p ro b le m s, p e rh a p s even m o re th an the

p ro b le m s o f a llia n c e , fo rc e d the m id d le g ro u n d in to e x is te n c e . B u t e ve n this

m issta te s the issu e , fo r th e d istin ctio n b e tw e e n o ffic ia l d e a lin g s an d p e rso n a l

d e a lin g s w a s a h a zy an d c o n fu s in g o n e in A lg o n q u ia n so c ie ty , w h e re c o e rc iv e

m e c h a n ism s an d h ie ra rc h ic a l s tru c tu re s w e re n o to rio u s ly w eak .

A lth o u g h F r e n c h o ffic ia ls sp o k e o f th e ir re la tio n sh ip w ith the A lg o n q u ia n s

in e co n o m ic , p o lit ica l, a n d , le s s o fte n , re lig io u s te rm s, p a ra d o x ic a lly e c o ­

n o m ic an d p o litica l in stitu tion s c o u ld n ot co n tro l the c o n tex t o f co n tact. In

th e d a y - to -d a y re la tio n s o f th e w e ste rn co u n try , th e re la tio n sh ip s o f

A lg o n q u ia n s an d F re n c h m e n a s tra d in g p a rtn e rs an d a llie s w e re a b s tra c ­

tio n s, p e rtin e n t, p e rh a p s , to In d ia n s an d F r e n c h as a g g re g a te s , b u t h a v in g

little to do wFith a c tu a l p e o p le in fa c e - to - fa c e re la tio n sh ip s . In a n o th e r

so c ie ty , w ith m o re c o e rc iv e m e c h a n ism s at an e lite ’s d isp o sa l, p e rso n a l

re la tio n s b e tw e e n in tru d e rs su ch as the F r e n c h an d the m e m b e rs o f the h o st

so c iety m ig h t b e k e p t to a m in im u m an d m attte re d little . T r a d e r s m ig h t be

iso la te d in sp e c ia l q u a rte rs an d g ra n te d sp e c ia l p r iv ile g e s ; th ey m ig h t b e

g o v e rn e d b y se p ara te ru le s and taxed at stated ra te s . Iso la tio n , h o w e v e r , w a s

im p o ss ib le a m o n g the A lg o n q u ia n s , w h o la c k e d a state w ith c o e rc iv e in stitu ­

tio n s an d in wFh o se so c iety o b e d ie n ce to au th o rity w a s u su a lly n e ith e r a so c ia l

fa c t n o r a so c ia l v ir t u e .13

T h is w e a k n e ss o f p o lit ica l au th o rity an d lack o f su b o rd in a tio n in

A lg o n q u ia n so c iety stru ck b o th the A lg o n q u ia n s an d th e F r e n c h as a m a jo r

d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o p e o p le s . F o r th e F r e n c h th is la ck o f s u b o r d in a ­

tio n , n ot the A lg o n q u ia n s ’ state o f m a te r ia l o r te ch n o lo g ica l d e v e lo p m e n t,

w a s a t th e h e a rt o f A lg o n q u ia n “ s a v a g e ry .” T h e n o rth e rn In d ia n s , a c c o rd in g

56 The middle ground

13 Narrative o f . . . Occurrences . . . 1694, 1695, NYCD 9:608. For the development of trading enclaves, see Philip D. Curtin, Cross-cultural Trade in World History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 1 1 - 1 2 , 3 8 , 46-49, m - 1 5 .

to the S ie u r d ’ A ig re m o n t, “ p o sse ss no su b o rd in a tio n a m o n g th e m se lv e s . . .

b e in g o p p o se d to all co n stra in t. M o re o v e r , th e se p e o p le s [have] no id ea o f

R o y a l g ra n d e u r n o r M a je s ty , n o r o f th e p o w e rs o f S u p e r io r s o v e r in fe r io rs .” 14

F a th e r M e m b re , trav e lin g so u th a lo n g the M iss is s ip p i w ith L a S a lle in

16 8 2 , c le a r ly re g a rd e d au th o rity as b e in g at the h eart o f n o t o n ly so c ie ty but

h u m an ity . T h e N a tc h e z an d the h ie ra rch ic a l so c ie tie s o f the M iss is s ip p i

w e re te c h n o lo g ic a lly like the A lg o n q u ia n s . T h e y w e re a S to n e A g e p eo p le ,

b u t they w e re “ all d iffe re n t fro m o u r C a n a d a In d ia n s in th e ir h o u se s , d re ss ,

m a n n e rs , in c lin a tio n s an d c u s t o m s . . . . T h e i r c h ie fs p o sse ss all the a u th ­

ority. . . . T h e y h ave th e ir va le ts an d o ff ic e rs w h o fo llo w th em an d se rv e them

e v e ry w h e re . T h e y d istrib u te th e ir fa vo rs an d p re se n ts at w ill. In a w o rd w e

g e n e ra lly fo u n d m en th e re .” 15

T h e F r e n c h d id not e r r in n o tin g the a b se n c e o f c la ss d iv is io n s an d state

an d re lig io u s in stitu tio n s a m o n g n o rth e rn A lg o n q u ia n s , b u t they w ere

m istak en w h e n th ey took th is fo r an a b se n c e o f so c ia l o rd e r . T ra d it io n w as

the s to re h o u se o f a tribal p e o p le ’ s k n o w le d g e o f th e m se lv e s as a p e o p le an d a

gu id e to h o w th ey sh o u ld act. A s w a r an d d ise a se re d u c e d p o p u la tio n s and

fo rc e d th e am alg am atio n o f p re v io u s ly d is tin c t p e o p le s , th e su rv iv o rs se e m e d

to c lin g to th e ir trad itio n s. B u t th ey w e re lik e in fa n ts su c k in g th e b re a sts o f

th e ir d e a d m o th e rs ; trad itio n c o u ld n o lo n g e r su sta in th e m .16

T h e w e a k n e ss o f c o e rc iv e au th o rity a m o n g the A lg o n q u ia n s w o u ld h ave

m attered le ss i f F r e n c h au th o rity h ad o ffic ia lly re a c h e d the W e st. W ith the

d e c lin e o f the trad e fa irs , h o w e v e r, o ffic ia l F r e n c h su p e rv is io n o f e x c h a n g e

b e ca m e a m irag e . In d ia n s no lo n g e r trav e le d lo n g d ista n c e s to fo rtified

E u ro p e a n to w n s o r o u tp o sts to e x c h a n g e fu rs . S o m e lim ited e x c h a n g e s o f

th is type to ok p la c e at F o r t S a in t L o u is , in the Illin o is co u n try , an d at

M ic h ilim a c k in a c an d the p o sts P e rro t e re c te d am o n g the S io u x , b u t m o st

trad e w a s the w o rk o f sm all g ro u p s o f F re n c h m e n tra v e lin g to In d ian v illa g e s

an d h u n tin g ca m p s. O n c e th ese tra d e rs h ad lost th e ir statu s as m an ito u s,

they w e re s tra n g e rs w ith o u t so c ia l s ta n d in g in A lg o n q u ia n v illa g e s . T h e y

w e re a lso w e a lth y s tra n g e rs , w ith g o o d s fa r in e x c e ss o f th e ir o w n im m e d ia te

n e e d s , w h o sto o d v irtu a lly d e fe n se le ss . I f th ey w e re to su c c e e d as trad ers ,

th ey h ad to fin d m ean s to p ro te c t th e m se lv e s e ith e r th ro u g h fo rc e o r by

e s ta b lish in g p e rso n a l ties w ith in th e c o m m u n itie s in w h ic h th ey t r a d e d .17

The middle ground 57

14 For Sieur d’Aigremont, see D ’Aigremont to Pontchartrain, Nov. 14, 1708, WHC 16:250. 15 Chretien Le Clcrcq, The First Establishment of the Faith in New France, 2 vols. (New York: J.

G. Shea, 1881), 192. ' 6 See Giddens, Critique 0] Historical Materialism, 9 3-9 4 , 160, for a general discussion of these

issues. 17 JR 65:239. W. J. Eccles, The Canadian Frontier (Albuquerque: University o f New Mexico

Press, 1974), n o ; Champigny au Ministre, 4 nov. 1693, AN, C .11A , v. 12 ; M ém oire... Denonville, aoust 1688, AN, C n A , v. 10 (765-66); Callières au Ministre, 15 oct. 1694, AN, C i 1 A, v. 15 ; Mémoire sur le ferme . . . to fev. 1696, AN, C i tA, v. 16; Commerce du

T h e F r e n c h e lite fe a re d th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f su c h co n tact. F r e n c h

au th o ritie s th o u g h t that F re n c h m e n m o v in g w ith in A lg o n q u ia n so c ie ty

w o u ld slip the n et u n le ss k e p t u n d e r tight co n tro l. W h a t h o rrifie d F r e n c h

o ffic ia ls q u ite as m u c h as the e co n o m ic d am ag e th ey b e lie v e d the c o u re u rs

d e b o is d id w a s the so c ia l th reat th ey re p re se n te d . A c c o rd in g to o ffic ia ls , the

c o u re u rs d e b o is w e re m e ta m o rp h o s in g in to sauvages, that is, m en b e yo n d

th e c o n tro l o f le g itim ate au th o rity . W h a t w a s p a rtic u la r ly h o rr ify in g ab o u t the

“ sa v a g e ry ” o f the c o u re u rs d e b o is w a s that th ey s e e m e d to g lo iy in it. T h e y

u sed th e ir fre e d o m to m o c k the m en w h o n e v e r d o u b te d that th ey w e re th e ir

b e tters . O n h is re tu rn to the Illin o is in 16 8 0 , L a S a l le fo u n d that h is m en h ad

n o t o n ly d e se rte d b u t h ad a lso d e m o lish e d h is fo rt, s to len h is g o o d s , an d , in

the h a n d o f a m an L a S a l le re c o g n iz e d as L e P a r is ie n , h ad le ft sc ra w le d o n a

b o a rd a p a r tin g ep ith e t: Nous sommes touts Sauvages (“ W e a re a ll s a v a g e s” ) . 18

L e P a ris ie n , o f c o u rse , w a s no m o re a sauvage th an L a S a l le . H e m ere ly

sh a re d w ith h is s u p e r io rs a c o m m o n m isu n d e rs ta n d in g o f A lg o n q u ia n

so c ie ty as a p la c e o f lic e n se w ith o u t o rd e r . It w a s th is m isp e rc e p tio n that gave

the w o rd sauvage its p o w e r as a m e tap h o r fo r w h a t o ff ic ia ls re g a rd e d as a

d a n g e r an d m en lik e L e P a r is ie n saw as an o p p o rtu n ity - the e sca p e fro m

su b o rd in a tio n . T h a t m o st c o u re u rs d e b o is c o u ld fu lly e sc a p e the re stra in in g

h a n d s o f the state an d th e c h u rc h w a s an e xa g g e ra t io n . Y e t , in a n o th e r se n se ,

th e fe a r o f the a u th o ritie s an d th e h o p e o f L e P a r is ie n w e re n o t fu lly

m isp la ce d . F r e n c h m e n in the W e st c o u ld to a re m a rk a b le d e g re e act

in d e p e n d e n tly , i f o n ly te m p o ra rily , in re a c h in g a c c o m m o d a tio n s w ith the

A lg o n q u ia n s a m o n g w h o m th e y trav e le d an d lived . T h e y m a d e co n ta ct a

c o m p le x so cia l p ro c e s s o n ly p a rtia lly u n d e r th e co n tro l o f c h u rc h an d state .

In the W e st, th is p ro c e ss c e n te re d o n F re n c h m e n w h o m the au th o ritie s d id

n ot re g a rd as le g itim a te re p re se n ta t iv e s o f th e ir o w n so c ie ty an d w h o w e re

a c tu a lly se e n as a d a n g e r to it. T h e r e w a s a lw ays a te n sio n b e tw e e n th ese

m en an d th o se o th e r F r e n c h m e n w h o p o sse sse d le g itim a te stan d in g : m en

w h o lik e L a S a lle , ca m e w ith g ra n ts fro m the C ro w n ; o r m iss io n a r ie s , like

th e Je s u it s ; o r m ilita ry c o m m a n d e rs ; o r lic e n se d trad e rs . F re n c h m e n in the

W e st o fte n c o o p e ra te d , b u t su ch co o p e ra tio n c o u ld n e v e r b e p re su m e d .

In d ia n s th u s h ad to e sta b lish ap p ro p ria te so c ia l ties w ith a d iv e rse an d o ften

q u a rre lin g g ro u p o f F r e n c h m e n .19

castor. . . 1696, AN, C 1IA, v. 14; Milo Quaife (ed.),The Western Country in the Seventeenth Century: The Memoirs ofLanothe Cadillac and Pierre Liette (Chicago: Lakeside Press, 19 17), 16 - 18 . Unititled mémoire (Par tout ce q u i. . . ) AN, C i 1 A, v. 17 (f. 193).

18 Duchesneau to M. de Seignelay, 10 Nov. 1679, NYCD 9 :13 3 -3 4 ; Denonvillc à Seignelay, 13 nov. 1685, AN, C .11A , v. 7; Champigny Memoir, 10 mat 16 9 1, AN, C 11A , v. 1 1 ; Dcnonville to Seignelay, Jan. 1690, NYCD 9 :442-43. For quotation, see Relation du voyage de Cavelier de La Salle, du 22 Août 1680 a l’automne de 16 8 1, Margry, Découvertes, 2 :133 . On coureurs de bois, see Jaenen, Friend and Foe, 1 1 5 ; Eccles, Canadian Frontier, 90.

19 Louise Dechene, in examining records o f those going west between 1708 and 17 17 , found

58 The middle ground

5 9

C e rta in o f th e se d iv e rse F r e n c h m e n , in tu rn , p o se d d a n g e rs to A lg o n q u ia n

so c ia l o rd e r b e c a u se they stru ck at the h ea rt o f A lg o n q u ia n id en tity b y

a rg u in g that trad itio n a l p ra c tic e s w e re n ot in n ate , b u t tra n sfe ra b le fro m one

p e o p le to an o th er. M is s io n a r ie s an d C h ris t ia n ity , in th is se n se , re p re se n te d a

p o ten tia lly su b v e rs iv e fo rc e that, i f n o t a ss im ila te d in to A lg o n q u ia n tra d i­

tion s, co u ld d e stro y the v e ry id en tity o f th o se w h o a cce p te d it. O n ly in the

Illin o is co u n try w a s th is th re a t so o n re a liz e d , an d th ere , w h e re the d a n g e rs o f

C h rist ia n ity w e re m o st fu lly fa c e d , the a rg u m e n ts o f the o p p o n e n ts o f the

m iss io n a r ie s a re re ve a lin g . T h e a d v e rsa r ie s o f the c h u rc h b a s e d th e ir attack

p artia lly on th e a rg u m e n t that p ra y e r w a s in e ffe c tiv e and b ap tism b ro u g h t

d eath , b u t th ey a lso w o rk e d fro m the a ssu m p tio n that C h ristian ity ' d isp la c e d

trad ition s c en tra l to the id en tity o f v a r io u s Illin o is g ro u p s an d a p p ro p ria te to

th em . In a sty le o f a rg u m e n t that fo re sh a d o w e d la te r a p p e a ls to an “ In d ia n

w a y ,” I llin o is e ld e rs co n te n d e d that s in ce id en tity wras in n ate , C h ris t ia n ity

w as p ro p e r fo r the F r e n c h ; I llin o is b e lie fs w e re p ro p e r fo r the Illin o is . A s a

le a d in g P e o r ia c h ie f, an o p p o n e n t o f C h r is t ia n ity ’s, p h ra se d it:

1 shall hold a feast. . . and I shall invite alt the old men and all the chiefs of bands.. . . After speaking of our medicines and of what our grand­ fathers and ancestors have taught us, has this man who has come from afar better medicines than we have, to make us adopt his customs? His fables are good only in his own country; we have ours, which do not make us die as his do.

O r, in the w o rd s o f a K a s k a s k ia e ld e r , “ fu ll o f zea l fo r the an c ie n t cu sto m s o f

the co u n try an d a p p re h e n d in g that h is c re d it an d that o f h is c la ss [son semblableJ w o u ld b e d im in ish e d i f th e ir p e o p le e m b ra c e d the fa ith ” :

All ye who have hitherto hearkened to what the black gown has said to you come into my cabin. I shall likewise teach you what I learned from my grandfather, and what we should believe. Leave their myths to the people who come from afar, and let us cling to our own traditions.20

T h e o p e ra tio n o f the m id d le g ro u n d m u st b e u n d e rsto o d w ith in a d u al

con text. F ir s t , th ere w as the w e a k n e ss o f h ie ra rc h ic a l co n tro ls w ith in

A lg o n q u ia n v illa g e s and the fra ilty o f a n y au th o rity F r e n c h o ffic ia ls e xe rte d

o v e r F re n c h m e n in the W e st. S e c o n d , th ere w a s the c u ltu ra l th reat e ach

so c ie ty se e m e d to p o se to the e lite o f the o th e r. W h a t th is m ean t in p ra c tic e

w a s that b o th the e xten t an d m e a n in g o f so c ia l re la tio n s b e tw e e n F re n c h m e n

The middle ground

that o f a total o f 373 different individuals, 179 made just one trip and 1 1 2 made three or more. These 1 12 formed “ l ’armature du commerce intérieur.” The others made such voyages “ une activité temporaire ou occasionnelle” ; De Chene, Habitants et Marchands de Montréal au xvii siècle (Paris: Libraire Plon, 1974), 2 19 -2 2 0 .

20 J R 64 :173, 183.

6o

an d A lg o n q u ia n s w e re o fte n n e g o tia te d la rg e ly o n a fa c e - to - fa c e le ve l w ith in

the v illa g e s th e m se lv e s , an d th at th ese re la tio n s w e re n ot w h at e ith e r F r e n c h

au th o ritie s o r A lg o n q u ia n e ld e rs m ig h t h ave p re fe r re d th em to b e . T h is d o e s

n o t m e a n that th e re w a s no o ffic ia l e le m e n t in v o lv e d , b u t ra th e r that o ffic ia l

d e c is io n s c o u ld n o t d e te rm in e th e c o u rse o f ac tu a l re la tio n s.

The middle ground

II

T h e a rray o f re la tio n s n e g o tia ted in the m id d le g ro u n d w a s q u ite la rg e , b u t

le av in g as id e fo r n o w the liq u o r trad e , p ro b le m s in tw o a re n a s o f co n ta ct -

se x and v io le n c e - se e m to h ave b e e n p a rtic u la r ly acu te . S e x u a l re la tio n s

b e tw e e n F re n c h m e n an d In d ia n w o m e n an d v io le n c e b e tw e e n F r e n c h an d

In d ia n s , b o th m en and w o m e n , ac c o m p an ie d trad e th ro u g h o u t the W e st,

O n e fac ilita ted trad e , an d the o th e r th re a ten ed to d e stro y it; b o th p re se n te d

p ro b le m s o f c u ltu ra l in te ra c tio n that h ad to b e n e g o tia te d . S e x an d v io le n c e

a rc th u s im p o rtan t n o t o n ly in th e ir o w n r ig h t b u t a lso as av e n u es fo r

u n d e rs ta n d in g h o w c u ltu ra l a c c o m m o d atio n on the m id d le g ro u n d , in fact,

w o rk e d .

W h a t m ad e se x u a l re la tio n s b e tw e e n F re n c h m e n an d In d ia n w o m e n so

c en tra l to c o n ta c t in the W e st w a s that u n til the 1 7 3 0 s re la tiv e ly fe w

F r e n c h w o m e n e v e r ca m e wrest. F re n c h w o m e n w e re a c u r io s ity in the u p p er

co u n try . T h e a p p e a ra n c e o f M a d a m e L e S u e u r at F o r t S a in t L o u is in the

16 9 0 s c re a te d su ch an u p ro a r that sh e , like In d ia n s v is it in g E u r o p e , h ad to

c o n se n t to a p u b lic d isp lay so that the c u r io u s c o u ld see h e r . T h e a b se n c e o f

F re n c h w o m e n m e a n t that F r e n c h m ales a c tiv e ly so u g h t o u t In d ia n w o m e n as

se x u a l p a r tn e rs . N o t a ll F r e n c h m a le s d id so , o f c o u rs e . T h e Je s u it s an d

o ften th e ir d o n n é s w e re c e lib a te . T h is w as a c o n d itio n w h ic h , i f n o t

u n k n o w n a m o n g the A lg o n q u ia n s , w as re g a rd e d b y th e m w ith the sam e

c o m b in a tio n o f cu rio s ity an d re v u ls io n w ith w h ic h th e F r e n c h re g a rd e d the

b e rd a c h e s o f th e Illin o is an d th e a c c e p ta n c e o f h o m o se x u a l re la t io n s a m o n g

m an y A lg o n q u ia n p e o p le s .21

A lg o n q u ia n s e v e n tu a lly a c c e p te d Je s u it c e lib a c y , b u t the Je s u it s n e v e r

ac c e p te d A lg o n q u ia n se x u a l m o re s , p a rtic u la r ly w h e n o th e r F re n c h m e n

p ro v e d so e n th u sia stic ab o u t th em . S e x wras h a rd ly a p e rso n a l a ffa ir ; it w a s

g o v e rn e d and re g u la te d b y th e ap p ro p ria te au th o ritie s . T h e s u p re m e a rb iters

o f se x a m o n g th e F r e n c h w e re p re c ise ly th o se w h o , th e o re tic a lly , had the

21 For Madame Le Sueur, see De Cannes (Deliette) Memoir, IH C 23:338. For berdaches and homosexuality, see De Gannes (Deliette) Memoir, IH C 23 :329 -30 ; Le Clercq, First Establishment, 135 ; Relations des découvertes, in Pierre Margry, Découvertes et établissements des Français.. . de l ’Amérique Septentrionale, 1614-1698, 6 vols. (Paris: Maisonneuve et Cie, 1879, repr. New York, AM S, 1974), 1:488.

le ast p ra c tic a l e x p e rie n c e , the p rie sts . T h e Je s u it s took a vo ca l an d active

in tere st in the se xu a l ac tiv ities o f b o th the F r e n c h an d the In d ia n s .22

It w a s the in tere st o f the Je s u it s in o th e r p e o p le ’ s se x u a l c o n d u ct, a lo n g

w ith the m o re im m e d ia te e x p e r ie n c e an d o b se rv a tio n s o f m en like P e rro t,

L a h o n ta n , an d D e lie tte , that m ak es p o ss ib le re c o n stru c tio n o f th e ir c o n ­

te m p o ra rie s ’ se xu a l re la tio n s , b u t the v e ry n atu re o f th e se s o u rc e s re q u ire s

that th ey be u sed c a re fu lly . T o u n d e rsta n d se xu a l re la tio n s b e tw e e n

A lg o n q u ia n s an d E u ro p e a n s , w e m u st re m o v e the c o m b in atio n o f se xu a l

fan tasy , so c ia l c r it ic ism , an d Ja n s e n is m w ith w h ic h the F r e n c h o ften v e ile d

th e ir d e sc rip tio n s . A fe w re la tiv e ly s tra ig h tfo rw a rd d e sc r ip tio n s o f se xu a l

re la tio n s e x ist, bu t so u rc e s a re o ften o p e n ly p o le m ic a l. T h e Je s u it s w e re

in tere sted in d e n o u n c in g an d re s tra in in g w h at th ey re g a rd e d as A lg o n q u ia n

an d F r e n c h se xu a l im m o ra lity - p o lyg am y , a d u ltery , an d p ro stitu tio n -

w h e re a s , at the o th e r e x tre m e , the B a ro n de L a h o n ta n so m e tim e s d e lig h ted

in u s in g In d ia n s as w e a p o n s in a ssa u lt in g E u ro p e a n law , c u sto m , and

h y p o c r isy .23

D e sp ite th e ir d iffe r in g p u rp o se s , n e a rly all F r e n c h a c c o u n ts w e re u n ited ,

first, b y th e ir in ab ility to u n d e rsta n d the sta tu s o f w o m e n v is -à -v is m en

e xce p t in te rm s o f c o n ju g a l re la tio n s an d , se c o n d , b y th e ir te n d e n c y to g ro u p

actu a l se x u a l re la tio n s in te rm s o f tw o o p p o site p o le s o f c o n d u c t, w ith

m a rriag e at o n e e x tre m e an d p ro stitu tio n an d a d u ltery at th e o th er. In

a ttem p tin g to im p o se th e ir o w n c u ltu ra l c a te g o r ie s on the actio n s o f

A lg o n q u ia n w o m e n , the F r e n c h te n d e d to se le c t m a te r ia l that m ad e the

w o m e n se e m m e re ly a d iso rd e r ly an d le w d se t o f E u ro p e a n s , n o t p e o p le

fo llo w in g an en tire ly d iffe re n t so c ia l lo g ic . T h e im m e d ia te re su lt w as to

d e fin e a w o m an in te rm s o f a p e rso n - h e r actu a l o r p o te n tia l h u sb a n d - w h o

m ay n ot h ave b e e n a n y w h e re n e a r b e in g the m o st s ig n ific a n t fig u re in the

w o m a n ’ s life . D e p e n d in g on h e r trib a l id en tity , an A lg o n q u ia n w o m an o ften

h ad a m o re d u ra b le an d s ig n ific a n t re la tio n sh ip w ith h e r m o th e r, fa th er,

b ro th e rs , s is te rs , o r g ra n d p a re n ts , o r w ith o th er, u n re la te d w o m e n than w ith

h er h u sb a n d o r h u sb a n d s . N o r w a s an A lg o n q u ia n w o m a n ’s statu s d e p e n ­

d en t so le ly o n h e r h u sb a n d . H e r o w n m e m b e rsh ip in ritu a l o rg an iz a tio n s o r,

a m o n g so m e tr ib es su c h as the S h a w n e e s , H u r o n -P e tu n s , an d M ia m is , h e r

o w n p o litica l statu s in o ffic e s co n fin e d to w o m e n h ad m o re in flu e n c e o n h e r

so cia l p o sitio n than the statu s o f h e r h u sb a n d d id .24

22 J R 54; 1 79—S 3 ^5;23 5 - 45; Cadillac, Account of Detroit, Sept. 25, 1702 ,M PH C 33 :143. Ordonnance du M. le Comte de Frontenac pour la traite et commerce du outaouacs . . . S avril 1690 (avec remarques faites par l’intendant), AN, F3, v.6, f. 366.

21 J R 6 5 :19 3-9 9 , 229 -4 3 ; Reuben Gold Thwaites (ed.), New Vuyuge to North America by the Baron de Lahontan, 2 vols. (Chicago: A. C. McClury, 1905), 2 :455-56 , 4 6 0 -6 1, 6 0 5 -18 .

24 For general difficulties with European observations on Indian women, see Katherine Weist, “ Beasts of Burden and Menial Slaves: Nineteenth-Century Observations of Northern Plains Indian Women,” and Alice Kchoe, “ The Shackles o f Tradition,” both in Patricia Albers and

The middle ground 61

E v e n w h e n th e m o st c a re fu l an d se n sitive o f th e E u r o p e a n o b se rv e rs

ta lk ed ab o u t the statu s o f w o m e n and se xu a l re la t io n s , th e re fo re , th ey

e lim in ated m u c h o f th e actu a l so c ia l w o rld th at g av e th o se re la tio n s th e ir fu ll

m e a n in g . P e rro t an d F a th e r L a f ita u , fo r e x a m p le , w ro te d isp a ss io n a te

a c c o u n ts o f A lg o n q u ia n m a rria g e cu sto m s. T h e y re c o g n iz e d m a rria g e a s a

so c ia l co n tra c t b e tw e e n fa m ilie s , as it w as in E u r o p e , e v e n i f g ifts w e re g iven

to th e b r id e ’ s fam ily , in e x c h a n g e fo r , as P e rro t sa id , the b r id e ’ s b o d y , in stead

o f to th e g ro o m as in E u r o p e . In m arr ia g e c o e rc iv e au th o rity , e lse w h e re so

w eak in A lg o n q u ia n so c ie ty , s t iffe n e d . O n c e m a rr ie d , a w o m a n w a s c le a r ly

su b o rd in a te to h e r h u sb a n d . T h e F r e n c h v ie w e d the h a rsh p u n ish m e n ts

in flic te d on w o m e n fo r a d u lte ry a m o n g th e Illin o is an d the M ia m is as th e

m o st g ra p h ic e v id e n c e o f su b o rd in a tio n . D e lie tte sa id th at h e h ad se en

e v id e n c e that m o re th an a h u n d re d w o m e n h ad b e e n e x e c u te d fo r ad u ltery

d u r in g the se ve n y e a rs h e h ad sp en t a m o n g th e Illin o is . O th e rs e m p h a siz e d

th e m u tila tio n o f a d u lte ro u s w o m e n by h u sb a n d s , w h o cu t o f f a n o se o r an

e ar , an d the g an g rap es in flic te d o n u n fa ith fu l w iv e s b y m e n so lic ite d fo r the

p u rp o se b y th e h u sb a n d . T h e r e w e re no e q u iv a le n t p e n a lt ie s fo r a d u ltery by

m en . F o r F r e n c h m e n , th e se p ro p e rty e x c h a n g e s , the su b o rd in a tio n o f

w o m e n , and th e d o u b le se xu a l sta n d a rd m a d e th is a h a rsh b u t re c o g n iz ab le

an d c o m p re h e n s ib le w o r ld .2 '’

T h e p ro b le m w a s th at th is p o rtra it , as the F r e n c h so u rc e s th e m se lv e s

m ak e c le a r , w a s in c o m p le te . A w o m a n ’s su b o rd in a tio n to h e r h u sb a n d w as

n o t n e c e ssa r ily p e rm a n e n t. S h e c o u ld ca ll o n m ale re la tiv e s to p ro te c t an d

v in d icate h er. S h e c o u ld leave h e r h u sb a n d an d re tu rn to h e r o w n fam ily

w h e n e v e r sh e c h o se . A m o n g m an y g ro u p s a d u lte ry w a s n ot h a rsh ly p u n ish e d .

A c c o rd in g to C a d illa c , th e se xu a l fre e d o m o f m a rr ie d O ttaw a an d H u ro n -

P etu n w o m e n w a s so g re a t that it m a d e a d u lte ry a m e a n in g le ss ca te g o ry .

A n d , in d e e d , it w a s the c a te g o rie s th e m se lv e s th at w e re the p ro b le m .

6 2 The middle ground

Beatrice Medicine, The H idden H alf: Studies o f Plains Indian Women (Washington, D .C.: University Press o f America, 1983), 2 9 -52 , 5 3 -7 3 . Women among the Illinois gained power from visions and could become shamans. The culturally very similar Miami had female chiefs whose duties paralleled the male chiefs’ . They inherited their status from their fathers and did not obtain it through their husbands. See H B N I 15 :675, 677, 684-85.

25 For Perrot and Lafitau on marriage, see Nicolas Perrot, M em oir on the M anners, Customs, and Religion o f the Savages o f North A m erica, in Emma Helen Blair (ed.), The Indian Tribes o f the Upper M ississippi Valley and Region o f the Great Lakes, 2 vols. (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark, 19 12), 1:6 4 -6 5 ; Joseph-François Lafitau, Customs o f the Am erican Indians Compared with the Customs o f Prim itive Times (Toronto: Champlain Society, 19 24 -77), 1 :3 3 6 -3 7 , 339. For adultery among the Illinois, see De Cannes (Deliette) Memoir, IH C 23:327, 3 3 5 -3 7 ; Reuben Gold Thwait es (ed.), Father Louis H ennepin’s A N ew Discovery o f a Vast Country in Am erica (facsimile ed., Toronto: Coles, 1974, repr, ed. of 1903 ed.), 16 7 -6 8 ; jolliet and Marquette, in Louise P. Kellogg (ed.), Early N arratives o f the Northwest, 16 34—i6 ç g (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 19 17), 243.

E u ro p e a n c o n c e p tio n s o f m a rr ia g e , ad u ltery , an d p ro stitu tio n ju st c o u ld n o t

e n co m p ass the a c tu a l varie ty o f se x u a l re la tio n s in the pays d ’en haut.26 Je s u it s an d o th e r E u ro p e a n s d id not im p o se th e se cu ltu ra l c a te g o rie s as an

e th n o g ra p h ic e x e rc is e ; they d id so in an attem p t to u n d e rsta n d and reg u la te

se x u a l activity. T h is w a s a task that m iss io n a r ie s sa w as an e sse n tia l p a r t o f

th e ir p u rp o se in the W e st. A d u lte ry , p ro stitu tio n , and m a rria g e o b v io u sly

e x iste d , h u t m o st se xu a l co n tact took p lace b e tw e e n F r e n c h m e n an d sin g le

In d ia n w o m e n , wTh o e n jo y e d c o n s id e ra b le se xu a l fre e d o m b u t w e re n o t

p ro stitu te s . T h e r e w as n o a p p ro p ria te F r e n c h c a te g o ry fo r su c h fre e , u n ­

m a rrie d A lg o n q u ia n w o m e n .

B e c a u s e o f th is lack o f re a d ily a v a ilab le p a ra lle ls fro m F r e n c h so c ie ty , and

b e c a u se o f d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n the h ie ra rc h ic a l iM iam is a n d Illin o is , o n the

o n e h an d , an d the re m a in in g A lg o n q u ia n s , o n the o th e r, F r e n c h a c c o u n ts o f

the se xu a l sta n d a rd s e xp e cte d o f u n m arrie d y o u n g w o m e n a m o n g the

A lg o n q u ia n s vary w id e ly an d a re o fte n in tern a lly co n tra d ic to ry . D e lie tte , fo r

e xa m p le , says th e Illin o is v a lu e d ch astity h ig h ly , b u t he th en g o e s o n to say

that v irtu a lly all w o m e n , e ve n m a rrie d w o m e n , took lo v e rs .27

L a h o n ta n c re d ite d u n m arrie d A lg o n q u ia n w o m e n w ith v irtu a lly co m p lete

se x u a l fre e d o m .

A Young Woman is allow’d to do what she pleases; let her Conduct be what it will, neither Father nor Mother, Brother nor Sister can pretend to controul her. A Young Woman, say they, is Master of her own Body, and by her Natural Right of Liberty is free to do what she pleases.

T h e o n ly so c ia l b a rr ie r to p re m a rita l in te rc o u rse w as fe a r o f p re g n a n c y ,

w h ich w o u ld m ak e it im p o ss ib le to o b ta in a h ig h -ra n k in g h u sb a n d , b u t

L a h o n ta n sa id w o m e n k n ew h o w to ab o rt u n w an ted p re g n a n c ie s . A m o n g

m ost g ro u p s su ch se xu a l fre e d o m a p p a re n tly e n d e d w ith m a rr ia g e . B u t so m e

w o m e n n e v e r d id m arry . T h e r e w a s , a c c o rd in g to L a h o n ta n , a c la ss o f

w o m e n c a lle d Ic k o u e ne K io u s s a , o r H u n tin g W o m e n - “ fo r th ey co m m o n ly

a cco m p an y the H u n tsm e n in th e ir D iv e r s io n s .” S u c h w o m e n a rg u e d that

th ey c o u ld n ot e n d u re “ the c o n ju g a l y o a k ,” th at they w e re in c a p a b le o f

b r in g in g up c h ild re n and w e re “ too im p atien t to sp e n d w in te rs in the

v illa g e .” L a h o n ta n re g a rd e d all th is a s a “ d isg u ise fo r le w d n e s s ,” b u t he

n o ted that th e se w o m e n w e re n o t c e n su re d by th e ir p a re n ts o r o th er

The middle ground 63

26 For Cadillac, see Quaif'e (ed.), The Western Country, 63. For references to prostitution, sce J R 65:241; Mémoire touchant l’yvrognerie des sauvages, 1693, AN. C 11A , v. 12, f .384.

27 De Cannes (Deliette) Memoir, IH C 23 :32 8 -37 ; Thwaitcs (ed.), Lahontan’s Voyages, 2:453. Joutei gives a contradictory account similar to Dcliette’s; see Joutel’s Memoir, in Isaac J. Cox, The Journeys o f Robert C avelier de La S a lle , 2 vols. (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1905), 2:222.

re la tiv e s , w h o a sse r te d , fo r in sta n c e , “ that th e ir d a u g h te rs h ave the c o m ­

m an d o f th e ir o w n B o d ie s an d m ay d isp o se o f th e ir p e rso n s as th e y th in k f it .”

T h e c h ild re n th e se w o m e n b o re w ere ra ise d b y th e ir fa m ilie s an d “ a c ­

co u n te d a L a w fu l is s u e ” ; th ey w e re e n titled to all p r iv ile g e s e x c e p t th at th ey

c o u ld n ot m a rry in to fa m ilie s o f n o ted w a rr io rs o r c o u n c illo rs .28 29

S u c h q u o ta tio n s fro m L a h o n ta n m u st b e re a d w ith cau tio n , s in ce In d ia n s

o ften se rv e d h im as m e re v e h ic le s fo r h is o w n c r it iq u e o f F r e n c h so c iety , an d

h is an a lys is o fte n d iffe re d fro m th o se o f m o re e x p e r ie n c e d o b se rv e rs o f the

A lg o n q u ia n n atio n s. L a h o n ta n , fo r e x a m p le , m ad e d ivo rce a m o n g the

A lg o n q u ia n s a fa r m o re triv ia l e ve n t than d id P e rro t, w h o sp e n t m u ch o f h is

life a m o n g the w e ste rn In d ia n s . A n d ce rta in ly a m o n g the Illin o is , w o m e n

w e re not to ta lly fre e b e fo re m a rr ia g e ; b ro th e rs g re a tly in flu e n c e d th e ir

s is te r s ’ se xu a l liv es . N e v e rth e le s s , d esp ite L a h o n ta n ’ s te n d e n c y to o v e r­

g e n e ra liz e an d h is n o to r io u s in v e n tio n s, h is a sse rt io n s c an n o t b e d ism isse d

as s im p ly ro m an tic fa b ric a t io n . O th e r a c c o u n ts c o rro b o ra te h is d e sc rip tio n s

o f y o u n g A lg o n q u ia n w o m e n . J o u t e l ’ s m e m o ir ab o u t the Illin o is , a lth o u g h it

c o n fu se s c o h a b ita tio n w ith h u n tin g w o m e n an d m a rr ia g e , su b stan tia te s

L a h o n ta n ’s d e sc r ip tio n . A c c o rd in g to Jo u te l , the m a rr ia g e s o f the Illin o is

la sted n o lo n g e r th an the p a rt ie s d e s ire d to re m a in to g e th er , fo r th ey “ fre e ly

p a r t a fte r a h u n tin g b o u t, e ac h g o in g w h ic h w a y th ey p le a se w ith o u t an y

c e re m o n y ,” an d h e n o tes , “ T h e r e a re w o m e n w h o m ak e n o se c re t o f h av in g

h ad to d o w ith F r e n c h m e n .” C a d illa c , to o , n o ted that g ir ls “ a re a llo w e d to

e n jo y th e m se lv e s and to e x p e rim e n t w ith m a rria g e as lo n g as th ey like an d ry q

w ith as m an y b o ys as th ey w ish w ith o u t re p ro a c h .”

Y o u n g e r w o m e n an d h u n tin g w o m e n th u s e n jo y e d su b stan tia l fre e d o m in

e n g a g in g in se xu a l re la tio n s w ith F r e n c h m e n an d p la y e d a m a jo r p a rt in

e s ta b lish in g the c u sto m a ry te rm s o f se xu a l re la t io n sh ip s b e tw e e n the

A lg o n q u ia n s an d th e F r e n c h . In itia lly , m an y F r e n c h m e n , lik e the Je s u it s ,

m ay h ave v ie w e d th is so rt o f re la tio n sh ip as s im p le p ro stitu tio n o r, lik e

Jo u t e l , as a lo o se , e as ily d isso lv e d m a rria g e , b u t b y the 16 9 0 s th ey re c o g n iz e d

it as a se p a ra te , c u sto m a ry fo rm fo r se xu a l re la t io n sh ip s in the fu r trad e.

B a s ic a lly , w o m e n ad a p te d the re la tio n sh ip o f h u n tin g w o m e n to h u n te rs to

the n e w c o n d itio n s o f the fu r trad e . S u c h w o m e n n o t o n ly h ad se xu a l

in te rc o u rse w ith th e ir F r e n c h c o m p a n io n s , th ey a lso co o k e d an d w a sh e d fo r

28 For quotation, see Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan’s Voyages, 2:453; ib id ., 454, 463. For pregnancy, see ib id ., 454, 463; for hunting women, see ib id ., 463-64.

29 On divorce, compare Lahontan to Perrot and Cadillac; Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan s Voyage, 2:453; Perrot, M em oir, 6 4 -6 5 ; Quaife (ed.), The Western Country, 38 -39 . For brothers’ control over sisters, see De Cannes (Deliette) Memoir, IH C 23:332, 337, and Raudot, “ Memoir,” in W. Vernon Kinietz, The Indians o f the Western Great Lakes (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1965), 389. For Joutel, see Joutel Memoir, in Cox (ed.),

Journeys o f L a S a lle , 2:222. For Cadillac quotation, see Quaife (ed.), The Western Country,

45-

64 The middle ground

th em , m ad e th e ir c lo th e s , an d cu t th e ir w o o d . In d e n o u n c in g th e se w o m e n ,

the J e s u it F a th e r C a rh e il d e sc r ib e d th em in te rm s s im ila r to L a h o n ta n ’s:

The traders have become so accustomed to have women for their use in the trading-places, and these have become so necessary to them, that they cannot do without them even on their journeys.. .. I refer to single women, women without husbands, women who are mistresses of their own Bodies, women who can dispose of them to these men, and whom the latter know to be willing to do so - in a word, They are all the prostitutes of Montreal who are alternately brought here and taken back; and They are all the prostitutes of this place, who are carried in the same way from here to Montreal, and from Montreal to here___ The pretext that they usually allege for taking women in preference to men on these journeys is, that women cost them less than men, and are satisfied with lower wages. They speak the truth; but the very Fact of their being Satisfied with less wages is a Manifest proof of their dissoluteness___The women, Being depraved, want them as men; and they, on their part, want them as women, on all their journeys - after which... they quit one another. They separate from these only to Seek others.30

W h at F a th e r C a rh e il m isu n d e rsto o d an d d e n o u n c e d as prostitution h ad

little to do w ith th at term as co m m o n ly u n d e rsto o d . T h e s e w o m e n d id not

so lic it c u sto m e rs , an d th ey d id n o t se ll d isc re te se x u a l acts. S e x ac c o m p an ie d

a g e n e ra l a g re e m e n t to do the w o rk co m m o n ly e xp e cte d o f w o m e n in

A lg o n q u ia n so c ie ty . N o r w as th e re la tio n sh ip a tem p o rary m a rr ia g e . In

m a rr ia g e a wrife re c e iv e d n o p ay m e n t fro m h e r h u sb a n d , n o r w a s sh e as fre e

as a h u n tin g w o m an to d isso lv e o n e re la tio n sh ip an d b e g in an o th e r. F in a lly ,

th e se re la tio n sh ip s wre re n o t c o n tra c ts b e tw e e n fam ilies . T h e y w e re , in stead ,

a b rid g e to the m id d le g ro u n d , an a d ju stm e n t to in te rra c ia l se x in the fu r

trad e w h e re the in itia l c o n c e p tio n s o f se xu a l c o n d u c t h e ld by e ac h s id e w e re

re c o n c ile d in a n ew c u sto m ary re la tio n . T h e a p p e a l o f u n io n s that o ffe re d

b o th tem p o rary la b o r an d se x u a l co m p a n io n sh ip to the c o u re u rs d e b o is is

o b v io u s, b u t th ese re la tio n sh ip s a lso m ay h ave flo u rish e d b e c a u s e o f the

b ad ly sk e w ed s e x ratio s w ith in A lg o n q u ia n so c ie t ie s , ap p a re n tly th e re su lt o f

w a rfa re .

M a n y late se v e n te e n th -c e n tu ry a c c o u n ts o f w e ste rn A lg o n q u ia n p o p u la ­

tion stre ss b o th se xu a l im b a la n c e an d the p re se n c e o f so ra l p o ly g a m y - the

p ra c tic e o f a h u sb a n d m a rry in g tw o o r m o re s iste rs . S e x u a l re la tio n s w ith the

c o u re u r d e b o is o ffe re d an a ltern ative to p o lyg am y . P o ly g a m y w a s a lso a

p a rtic u la r ta rg et o f J e s u it m iss io n a r ie s , w h o w e re not re lu c tan t to a sse r t a

co n n e ctio n a m o n g the fa m in e s , the e p id e m ic s sw e e p in g the v illa g e s , and

The middle ground 65

30 For customary relation, seejfR 65:233. For quotation, see ibid., 241.

6 6

p lu ra l m a rr ia g e s . J e s u it d e n u n c ia tio n s o f p o ly g a m y a p p e a r to h ave a c h ie v e d

at least so m e te m p o ra ry s u c c e s s in the M ic h ilim a c k in a c re g io n . In 1 6 7 0 , in

re sp o n se to an e p id e m ic , the m en a t S a u lt S a in te M a r ie to o k b a ck th e ir first

w iv e s an d p u t a w ay th o se w iv e s th e y h ad taken sin ce th e ir first m a rr ia g e .

S u b s e q u e n t ly , th e K is k a k o n O ttaw as, the m o st C h r is t ia n iz e d o f th e O ttaw as,

w e re a lso the O ttaw a g ro u p w ith the fe w e st p o ly g a m ists , a n d , su p p o se d ly , the

K a s k a s k ia s a b a n d o n e d p o ly g a m y e n tire ly b y the e a r ly e ig h te e n th cen tu ry .

E ls e w h e re the Je s u it s n e v e r s u c c e e d e d in c o m p le te ly e ra d ic a t in g p o lyg am y ,

b u t e v e n p artia l s u c c e ss y ie ld e d iro n ic re su lts . G iv e n the p o p u la tio n im ­

b a la n c e b e tw e e n m e n an d w o m e n , a n y in c re a se in the c la ss o f s in g le w o m e n

y ie ld e d m o re w o m e n w h o m ig h t b e w illin g to attach th e m se lv e s to the

F r e n c h .31

T h a t Je s u it b attles a g a in st p o ly g a m y m ay h ave in c re a se d the n u m b e r o f

w o m e n w h o co n so rte d w ith F r e n c h m e n w a s o n ly o n e o f the iro n ie s c re a te d

b y F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n a ttem p ts to a rr iv e at m u tu a lly in te llig ib le p attern s

o f se xu a l co n d u c t. H u n tin g w o m e n , a s a g ro u p , c a rr ie d an d m o d ifie d o n e

A lg o n q u ia n p attern o f se x u a l re la tio n s in to the fu r trad e in th e ir lia iso n s w ith

the c o u re u rs d e b o is , b u t a sm a lle r g ro u p o f C h r is t ia n In d ia n w o m e n w e re

a lso in flu e n tia l in c re a tin g o th e r p a tte rn s o f se x u a l c o n d u c t th ro u g h th e ir

o w n re la tio n sh ip s w ith b o th A lg o n q u ia n m e n an d F re n c h m e n . T h e in ­

flu e n c e o f th e se w o m e n w a s n o t fe lt e v e ry w h e re ; n e c e ssa r ily , it w a s c o n fin e d

to g ro u p s in w h ic h th e Je s u it s h ad s u c c e e d e d in m a k in g a s ig n ific a n t n u m b e r

o f c o n v e rts : the H u r o n -P c t u n s , th e K is k a k o n O ttaw as, an d a b o v e all the

K a s k a s k ia s o f the Illin o is c o n fe d e ra t io n .32

T h e in flu e n c e o f C h r is t ia n w o m e n e m e rg e d m o st c le a r ly a m o n g the

Illin o is . In th e late se v e n te e n th an d e a r ly e ig h tee n th c e n tu r ie s , th ere w e re

s ig n s o f se x u a l c r is is a m o n g the Illin o is . T h e y h ad a b ad ly sk e w e d s e x ratio ,

w h ic h D e lic t tc , p ro b a b ly e x a g g e ra t in g , e x tim ate d at fo u r w o m e n to e ach

m an . T h e Illin o is th e m se lv e s th o u g h t that th e ir trad itio n a l m a rr ia g e p attern

w a s in d e cay , an d in F r e n c h a c c o u n ts , th ey c o m b in e d d ra c o n ia n p u n is h ­

m e n ts fo r a d u lte ry w ith w id e sp re a d se xu a l lia iso n s b e tw e e n F re n c h m a n an d

In d ia n w o m e n . B y 16 9 2 the Illin o is h ad la rg e ly a b a n d o n e d S ta rv e d R o c k an d

h ad b u ilt v illa g e s at the so u th e rn e n d o f L a k e P e o r ia , th u s c re a t in g a n e w

31 For references to sexual imbalance and soral polygamy, see Relation du voyage de Cavelier de la Salle, du 1 1 août 1680 à l’automne de 168 1. Margry, Découvertes, 2 :157 ; J R 54:219, 229; La Salle on the Illinois Country, 1680, JH C 23:10 . De Gannes (Deliette) Memoir, JH C 23:329. 54:219. For Jesuit attacks on polygamy and connections between polygamy and disease, etc., see J R 5 7 :2 15 - 19 ;^ /? 57 :2 3 1; J R 5 6 :113 . For renunciation of wives, see.//? 5 5 :12 9 - 3 1 . For decline of polygamy, see J R 6 1 : 1 3 12 ; J R 57 :231, 8 1. Emily J. Blasingham, “ The Depopulation of the Illinois Indians,’’ F.thnohistory 3 (Summer 1986): 38 6-8 7 .

32 J R 65:67, 79; Dc Gannes (Deliette) Memoir, IIIC 23 :361. For emphasis Jesuits placed on sexual conduct among Kiskakon Ottawas and Kaskaskias, sec J R 5 4 :17 9 -8 3 , and J R 65:67-69.

The middle ground

co lle c tio n o f v illa g e s at P im ito u i. T h e F r e n c h w h o a c c o m p a n ie d the Illin o is

h ad b u ilt the se c o n d F o rt S a in t L o u is n e a r th e se v illa g e s . P im ito u i a lso

se rv e d as the h e a d q u a rte rs fo r J e s u i t m iss io n activ ity a m o n g the Illin o is an d

su rro u n d in g n atio n s. F a th e r G r a v ie r , m iss io n ary to the Illin o is s in c e 16 8 8 o r

16 8 9 , e sta b lish e d a p e rm a n e n t m iss io n th ere in 16 9 3 . B y 16 9 6 the p r ie s t

e stim ate d th at o v e r the p re c e d in g s ix y e a rs he h ad b ap tized so m e tw o

th o u san d p e rso n s . E v e n a llo w in g fo r la rg e n u m b e rs o f d e a th b e d b a p tism s

an d b ap tism s o f in fan ts w h o d id n o t g ro w up to b e p ra c tic in g C a th o lic s , th is

is a su b stan tia l f ig u re . M u c h o f G r a v ie r ’s la stin g s u c c e ss took p lace am o n g

the Illin o is , p a rtic u la rly a m o n g the y o u n g w o m e n , w h o , a c c o rd in g to D e lie ttc ,

“ o ften p ro fit by th e ir te a ch in g an d m o ck at the su p e rstitio n s o f th e ir n ation .

T h is o ften g reatly in c e n se s the o ld m e n .” 13

B y the 16 9 0 s the d iffe re n tia l se xu a l a p p ea l o f C a th o lic te a c h in g b e g a n to

h ave s ig n ific a n t re p e rc u ss io n s a m o n g th e Illin o is . T h is , in tu rn , in flu e n c e d

th e w a y the F r e n c h an d Illin o is so c ie t ie s w e re lin k e d . J e s u it te a c h in g a m o n g

the Illin o is in th e 16 9 0 s s tre sse d the cu lt o f the V irg in M a r y , an d w ith it

cam e a h eav y e m p h a sis o n ch astity an d v irg in ity . T h is s tre ss on a p o w e r fu l

fe m ale re lig io u s f ig u re , w h o se p o w e r , lik e th at o f the Je s u it s , w a s co n n e c te d

w ith se xu a l a b stin e n c e , a ttracted a c o n g re g a tio n c o m p o se d la rg e ly o f w o m e n ,

p articu la rly y o u n g w o m e n an d o ld e r g ir ls . M o w th ese y o u n g w o m e n u n d e r ­

stood C h ris t ia n ity an d the cu lt o f th e V irg in is n o t e n tire ly c le a r . T h e y m ay

h ave id e n tifie d it in te rm s o f w o m e n ’s r itu a l o rg an iza tio n s, b u t g iven th e ir

te n d e n cy to m o c k Illin o is trad itio n s, th ey a lso c le a r ly sa w it in o p p o sitio n to

e x istin g re lig io u s p ra c tic e s . D u r in g a p e r io d o f w a rfa re , d ire c t c u ltu ra l

c h a lle n g e b y the Je s u it s , p o p u la tio n d e c lin e , an d , i f F r e n c h a c c o u n ts are

c o rre c t , w id e sp re a d v io le n c e o f m en ag a in st w o m e n , the actio n s o f th ese

w o m e n h ad d ire c t so c ia l an d c u ltu ra l im p lica tio n s . W o m e n to ok the c o m m o n

A lg o n q u ia n d ic tu m that u n m a rrie d w o m e n w e re “ m a ste rs o f th eir ow n

b o d y ” an d ju stifie d n ot se x u a l e xp e rim e n ta tio n b u t se xu a l a b stin e n c e . T h e y

th en a ssa y e d the re lig io u s p o w e rs th ey d e riv e d fro m p ra y e r an d C a th o lic

d o ctrin e ag a in st th e p o w e rs th e e ld e rs d e riv e d fro m v is io n s an d trad itio n . 33

33 De Gannes (Deiiette) Memoir, IH C 23 :329 -30 , 3 3 5 -3 7 ; Joutel Memoir, in Cox (ed.), Journeys o f L a S a lle , 2:222. Emily Blasingham estimates the ratio o f adult warriors to the rest o f the population at 1:3 .17 which obviously would not allow for Deiiette’s estimate, but her estimate is perhaps even more of a guess than his. Blasingham, “ Depopulation o f the Illinois,” 364. For village sites, see J . Joe Bauxar, “ The Historic Period,” in Elaine Bluhm (ed.), Illinois Archaeology Bulletin No. 1 , Illinois Archaeological Survey, Urbana (Carbondale, 111.: Southern Illinois University Press, 1959), 49. For Gravier’s mission, see Mary Borgian Palm, “ The Jesuit Missions of the Illinois Country (16 7 3 -17 6 3 ) ,” Ph.D. diss., St. Louis University, 19 31 (Cleveland, privately printed, Sisters o f Notre Dame, 1931), 22, 24 -25 . For Father Gravier’s claim of baptism, see J R 65:33. For conflict, see J R 65:67, and Fr, Rale quoted in Mary Elizabeth Good, “ The Guebert Site: An Eighteenth-Century Historic Kaskaskia Indian Village in Randolph County, Illinois,” Central States Archaeological Societies M em oir, 2 (n.p., 1972), 14.

The middle ground 67

68

T h e ir a c tio n s o u trag e d b o th the y o u n g m en , w h o fo u n d th e ir o w n se xu a l

o p p o rtu n itie s d im in ish e d , an d the e ld e rs an d sh a m a n s w h o w e re d ire c d y

c h a lle n g e d .33 34 35

In th is d isp u te , C h r is t ia n ity an d the A lg o n q m a n s ’ so c ia l an d c u ltu ra l

w o rld w e re b e c o m in g p art o f a s in g le fie ld o f ac tio n , an d the o u tco m e

in flu e n c e d n o t ju st A lg o n q u ia n b u t a lso F r e n c h so c ie ty . F re n c h m e n in the

W e st w e re n o m o re e n th u sia stic a b o u t the n ew C h r is t ia n in flu e n c e a m o n g

Illin o is w o m e n than w e re Illin o is m en . F r e n c h m e n , too , re se n te d the n e w

ab ility o f J e s u it s , th ro u g h th e ir in flu e n c e o v e r w o m e n , to co n tro l the se xu a l

lives o f the c o u re u rs d e b o is an d th e v o y a g e u rs . T h e i r re se n tm e n t w e n t

b e y o n d th is.

J e s u i t in flu e n c e th re a te n e d n o t o n ly se x u a l activ ity b u t a lso th e ab ility o f

tra d e rs an d c o u re u rs d e bo is to c re a te the tie s to A lg o n q u ia n so ciety on

w h ic h th e ir tra d e , an d p e rh a p s th e ir liv e s , d e p e n d e d . T h e c r it ic a l issu e h ere

w a s n ot c a su a l lia iso n s , b u t m a rr ia g e . F o rm a l m a rr ia g e s b e tw e e n In d ia n

w o m e n an d F r e n c h m e n w e re q u ite ra re d u rin g th e se v e n te e n th cen tu ry .

M a rr ia g e à la façon du pays, that is , a c c o rd in g to lo ca l A lg o n q u ia n c u sto m ,

m ay h ave o c c u rre d , b u t th ere a re fe w re fe re n c e s to in te rra c ia l m a rr ia g e o f

a n y k in d u n til the 16 9 0 s . In 16 9 8 F a th e r S t . C o s m e m e n tio n e d v o y a g e u rs

w ith Illin o is w iv e s , an d ab o u t th e sam e tim e F a t h e r C a rh e il m e n tio n e d o th e r

v o y a g e u rs at M ic h ilim a c k in a c w h o h ad m a rr ie d a m o n g the In d ia n s . In

th eo ry , the Je s u it s an d th e co lo n ia l e lite in g e n e ra l m ig h t h ave b e e n e xp e cte d

to a p p ro v e m a rria g e b e tw e e n F re n c h m e n an d In d ian w o m e n as an a lte rn a ­

tive to th e u n re g u la te d se xu a l re la tio n sh ip s o f th e pays d ’en haut. A lo n g the

sam e lin e , the F r e n c h v o y a g e u rs , o p e ra tin g in a w o r ld o f a b u n d a n t se xu a l

o p p o rtu n itie s , m ig h t h ave b e e n e x p e c te d to b e in d iffe re n t to fo rm a l co n ju g a l

ties. In fac t, h o w e v e r, th e ir p o s it io n s w e re n e a rly th e o p p o site d u rin g the

16 9 0 s . T h e se e m in g ly su d d e n rise o f in te rra c ia l m a rr ia g e s in the 16 9 0 s m ay

be co n n e c te d w ith the in c re a s in g ly se r io u s attem p ts o f the F r e n c h to fo rc e

the c o u re u rs d e b o is o u t o f th e pays d ’en haut. T h e s e c u lm in a te d in the

F r e n c h a b a n d o n m e n t o f m o st w e ste rn p o sts in the late 16 9 0 s . T h r o u g h

m a rr ia g e , the c o u re u rs d e b o is m ay h ave b e e n a tte m p tin g to e sta b lish the

n e c e ssa ry kin c o n n e c tio n s w ith In d ia n s that w o u ld b e v ita l to the ab ility o f

an y F re n c h m a n to re m a in sa fe ly in the W e st.

33 For Virgin Mary, see J R 59:187; 193, 201, 207, J R 6 3 :2 17 - 19 . For opposition of young men, see J R 65:67.

35 For marriages, seejfR 65:241 , J R 65:69; St. Cosme, in Kellogg (ed.), Narratives, 251. The best work on intermarriage on the Great Lakes is by Jacqueline Peterson, “ Prelude to Red River: A Social Portrait of the Great Lakes Metis,” Ethnohistoty 25 (1978): 4 1-6 8 . For intermarriage in the Northwest, see Olive Dickason, “ From One Nation in the Northeast to New Nation in the Northwest: A Look at the Emergence of the Metis” in Jacqueline Peterson and Jennifer S. H. Brown, The New Peoples: Being and Becoming Metis in North America (Lincoln: University o f Nebraska Press, 1985). Interracial marriage within the later

The middle ground

S u c h a ttem p ts m et w ith c o n s id e ra b le sym p ath y fro m F r e n c h co m m a n d e rs ,

u su a lly w ith trad in g in te re sts o f th e ir o w n , w h o w e re re sp o n s ib le n o t fo r

la rg e r p o lic ie s bu t fo r d a y - to -d a y re la tio n s w ith the In d ia n s . B o th H e n ry d e

T o n t i an d the S ie u r d e la F o r e s t at F o r t S a in t L o u is su p p o rte d a ttem p ts to

fo rtify ties w ith the Illin o is th ro u g h in te rm a rr ia g e . C a d il la c ’ s p lan fo r D e tro it

in the e a r ly e ig h tee n th ce n tu ry in c lu d e d the p ro m o tio n o f m a rr ia g e s b e tw e e n

so ld ie rs an d In d ia n w o m e n . H e e x p la in e d : “ M a r r ia g e s o f th is k in d w ill

stre n g th e n th e fr ie n d sh ip o f th ese tr ib e s , as th e a llia n c e s o f the R o m a n s

p e rp e tu a te d p e a c e w ith the S a b in e s th ro u g h the in terve n tio n o f the w o m e n

w h o m the fo rm e r h ad taken fro m the o th e rs .” 36

In d ia n s , lik e the c o m m a n d e rs , sa w m a rr ia g e as an in teg ra l p a r t o f th e ir

a llian ce w ith the F r e n c h . M a le h e a d s o f fa m ilie s , at le ast, g re e te d m a rria g e s

e n th u siastica lly . M a rr ia g e , far m o re th an the p re v a ilin g F r e n c h lia iso n s w ith

h u n tin g w o m e n , p u t se x firm ly in the p o litica l a ren a . A s b o th s id e s re c o g ­

n ized , m a rr ia g e w a s an a llia n ce b e tw e e n fam ilie s that c o n c e rn e d m an y m o re

p e o p le than the m arita l p a rtn e rs . N o t o n ly d id p ro p e rty m ove in to the h a n d s

o f th e b r id e ’s fam ily , b u t k in sh ip re la tio n s w e re e s ta b lish e d that e n a b le d b oth

fa m ilie s to ca ll on th e ir re la tiv e s fo r aid and p ro te c tio n . B e c a u s e o f the w id e r

so cia l im p lica tio n s o f m a rr ia g e , as c o m p a re d to re la tio n s w ith h u n tin g

w o m e n , a w o m an fo u n d h e r fa m ily m u ch m o re in te re ste d in h e r ch o ice o f a

p e rm a n e n t F r e n c h p a rtn e r than in h e r c a su a l lia iso n s.

Je s u it s an d h ig h e r F r e n c h o ffic ia ls , h o w e v e r, w e re u n e n th u sia stic ab o u t

m arr ia g e b o th b e c a u se it g ave v o y a g e u rs an d c o u re u rs d e b o is an in d e p e n ­

d en t h o ld in the pays d ’en haut an d a lso fo r ra c is t re a so n s . T h e Je s u it s d id n ot

fa v o r in te rra c ia l m a rr ia g e in the se v e n te e n th ce n tu ry . T h e i r p re fe r re d

so lu tio n to the p ro b le m s o f se x u a l m o ra lity w a s to b a n ish m o st F re n c h m e n

fro m the u p p e r co u n try an d to p la c e th o se w h o re m a in e d u n d e r stric t J e s u it

su p e rv is io n . G r a d u a lly , h o w e v e r, the Je s u it s an d o th e r p r ie s ts in u p p e r

The middle ground 69

fur trade has been the subject o f two recent books, but both studies look at situations significantly different from those o f the late seventeenth-century West, where many of the earliest Catholic marriages were solemnized by priests. See Sylvia Van Kirk, M any Tender Ties: Women in Fu r-T rade Society, 16 7 0 -18 7 0 (Norman: University o f Oklahoma Press, 1980), and Jennifer S. Brown, Strangers in the Blood: F u r Trade Company Fam ilies in Indian Country (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980).

36 J R 6 4 :20 1-0 3 ; Cadillac to Minister, 18 Oct. 1700, M P IIC 1 33:189. For Cadillac’s later opposition, see Mariage des français avec les sauvagesses, 1 sept. 17 16 , AN, C 13A , v. 4, f- 255.

Who was commanding at Fort. St. Louis in the Illinois at the time is unclear. Tonti was there in April 1694, Declaration de Henri de Tonti, 1 1 avril 1694, AN, C 13A , Louisiana, v. 1 (fol, 27), but in the fall of 1693 he was in Montreal. Engagement ofViau to La Forest and Tonti, Sept. 1 1 , 1693, IH C 2 3 :2 7 3-7 5 . Given the absence of Tonti and La Forest, Deliettc may have been in command.

37 J R 64:195, 197, 207, 2 1 1 . Quaife (ed.), The Western Country, 39, 45; Perrot, M em oir, 64-69; Lafitau, Customs, 1 :3 3 6 -3 7 .

70

L o u is ia n a cam e to co n d o n e in te rra c ia l m a rr ia g e i f the w ife w a s C a th o lic . O f

tw e n ty -o n e b a p tism s re c o rd e d at the F r e n c h v illa g e o f K a s k a s k ia b e tw e e n

1 7 0 4 an d 1 7 1 3 , the m o th e r w as In d ia n an d the fa th e r w a s F r e n c h in

e ig h te e n c a s e s . In 1 7 1 4 , the S ie u r d e la V e n te , the c u ré fo r L o u is ia n a ,

p ra ise d in te rm a rr ia g e as a w a y to p e o p le the co lo n y . H e c o n te n d e d th at the

w o m e n o f the Illin o is an d n e ig h b o r in g tr ib e s w e re “ w h ite r , m o re la b o rio u s ,

m o re ad ro it , b e tte r h o u se k e e p e rs , an d m o re d o c ile ” th an In d ia n w o m e n

fo u n d e lse w h e re in the W e st an d the S o u th .38

L e a d in g co lo n ia l o ffic ia ls w e re m u c h m o re c o n siste n t in th e ir o p p o sitio n

to in te rm a rr ia g e th an the p r ie s ts w e re . In C a n a d a th ey p re fe r re d that

F re n c h m e n m a rry an d se ttle a ro u n d Q u e b e c o r M o n tre a l. A s lo n g as o ffic ia l

p o lic y in vo lved th e su p p re ss io n o f the c o u re u rs d e b o is an d th e ir rem o va l

fro m the W e st, o ffic ia ls c o u ld n o t b e o p e n ly e n th u sia stic a b o u t m a rr ia g e s

th e re . T h e y c o u p le d su ch p o lic y c o n s id e ra tio n s w ith ra c is t d isg u st at the

re su lts o f F r e n c h - In d ia n in te rm a rr ia g e . A s G o v e rn o r d e V a u d re u il e x ­

p la in e d in o p p o s in g in te rra c ia l m a rr ia g e at D e tro it in 1 7 0 9 : “ B a d sh o u ld

n e v e r b e m ix e d w ith g o o d . O u r e x p e r ie n c e o f th em in th is c o u n try o u g h t to

p re v e n t u s fro m p e rm ittin g m a rr ia g e s o f th is k in d , fo r all the F re n c h m e n

w h o h ave m a rr ie d sa v a g e s h ave b e e n lice n tio u s, lazy an d in to le ra b ly in ­

d e p e n d e n t; an d th e ir c h ild re n h ave b e e n c h a ra c te r iz e d b y as g re a t a s lo th fu l­

n e ss as th e sa v a g e s th e m se lv e s .” B y the tim e he w as g o v e rn o r o f L o u is ia n a ,

C a d illa c , w h o h a d o n c e a d v o c a te d in te rm a rr ia g e , an d h is in ten d an t, D u c lo s ,

o p p o se d in te rm a rr ia g e in the sam e te rm s. In d ia n w o m e n w e r e , th e y sa id ,

lic e n tio u s an d w o u ld le av e m en w h o d id n o t p le a se th em , an d even i f the

m a rria g e la ste d , th e re su lt w o u ld b e a p o p u la tio n o f “ m u la tto s [mulâtres], id le rs , lib e rtin e s , an d even m o re k n av e s th an [there] a re in the S p a n is h

c o lo n ic s .” 39

G iv e n th is ra n g e o f so c ia l an d cu ltu ra l c o n c e rn s , the d iv is io n s w ith in e ach

so c ie ty , an d the in ev itab ility o f m e m b e rs o f both so c ie t ie s b e in g in teg ra l

fig u re s in d e c id in g o u tc o m e s, it is n o t su rp r is in g th at the p ro sp e c t o f a

m a rr ia g e b e tw e e n a C h r is t ia n Illin o is w o m a n and a F re n c h m a n p re c ip ita te d

a c r is is that w a s u ltim ate ly d e c id e d on the m id d le g ro u n d . In 1 6 9 4 M ic h e l

A c c a u lt ’s a tte m p t to w e d A ra m e p in c h ie u e b ro u g h t to lig h t b o th the fu ll

The middle ground

For official attitudes toward marriage, see Jaenen, Friend and Foe, 164. For Father de la Vente, sec Mariage des français avec les sauvagesses, 1 sept. 17 16 , AN, Ci3.A, v. 4. For banishment and supervision, s te J R 6 5 :233-4 5 . For baptism, see Faim, “Jesuit Missions,” 43~ 45-

' For governor’s opposition, see Vaudreuil and Raudot to Minister, Nov. 14, 1709, M PH C 33:454. For Duclos and Cadillac, see Mariage des français avec les sauvagesses, 1 sept. 17 16 , AN, C i 3 A, v, 4, f. 255, For renewed concern in 1730, see Bienville et Salmon au Ministre, 16 mai 1735, AN, C 13A , v. 20, f. 85. Mémoire concernant les Illinois, 1732 AN, F3, v.24.

The middle ground 7 i

This sketch of about 1700 by Decard dc Granville shows a tatooed Sioux chief with a calumet. (New York Public Library)

co m p lex ity o f the re la tio n s b e tw e e n the tw o so c ie t ie s an d the p ro c e sse s b y

w h ich the m id d le g ro u n d w a s e m e rg in g .

T h e c o n tro v e rsy o ve r the m arria g e o f A c c a u lt an d A r a m e p in d iie u e d id

not p it the Illin o is ag a in st the F r e n c h . R a th e r , it d iv id e d each g ro u p in a w ay

that can o n ly b e g ra sp e d by lo o k in g at the so c ia l p o sitio n s o f the b r id e and

the g ro o m . A ra m e p in c h ie u e w as the d a u g h te r o f R o u e n s a , a le a d in g

K a s k a s k ia c h ie f. S h e w a s a fe rv e n t C h r is t ia n an d the p r id e o f the Illin o is

m iss io n . M ic h e l A c c a u lt w a s a F re n c h m a n w h o h ad first c o m e w e s t w ith L a

S a lle . H e h ad la te r a c c o m p a n ie d F a th e r H e n n e p in o n h is vo y a g e to the

S io u x . A fte r w a r d , he h ad trad e d w id e ly in the W e st an d h ad e s ta b lish e d a

re p u ta tio n a m o n g the Je s u it s as a lib e rtin e an d an e n e m y o f the fa ith .

A ra m e p in c h ie u e th u s h ad lin k s b o th w ith the K a s k a s k ia e lite an d F a th e r

G r a v ie r . A c c a u lt w a s le a g u e d w ith H e n ry de T o n t i an d the F re n c h m e n

a ro u n d h im at F o r t S a in t L o u is an d w a s an e n em y o f G r a v ie r ’ s. H is m a rr ia g e

w ith A ra m e p in c h ie u e w o u ld stre n g th e n the c o n n e c tio n s o f a p ro m in e n t

K a s k a s k ia fa m ily w ith the F r e n c h to the b e n e fit o f b o th . R o u e n s a a n n o u n ce d

the m a rr ia g e in p re c is e ly th o se te rm s. H e w a s s tre n g th e n in g h is a llia n ce w ith

the F r e n c h .40

T h e p ro b le m w a s that th is p ro p o se d u n io n , w h ile it m ig h t lin k F r e n c h and

A lg o n q u ia n s , a lso e m p h a siz e d the in tern a l d iv is io n s w ith in e ac h g ro u p .

A ra m e p in c h ie u e re fu se d to m a rry A c c a u lt . F a th e r G r a v ie r su p p o rte d h e r

d e c is io n . H is im m e d ia te ta rg e t w a s A c c a u lt . H e w o u ld n o t san ctio n the

in flu e n c e w ith in In d ia n so c ie ty o f a F re n c h m a n he re g a rd e d as d isso lu te . H e

m ig h t g ru d g in g ly p e rm it the m a rria g e o f C a th o lic F r e n c h m e n w ith C h ris t ia n

In d ian w o m e n , b u t h e w o u ld d o so o n ly in c irc u m sta n c e s that w o u ld ad van ce

th e c a u se o f th e tru e fa ith . H e to ld A ra m e p in c h ie u e ^ p a re n ts an d h e r su ito r

that “ G o d d id n o t co m m a n d h e r n o t to m a rry , b u t a lso that sh e c o u ld n o t be

fo rc e d to d o so ; that sh e a lo n e w a s m istre ss to d o the o n e o r the o th e r .”

G r a v ie r ’ s sta te m e n t d e m o n stra te s that n o m atte r h o w re p re ss iv e C a th o lic

m o ra lity m ay a p p e a r in re tro sp e c t, it c o u ld be u sed to b u ttre ss w o m e n ’s

in flu e n c e o v e r th e ir lives an d th e ir fa m ilie s . W o m en lik e A ra m e p in c h ie u e

h ad a lw ays h ad so m e c o n tro l o v e r th e ir c h o ice o f m a rr ia g e p a r tn e rs , but

C h r is t ia n ity p re se n te d th em w ith a n e w m e c h a n ism o f c o n tro l. W h a t m ad e

th is u n iq u e w as n o t the w o m a n ’s ab ility to re je c t u n w an ted su ito rs b u t,

ra th e r, the a llie s w h o c o u ld b e m u ste re d to m ain tain h e r d e c is io n aga in st

fa m ily p r e s s u r e s .41

In o n e se n se , A ra m e p in c h ie u e ’s d e c is io n re p re se n ts a c le a r re je c tio n o f

A lg o n q u ia n n o rm s an d an a p p e a l to an a lie n se t o f s ta n d a rd s , b u t in an o th e r

se n se A ra m e p in c h ie u e w a s a p p e a lin g to su ch sta n d a rd s o n ly to s tre n g th e n a

v e ry A lg o n q u ia n se n se o f a w o m a n ’ s au to n o m y. G r a v ie r ’ s a sse rtio n that sh e

w a s “ m istre ss to d o e ith e r the o n e o r the o th e r” d id , a fte r a ll, e c h o the

A lg o n q u ia n te n e t that u n m a rrie d w o m e n w e re “ m a ste rs ” o f th e ir ow n

b o d ie s . G r a v ie r , w h o so u g h t to su b v e rt trad itio n a l I llin o is se x u a l p ra c tic e s

40 For Accault, sce J R 64:213, 180. For Aramepinchieue and Rouensa, see J R 64 :179—81, 19 3 -2 3 7 . Aramepinchieue took the Christian name Mary or Marie; see Palm, “Jesuit Missions,” 38.

41 J R 64 :205-07, 2 13 , 280. J R 6 4 :2 11, 195. For Aramepinchieue, see J R 6 4 :19 3-9 5 , 205-07, 213-29.

72 The middle ground

b e c a u se th ey co n tra d ic te d C a th o lic ism , and A ra m e p in c h ie u e , w h o u sed

C a th o lic ism to m ain ta in the v a lu e s that su p p o rte d th o se sam e p ra c tic e s , th u s

fo u n d th e m se lv e s a llie s . B y d e fin itio n , th en - the in v o lv e m e n t o f both

F r e n c h an d In d ia n s , the n e e d fo r m e m b e rs o f e a c h g ro u p to g e t a ss is ta n ce

fro m m e m b e rs o f the o th e r to fu lfill d e s ire s a r is in g w ith in th e ir o w n so c iety ,

an d the in ab ility o f e ith e r F r e n c h o r In d ia n n o rm s to g o v ern the situ atio n -

th is w a s a c o n flic t o f th e m id d le g ro u n d .

T h e in itia l re su lt o f the b r id e ’ s re fu sa l w as a s ta n d o ff, w h ic h b o th R o u e n s a

an d th e F r e n c h c o m m a n d e r tr ie d to b re a k w ith the lim ited c o e rc iv e m e a n s

ava ilab le to th em . R o u e n s a d ro v e A ra m e p in c h ie u e fro m h is h o u se , b u t sh e

w as p ro tecte d by F a th e r G r a v ie r , w h o se c u re d h e r sh e lte r w ith a n eo p h yte

fam ily . H e r re je c tio n o f h e r p a r e n ts ’ w ish e s p a in e d h e r d e e p ly , b u t sh e

ju stifie d h e r actio n s b y a p p e a ls to C a th o lic d o c trin e . T h e c h ie fs in c o u n c il

re ta lia te d by a tte m p tin g to h a lt C a th o lic se rv ic e s at th e c h a p e l. A t le ast fifty

p e rso n s , v irtu a lly all o f th em w o m e n an d g ir ls , p e rs is te d in g o in g to c h u rc h .

T h e c o u n c il th en (a lth o u g h th ey d e n ie d it) a p p e a rs to h ave d isp a tch ed a

w a rr io r a rm e d w ith a c lu b to d isru p t the se rv ic e s . T h e w o m e n d e fie d h im .

A m o n g the Illin o is , the o p p o s in g s id e s h ad c le a r ly fo rm e d a lo n g g e n d e r

lin es. N o t a ll o f the w o m e n a b a n d o n e d the c h ie fs , b u t C h r is t ia n ity w as, fo r

the m o m en t, a w o m e n ’s re lig io u s so c ie ty actin g in d e fia n c e o f a m ale co u n cil.

A m o n g th e F r e n c h , th e d iv is io n w a s n e c e ssa r ily a m o n g m a le s . T h e F r e n c h

c o m m a n d e r, fa r fro m sto p p in g th is in te r fe re n c e w ith th e m iss io n , g lo a te d

o v e r it an d d e n o u n c e d G r a v ie r p u b lic ly b e fo re b o th the F r e n c h an d the

In d ia n s. W h e n th ese tactics fa ile d to sw ay the p rie st, n e ith e r the c o m m a n d e r

n o r R o u e n s a fe lt c o n fid e n t e n o u g h to esca la te th e le v e l o f v io le n c e , a lth o u g h

the K a s k a s k ia s le ft th e o p tio n o f fu rth e r c o e rc io n o p e n .42

S u c h a f a c e - o f f d id not se rv e the in tere sts o f e ith e r s id e . A ra m e p in c h ie u e

w a s in tu rm o il o v e r h e r a lie n atio n fro m h er p a re n ts , to w h o m sh e w as c lo se ly

a ttach ed . G r a v ie r fo u n d fu rth e r m iss io n ary activ itie s v irtu a lly im p o ssib le in

the face o f co u n c il o p p o sitio n , w h ic h th re a ten ed to c o n fin e h is p ro m is in g

m iss io n to a b e s ie g e d g ro u p o f y o u n g w o m e n an d g ir ls . O n the o th er h an d ,

G r a v ie r an d the b r id e to g e th e r b lo c k e d a m arr ia g e th at b o th the K a s k a s k ia s

an d th e F r e n c h d e e p ly w an ted .

T h e situ atio n , in the e n d , w a s so lv e d b y a se r ie s o f tra d e -o ffs .

A ra m e p in c h ie u e , in e ffe c t , n e g o tia te d a co m p ro m ise w ith h e r fa th er. S h e

to ld G r a v ie r , “ I th in k th at i f I c o n se n t to the m a rr ia g e , h e w ill lis ten to y o u in

e a rn e st , an d w ill in d u ce a ll to d o s o ,” an d sh e c o n se n te d to the m arriag e on

the te rm s that h e r p a re n ts , in tu rn , “ g ran t m e w h at I a s k .” T h e y a g re e d .

R o u e n s a d isav o w e d h is o p p o sitio n to C h r is t ia n ity in fu ll c o u n c il an d u rg e d

th o se p re se n t to “ o b e y n o w the b la c k g o w n .” H is a g re e m e n t w a s s in c e re ,

The middle ground 73

42 JR 6 4 : 1 9 5 - 2 0 5 .

an d h e an d h is w ife b e g a n in stru ctio n fo r b ap tism . A c c a u lt , to o , b e c a m e a

p ra c tic in g C a th o lic o n c e m o re an d an a lly o f the J e s u i t s ’ . In re tu rn , the

K a s k a s k ia c h ie f, as he in fo rm e d the o th e r h e a d m e n o f the c o n fe d e ra tio n

w ith c o n s id e ra b le p re se n ts , w a s “ ab o u t to b e a llie d to a F r e n c h m a n .” 43

T h e m a rr ia g e , th e re fo re , w a s a g re a t co u p fo r G r a v ie r . It b ro u g h t in to the

c h u rc h the m o st p ro m in e n t K a s k a s k ia civ il le a d e r an d h is b ro th e r , an e q u a lly

p ro m in e n t w a r le a d e r , an d o p e n e d the w a y fo r m a k in g the K a s k a s k ia s the

m ost C a th o lic o f the w e ste rn A lg o n q u ia n s . T h e m a in a g e n t in th ese even ts

w a s a s e v e n te e n -y e a r -o ld w o m a n w h o a p p e a le d to a lie n s ta n d a rd s both to

co n tro l h e r c o n d itio n a n d , e ve n tu a lly , to a lte r the c o n d itio n o f h e r n atio n . B y

1 7 1 1 th e K a s k a s k ia s w e re su p p o se d ly v irtu a lly a ll C a th o lic , an d m iss io n a r ie s

h ad m ad e s ig n ific a n t in ro a d s a m o n g o th e r I llin o is g ro u p s . A ra m e p in c h ie u e

h ad m ain ta in e d an d s tre n g th e n e d th e re la tio n sh ip s th at m a tte re d m o st to h e r

- th o se w ith h e r p are n ts an d the C h r is t ia n c o n g re g a tio n o f w o m e n . T h e

p r ic e w a s m a rr ia g e to A c c a u lt , b u t th is m ay v e ry w e ll h ave re m a in e d fo r h e r a

s u b s id ia ry so c ia l a rra n g e m e n t. C h ris t ia n ity d id n o t im m e d ia te ly tran sfo rm

m a rr ia g e . F r e n c h o ffic ia ls w o u ld la te r c la im that C h r is t ia n Illin o is w o m e n

le ss d e v o u t th an A ra m e p in c h ie u e still fe lt fre e to le av e th e ir F r e n c h h u s ­

b a n d s w h e n e v e r th ey c h o se .44

W o m e n lik e A ra m e p in c h ie u e a re ra re ly v is ib le in the d o c u m e n ts , b u t th e ir

trac e s a p p e a r e v e ry w h e re . D ip lo m a tic n e g o tia tio n s an d w a r fa re , the la rg e

trad in g e xp e d itio n s , th e se w e re the w o rk o f m e n , b u t the F re n c h m e n w h o

a p p e a re d in A lg o n q u ia n v illa g e s e ith e r trav e le d w ith A lg o n q u ia n w o m e n o r

h ad lia iso n s w ith th em th e re . M u c h o f th e ir p etty tra d in g w a s p ro b ab ly w ith

w o m e n . T h e la b o r th ey p u rc h a se d w as u su a lly that o f w o m e n . O n a d a y -to -

d ay b asis , w o m e n d id m o re th an m e n to w e a v e the F r e n c h in to the fa b ric o f a

c o m m o n A lg o n q u ia n -F r e n c h life . B o th in an d o u t o f m a rr ia g e , th e se w o m e n

b o re c h ild re n w ith th e F r e n c h , so m e o f w h o m in tim e w o u ld c o m e to fo rm a

se p a ra te p e o p le , the métis, w h o th e m se lv e s m e d ia te d b e tw e e n F r e n c h an d

A lg o n q u ia n s an d b e ca m e o f c ritica l im p o rtan ce to the a re a .

G r a v ie r h im s e lf w o u ld co n tin u e to m ak e h is g re a te st g a in s a m o n g the

w o m e n o f the Illin o is , b u t in o th e r tr ib e s o f the c o n fe d e ra tio n he w o u ld not

a c q u ire a llie s o f th e statu s o f A ra m e p in c h ie u e . In 1 7 0 6 G r a v ie r re tu rn e d to

P im ito u i. T h e K a s k a s k ia s h ad b y n o w le ft to re se ttle o n th e M is s is s ip p i, the

F r e n c h h ad a b a n d o n e d F o r t S a in t L o u is , an d the P e o r ia s w h o re m a in e d at

the site re se n te d G r a v ie r ’ s a g g re ss iv e tactics e n o u g h to attack h im p h ysica lly .

43 For Aramepinchieue quotations, see J R 64:207-9 ; otherwise, J R 64:179, 2 13 , 2 1 1 . 44 J R 6 4 :79 -8 1, 2 3 1 - 3 5 ; Palm, “Jesuit Missions,” 38; André Penicault, Fleu r de Lys and

Calum et: Being the Penicault N arrative o f French Adventure in Louisiana, ed, Richebourg Gaillard McWilliams (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1953), 139 -4 0 . For claims of success among other Illinois nations, see Callières et de Champigny au Ministre, 18 oct. 1700, AN, C i 1 A, v. 18.

74 The middle ground

T h e y w o u n d e d him an d , re v e a lin g ly , le ft h im in the ca re o f “ so m e p ra y in g

w o m e n ” u n til K a s k a s k ia s se n t b y R o u e n s a re sc u e d the p rie st. F a th e r

G r a v ie r n e v e r fu lly re c o v e re d fro m h is w o u n d s , an d e v e n tu a lly he d ie d o f

co m p lica tio n s. H is d e a th , a re m in d e r o f h ow ten tative an d te n u o u s the

m id d le g ro u n d c o u ld b e , a lso s e rv e s a s a tran sitio n to the se c o n d issu e

d e m a n d in g F r c n c h -A lg o n q u ia n co o p e ra tio n - v io le n c e an d in te rra c ia l

m u rd e r .43

The middle ground 75

Ill

A lth o u g h not all m u rd e rs , as the k illin g o f F a th e r G r a v ie r d e m o n stra te s , g re w

o u t o f the trad e , v io le n c e an d in te rra c ia l m u rd e r as a w h o le w e re in e x tr ic a b ly

b o u n d up w ith c o m m e rc e . In 16 8 4 a lo n e , the o n ly y e a r fo r w h ich a su m m a ry

is g iven , th irty -n in e F re n c h m e n trad in g in the W e st d ie d at the h a n d s o f

th e ir A lg o n q u ia n a llie s . In d ia n s m u rd e re d F r e n c h m e n d u rin g ro b b e rie s ,

k illed th em in d isp u tes o v e r d e b t o r g ift e x c h a n g e s , a ttack ed th em in

a ttem p ts to sto p w e a p o n s from g o in g to th e ir e n e m ie s , k ille d th em to ave n g e

k illin g s b y the F r e n c h , a n d , as the liq u o r trad e e x p a n d e d , k illed th em in

d ru n k en q u a rre ls . T h e F r e n c h , in tu rn , u se d fo rc e ag a in st th ieves, w h ich d id

n o t p re v e n t th e ft fro m b e c o m in g as e s ta b lish e d a p art o f the e x c h a n g e as g ifts

o r b a rg a in in g .45 46

C o m m e rc e , in sh o rt, w a s n o t a p e a c e fu l p ro c e s s ; v io le n c e w as an o p tio n

b o th fo r a c q u ir in g g o o d s an d fo r p ro te c tin g th em . In p art, v io le n c e w a s so

p re v a le n t in the e a r ly trad e b e ca u se c o m m o n a g re e m e n t on the n a tu re o f the

e xch a n g e it s e lf d e v e lo p e d o n ly g ra d u a lly . F re n c h m e n d id n ot a lw ays m e e t

In d ia n d e m an d s fo r g ifts ; th ey d id n o t act a s g e n e ro u s ly a s fr ie n d s an d a llie s

sh o u ld ; they, as the In d ia n s so o n d isc o v e re d , a sk e d m o re fo r th e ir g o o d s

th an the E n g lish a sk e d ; an d fin a lly , F re n c h m e n su p p lie d a rm s to th e ir a llie s ’

e n e m ie s . T h e In d ia n s , in tu rn , sto le . F r e n c h trad e rs re a d ily c la ss ifie d

A lg o n q u ia n n atio n s b y th e ir p ro p e n sity to ste a l. T h e F o x w e re th ie v in g ; the

Illin o is c a rr ie d o f f e v e ry th in g th e y c o u ld lay th e ir h a n d s o n ; the C h ip p e w a s

on the n o rth sh o re o f L a k e S u p e r io r w o u ld p illa g e a n y F r e n c h can o e th ey

45 J R 65:10 1 -0 3 ; Palm, “Jesuit Missions,” 36, 47; Blasingham, “ Depopulation o f the Illinois,” 201; Bauxar, “ Historic Period,” 49. For Gravier, sec J R 6 6 :5 1-6 3 .

46 Some historians continue to divide Indian-white relations between peaceful commerce and violent conflict. For such a position, see Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Em pire (New York: W. W. Norton, 1984), 83. In fact, violence cannot be separated from the trade. The larger question o f the role of violence in commerce has recently been raised by Curtin, C ross-C ultural Trade, 4 1- 4 5 . It is a question still illuminated by the work o f Frederic Lane, Venice and History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966), 4 12 -2 8 ; see, par­ ticularly, the “ Economic Consequences o f Organized Violence.” For the number of murders, see Raisons qu’on a proposée a la Cour, 1687?, AN, C l 1 A, v. 15, f. 271.

c a u g h t a lo n e . T h e S a u k s w e re a lso th ie v e s , b u t th ey d id n o t h ave the sk ill o f

the n e ig h b o r in g F o x . W h en the F r e n c h w e re su p p ly in g the S io u x , sm a ll-

sc a le th e ft g av e w a y to o rg an iz e d p lu n d e r , so that F a t h e r N o u v e l th o u g h t no

F r e n c h m a n ’ s life w a s sa fe jo u rn e y in g to o r fro m th e S io u x co u n try . E v e n ­

tu a lly th e ft i t s e l f b e c a m e in stitu tio n a lize d , as F r e n c h tra d e rs le a rn e d to leave

o u t sm a ll item s to be p ilfe re d , b u t a c e rta in leve l o f v io le n c e re m a in e d

e n d e m ic to the tra d e .47

P e rh a p s th e m o st p e rp le x in g in te rc u ltu ra l c o n c e rn o f th e F r e n c h an d the

A lg o n q u ia n s w a s h o w to settle an d lim it th e n u m b e r o f m u rd e rs a r is in g from

the trad e , w h e n th ere w a s no au th o rity in the W e st c a p a b le o f c re a t in g a

m o n o p o ly o n v io le n c e an d e sta b lish in g o rd e r . V io le n c e b e c a m e o n e o f the

c en tra l c o n c e rn s o f the m id d le g ro u n d . W h e n m u rd e rs o c c u rre d b e tw e e n

A lg o n q u ia n s an d F r e n c h m e n , e ach s id e b ro u g h t q u ite d iffe re n t cu ltu ra l

fo rm u la s to b e a r on the situ atio n . F o r n o rth e aste rn In d ia n s , both

A lg o n q u ia n s a n d Iro q u o ia n s , th o se p e o p le k illed b y a llie s c o u ld b e c o m ­

p e n sa te d fo r w ith g ifts o r b y s la v e s o r, fa ilin g th e se , b y the k illin g o f a n o th e r

m e m b e r o f the o ffe n d in g g ro u p . T h e d e c is io n ab o u t h o w to p ro c e e d w as

m ad e b y the d e ad p e r s o n ’s k in , b u t e x te n siv e so c ia l p re s s u re w a s u su a lly

e xe rte d to a c c e p t c o m p e n satio n sh o rt o f b lo o d re v e n g e , s in c e k illin g a p e rso n

o f the o ffe n d in g g ro u p o ften o n ly in v ited fu tu re re ta lia tio n . A m o n g the

F r e n c h th e m a tte r w a s s im p le r . S o c ie ty at la rg e to o k the re sp o n sib ility fo r

p u n ish in g m u rd e r . P u n ish m e n t w a s not le ft to the k in o f th e v ic tim b u t ra th e r

to th e state . T h e e xp e cte d co m p e n sa tio n fo r m u rd e r w a s th e d eath o f the

m u r d e re r .48

O f the o b v io u s d iffe r e n c e s h e re , tw o w e re p a rtic u la r ly im p o rtan t. In the

F r e n c h sc h e m e o f th in gs, e x a c tly w h o co m m itte d the m u rd e r w a s o f su p re m e

im p o rta n c e , s in c e the in d iv id u a l k ille r w a s h e ld re sp o n s ib le fo r the c rim e .

O n ly w h e n a g ro u p re fu se d to s u rre n d e r a kn ow n m u rd e re r d id c o lle c tiv e

re sp o n sib ility a r ise . F o r the In d ia n s , id e n tify in g the m u rd e re r w a s n o t as

im p o rtan t a s e s ta b lish in g the id en tity o f the g ro u p to w h ic h th e m u rd e re r

76 The middle ground

47 For Fox, see77Î 54:225; Illinois, see Joutel Memoir, in Cox (ed.), Journeys o f L a S a lle , 2:212; Chippewas, see Raudot and De Gannes (Deliette) Memoir, IH C 23:328, Memoir in Kinietz, Indium o f the Western Great Lakes, 374; Sauks, see ib id ., 3 8 1-8 2 . For dangers of Sioux trade, see Pere Nouvel à M. de La Barre, 23 avril 1684, AN, C i 1 A, v. 6, f. 523. For institutional­ ization of theft, see Gan, C. Anderson, Kinsm en o f Another K in d : D akota-W hite Relations in the Upper M ississippi Valley, 16 8 0 -18 6 2 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984), 63.

48 In the cases that follow both sides try to make these positions clear. See, e.g., extract from a letter by Dulhut, April 12, 1684, W H C 16 :120 , hereafter cited as Dulhut’s letter. For Algonquian custom, see Jaenen, Frien d and Foe, 123. For a discussion of murder, revenge, and compensation that stresses revenge rather than compensation among the Cherokee, see John Phillip Reid, A Law o f Blood: The P rim itive Law o f the Cherokee N ation (New York: New York University' Press, 1970), 7 3 - 1 1 2 . Reid says that a retaliatory killing does not bring revenge (78). This does not appear to have been true among the Algonquians. Note how in the Dulhut case below Achiganaga is given presents to compensate for his son’s death.

7 7

b e lo n g e d , fo r it w a s the g ro u p - fam ily , k in , v illa g e , or n atio n - that w a s h e ld

re sp o n sib le fo r the act. B o th s id e s e s ta b lish e d c u ltu ra l m e a su re s o f e q u i­

v a le n c e in c o m p e n sa tin g fo r th e d e a d , b u t th e F r e n c h e q u iv a le n c e w as

in variab ly a n o th e r d eath . A s the F r e n c h e m p h a siz e d aga in and aga in in the

c a se s that fo llo w , death c o u ld o n ly be co m p e n sa te d fo r by m o re d eath .

In d ia n s w o u ld , i f n e c e ssa ry , a lso in vo k e a s im ila r d o ctrin e o f re v e n g e , b u t

th e ir p re fe re n c e w a s a lw ays e ith e r, in th e ir w o rd s , “ to ra ise u p the d e a d ,”

that is, to re sto re the d e a d p e rso n to life b y p ro v id in g a s lave in th e v ic t im ’s

p la c e , o r “ to c o v e r the d e a d ,” th at is , p re se n t the re la tiv e s w ith g o o d s that

se rv e d as an e q u iv a le n t .49

M o s t m u rd e rs in the W e st le ft n o trace in the d o c u m e n ts , b u t an

exam in atio n o f th o se that are re c o rd e d c a n b e re w a rd in g . T h r e e in c id e n ts in

p artic u la r o ffe r e n o u g h d o c u m e n ta tio n fo r c u ltu ra l an a lys is . T h e first o c ­

c u rre d in 16 8 2 o r 1 6 8 3 , w h e n tw o F r e n c h m e n w e re w a y la id on the K e w e e n a w

P e n in su la in L a k e S u p e r io r an d m u rd e re d by a M e n o m in e e and se ve ra l

C h ip p e w a s . T h e s e m u rd e rs took p la c e w h e n th e pays d ’en haut w a s in a state

o f n e a r ch ao s . Iro q u o is a ttack s, w h ic h h ad d e vasta te d the Illin o is , h ad so fa r

g o n e u n ave n g e d . Iro q u o is p a rtie s h ad re c e n tly stru ck the Illin o is an d the

M a sc o u te n s an d w e re e d g in g c lo s e r to G r e e n B a y itse lf. N o t o n ly d id the

F r e n c h se e m u n ab le to p ro te c t th e ir a llie s , b u t an e p id e m ic that the

P o taw ato m is b la m e d on Je s u it w itc h c ra ft h a d re c e n tly ra v a g e d the v illa g e s

a ro u n d the b ay . T h e P o taw ato m is h ad m u rd e re d two F r e n c h d o n n é s in

re ta lia tio n and h ad b e gu n e ffo r ts to c re a te a la rg e r a n t i-F r e n c h a llian ce . A

re c e n t a llia n ce b e tw e e n the S a u lte u rs and the S io u x , w h ich D a n ie l G r e y s o lo n

D u lh u t h ad h e lp e d o rc h e stra te , h ad fu rth e r in flam e d the p e o p le s o f G r e e n

B a y ag a in st the F r e n c h . T h e y attem p ted to b lo c k F r e n c h trad e w ith the

S io u x . T h e F o x h ad a lre ad y fo u g h t an d d e fe a te d a la rg e S io u x -C h ip p e w a

fo rce at a c o n s id e ra b le lo ss to th e m se lv e s , an d a fu ll- s c a le C h ip p e w a - F o x

w a r se e m e d im m in en t. B u t ap p a re n tly n o t all the C h ip p e w a s re lish e d the

n ew a lig n m e n t. A c h ig a n a g a , an im p o rtan t h e a d m a n at K e w e e n a w , had

attacked the S io u x and p la n n e d fu rth e r a ttack s. H is w a r p artie s , a s w e ll as

th ose o f the p e o p le s at G r e e n B a y , th re a ten ed the liv es o f F r e n c h

v o y a g e u rs .50

The middle ground

49 Report of Boisbriant Diron Desursins Legardeur De L ’isle Ste, Therese Langloisere, June 17, 1723, in J, 11. Schlarman, From Quebec to New O rleans: Fort D e Chartres (Belleville, 111.: Beuchler, 1929), 2 2 6 -3 1 . See also Jaenen, Frien d and Foe, 97. Jaenen makes the distinction between the French emphasis on punishment and the Indian emphasis on compensation.

50 For conditions at Green Bay, see Enjalran à I.efevre de La Barre, 16 aoust 1683, Margry, Découvertes, 5 :4 -5 . For Saulteur-Fox conflict, see ib id ., 5; Claude Charles Le Roy, Sieur de Bacqueville de la Potherie, History o f the Savage Peoples Who A re the A llies o f N ew France, in Emma Helen Blair (ed.), The Indian Tribes o f the Upper M ississippi Valley and Region o f the Great Lakes, 2 vols. (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark, 1912), 1:3 5 8 -6 3 ; Dulhut letter, W HC 16 :114 . Durantaye à A. de la Barre, 1 1 avril 1684, AN, C i 1 A, v. 6, 1.52 1 -2 2 . For activities

In the m id st o f th is tu rm o il a p arty le d b y A c h ig a n a g a ’ s so n s an d in c lu d in g

at le ast o n e M e n o m in e e , a m e m b e r o f a G r e e n B a y tr ib e , m u rd e re d tw o

F r e n c h m e n . T h e i r m o tive m ay h ave b e e n ro b b e ry . O r A c h ig a n a g a m ay h ave

so u g h t to d isru p t the S io u x tra d e , b re a k the n e w a llia n ce o f o th e r p ro to -

O jib w a b a n d s w ith the S io u x , an d jo in w ith th e p e o p le s o f the b ay in a la rg e r

a n t i-F r e n c h m o v em e n t. In an y c a se , h is so n s m u rd e re d tw o F re n c h m e n an d

sto le th e ir g o o d s . D u lh u t , d e sp ite the p o w e r fu l k in c o n n e c tio n s o f the

a c c u se d m u rd e re rs , se iz e d the M e n o m in e e at S a u lt S a in te M a r ie and sen t

o u t a p arty that s u c c e ss fu lly ca p tu re d A c h ig a n a g a an d all h is c h ild re n at

K e w e e n a w . T h e lo c a l A lg o n q u ia n p e o p le s re a c te d to D u lh u t ’ s acts by

re so rtin g to c u sto m a ry p ro c e d u re s . T h e S a u lte u rs o f fe r e d the F r e n c h the

c a lu m e t - th e s ta n d a rd c e re m o n y fo r e s ta b lish in g p e a c e an d am ity - and

th en th ey o ffe re d s la v e s to re su rre c t th e d e a d F r e n c h m e n an d e n d the

m atter. D u lh u t ’ s e m issa ry re fu s e d all su ch o ffe r s an d d e n ie d the le g itim a c y

o f su ch c u ltu ra l e q u iv a le n c e , te llin g th em “ that a h u n d re d sla v e s an d a

h u n d re d p ac k a g e s o f b e a v e r c o u ld n ot m ake h im tra ffic in the b lo o d o f h is

b ro th e r s .” 51

U p to th is p o in t, all se e m s to b e m e re ly a n o th e r e xam p le o f so m e th in g that

a p p e a rs in the lite ra tu re m an y tim es: an e th n o c e n tr ic E u ro p e a n im p o s in g by

fo rc e p ro p e r cu ltu ra l fo rm s on a p e o p le he re g a rd s as sa v a g es . S a v a g is m as a

w a y o f lo o k in g at In d ia n s w a s , h o w e v e r, o f lim ite d u tility in th e w o o d s .

D u lh u t w a s h a rd ly in a p o sit io n to act as i f In d ia n s w e re w ith o u t c u ltu re . T h e

F r e n c h state d id n o t c o m m a n d a m o n o p o ly o f v io le n c e in the W e st an d its

au th o rity w a s fe e b le . D u lh u t d id n o t h ave an e s ta b lish e d ju d ic ia l sy ste m to

ap p ea l to , u n le ss h e w ish e d to try to co n v e y h is p r iso n e rs to Q u e b e c o r

M o n tre a l. W h e n the m u rd e re rs h ad b e e n d isp o se d o f, he an d h is m en w o u ld

re m a in to travel a m o n g the su rro u n d in g In d ia n s w h o w e re n ot lik e ly to fo rg e t

w h a te v e r actio n he took. T h e i r th o u g h ts o n th e m a tte r c o u ld n ot b e sa fe ly

ig n o re d , and D u lh u t h a v in g re je c te d In d ia n n o rm s, re la x e d h is o w n

c o n sid e ra b ly .

W h a t fo llo w e d at M ic h ilim a c k in a c w a s a se r ie s o f ra th e r e x tra o rd in a ry

im p ro v isa tio n s as D u lh u t an d v a r io u s O ttaw a, H u r o n -P e tu n , an d C h ip p e w a

h e a d m e n an d e ld e rs stru g g le d to c re a te a m id d le g ro u n d w h e re th e m a tte r

c o u ld b e re so lv e d . D u lh u t ’ s p rim a ry ap p ea l th ro u g h o u t w a s to F r e n c h law

an d c u sto m , b u t h e tr ie d re p e a te d ly , i f n e c e ssa r ily so m e w h a t ig n o ra n tly , to

ju stify h is re c o u rse to law an d cu sto m b y e q u a tin g th em w ith In d ia n

p ra c t ic e s . H a v in g re je c te d the p re fe r re d m e a n s o f se ttlin g k illin g s a m o n g

78 The middle ground

of French traders and danger they were in, see Denonville au Ministre, aoust 1688, AN, C 11A , v. 10, (f. 66); Nouvel à M. de la Barre, 23 avril 1684, AN, C i iA, v. 6.

51 The only detailed account of this murder is Dulhut’s own, but since he was in a position to justify his actions, he provided considerable detail. See Dulhut letter, April 12 , 1684, WHC 1 6 : 1 1 4 - 1 5 , 123.

79

a llie s - the c o v e r in g or ra is in g u p o f the d e a d - h e in siste d on the p en a lty

exacte d fro m e n e m ie s : b lo o d re v e n g e . T h e In d ia n s , fo r th e ir p art, p a id little

atten tio n to w h at m attered m o st to the F r e n c h , the p ro p e r w ay o f e s ta b lish ­

in g g u ilt an d p u n ish in g th e p e rp e tra to r . T h e y on ly so u g h t to o f fe r su itab le

co m p e n satio n to the liv in g an d re e sta b lish so c ia l p e a c e . ''2

T h e re su lt w as a se r ie s o f b iz a rre c u ltu ra l h y b rid s . T h e v a r io u s O ttaw a,

C h ip p e w a , an d H u ro n -P e tu n b a n d s c o n v e n e d in c o u n c il w ith D u lh u t o n ly to

fin d th e m se lv e s tra n s fo rm e d in to a ju ry by the F r e n c h fo r the trial o f the

M e n o m in e e , A c h ig a n a g a , an d tw o o f h is so n s. K in s m e n o f the a c c u se d w ere

d ra fted as la w y e rs , te stim o n y w as g iven an d w ritten d o w n , an d the m u rd e re rs ,

w ith the e xc e p tio n o f A c h ig a n a g a , fre e ly ad m itted the c rim e . T h e e ld e rs

co o p e ra te d w ith th is F r e n c h ritu a l, a p p a re n tly b e lie v in g that a fte r it w as

p e r fo rm e d the F r e n c h w o u ld a c c e p t a p p ro p r ia te co m p e n satio n . In stead ,

D u lh u t d e m a n d e d that the In d ia n s th e m se lv e s e xe cu te the m u rd e re rs . T o

the In d ia n s, A c h ig a n a g a 's fa ilu re to c o n fe s s co n stitu te d a c q u itta l, an d h e w as

n o lo n g e r p art o f the p ro c e e d in g s , b u t e xe c u tio n o f the re m a in in g th ree m en ,

a fte r c o m p e n satio n h ad b e e n re fu s e d , w o u ld h ave b e e n the e q u iv a le n t o f a

d e c lara tio n o f w a r on the S a u lt e u r s an d M e n o m in e e s b y the e x e c u tio n e rs .

T h e e ld e rs w e re so sh o ck e d an d c o n fu s e d b y th is d e m an d that th ey d id n o tr even m ake an a n sw e r.

D u lh u t , at th is p o in t, d e c id e d u n ila te ra lly to e xe cu te the M e n o m in e e and

the tw o so n s o f A c h ig a n a g a as the ad m itted ly gu ilty p artie s . T h is d e c is io n not

on ly u p se t the In d ian s at M ic h ilim a c k in a c , it a lso ap p a lled the F r e n c h

w in te r in g at K e w e e n a w , w h o se n t D u lh u t a m e ssag e w a rn in g that i f he

e x e c u te d the m u rd e re rs , the In d ia n s ’ re la tiv e s w o u ld take re v e n g e on the

F r e n c h . T h e y b e g g e d h im to act w ith re stra in t. F r e n c h s ta n d a rd s s im p ly

c o u ld n ot b e im p o se d w ith im p u n ity . D u lh u t , a fte r c o n su lt in g w ith th e S ie u r

de L a T o u r , the m an lo n g e st a m o n g the lak e tr ib e s and m o st fa m ilia r w ith

th e ir c u sto m s, so u g h t o n ce m o re to ap p ea l to In d ia n cu sto m an d re tu rn the

m atter to the m id d le g ro u n d . H e aga in tr ie d to fin d so m e co n n e ctio n

b e tw e e n F r e n c h law and w h at he re g a rd e d as In d ia n cu sto m . S in c e tw o

F re n c h m e n h ad d ie d , D u lh u t w o u ld e xe c u te o n ly tw o In d ia n s - the

M e n o m in e e an d th e e ld e st o f the tw o so n s o f A c h ig a n a g a - fo r “ b y k illin g

m an fo r m an , the sa v a g e s w o u ld h ave n o th in g to say , s in ce that is th e ir ow n

p ra c t ic e .” H e a n n o u n ce d th is d e c is io n in the cab in o f an O ttaw a h e a d m a n

the F r e n c h ca lle d L e B ro c h e t , a d d in g th at a lth o u gh F r e n c h law an d cu sto m

d e m an d e d the e xe cu tio n o f all the m en in vo lve d in the ro b b e ry , h e w o u ld be

co n ten t w ith a life fo r a l i fe .32 * 34

32 Dulhut letter, April 12, 1684, WHC 16 :119 . 53 Ibid,, i i 8 -20 . 34 Ibid., 1 19 — 2 1.

The middle ground

8o

B y h is d e c is io n , D u lh u t e s ta b lish e d a te n u o u s c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n

A lg o n q u ia n an d F r e n c h c u sto m s - a life fo r a life - b u t h e a lso re v e a le d the

v e ry d iffe re n t m e a n in g s su ch a d ic tu m h ad in e ac h c u ltu re . O n ly now ,

a c c o rd in g to D u lh u t , d id the O ttaw as b e lie v e that the F r e n c h w o u ld actu a lly

e x e c u te tw o o f the m en . T h e h e a d m e n o f th e S a b le O tta w as an d th e S in a g o

O ttaw as, th e m se lv e s un in vo lved in th e m u rd e r , b e g g e d D u lh u t to sp a re the

m u rd e re rs . T h e y , to o , so u g h t a m id d le g ro u n d an d a p p e a le d to F r e n c h

p re c e d e n t. A t th e re q u e st o f O n o n tio , th e O ttaw as h ad sp are d an Iro q u o is

p r iso n e r . T h e F r e n c h sh o u ld n o w d o the sa m e fo r th em . D u lh u t d e n ie d the

s itu a tio n s w e re e q u iva le n t. T h e Iro q u o is w a s a p r iso n e r o f w a r ; th e se m en

w e re m u r d e re rs . H e re th e g la r in g d iffe r e n c e s b e tw e e n O ttaw a a n d F r e n c h

c u ltu ra l c a te g o rie s e m e rg e d in a c tio n .55

B lo o d re v e n g e w a s a p p ro p r ia te in e ac h so c ie ty b u t fo r d iffe re n t c a te g o rie s

o f k illin g . F o r the A lg o n q u ia n s th ere w e re tw o k in d s o f k illin g s - d e a th s at

th e h a n d s o f e n e m ie s an d d e a th s at th e h a n d s o f a llie s . T h e a p p ro p ria te

re sp o n se d e p e n d e d o n th e id en tity o f th e g ro u p to w h o m the k ille r b e lo n g e d .

I f th e k ille r b e lo n g e d to an a llied g ro u p , th en the d e a d w e re ra ise d or

co v e re d . I f the m u rd e re rs re fu s e d to d o th is , th en the g ro u p b e c a m e e n e m ie s

an d th e p r ic e a p p ro p r ia te to e n e m ie s , b lo o d re v e n g e , w a s e x a c te d . F o r the

F r e n c h a lso th ere w e re tw o k in d s o f k illin g s - k illin g s in w a r an d m u rd e rs .

K i l l in g e n e m ie s in w a r th e o re tic a lly b ro u g h t n o re tr ib u tio n o n ce the battle

e n d e d . F o r th em , the b a ttle fie ld w a s a c u ltu ra l a re n a se p a ra te fro m the rest

o f life . R e le a s in g the Iro q u o is w a s th u s o n ly a p p ro p r ia te ; h e w a s a so ld ie r ,

n o t a m u rd e re r . A lg o n q u ia n s in p ra c tic e re c o g n iz e d n o su c h c u ltu ra l a re n a

a s a b a tt le fie ld ; th ey k illed th e ir e n e m ie s w h e n and w h e re th ey fo u n d th em

u n le ss th ey w e re ritu ally p ro te c te d . F o r th e F r e n c h it w a s m u rd e r that

d e m a n d e d b lo o d re v e n g e ; fo r the A lg o n q u ia n s , it w a s k illin g s b y e n e m ie s ,

k illin g s w h ic h th e F r e n c h saw as w a rfa re . T h e F r e n c h in s is te n c e o n b lo o d

re v e n g e in an in ap p ro p ria te c a teg o ry , th e re fo re , c re a te d g reat c o n fu s io n . T o

the O tta w as the lo g ic o f su ch a re sp o n se - that e n e m ie s sh o u ld b e sp a re d bu t

that a llie s sh o u ld b e k illed - w a s in c o m p re h e n s ib le .56

T h e w a y o u t o f th is d e a d lo c k w as c re a te d b y a m an n a m e d O u m a m e n s , a

h e a d m a n o f the A m ik w a s (a p ro to -O jib w a g ro u p ). H e sp o k e fo r the S a u ltc u rs

in c o u n c il an d re so rte d to th e k in d o f c u ltu ra l fic tio n that o fte n d isg u ise s the

b e g in n in g s o f c u ltu ra l c h a n g e . H e g o t u p an d p ra ise d , o f a ll th in g s , D u lh u t ’ s

m e rcy , b e c a u s e h e had re le a se d A c h ig a n a g a an d all b u t o n e o f h is c h ild re n .

In e f fe c t , O u m a m e n s c h o se to e m p h a siz e th o se o f D u lh u t ’ s a c tio n s w h ich

c o n fo rm e d to A lg o n q u ia n cu sto m . H e a n n o u n ce d that the S a u lte u rs w e re

55 Ibid., 12 0 - 2 1 . 56 Ibid,. See also Jaenen, Friend and Foe, 13 2 -3 4 . It should be noted that by 1690 the French

had begun imitating the Iroquois and were torturing and killing prisoners of war, Narrative o f . . . Occurrences 1690, 16 9 1, NYCD 9:518.

The middle ground

8 1

sa tis fie d . D u lh u t , fo r h is p art, s tre sse d n ot m e rc y b u t d e te rre n c e . I f the

c id e rs “ h ad fro m the b e g in n in g m a d e k n o w n to the y o u n g m en that in ca se

th ey co m m itte d an y evil d e e d the trib e w o u ld ab a n d o n th em , th ey w o u ld

h ave b e e n b e tte r ad v ise d , an d the F re n c h m e n w o u ld still be a liv e .” B o th

s id e s th us te n d e d to s tre ss the a sp e c t o f the a ffa ir that m a d e c u ltu ra l se n se to

them . A n h o u r la ter, at th e h e a d o f fo rty -e ig h t F re n c h m e n w ith fo u r

h u n d re d w a rr io rs w a tc h in g , D u lh u t h ad the tw o In d ia n s e x e c u t e d . '7

T h e e x e c u tio n s d id n ot e sta b lish the le g itim a cy o f F r e n c h ju stic e . In d e e d ,

in th e d ays that fo llo w ed the e xe c u tio n s , the In d ia n s treated th em as tw o

m o re m u rd e rs to b e re so lv e d , an d D u lh u t c o n se n te d to th e ir p ro c e e d in g s .

B e c a u s e A c h ig a n a g a ’s so n an d the M e n o m in e e h ad b e e n e x e c u te d in

the te rrito ry o f the H u r o n -P e tu n s an d the O ttaw as, th ese g ro u p s w e re

im p lic a te d , an d th ey took ste p s to se ttle the w h o le a f fa ir .58

T h r e e O ttaw a tr ib e s - the S a b le s , S in a g o s , and K is k a k o n s - gave tw o

w a m p u m b e lts to the F r e n c h to c o v e r th e ir d e ad an d tw o o th e r b e lts to

A c h ig a n a g a and to the M e n o m in e e ’ s re la tiv es . T h e n ext d ay the H u ro n -

P e tu n s d id the sam e. D u lh u t , fo r h is p art, h e ld a fe a st fo r L e B ro c h e t , the

S a b le h e a d m a n , to “ take aw ay the p a in that I h ad c a u se d h im b y p ro n o u n c ­

in g the d e a th se n te n c e o f the tw o sa v a g e s in h is ca b in , w ith o u t sp e a k in g to

h im o f it .” D u lh u t th en lo a d e d A c h ig a n a g a w ith p re se n ts , an d the S a u lte u rs

gave the F r e n c h at K e w e e n a w a d d itio n a l b e lts “ to take go o d c a re that no

tro u b le b e m a d e o ve r the d e a th o f th e ir b ro th e r ; an d in o rd e r , sh o u ld an y

h ave evil d e s ig n s , to re stra in th em b y th ese c o lla rs , o f w h ic h th ey are

b e a r e r s .” 59

T h e in c id e n t is re v e a lin g p re c is e ly b e c a u se it w a s so in d e c is iv e , so

im p ro v ise d , p re c ise ly b e c a u se n e ith e r F r e n c h n o r A lg o n q u ia n c u ltu ra l ru les

fu lly g o v e rn e d the situ atio n . B o th F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n cu sto m s w ere

c h a lle n g e d , c o n sc io u s ly e x p la in e d , an d m o d ifie d in p ra c tic e . D u lh u t d id not

e stab lish the p rim a c y o f F r e n c h law , an d h e d id n o t p re v e n t fu rth e r k illin gs.

W h at he d id do w a s to sh a k e , b u t n ot e lim in ate , the ab ility o f A lg o n q u ia n

n o rm s to g o v e rn m u rd e rs o f F r e n c h m e n b y In d ia n s . B o th s id e s n o w had to

ju stify th e ir o w n ru le s in te rm s o f w h at th ey p e rc e iv e d to b e the p ra c tic e s o f

the o th er. W h at h a p p e n e d in 16 8 3 w a s , in the e n d , fu lly in a c c o rd a n c e w ith

n e ith e r F r e n c h n o r In d ia n c o n c e p tio n s o f c r im e an d p u n ish m e n t. In ste a d , it

in vo lved c o n s id e ra b le im p ro v isa tio n an d the c re a tio n o f a m id d le g ro u n d at a

p o in t w h e re th e c u ltu re s se e m e d to in te rse c t , so that the e xp e cta tio n s o f e ach

s id e c o u ld find at least so m e sa tis fa c tio n . A t G r e e n B a y the n ext sp rin g ,

F a th e r N o u v e l th o u g h t that D u lh u t ’ s e x e c u tio n s h ad p ro d u c e d a g o o d e ffe c t ,

The middle ground

57 Ibid., 1 2 0 - 2 1 . 58 Ibid., 124. 59 Ibid., 12 4 -2 5 .

82

b u t at the sam e tim e he a ttr ib u ted the P o taw ato m i an d S a u k d e s ire fo r

re c o n c ilia t io n w ith the F r e n c h to th e ir g ro w in g fe a r o f the Iro q u o is , n o t th eir

fe a r o f F r e n c h re p risa ls . N o u v e l, fo r h is p art, d e m a n d e d no fu r th e r e x e c u ­

tio n s; he w a s w illin g to a c c e p t the P o taw ato m i an d S a u k o ffe r to c o v e r the

d e a th s o f the tw o F r e n c h d o n n é s th ey h ad m u r d e re d .60

A t M ic h ilim a c k in a c in 1 6 8 3 , D u lh u t h ad o p e ra te d w ith o u t sp e c if ic a u ­

th o rity fro m the F r e n c h g o v e rn m e n t fo r h is a c tio n s. H e h ad im p ro v ise d h is

so lu tio n s. T h e k illin g s at D e tro it , so m e tw en ty y e a rs la te r , in 1 7 0 6 , le d to

n e g o tia tio n s w ith the h ig h e st co lo n ia l o ffic ia ls , at a tim e w h e n the F r e n c h -

A lg o n q u ia n a llia n ce h ad c re a te d a c o n s id e ra b ly m o re e lab o ra te m id d le

g ro u n d o n w h ic h In d ia n s an d F r e n c h m e n m ig h t w o rk . In d e e d , it w a s the

a llian ce it s e l f that b o th c re a te d th e co n d itio n s that c a u se d the m u rd e rs an d

p ro v id e d the c e re m o n ia l fo rm s that c o m p e n sa te d fo r th em .

The middle ground

IV

In 1 7 0 6 , as O ttaw a w a rr io rs d e p a rte d to a ttack the S io u x , a P o taw ato m i

w a rn e d th em that in th e ir a b se n c e the H u r o n -P e tu n s an d the M ia m is w o u ld

fa ll o n th e O ttaw a v illa g e an d kill th o se w h o re m a in e d . T h e O ttaw a w a r

le a d e rs c o n su lte d w ith the civ il le a d e rs an d , a lth o u g h so m e w a v e re d , the o ld

an d p o w e r fu l S a b le c h ie f w h o m the F r e n c h c a lle d L e P e sa n t c o n v in c e d

th em to strike first. T h e O ttaw as a m b u sh e d a p arty o f M ia m i c h ie fs , k illin g

five o f th em , an d th en attacked the M ia m i v illa g e , d r iv in g the in h ab itan ts into

the F r e n c h fo rt. T h e F r e n c h fire d o n the a tta ck in g O ttaw as an d k illed a

y o u n g O ttaw a w h o h ad ju st b e e n re c o g n iz e d as a w a r le a d e r . A lth o u g h the

O ttaw a le a d e rs tr ie d to p re v e n t an y attacks on the F r e n c h , an g ry w a rr io rs

k illed a F r e n c h R e c o lle c t p r ie s t o u ts id e the fo rt an d a so ld ie r w h o c a m e o u t

to re sc u e h im .61

T h e O ttaw as tr ie d all the c e re m o n ia l m e a n s at th e ir d isp o sa l to e f fe c t a

re c o n c ilia t io n w ith th e F r e n c h , b u t th ey w e re re b u ffe d b y the m an c o m ­

60 Fr, Nouvel à M. de la Barre, 23 avril 1684, AN, C i iA , v .6, f. 523. Reconciliation was also forwarded by Governor de la Barre who approved o f Dulhut’s actions, but the French court, which often had only a shaky grasp of what was going on in the upper country, confused Dulhut’s executions with the killing of an Iroquois at Michilimackinac and denounced Dulhut and his presence in the backcountry, De la Barre au Ministre, 5 juin 1684, AN, C 11A , v.6. Louis XIV to De La Barre, July 2 1, 1684, DHNY , 1 :10 8 —9.

61 For the Ottawa version o f these events, see Speech o f Miscouaky, Sept. 26, 1706, M PH C 33 :288-9 2. For the French investigation, see Report o f D ’Aigremont, M PH C 33:435. For Cadillac’s account, see Cadillac to de Vaudrcuil, Aug. 27, 1706; E. M. Sheldon, The Early History of M ichigan from the First Settlement to 1815 (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1956), 219. For mention of a second French soldier killed later, see Instructions to D ’Aigremont, June 30, 1707, WHC 16:243.

m a n d in g in C a d il la c ’s a b se n c e . In su b se q u e n t fig h tin g , the F r e n c h s id ed

w ith the M ia m is , as d id the H u r o n -P e tu n s (the n ation the O ttaw as c la im e d

h ad actu a lly o rg an iz e d the p lo t ag a in st th em ). B e fo re the O ttaw as w ith d re w

to M ic h ilim a c k in a c , th ree F re n c h m e n , ab o u t th irty O ttaw as, fifty M ia m is ,

and an u n k n o w n n u m b e r o f H u ro n -P e tu n s w e re d e a d . T h e c ritica l issu e

b e tw e e n the F r e n c h an d O ttaw as, h o w e v e r , w as the m en k illed d u rin g the

first e x c h a n g e : the y o u n g O ttaw a le a d e r , a n o th e r O ttaw a m an w ith p o w e r fu l

k in c o n n e ctio n s at M ic h ilim a c k in a c , the R e c o lle c t , an d the firs t F r e n c h

so ld ie r k ille d .62

T h e fig h tin g at D e tro it in 1 7 0 6 sp ra n g fro m so m e b a s ic b re a c h e s in the

a llian ce the F r e n c h h ad c o n stru c te d an d th re a te n e d to d isso lv e the a llian ce

co m p lete ly . In h is zea l to p ro m o te D e tro it , a p o st he h ad fo u n d e d in 1 7 0 1 ,

C a d illa c h ad re c ru ite d F r e n c h a llie s to se ttle th ere w ith o u t m u ch th o u g h t fo r

the o u tsta n d in g d isp u te s am o n g th em . In 1 7 0 6 , the re s id e n ts in c lu d e d ,

a m o n g o th e rs , m e m b e rs o f th re e O ttaw a tr ib e s - S in a g o s , K isk a k o n s , and

S a b le s - H u r o n -P e tu n s , and M ia m is . B a s ic to the a llian ce and c ritica l to

su ch m u ltitrib a l se ttlem e n ts w a s m e d ia tio n . T h e F r e n c h h ad to m ak e su re

that k illin g s b e tw e e n the tr ib e s w e re se ttled an d the d e ad co v e re d . C a d illa c

h ad p ro m ise d to do th is, b u t u n c o v e re d an d u n re v e n g e d d e a d c o n tin u e d to

p o iso n the re la tio n s b e tw e e n th e M ia m is an d the H u ro n -P e tu n s , on the one

h an d , an d the O ttaw as o n the o th e r. L e P e sa n t h im s e lf h ad p re se n te d a list

o f the d e a d le ft u n c o v e re d an d u n a v e n g e d b e fo re the d e p a rtu re o f the fa te fu l

w a r party. T h e re su lt o f the F r e n c h re fu sa l to act w a s the fig h tin g o f 1 7 0 6

and a th reat to the en tire a llia n c e .63

T h e k illin g s at D e tro it p ro d u c e d a s itu a tio n n e ith e r th e F r e n c h n o r the

O ttaw a le a d e rs d e s ire d . A s V a u d re u il la m e n te d in h is re p o rt o f the a ffa ir to

The middle ground 83

('2 For Ottawa attempts to negotiate, see Speech of Miscouaky, 26 Sept. 1706, M P H C 133 :290 -9 2 ; Report of D ’Aigremont, M P H C 33 :4 3 5 -3 6 . For various casualty figures in the fight, see “ Council with Ottawas, June 18, 1707,” in Sheldon, Early History o f M ichigan, 228, where Jean le Blanc puts the Ottawa dead at 30; Speech of Miscouaky, Sept. 26, 1706, M P H C 33:294, where the figure is 26 for the Ottawas and 50 dead and wounded for the Miamis. For the significant Ottawa dead, see Speech of Miscouaky, Sept. 26, 1706 ,M P H C 33:290, and Fr. Marcst to Vaudreuil, Aug. 14, 1706, M P H C 33:262-69 . For the French emphasis on the priest and the first soldier killed, see Council with the Ottawas, June 20, 1707, Speech of Vaudreuil, Sheldon, Early History o f M ichigan, 242; Speech of Vaudreuil,

June 2 1, 1707, ib id ., 245. f’3 “ Account of Detroit,” Sept. 25, 1702, M P H C 3 3 :13 7 -3 8 , 147; Cadillac to Pontchartrain,

Aug. 3 1 , 1703, in Sheldon, Early History o f M ichigan, 10 5 -6 . For mention of quarrels and unsettled killings, see Cadillac to Vaudreuil, Aug. 27, 1706, in Sheldon, E arly History o f M ichigan, 2 18 - 19 . F ° r earlier attack, see Memorandum o f . . . Cadillac, 19 Nov. 1704, M P H C 33:234; Report of D ’Aigremont, Nov. 14, 1708, M P H C 33 :4 3 2 -3 7 . For a M iam i- Huron-Petun rapprochement as early as 1703, see Speeches of Ottawas. . . 24 Sept. 1703, M P H C 3 3 :2 2 3 -2 5 . For Vaudrcuil’s orders to keep the peace, see Vaudreuil au Cadillac, 10 juin 1706, AN, Moreau St. Mery, F3, v. 7, f. 308. For Huron-Petun resentment, see Vaudreuil to Minister, May 5, 1705, M P H C 33:242.

C o u n t d e P o n tc h artra in , th e fia sc o at D e tro it th re a te n e d to “ b e g in a w a r

w h ich can c a u se u s on ly c o n s id e ra b le e x p e n se , the lo ss o f a n ation that h as

se rv e d u s fa ith fu lly , an d , in a d d itio n to that, a c o n s id e ra b le trad e , e very

y e a r .” F o r th e O ttaw as the o u tco m e lo o k e d no m o re fav o ra b le . C u t o f f fro m

trad e g o o d s , im p o v e r ish e d , an d d riv e n fro m th e ir f ie ld s , th ey fo u n d that “ all

th e lan d w a s s tu p e fie d , an d w an t h ad tak e n p o sse ss io n o f o u r b o n e s .”

S e tt lin g su ch a c o n flic t w as, h o w e v e r , fa r fro m s im p le . T h e p ro m in e n c e o f

the d e a d on b o th s id e s in te n sifie d th e d iffic u lt ie s o f se ttlin g the k illin g s. T h e

d e a d O ttaw as h ad p o w e r fu l k in sp e o p le ; the F r e n c h s tre sse d the p a rtic u la r

h o rro r o f k illin g a p rie st; an d C a d illa c p ro m ise d the M ia m is an d H u ro n -

P e tu n s the d e stru ctio n o f the O tta w as as re v e n g e fo r th e ir o w n d e a d . T h e

n e g o tia tio n s to re so lv e th e se k illin g s w o u ld b e , a c c o rd in g to G o v e r n o r de

V a u d re u il, o n e o f the m o st im p o rtan t a ffa ir s in the h isto ry o f the u p p e r

c o u n try .64

T h e c e re m o n ia l fo rm s o f the O tta w a -F r e n c h a llia n c e sh a p e d the n e g o tia ­

tio n s fro m the b e g in n in g . T h e a llia n c e w as c e n te re d o n Q u e b e c , the h o m e o f

O n o n tio , an d it w a s fo rm u la te d in the la n g u a g e o f k in sh ip to w h ich b oth

the F r e n c h an d the A lg o n q u ia n s a ttach e d g re a t s ig n ific a n c e . L e a d e r s o f both

the F r e n c h an d the A lg o n q u ia n s n e g o tia ted a c c o rd in g to ritu al fo rm s w h ich

p la c e d the F r e n c h g o v e rn o r , O n o n tio , in the p o sitio n o f fa th e r to the

In d ia n s , o f w h o m the O tta w as w e re h is e ld e st so n s. T h e F r e n c h w e re qu ite

at h o m e w ith su ch p a tr ia rc h a l fo rm u la tio n s and a ttach ed q u ite sp e c ific

m ean in g s to th em . F o r th em all au th o rity w a s p a tr ia rc h a l, fro m G o d the

F a th e r , to the k in g (the fa th e r o f h is p e o p le ), to th e fa th e r in h is h o m e.

F a th e r s co m m a n d e d ; so n s o b e y e d . T h e O ttaw ras u n d e rsto o d the re la tio n sh ip

som ew Fh at d iffe re n tly . A fa th e r wras k in d , g e n e ro u s , an d p ro te c tin g . A ch ild

o w ed a fa th e r re sp e c t, b u t a fa th e r c o u ld not co m p e l o b e d ie n c e . In e s ta b lish ­

in g a m id d le g ro u n d , o n e took su ch c o n g ru e n c e s a s o n e c o u ld fin d and

so rte d o u t th e ir m e a n in g s la te r .65

64 For Vaudreuil quote, see Vaudreuil to de Pontchartrain, Nov. 4, 1706, W HC 16:242. For Ottawas, see Words of Ottawas to Cadillac, Sept. 24, 1707, M P H C 33:349. For difficulties, see Father Marest to Vaudreuil, Aug. 14, 1706, M P H C 33:262-69 ; Council with the Ottawas, Speech o f Vaudreuil, June 20, 1707, Sheldon, Early History o f M ichigan, 242. Cadillac to Vaudreuil, Aug. 27, 1706, ib id ., 228-29 . For importance o f negotiations, see Vaudreuil to Father Marest, n.d. (1707), Sheldon, Early History o f M ichigan, 273.

65 Many examples of the French councils survive. For examples for the period under consideration here, see Parolles des sauvages . . .» Archives Nationales, Archives Coloniales, F3, v. 8, f. 13 6 - 4 1 ; Talk between Marquis de Vaudreuil and Onaskin . . . , Aug. 1, 1707, M P H C 33 :258 -6 2 ; Speech o f Miscouaky . . . to Marquis de Vaudreuil, Sept. 26, 1706, M P H C 33:288—96; Conference with Ottawas, June 18, 1707, in Sheldon, Early History o f M ichigan, 2 3 2 -50 . For the differences in how the Great Lakes Indians and the French perceived the relationship between parents and children, see Father Gabriel Sagard, The Long Journey to the Country o f the Hurons (Toronto: Champlain Society 1939, facsimile ed., Greenwood Press), 1 3 0 - 3 1 ; Pierre de Charlevoix, Jo u rn a l o f a Voyage to North America (London: R. & J . Dodsley, 17 6 1, Readex microprint facsimile ed., 1966), 2:55, 89-90, 109,

84 The middle ground

W ith in the a llia n ce , th ese ritu a l fo rm s fo r fa th er an d so n th u s h ad a b u ilt-

in am b ig u ity th at w o u ld in flu e n c e the c o u rse o f th e n e g o tia tio n s th at

fo llo w ed the fig h tin g at D e tro it . N e g o tia t io n s in the W e st (at S a u lt S a in te

M a r ie an d M ic h ilim a c k in a c ) c o v e re d th e O ttaw a d e a d to that n a tio n ’s

sa tis fa c tio n , b u t c o v e r in g the F r e n c h d e a d p ro ved m o re d iffic u lt . M a n y o f

the m atte rs a t is su e h ere re v o lv e d a ro u n d q u e stio n s o f th e p ro p e r w a y fo r a

fa th e r to a c t to w ard h is e rran t so n s. A t Q u e b e c , V a u d re u il, in h is n e g o tia ­

tio n s w ith the O ttaw as in the fa ll o f 1 7 0 6 an d the sp r in g o f 1 7 0 7 , in s iste d on

p h ra s in g the a llia n c e an d O ttaw a o b lig atio n s in te rm s o f C h r is t ia n p atria rch y .

T h e g o v e rn o r d e m a n d e d that the O ttaw as a p p e a r b e fo re h im as p en iten t

s in n e rs a p p e a r b e fo re th e C h r is t ia n G o d . T h e c u sto m a ry O ttaw a c o m p e n sa ­

tion fo r the d e a d w as in a d e q u a te an d in ap p ro p ria te .

I am a good father and as long as my children listen to my voice, no evil ever befalls them___It is not belts that I require, Miscouaky, nor presents when my children have disobeyed me and committed such a fault as yours; the blood of Frenchmen is not to be paid for by beaverskins. It is a great trust in my kindness that I demand; a real repentance for the fault that has been committed, and complete resigna­ tion to my will. When your people entertain those feelings, I will arrange everything.66

T h e O ttaw a re sp o n se to th ese d e m a n d s , in the u su a l m a n n e r o f the

m id d le g ro u n d , w a s to se e k c u ltu ra l c o n g ru e n c e . T h e y , too , fo c u se d on

p atr ia rch y , b u t o f a d iffe re n t k in d . O to n tag an (o r J e a n le B la n c ) , th e S a b le

c h ie f se co n d in in flu e n c e to L e P e sa n t, sp o k e fo r the O ttaw as w h e n they

cam e to Q u e b e c the n e x t su m m e r. H e ad m itted h is g u ilt (even th ou gh he

h ad , in fact, tr ied to save the R e c o lle c t) b u t a ttem p ted to p la c e th e p rim a ry

re sp o n sib ility fo r the a ffa ir w ith L e P e sa n t. O to n ta g a n ’ s m a jo r c o n c e rn ,

h o w e v e r, w a s to g et V a u d re u il to act like an O ttaw a, n o t a F r e n c h , fa th er . H e

s tre sse d V a u d r e u il ’ s b e n e fic e n c e . V a u d re u il c e rta in ly h ad the p o w e r to kill

h im , b u t “ I h ave n o th in g to fe a r b e c a u se I h ave a go o d fa th e r .” S in c e

1 1 4 - 1 5 ; Lafitau, Customs o f the Am erican Indian 1 1362; Perrot, M em oir 1167; Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan’s Voyages 2:458. See also Jaenen, Frien d and Foe, 94-97.

66 Kischkouch, the young Sinago chief killed at Detroit, had a brother, Merasilla, who had actually gone among the Saulteurs and Amikwas to raise a party' to avenge his brother “ and restore the name of Kischkouch.” In the end, Merasilla excused himself from the war party, despite reproaches that he showed “ no love for his brother,” and helped negotiate a peace. The war party went to Detroit, accompanied by other Ottawas, but did not attack. Another Ottawa killed at Detroit had as relatives two of the principal women at Michilimackinac, and they went from cabin to cabin, weeping and demanding the deaths of Frenchmen there until negotiations covered their loss. Marest to Vaudreuil, Aug. 14, 1706, W HC 16 :2 32 -34 ; Marest to Vaudreuil, Aug. 16, 1706, and Aug. 27, 1706, M P H C 3 3 :2 6 2 -7 1 ; Cadillac to Vaudreuil, Aug. 27, 1706, Sheldon, F.arly History o f M ichigan, 226 -27 . For quote, see Reply of Vaudreuil to Miscouaky, Nov. 4, 1706, M P H C 33:295.

The middle ground 85

86

V a u d re u il h ad sp e c ific a lly re je c te d c o v e r in g th e d e a d , O to n ta g a n c o n c lu d e d

th at h e m u st w a n t the d e a d ra ise d u p . T h e d e le g a tio n a c c o rd in g ly b ro u g h t

tw o a d o p te d c ap tive s to g ive to V a u d re u il “ to b r in g the g ra y co a t ag a in to

l i fe .” V a u d re u il h e ld out fo r a s tr ic te r p a tr ia rc h y . H e d e m a n d e d v e n g e a n c e ;

he d e m a n d e d the h ead o f L e P e sa n t b e c a u se “ the b lo o d o f F r e n c h is u su a lly

re p a id a m o n g u s on ly b y b lo o d .” B u t su ch a d e m an d , O to n tag an to ld

V a u d re u il, w as im p o ss ib le . L e P e sa n t w a s a llie d to all the n a tio n s o f the

G r e a t L a k e s . T h e y w o u ld p re v e n t h is d e liv e ry an d e x e c u tio n .67

O n the s u r fa c e , the n e g o tia tio n s at Q u e b e c a p p e a r to b e a n o th e r e xa m p le

o f a s tu b b o rn F r e n c h re fu sa l to c o m p ro m ise . T h e s itu a tio n w a s , in fact,

m u c h m o re co m p le x . V a u d re u il k n ew that no O ttaw a le a d e r p o sse sse d

su ffic ie n t au th o rity to h a n d o v e r a n y o n e , le t a lo n e so m e o n e o f L e P e s a n t ’s

sta tu re . H is in ten tio n w a s n o t to se c u re L e P e s a n t ’ s d e a th , ra th e r it w a s to

cu t h im o f f fro m the F r e n c h a llia n c e , d e stro y h is in flu e n c e , an d d e m o n stra te

that a n y c h ie f h e ld re sp o n s ib le fo r th e d eath o f a F re n c h m a n w o u ld s u ffe r

the sa m e fa te . S in c e V a u d re u il d id n o t e x p e c t L e P e sa n t to b e su rre n d e re d ,

the actu a l re sto ra tio n o f the O ttaw as to the a llia n ce w o u ld in vo lve a

c o m p ro m ise o f so m e so rt. S in c e p a tr ia rc h s d o n o t c o m p ro m ise , h e se n t the

O tta w as b a c k to D e tro it , te llin g th em to n e g o tia te a p e a c e w ith C a d illa c . H e

w o u ld a p p ro v e su ch a p e a c e as lo n g as L e P e sa n t w a s n o t in c lu d e d in an y

p a rd o n C a d illa c g ra n te d . B y th is m a n e u v e r V a u d re u il c o u ld m ak e an im p o s s ­

ib le d e m a n d , w h ile le av in g th e re sp o n s ib ility o f n e g o tia tin g w h at m ig h t b e an

e m b a rra ss in g c o m p ro m ise to h is riva l a n d su b o rd in a te , C a d il la c .68

A t D e tr o it th e la rg e r issu e re m a in e d - h o w th e a llia n ce co u ld b e re sto re d

w ith in th e c u ltu ra l p a ra m e te rs o f the p a rtie s in vo lve d . L e P e sa n t w a s ca lle d

“ that g re a t b e a r , that m a lic io u s b e a r ,” an d V a u d re u iP s d e m an d fo r h is

e xe c u tio n lo o m e d o v e r th e p ro c e e d in g s . T h e p e o p le s tru g g lin g w ith th is

p ro b le m w e r e th e m se lv e s p o lit ica l ac to rs w h o w e re n o t n e c e ssa r ily w e d d e d

to th e w e lfa re o f e ith e r L e P e sa n t o r V a u d re u il. T h e c h ie f O ttaw a n e g o tia ­

to rs, O to n ta g a n an d O n a sk e fro m M ic h ilim a c k in a c , w e re L e P e s a n t ’ s p o li­

tical r iv a ls . T h e y p ro te c te d h im n ot o u t o f love b u t b e c a u se th ey h ad no

m e a n s at th e ir d isp o sa l to d e liv e r h im , an d th ey fe a re d the re p e rc u ss io n s i f

th ey tr ie d . C a d illa c , fo r h is p art, w a s a lo n g -s ta n d in g o p p o n e n t o f V a u d re u il

an d o n ly to o g lad to u se th e a ffa ir to b e n e fit h im s e lf a n d e m b a rra ss the

The middle ground

67 For Otontagan, see Vaudreuil to Minster, July 24, 1707; M P H C 33 :328 -29 , Council with Ottawas, June 18, 1707, Speech o f Jean lc Blanc, Sheldon, E arly History o f M ichigan, 2 3 3 -3 9 . F ° r VaudreuiTs position, see Council with Ottawas, June 20, 1707, Reply of Vaudreuil, Sheldon, E arly History o f M ichigan, 242; Reply o f Jean le Blanc, June 2 1, 1707, ib id ., 243-44 .

68 See the speech o f Vaudreuil to Jean le Blanc, June 22, 1707, Sheldon, E arly History o f M ichigan, 245—47; Vaudreuil to Minster, July 24, 1707, M P H C 3 3 :32 8 -30 . Pot the rivalry of Vaudreuil and Cadillac, see Vaudreuil to Minister, Nov. 12, 1707, M P H C 33:371 —72-

g o v e rn o r. B o th C a d illa c an d the O ttaw a c h ie fs c o u ld c o n c e iv a b ly u se the

c u ltu ra l d e m an d s o f o u ts id e rs to ad v a n ce th e ir in tere sts w ith in th e ir o w n

so c iety w h ile s im u lta n e o u sly re n e w in g th e a llia n c e .69

T h e w illin g n e ss o f b o th C a d illa c an d the O ttaw a n e g o tia to rs to m ove fro m

th eir in itial p o sitio n s re fle c ts th is se n se o f th e ir o w n p o lit ica l ad van tag e .

T h e y c o u ld a lso v io la te the u su a l n o rm s o f th e ir o w n c u ltu re s b e c a u se the

a llia n c e , i t s e l f the m id d le g ro u n d , c re a te d c u ltu ra l d e m a n d s o f its ow n.

C a d illa c sh ifte d h is p o sitio n first. H e in d ica te d that the s u rre n d e r o f L e

P e sa n t w as m o re im p o rtan t than h is d eath . “ I w ish h im to b e in m y p o w e r,

e ith e r to g ran t h im h is life o r p u t h im to d e a th ,” he to ld O to n tag an . C a d illa c

w a s, in e ffe c t , p u ttin g L e P e sa n t in the p la c e o f the s la v e s o r c ap tive s u su a lly

g iven to ra ise the d e a d . S u c h c u ltu ra l lo g ic w as m o re c o m p re h e n s ib le to the

O ttaw as than a d e m an d fo r e x e c u tio n , e v e n i f the s u rre n d e r o f a c h ie f w as

w ith o u t p re c e d e n t. T h e s e w e re u n u su a l co n d itio n s; the a llia n ce it s e lf w as at

stak e . O to n tag an a g re e d to d e liv e r L e P e sa n t: “ H e is m y b ro th e r , m y ow n

b ro th e r , b u t w h at can w e d o ?” S in c e O to n tag an an d K in o u g e , an o th er

h e a d m a n , w e re , lik e L e P e sa n t, S a b le O ttaw as, th ey a g re e d to take re sp o n s i­

bility' fo r h is su rre n d e r , th u s m a k in g the m atte r an in tern a l S a b le m atter an d

lim itin g the re p e rc u ss io n s . In e ffe c t , a c u ltu ra l fic tio n w as a g re e d on .

C a d illa c an d the O ttaw as agT ccd to act as i f L e P e sa n t w e re a s lave b e in g

o ffe r e d to the F r e n c h in co m p e n sa tio n fo r th e ir d e a d . C a d illa c w o u ld th en

d e term in e i f he lived o r d ie d . T h is m ad e c u ltu ra l se n se in a w ay that L e

P e sa n t ’ s e xe cu tio n d id n o t; it p re se rv e d the a llia n ce , an d it se rv e d the

p e rso n a l in te re sts o f b o th F r e n c h an d O ttaw a n e g o tia to rs .70

The middle ground 87

69 Otontagan (Jean ie Blanc), Kinouge, Meatinan, and Menukoucak were joined partway through the proceedings by Kataolauibois (Koutaouileone) and Onaske, who was headman of the Kiskakon Ottawas at Michilimackinac. Council held at Detroit, Aug. 6, 1707, Aug. 8, 1707, M P H C 3 3 :3 3 1, 334; Speeches of Three Indians from Michilmackina (sic) Oct. 7, 1707, M P H C 33:362-64 .

From the beginning of these negotiations, Otontagan and his brother, Miscouaky, had tried to lay the blame for the incident on Le Pesant. Speech of Miscouaky, Sept. 26, 1706, M P H C 33:288-89 ; Council with Ottawas, Speech ofjean le Blanc, June j 8, 1707, Sheldon, Early History o f M ichigan, 2 3 4 -3 5 . Onaske and Le Pesant were engaged in a rivalry over whether the Ottawas should concentrate their settlements at Michilimackinac or Detroit. Onaske accused Le Pesant of giving the Iroquois gifts to come and attack the Ottawas of Michilimackinac. Father Marest to Vaudreuil, Aug. 14, J706, W HC 16:238. Cadillac had earlier accused the Michilimackinac Ottawas o f soliciting other nations to attack Detroit to force the Ottawas there to withdraw to Michilimackinac, Sheldon, Early History o f M ichigan, 19 6-9 7 . Koutaouileone was also involved in the attempt to reunite the Ottawas at Michili­ mackinac. Marest to Vaudreuil, Aug. 27, 1706, M P H C 3 3 :27 t. Cadillac’s mancuverings will be discussed below. The French, of course, tried to use Ottawa divisions to their advantage, see Vaudreuil’s comments on Cadillac’s letter o f Aug. 27, 1706, M P H C 33:282.

70 Council Held at Detroit, Aug. 6, 1707, Speech of Cadillac M P H C 33:332. Council Held at Detroit, Replies of Otontagan, Aug. 6, 1707, Seventh Council, Speech of Onaske, M P H C 33:332 - 33> 3 3 5 -3 6 . Speeches o f 'Ihree Indians from Michilimakina (sic), Oct. 7, 1707, M PHC 33:363-64-

T h e r e w e re tw o fo rm id a b le o b stac le s to th is so lu tio n . T h e firs t w a s the

M ia m is an d the H u r o n -P e tu n s , w h o m C a d illa c h ad m a d e s im p le o b se rv e rs

o f the w h o le a ffa ir . F o r th e ir b e n e fit , C a d illa c trea te d th e O ttaw a d e leg a tio n

im p e r io u s ly . H e gave the H u ro n -P e tu n s - an d tr ie d to g ive the M ia m is - the

O ttaw a c ap tive s in te n d e d fo r V a u d re u il in o rd e r “ to re v iv e y o u r d e a d a little

- I d o n ot say a lto g e th e r .” H e e v e n , in c o u n c il, m a d e th e H u r o n -P e tu n s the

e ld e r b ro th e rs o f the F r e n c h a llia n ce in p la c e o f the O ttaw as. B u t h e d e n ie d

th em re v e n g e . H e w a rn e d b o th n a tio n s that w ith the d e liv e ry o f L e P e sa n t,

h e w o u ld c o n s id e r the m atte r c lo se d . “ T h e r e sh a ll b e n o b lo o d le ft to be

s e e n .” 71 72

T h e se c o n d o b stac le w a s a p ra c tic a l o n e : W h o e x a c tly w o u ld p e rsu a d e o r

fo rc e L e P e sa n t to c o n se n t to se rv e a s a slave to th e F re n c h ? W h o p ro v id e d

the so lu tio n to th is p ro b le m is n o t k n o w n , b u t h o w it w a s so lv e d is c le a r

e n o u g h , A p ro c e e d in g th at h ad b e e n h a l f th e a te r a n d h a lf n e g o tia tio n now

b e c a m e fu lly th ea te r. A fte r c o n s id e ra b le n e g o tia tio n s at M ic h ilim a c k in a c , L e

P e sa n t a g re e d to c o m e to D e tro it an d s u rr e n d e r h im s e lf a s a s la v e to the

F r e n c h . A c c o rd in g to V a u d re u il, a ll that fo llo w e d w a s p re a r ra n g e d b e tw e e n

L e P e sa n t an d an e m issa ry o f C a d illa c . H o w m u c h th e o th e r O tta w as o r

o th er F re n c h m e n k n e w o f th e se a rra n g e m e n ts is n o t c le a r .

C a d illa c c o m p a re d the a sto n ish m e n t p ro v o k e d b y the a p p e a ra n c e o f L e

P e sa n t at D e tr o it to that p ro d u c e d b y the a rriv a l o f the D o g e o f G e n o a in

F r a n c e . T o e v o k e su c h a re sp o n se , to m ak e the In d ia n s m arv e l at the

c u ltu ra lly u n im a g in a b le th in g s C a d illa c a n d the F r e n c h c o u ld a c h ie v e , wras,

in fac t, th e so le p o in t o f the d ram a n o w e n a c te d at D e tro it . C a d il la c ’s

p ro d u c tio n o f “ T h e S u r r e n d e r o f L e P e sa n t ,” h o w e v e r , h ad to p lay to a

su sp ic io u s an d c r it ic a l a u d ie n c e o f M ia m is , H u r o n -P e tu n s , an d th ose

F r e n c h o ffic ia ls w h o w a tc h e d fro m a fa r . A ll o f th em w e re c o n c e rn e d n o t so

71 The Huron-Petuns and Miamis wondered out loud why Cadillac should bother to demand Le Pesant when there were so many Ottawa chiefs in Detroit upon whom they could take revenge. Council 1 Ield at Detroit, Aug. 7 ,17 0 7 , Aug. 9, 1707 ,M P H C 3 3 :3 3 3 -3 5 ; Speeches of Three Indians from Michilimakina (sic), Oct. 7, 1707, M PH C 33 :36 3-64 .

72 How Le Pesant was persuaded, or forced, to come was not clear. Kataolauibois told Vaudreuil that it was Onaske, Sakima, Meyavila, and himself, all of them Kiskakons and Sinago Ottawas from Michilimackinac, who compelled Le Pesant to embark. I Ie minimized the role of Otontagan, even though Onaske had stressed at Detroit that the surrender of Le Pesant was Otontagan’s responsibility. Kataolauibois’s account of negotiations is, however, sketchy and he told Vaudreuil that he would leave it to the Sieur de St. Pierre, who had been present, to give a full account. It appears clear, however, that Le Pesant in reaching his decision to come had to deal with strong pressure from leading men that he go. The pressure was strong enough so that Kataloauibois feared Le Pesant’s revenge if Cadillac did not execute him. Speeches of Three Indians from Michilimakina (sic), Oct. 7, 1707, M PH C 33:365. Vaudreuil, deriving his account from the Sieur de St. Pierre, says that Le Pesant made private arrangements with the Sieur d’Argenteuil, Cadillac’s emissary, to come to Detroit. Vaudreuil to Minister, Oct. 1, 1707, M PH C 33:354.

88 The middle ground

m u ch w ith the p lo t as w ith the c u ltu ra lly sy m b o lic d e ta ils that g av e the d ram a

its m ean in g . V a u d re u il d e liv e re d the m o st e x te n d e d re v ie w o f the p e r fo r m ­

a n c e , a lth o u gh , as sh a ll be se e n , the M ia m is w e re the m o st c r it ic a l.73

L e P e sa n t, u n til n ow the G o d o t o f th is d ram a , p u t in h is a p p e a ra n c e at

D e tro it on S e p te m b e r 2 4 , 1 7 0 7 . H e d e liv e re d h is o n ly re c o rd e d lin e s w h ile

lo o k in g to sh o re fro m the c a n o e that b ro u g h t h im . H e tre m b le d , c ith e r fro m

m alaria o r fe a r , and sa id , “ I se e I am a d e ad m a n .” Y e t w h at V a u d re u il n o ted

w a s h is e sco rt . H e ca m e w ith ten w a rr io rs w h o w e re not K is k a k o n o r S in a g o

O ttaw as, b u t S a b le O ttaw as fro m h is ow n v illag e . T h e y w e re sen t, V a u d re u il

sa id , not to d e liv e r h im b u t to p ro te c t h im fro m an g ry H u ro n -P e tu n s an d

iM iam is. C a d illa c v e rb a lly a b u se d L e P e sa n t, re fe rr in g to h im as h is s lave ,

b u t C a d illa c sp o k e to L e P e sa n t on a w a m p u m b elt. O n e d id n o t sp eak to

s lave s on w am p u m . O n e sp o k e to re p re se n ta t iv e s o f n a tio n s in that m an n e r.

T h e O ttaw as then ask e d fo r L e P e sa n t ’ s life an d , o ffe r in g a y o u n g slave ,

a sk e d that th ey be a llo w e d to re tu rn to D e tr o it .74 *

W ith L e P e sa n t ’ s ritu al su b m iss io n , the first act e n d e d . L e P e sa n t,

V a u d re u il p o in ted o u t, h ad se rv e d h is p u rp o se . H is c o n tin u e d p re se n c e n ow

b e c a m e a p ro b le m fo r C a d illa c . V a u d re u il h ad o rd e re d h is d eath an d

C a d illa c h ad e a r lie r p ro m ise d the M ia m is an d H u r o n -P e tu n s that he w o u ld

kill h im . B u t i f C a d illa c a c tu a lly k illed L e P e sa n t, h e r isk e d c o n flic t w ith the

S a b le O ttaw as an d th e ir a llie s o n the G r e a t L a k e s . L c P e sa n t ’ s s u rre n d e r

w a s u se fu l; h is co n tin u e d p re se n c e w as not.

C a d illa c an d the O ttaw as so lv e d the p ro b le m b y w ritin g L e P e sa n t o u t o f

the scrip t. T h a t n igh t, le a v in g b e h in d h is sh o e s , h is k n ife , an d h is sh a b b y hat,

L e P e sa n t e sc a p e d fro m the fo rt at D e tro it . C a d illa c , in re ta lia tio n , lo ck ed up

h is e sco rts fo r a d ay an d th en re le a s e d th em , c o n te n d in g that L e P e sa n t

w o u ld p e r ish in th e w o o d s , an d , in a n y c a se , h is in flu e n c e w as n o w g o n e .

V a u d re u il w a s sk ep tica l. L e P e sa n t - w h o se n am e tran sla tes fro m the F r e n c h

as the h e a v y o n e , o r the fa t o n e - w a s n o to rio u s ly o b e se an d n e a rly seven ty

y e a rs o ld . T h a t a se v e n ty -y e a r -o ld fat m an w h o se s u r r e n d e r h ad b e e n the

o b je c t o f F r e n c h p o lic y in the u p p e r c o u n try fo r m o re th an a y e a r c o u ld

e sc a p e p ast se n tin e ls fro m a F r e n c h fo rt o n the first n igh t o f h is captiv ity

stra in ed cre d ib ility . C a d il la c ’s o n ly e xp lan atio n w as th at L e P e sa n t h ad lo st a

lo t o f w e ig h t lately . W ith L e P e sa n t g o n e , C a d illa c a ssu re d the O ttaw as that

73 Cadillac to Vaudreuil (copy made), Oct. i, 1707, M PH C 3 3 :3 5 2 -5 2 . Words of the Ottawas to Cadillac, Sept. 24, 1707 , M P IIC 33 :34 6-50 . Vaudreuil to Minister, Oct. 1, 1707 ,M P H C 33:3SO-S3- Cadillac to Vaudreuil (copy made), Oct. r, 1707, M PH C 3 3 :3 5 1 -5 2 ; Words o f the Ottawas to Cadillac, Sept. 24, 1707, M PHC 33:346-48 ; Vaudreuil to Minister, Oct. 1, 1707 ,M P H C 33:354- 57-

5 Vaudreuil to Minister, Oct. 1, 1707, M PHC 33 :355 -58 .

The middle ground 89

he h ad in te n d e d to p a rd o n h im an yw ay, th u s fre e in g h im s e lf fro m co m p lic ity I f

in h is d e a th i f the H u r o n -P e tu n s o r M ia m is sh o u ld ca tch h im .

V a u d r e u il, sk e p tica l an d c ritica l as he w a s , a p p re c ia te d g o o d a ctin g and

c le v e r sta g in g , even as h e d e c ip h e re d the d ram a an d e xp la in e d aw ay the

illu s io n s it so u g h t to c re a te . W ith b o th the O ttaw as an d the F r e n c h actin g

a c c o rd in g to sc rip t , the c u ltu ra l d e m a n d s o f e ach h ad b e e n m et b y cre a tin g

an a rtific ia l an d co n tro lle d s ta g e , a sp e c ia l k in d o f m id d le g ro u n d . V a u d re u il n n

ap p re c ia te d th is.

T h e M ia m is an d H u ro n -P e tu n s w e re le ss e n th u sia stic . T h e i r re sp o n se to

the d ram a w a s so h a rsh that C a d illa c did n ot c h o o se to fu lly re p o rt it.

In stead , he re p o rte d o n ly the c lo s in g p art o f the co u n c il that fo llo w e d L e

P e s a n t ’s e sca p e an d w as a tte n d e d by the M ia m is , the H u ro n -P e tu n s , the

F r e n c h , an d the O ttaw as. In c o u n c il, fo llo w in g the u su a l ritu al fo rm s, he

ca lm ed th e w a te rs , re m o v e d the fa lle n tre e s , sm o o th ed th e lan d , an d o p e n ed

the w ay fo r p e a c e an d th e re tu rn o f th e O ttaw as to D e t r o i t . '8

U n fo rtu n a te ly fo r C a d illa c , the a u d ie n c e in h isto rica l d ram a s o f th is sort

m u st c o n se n t to the scrip t, fo r th ey a lw ays h ave the o p tio n o f a d d in g a fin al

act. L e P e sa n t re tu rn e d to M ic h ilim a c k in a c in the sam e c a n o e an d w ith the

sam e w a rr io rs w h o h ad e sc o rte d h im d o w n to D e tro it , b u t th is d id n ot c lo se

the p lay . C a d illa c h ad g a in e d th e O ttaw as b u t lost the M ia m is , w h o soon

k illed n o t o n ly O ttaw as b u t a lso F r e n c h m e n , an d so b e g a n y e t a n o th e r ro u n d

o f n e g o tia tio n s. T h e re so lu tio n o f the k illin g s at D e tro it w as th u s o n ly

p artia lly s u c c e s s fu l, b u t th e n e g o tia tio n s a re , n e v e rth e le ss , illu m in atin g .

T h e y re ve a l th e su b stan tia l an d e x p a n d in g m id d le g ro u n d th e F r e n c h -

A lg o n q u ia n a llian ce had c re a te d . H e r e c o m m o n p ro b le m s c o u ld b e w o rk e d

o u t an d m u tu a lly c o m p re h e n s ib le so lu tio n s a rr iv e d at. T h e n e g o tia tio n s also

re ve a l th e e x te n t to w h ich so lu tio n s c o u ld b e e lab o ra te ly sc r ip te d cu ltu ra l

fic tio n s, p o lit ica l th eater. S u c h fic t io n s d e e p ly in flu e n c e d e ve n ts in both • ^ 79so c ie tie s .

90 The middle ground

V

O n c e e sta b lish e d , th e m id d le g ro u n d w a s e x te n d e d in su rp r is in g d ire c tio n s .

K il l in g s the F r e n c h o n ce c o n s id e re d so le ly th eir o w n c o n c e rn b e ca m e 76 * 78 79

76 Cadillac to Vaudreuil (copy made), Oct. i , 1 707, M PH C 331351; Vaudreuil to Minister, Oct. 1, 1707, M PHC 33:355; Words o f Ottawas to Cadillac Sept. 25, 1707, M PHC 33:348-50 .

11 Vaudreuil to Minister, Oct. 1, 170 7 , M PH C 33:355. 78 Words of Ottawas to Cadillac, Sept. 25, 1707, M PIIC 33:348-50 . 79 For the retaliation o f the Miamis and the events which followed, see Vaudreuil and Raudot

to Minister, Nov. 14, 1708, M PH C 3 3 :4 0 3 -5 , 408; Father Marcst to De Vaudreuil, June 4, 1708, M PHC 3 3 :38 3-8 7 ; De Vaudreuil to Minister, Nov. 5, 1708, M PH C 33 :395-99 ;

is su e s to b e se ttled on the m id d le g ro u n d . O n A p ril 2 5 , 1 7 2 3 , a F r e n c h

so ld ie r sp oke “ im p e rtin e n tly ” to a w a re h o u se k e e p e r , a m an n a m e d P e rilla u t,

w h o re sp o n d e d b y ru n n in g h is sw o rd th ro u g h the s o ld ie r ’ s b o d y . T h e

F r e n c h tr ie d P e rilla u t an d c o n d e m n e d h im to d eath , b u t P e rilla u t, as

w a re h o u se k e e p e r (o r maître de la marchandise, as the In d ia n s c a lle d h im ),

h ad h ad m an y d e a lin g s w ith the Illin o is , an d h is d eath se n te n c e d is tu rb e d

th em d e e p ly . O n A p r il 29 th re e c h ie fs o f the K a s k a s k ia s , a c c o m p a n ie d by

th irty w a rr io rs , a p p e a re d to p le a d fo r h is life . T h e y w e re fo llo w e d in e arly

M a y b y a C a h o k ia d e le g a tio n that in c lu d e d M a r ie R o m p ie c h o u e (o r

R o k ip ie k o u e ) . T h is w o m a n , w h o w a s “ g re a tly re sp e c te d in h e r v illa g e an d

a m o n g the F r e n c h ,” w 'as the w ife o f a C a h o k ia , Jo s e p h O u issa k a tc h a k o u e . In

a ll lik e lih o o d , M a r ie R o m p ie c h o u e w a s A ra m e p in c h ie u e , the d a u g h te r o f

R o u e n s a w h o h a d m a rr ie d M ic h e l A c c a u lt th irty y e a rs e a r lie r . T h e actio n s

an d s p e e c h e s o f th ese d e le g a tio n s , p a rtic u la r ly th o se o f the K a s k a s k ia c h ie fs

K ira o u e r ia and M ic h e l, p re se n t a c le a r p ic tu re o f e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry

A lg o n q u ia n view 's o n m u rd e r an d re v e n g e , an d o f h ow su ch v iew s c o u ld

in flu e n c e F r e n c h a c t io n s .80

K ira o u e r ia , a K a s k a s ia c h ie f w h o w a s “ o f th e P r a y e r ” (a C h r is t ia n ) , h e ld a

p a rtic u la r ly a d v a n tag e o u s p o sit io n fo r a rtic u la tin g In d ia n lo g ic an d e x te n d in g

it to F r e n c h a ffa irs . T h e K a s k a s k ia s o p e n e d m atters b y p re se n t in g the

ca lu m e t, a sym b o l o f fr ie n d sh ip an d a llia n c e . T h e F r e n c h k n ew fro m a h a lf

c e n tu ry o f e x p e rie n c e th at to a c c e p t the c a lu m e t w as to g ra n t the g iv e r ’ s

re q u e st . K ira o u e r ia th en tried to b r in g the F r e n c h to th e ir se n se s . “ W o u ld

y o u ,” h e a sk e d , “ sp ill th e b lo o d o f a F re n c h m a n to b lo t o u t the b lo o d o f

a n o th e r an d w o u ld yo u ad d to th e lo ss o f o n e m an the lo ss o f a n o th e r?” T h is

w a s fo lly . I f the F r e n c h in siste d o n k illin g so m e o n e to c o v e r the b o d y o f the

so ld ie r , th en th ey sh o u ld strik e the F o x an d C h ic k a sa w s , th e ir e n e m ie s .

T h e s e p e o p le w o u ld be fu ll o f jo y w h e n th ey h e a rd that the F r e n c h h ad , in

The middle ground 9 1

Report of D ’Aigremont, Nov. 14, 1708, M P IIC 33:937—40- For the reaction of the Ottawas to Le Pesant’s surrender, see Speeches o f Three Indians from Michilimakina (sic), Oct. 7, 1707, M P IIC 33:365.

sn This account is partially drawn from the report o f Boisbriant Diron Desurins I .egardeur De I,’isle Ste. Thercse I .angloisere o f June 17 , 1723, in Schlarman, From Quebec to New Orleans, 2 2 5 - 3 1 . For original, see Chefs du villages . . . , 17 juin 1793, AN, F3, v. 24, f. 157 Moreau St. Mery. The account of the Cahokia delegation and Marie Rompiechoue is from a document of May 1 1 , 1723, entitled Remis par M. Diron, AN, C 13A , v. 7, f. 322. That Marie Rompiechoue was Aramepinchieue is made likely by (1) the similarity of their names, (2) the fact that Aramepinchieue’s baptismal name was Marie (see Palm, “Jesuit Missions,” p. 38), and (3) the high standing of both women among the Illinois and the French. Aramepinchieue was still alive in 1723 because four years later the French ransomed “ the Illinois woman who passed as the wife of michelako” from the Fox who were about to burn her. Accault was by now presumably dead. Deliette to Lignery, Oct. 15 , 1726, WHO 17 :18 . For an additional, briefer account o f the murder, see “Journal of Diron D ’Artaguiette . . . in Newton D. Mereness, Travels in the American Colonies (New York: Macmillan Company, 19^ ) , 75- 77-

e ffe c t , a v e n g e d the C h ic k a sa w s an d F o x ’ s d e a d b y k illin g o n e a n o th e r .81

K ir a o u e r ia th en w en t on to e xp la in the A lg o n q u ia n v iew o f m u rd e r.

M u r d e r e r s w e re m ad m en , and n o n atio n c o u ld g lo ry in b e in g fre e o f them .

B u t they w e re not p e rm a n e n tly m ad . T h e y c o u ld b e re d e e m e d , an d ra th e r

th an th e ir b e in g k illed , the re la tiv es o f th e ir v ic tim s sh o u ld be c o m p en sated

an d the b lo o d o f th e v ic tim co v e re d . M o r e b lo o d sh o u ld n ot be sp ille d o n top

o f it. B u t K ira o u e r ia d id n ot e x p e c t the F r e n c h sim p ly to a ccep t A lg o n q u ia n

lo g ic . In the u su a l m a n n e r o f c re a tin g the m id d le g ro u n d , he c o n n ecte d w hat

he w as sa y in g w ith F r e n c h cu ltu re . H e jo in e d it w ith C h rist ia n ity :

I know that the Great Spirit, the Spirit Creator, God, forbids us, my father, to kill our children.. . . But does not God, who is Master of all, raise his eyes above our follies when we ask him to be no longer angry? He forgives; pardon as He does, my fathers, and for the love of Him.82 *

F in a lly , K ira o u e r ia an d M ic h e l, a w a r c h ie f, ap p e a le d to the u n d e rly in g

b a s is o f the m id d le g ro u n d , the a llia n c e , an d the sym b o l o f p e a c e an d

a llia n ce , the ca lu m e t. K ir a o u e r ia b e g g e d the F r e n c h n ot to h u m ilia te h im

an d h is c h ie fs b y re fu s in g th e ir re q u e st . M ic h e l c ited tim es w h en K a s k a s k ia s

h ad lo st th e ir liv e s to ave n g e the F r e n c h a n d h o w th o se w a rr io rs re m a in e d

u n a v e n g e d at th e re q u e s t o f th e F r e n c h . T h o s e m en , w a rr io rs fo r w h o m

re v e n g e sh o u ld be tak en , lay u n c o v e re d , an d n o w the K a s k a s k ia s w e re b e in g n 1

a sk e d to w atch th e F r e n c h take in ap p ro p ria te v e n g e a n c e on o n e an o th e r.

T h e a ffa ir , so p h ra se d , w a s, a s the F r e n c h c o m m a n d e r B o isb r ia n t re a liz e d ,

“ a d e lica te m a tte r .” T o sen d the Illin o is aw ay w ith o u t a c o n c e ss io n w as

d a n g e ro u s , p a rtic u la r ly w h e n M ic h e l h ad o b liq u e ly ra ise d the m atte r o f the

u n c o v e re d K a s k a s k ia d e a d . B o isb r ia n t , in d e liv e r in g h is re sp o n se , in s iste d

that the a ffa ir se t no p re c e d e n t, b u t he a g re e d to p etitio n the k in g fo r

P e r illa u t ’s p a rd o n an d re le a se . T h o s e K a s k a s k ia s w h o “ have d ie d to aven g e

the F r e n c h m a n , c o v e r the b o d y o f the o n e w h o h a s n o w b e e n k ille d .” S o

e n d e d the first re c o rd e d c rim in a l ca se tried b y the F r e n c h in Illin o is .

P e r illa u t w a s fre e that M a y . H e o w e d h is fre e d o m , ju st as fifty y e a rs b e fo re

the so n o f A c h ig a n a g a o w ed h is d e a th , to an e v o lv in g cu ltu ra l lo g ic that

sp ra n g fro m the c o n v e rg e n c e s , so m e a c c id e n ta l, so m e q u ite c lo se , o f tw o

d iffe re n t c u ltu ra l sy ste m s fa ce d w ith a c o m m o n se t o f p ro b le m s .84

S e p a ra te ly , the s to r ie s o f D u lh u t an d A c h ig a n a g a ’s so n s, o f L e P e sa n t and

C a d illa c , an d o f P e r illa u t an d K ir a o u e r ia are in c id e n ts w id e ly sc a tte re d o ver

81 Ibid ., 226 -27 . Kiraoucria’s position was not unusual; Joachim, a Michigame chief, was also of the prayer. He had married three of his daughters to Frenchmen. St. Ange au Ministre, n.d., (1733) AN, C 13 A , v. 17, f. 248. For an Illinois interpretation o f patriarchal relations, see Parolles de Chachagouesse . . . chez Illinois du 20 aoust 17 12 , AN, C i iA, v. 33.

82 Ib id , 227. 88 Ibid., 227-30 . 84 Ib id ., 2 2 8 -3 1 .

92 The middle ground

tim e an d sp a c e , b u t to g e th e r th ey fo rm an e v o lv in g ritu al o f s u rre n d e r an d

re d e m p tio n that w o u ld b e c en tra l to the F r e n c h -A lg o n q u ia n a llia n c e . T h is

ritu al o f the m id d le g ro u n d c le a r ly d re w e le m e n ts fro m both c u ltu re s b u t

fu lly c o rre sp o n d e d to n e ith e r. T h e ritu a l o p e ra te d b y an a lo g y . T h e m u rd e re r

w a s to the g o v e rn o r as a s in n e r w a s to G o d . T h e g o v e rn o r w a s to the

m u rd e re r as a s te rn b u t fo rg iv in g fa th e r w a s to an e rr in g so n . S u c h a n a lo g ie s

w e re h o o k s, both a tta ch in g the n ew ritu al to the p u re ly A lg o n q u ia n or

F re n c h w ay o f se ttlin g m u rd e rs an d p u llin g e le m e n ts o f the o ld e r p ro c e ss

in to the m id d le g ro u n d . A s u n d e r the F r e n c h sy ste m , In d ian m u rd e re rs

w o u ld b e im p riso n e d w h ile th e ir c r im e s w e re in v e stig a te d ; as u n d e r the

A lg o n q u ia n system , In d ia n an d F r e n c h d ead w o u ld b e co v e re d o r ra ise d u p .

O n ce fo rm u la te d , th is ritu al o f s u r r e n d e r an d re d e m p tio n b e c a m e a

c e n te rp ie c e o f the m id d le g ro u n d . O rd e rs fro m G o v e r n o r D u q u e s n e to the

S ie u r de P e an in 1 7 5 4 e x p re sse d its b a s ic e le m e n ts w e ll: “ H e m u st m an age

to se e that he o b ta in s the m u rd e re rs , to w h o m he w ill g ran t p ard o n in the

cu sto m ary m a n n e r .” T h e ritu a l, h o w e v e r, w a s u n d e r co n stan t p re ssu re fro m

F re n c h m e n w h o , h a v in g se e n to it that m u rd e re rs w e re su rre n d e re d , w ish e d

to se c th ese m u rd e re rs e x e c u te d , an d fro m A lg o n q u ia n s w h o h e s ita te d to

s u rre n d e r k in sp e o p le fo r e v e n te m p o ra ry im p riso n m e n t b e fo re th e ir p ard o n

“ in the c u sto m a ry m a n n e r .” E a c h m u rd e r , e a c h su rre n d e r , an d e ach p ard o n

thus b e c a m e a test o f the h ea lth o f the a llia n c e . O n o n tio ’s fa ilu re to p ard o n

an d h is c h ild re n ’s fa ilu re to s u rre n d e r s ig n a le d c r ise s that o n ly a re n e w a l o f

the ritu al c o u ld re so lv e . L ik e all s tru c tu ra l e le m e n ts o f c u ltu re , the ritu al

re m ain e d m e a n in g fu l o n ly in so fa r a s it w a s co n stan tly re p lic a te d in a c tio n .85

W h at w a s b e in g c re a te d in so c ia l ac tio n w a s a w o rld v e ry d iffe re n t fro m

the o n e h isto ria n s w o u ld e x p e c t to fin d i f th ey re lie d o n the o ld e r e th ­

n o g ra p h ie s . N o r d o e s the e vo lu tio n o f th is w o rld c o n fo rm to m u ch a c c u ltu ra ­

tion lite ra tu re w ith the g ra d u a l ad o p tio n b y In d ia n s o f certa in E u ro p e a n

va lu es . In ste a d , m e m b e rs o f tw o c u ltu re s e sta b lish e d an a llia n ce th at they

both th o u g h t fu rth e re d in te re sts g e n e ra te d w ith in th e ir o w n so c ie tie s . T h e y

m ain tain ed th is a llia n c e th ro u g h ritu a ls an d c e re m o n ia ls b a se d o n c u ltu ra l

p ara lle ls an d c o n g ru e n c e s , in e x a c t an d a rtific ia l as th ey o rig in a lly m ay have

b e en . T h e s e ritu a ls an d c e re m o n ia ls w e re n ot the d e co rativ e c o v e r in g o f the

a llia n ce ; th ey w e re its s in e w s. T h e y h e lp e d b in d to g e th e r a c o m m o n w o rld to

so lve p ro b le m s, even k illin g s , that th re a te n e d the a llia n ce itse lf. T h e s e

so lu tio n s m ig h t h ave b e e n , as at D e tro it , e lab o ra te c u ltu ra l fic tio n s, b u t

th ro u gh th em c h a n g e o c c u rre d . S u c h c h a n g e s , w o rk e d o u t o n the m id d le

g ro u n d , c o u ld b e re m a rk ab ly in flu e n tia l, b r in g in g im p o rtan t m o d ifica tio n s in

each so c ie ty an d b lu rr in g the b o u n d a r ie s b e tw e e n them .

85 Instruction de Duquesne à Pean, 9 may 1754, in Fernand Grenier (cd.), Papiers Contrecoeur, et autres documents concernant le conflit anglo-français sur l'O hio de 1745 à 1756 (Quebec: Les presses universitaires, Laval, 1952), 122.

The middle ground 93

3

The fu r trade

You have forgotten that your ancestors in former days used earthen pots, stone hatchets, and knives, and bows; and you will be obliged to use them again, if Onontio abandons you. What will become of you, if he becomes angry?

Nicolas Perrot, Memoir

The universal modeler attributes to exotic economic practices a motivation and intenrionality which is our own.

Stephen Gudeman, Economics as Culture

I

N o rm a lly , a n y d isc u ss io n o f the fu r trad e is se g re g a te d fro m the w id e r

sp e c tru m o f so cia l re la tio n s an d e x c h a n g e s b e tw e e n In d ia n s an d w h ite s . Y e t

the e x c h a n g e o f g o o d s is n o t so e a s ily fe n c e d o f f in to an e co n o m ic re a lm

w h o se ru le s a re at o n c e d istin c t fro m o th e r a sp e c ts o f life an d p re se n t in all

so c ie t ie s . A fte r a ll, g o o d s c h a n g e d h a n d s v irtu a lly e v e ry tim e F re n c h m e n an d

A lg o n q u ia n s s tru g g le d to u n ite a g a in st c o m m o n e n e m ie s ; o r m et to re so lv e

the m u rd e rs b e tw e e n th em ; o r a sk e d fo r a id in su rv iv in g h u n g e r , d ise a se ,

d ro u g h ts , an d b liz z a rd s ; o r m a d e lo v e o r m a rr ie d . S u c h e x c h a n g e s n o rm a lly

e ith e r a re e x c lu d e d fro m c o n s id e ra tio n s o f the fu r trad e o r a re re d u c e d to a

p u re ly e c o n o m ic re la tio n . It is ju st as p o ss ib le , h o w e v e r, to c re a te a c o u n te r­

im a g e in w h ic h th e fu r trad e p ro p e r is m e re ly an a rb itra ry se le c tio n fro m a

fu lle r an d q u ite c o h e re n t sp e c tru m o f e x c h a n g e that w a s e m b e d d e d in

p a r t ic u la r so c ia l re la tio n s . T h e fu r trad e w a s a co n sta n tly c h a n g in g c o m ­

p ro m ise , a co n d u it, b e tw e e n tw o lo ca l m o d e ls o f the e x c h a n g e - the F r e n c h

an d the A lg o n q u ia n .

In p art, the co u n te rim a g e p re se n te d in th is c h ap te r re e n te rs on the s id e o f

the su b stan tiv ists the o ld , an d n o w tired , d e b ate b e tw e e n su b stan tiv ists an d

fo rm a lis ts , b e tw e e n lo c a l fo rm u la tio n s o f “ e c o n o m y ” an d u n iv e rsa l m o d e ls .

In p ro d u c in g and e x c h a n g in g g o o d s , the A lg o n q u ia n s w e re n o t ac tin g as

“ ra tio n a l” h u m an b e in g s w o u ld h ave acted in th e ir p la c e . A c o m p lic a te d set

o f h u m a n activ ities can b e re d u c e d to m e re b u s in e ss tran sac tio n s. I f e v e ry ­

o n e an d e v e ry th in g is fo r sa le , an d b u y in g and se llin g at o n c e e n c o m p a sse s

94

The fur trade

an d e xp la in s a ll, th en th e w o rld is a re la tiv e ly s im p le an d c o h e re n t p la c e . B u t

the A lg o n q u ia n s acted fo r re a so n s that can n o t b e re d u c e d to u n iv ersa l

e co n o m ic law s w ith o u t c re a t in g a c a r ic a tu re o f th e ir so c ie ty an d th eir

re la tio n sh ip to E u ro p e a n s . In the se v e n te e n th - an d e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry pays d ’en haut, g ifts w e re not m e re ly b r ib e s o r w a g e s ; a llie s w e re n ot s im p ly

m e rc e n a r ie s ; w o m e n w e re not m e re ly p ro stitu te s ; m iss io n a r ie s d id not ju st

bu y th e ir c o n v e rts ; m u rd e re rs d id n o t kill s im p ly fo r g ain and th en b u y o f f

th o se w h o w o u ld ave n g e th eir v ic tim s. L i fe w as n ot a b u s in e ss , an d su ch

s im p lifica tio n s o n ly d isto rt the p a s t .1

T h u s fa r, th is is on ly a re sta te m e n t o f the su b stan tiv ist p o s it io n ; w hat

m o ves u s b e yo n d su b stan tiv ism is the re a liza tio n that, n o m atte r h ow the

A lg o n q u ia n s c o n c e iv e d o f e x c h a n g e , th ey h ad in d e e d b e co m e p a rt o f a w o rld

m ark et that th en stre tch e d a c ro ss th e A tlan tic to E u r o p e . W h e n th ey

ac c e p te d E u ro p e a n g o o d s an d gave fu rs in re tu rn , a still e m e rg in g m ark et

syste m in E u ro p e im p in ge d on th e ir lives. In d iv id u a l E u ro p e a n trad ers

so u g h t p ro fit; at le ast so m e F re n c h m e n h ad to d e rive m o re w ea lth fro m the

trad e than they in vested in it. B u t p re c ise ly b e c a u se the fu r trad e c o u ld not

b e c o m p lete ly se p a ra te d fro m th e re la tio n sh ip o f F r e n c h fa th e rs to th eir

A lg o n q u ia n c h ild re n , that is, fro m re la tio n s o f p o lit ica l an d m ilita ry a llian ce ,

a s tra ig h tfo rw a rd d o m in atio n o f th e lo c a l A lg o n q u ia n v illa g e by th e m ark et

n e v e r e m e rg e d . In ste a d , a syste m o f e x c h a n g e d e v e lo p e d that w a s n o tab ly

d iffe re n t fro m e a r lie r A lg o n q u ia n m o d e ls ; it w a s a syste m in flu e n c e d by, and

yet b u ffe re d fro m , the m ark et. T h e F r e n c h -A lg o n q u ia n a llia n c e w as the

b u ffe r . T o a llow p ro fit a lo n e to g o v e rn the fu r trad e th re a ten ed the a llia n ce ,

an d , w h e n n e c e ssa ry , F r e n c h o ffic ia ls su b o rd in a te d the fu r trad e to the

d e m an d s o f the a llia n ce . T h e y acted as ‘ ‘ fa th e rs .” 2

T ie d to the w o rld m a rk e t an d e m b e d d e d in the la rg e r w o r ld o f the

a llian ce , the fu r trad e b e c a m e p art o f the m id d le g ro u n d . It w a s n o t a rea lm

w h e re the F r e n c h d ic tated to the In d ia n s . T o a sse rt, as o n e p ro m in e n t

sch o la r h as , that by the en d o f the se v e n te e n th century', re s is ta n c e to F r e n c h

p o lic ie s c o u ld “ m e a n a c e ssa tio n o f trad e an d c o n se q u e n t fa m in e ” is to

o ve re stim ate the actu a l p re s e n c e o f trad e g o o d s, an d to ig n o re b o th ch ro n ic

9 5

1 The literature on the formalist-substantivist debate is too extensive to cite here. The basic substantivist text I have relied on is Marshall Sahlins, Stone Age Economics (Chicago: Aldine, 1972).

Arthur J . Ray and Donald Freeman, G ive Us Good M easure: A n Economic Analysis o f Relations Between the Indians and the H udson’s Bay Company Before 1763 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978), contains by far the most reasoned discussion of a modified formalist position. Its authors admit that the trade was subject to much regional variation (8-9), that it was a political as well as economic system (20-23), and that it conformed to neither European nor Indian models (236).

2 W. J. Eccles, “ The Fur Trade and Eighteenth-Century Imperialism,” W illiam and A lary Quarterly 40 (July 1983): 3 4 1-6 2 .

re s is ta n c e an d the a lte rn a tiv e s to F r e n c h d ictatio n . In the fin al s ta g e s o f the

fu r trad e , In d ia n s d e p e n d e d on E u r o p e a n m a n u fa c tu re s an d fo o d su p p lie s to

su rv iv e , an d E u ro p e a n s d ic ta ted the te rm s o f an e x c h a n g e that re d u c e d them

to p o verty . B u t th is w as the re su lt o f a lo n g p ro c e ss ; it w as not s im p ly a fact

the m o m e n t the first h atch et g le a m e d in the N o rth A m e r ic a n s u n .3

In a ssu m in g that trad e g o o d s th e m se lv e s c re a te d in stan t d e p e n d e n c e , w e

o n ly re p e a t the m istak es o f e a r ly F r e n c h tra d e rs . N ic o la s P e rro t o n ce to ld the

O ttaw as: “ Y o u h ave fo rg o tte n that y o u r a n c e sto rs in fo rm e r d ays u sed

e arth e n p o ts , sto n e h a tch e ts , an d k n ive s , an d b o w s; an d yo u w ill b e o b lig e d

to u se th em ag a in , i f O n o n tio a b a n d o n s yo u . W h a t w ill b e c o m e o f y o u , i f he

b e c o m e s a n g ry ?” B u t P e rro t m is in te rp re te d A lg o n q u ia n e n th u sia sm fo r

k n ive s , g u n s , an d cloth an d the ritu a l A lg o n q u ia n la n g u a g e d e s ig n e d to

evo k e p ity an d g e n e ro s ity . T h e i r s w a s n ot a b je c t d e p e n d e n c e . P e rro t e v e n ­

tu a lly le a rn e d that h is a ssu m p tio n o f d e p e n d e n c y w a s p re m a tu re . A fe w y e a rs

a fte r h is firs t sp e e c h , he in d u lg e d in a re v e a lin g d ia trib e a g a in st F r e n c h

p o licy . C it in g re p e a te d In d ia n m u rd e rs o f F r e n c h m e n , In d ia n trad e w ith the

E n g lis h , an d F r e n c h c o n c e ss io n s to In d ian d e m a n d s, P e rro t c la im e d that the

w e ste rn In d ia n s p o s s e s s e d the “ a rro g a n t n o tio n that th e F r e n c h c an n o t get

a lo n g w ith o u t th em and that w e co u ld n o t m a in ta in o u rse lv e s in the co lo n y

w ith o u t the a ss is ta n c e th at th ey g ive u s .” E x a c t ly w h o w a s c a p a b le o f

d ic ta tin g the a c tio n s o f w h o m a p p a re n tly re m a in e d an o p e n q u e stio n fo r

so m e t im e .4

R e c o n s tru c t in g the fu r trad e as p a rt o f th e m id d le g ro u n d in v o lv e s m o re

th an fo llo w in g the m o v e m e n t o f g o o d s. It n e c e ss ita te s d isc o v e r in g w h at

m e a n in g th ese g o o d s an d th e ir e x c h a n g e h ad fo r b o th the A lg o n q u ia n s an d

the F r e n c h . D u r in g the se v e n te e n th and e ig h tee n th c e n tu r ie s , the In d ia n s

m o st c o m m o n ly g av e fu rs - b u t a lso b a rk c a n o e s , c o rn , b e rr ie s , m eat, and

fish - to the E u r o p e a n s ; the E u ro p e a n s gave the A lg o n q u ia n s c lo th an d

g6 The middle ground

3 Quoted in Harold Hickerson, “ The Feast o f the Dead among the Seventeenth-Century Algonkians o f the Upper Great Lakes,” Am erican Anthropologist 62 (i960): 99.

For a revealing debate on similar issues in a Latin American context, see Steven J . Stem, “ Feudalism, Capitalism, and the World System in the Perspective of Latin America and the Caribbean,” Am erican H istorical Review 93 (Oct. 1988), and the following A1IR Forum, 829-97.

4 For the first quotation from Perrot, see Claude Charles Le Roy, Bacqueville de la Potherie, History o f the Savage Peoples Who A re the A llies o f N ew France, in Emma Helen Blair (ed.), The Indian Tribes o f the Upper M ississippi Valley and Region o f the Great Lakes, 2 vols. (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark, 19 11) , 2:77. The second quotation is from Nicolas Perrot, M em oir on the M anners, Customs, and Religion o f the Savages o f North Am erica, in Blair (ed.), Indian Tribes, 1:262.

In 1667 the French took for granted the need o f the western Indians to come down to Montreal for goods. Mémoire sur le Canada, 1667, AN, C 11A , v. 2, f. 352. The French regarded guns, hatchets, etc., as absolutely necessary to the Iroquois and other nations and saw their control o f supply as an effective coercive device. Description du Canada, 16 7 1, AN, C n A , v. 3, f. 198.

The fur trade

clo th in g , a lco h o l, to b acco su p e r io r to n ative v a r ie t ie s , an d m eta l to o ls w h ich

ran ge d fro m aw ls , k n ive s , an d h a tch e ts to k ettles an d m u sk e ts . B o th s id e s

gave e ac h o th e r w a m p u m - the sh e ll b e a d s m a d e b y e a ste rn In d ia n s fro m

w h e lk s (Busycon carica, B. canaliculatum) an d h a rd -s h e ll c lam s (Mercenaria mercenaria). In ad d itio n , w h e n In d ia n s p ro v id e d th e ir lab o r , th e ir se rv ic e as

w a rrio rs , o r se xu a l favo rs, g o o d s c h a n g e d h a n d s .5

B o th s id e s h ad m o d e ls o f e q u ita b le e x c h a n g e . T h e F r e n c h m o d e l h ad n ot

y e t fu lly d e ta c h e d it s e lf fro m th e o ld e r id e a o f a ju st p r ic e fo r co m m o d itie s ,

an d a w h o le s e r ie s o f re g u la tio n s c o v e re d the trad e . A fermier, u su a lly a

co m p an y o f F r e n c h m e rc h a n ts , h e ld a m o n o p o ly o n b e a v e r exp o rts fo r m o st

o f this p e r io d an d set, w ith the ad v ice o f F r e n c h o ffic ia ls , a fixed p r ic e fo r

b e av er . T h e g o v e rn m e n t re g u la te d the n u m b e r o f trad e rs in the W e st by

is su in g congés (p erm its to trad e) o r , at v a r io u s tim es, b y le a s in g o u t the

e xc lu siv e trad e at w e ste rn p o sts to o ff ic e r s , in d iv id u a l tra d e rs , o r g ro u p s o f

trad ers. T h e v a r io u s fermiers, h o w e v e r, re g a rd e d the E u r o p e a n m a rk e t as the

u ltim ate d e te rm in an t o f the p r ic e th ey c o u ld p a y fo r fu rs , an d b oth th ey an d

the in d iv id u a l trad e rs a ssu m e d that the u ltim ate p o in t o f e xc h a n g e w as to

g a rn e r a p ro fit fro m tran sac tio n s w ith the In d ia n s . W h a t m e a n s w e re

leg itim ate in a c c u m u la t in g th is su rp lu s w e re n ot fu lly a g re e d o n . T h e F r e n c h

in the se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry w e re in the p ro c e ss o f d iv o rc in g b u y in g an d

se llin g (o u tsid e the im m e d ia te fam ily) fro m o th e r so c ia l re la tio n s . S u p p ly

an d d e m an d , ra th e r th an a p e r s o n ’ s re la tio n to the se lle r , fo r e xa m p le ,

ten d ed to d e te rm in e the rate o f e x c h a n g e . T h e p r ic e fo r m o st, bu t n o t all,

g o o d s w a s a m atte r fo r n ego tiatio n .

T h e ru le o f the m ark et, h o w e v e r, w as n o t co m p le te . In se ttin g the p ric e

an d in m ak in g the e x c h a n g e , not e v e ry th in g w a s p e rm iss ib le . A n h o n e st

tra d e r d id n ot ste a l, d id n o t u se fa lse w e ig h ts , d id n ot k n o w in g ly se ll

d a m a g e d g o o d s. F o r m o st o f the p e r io d b e fo re the fa ll o f C a n a d a to the

E n g lish in 1 7 6 3 , an h o n e st tra d e r a lso d id n ot se ll b ra n d y o r o th e r liq u o r to

In d ia n s , e x c e p t u n d e r c e rta in sp e c ia l c o n d it io n s . T h e se v e n te e n th - an d e ar ly

e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry F r e n c h h ad n ot y e t m a d e e x c h a n g e a p u re ly e co n o m ic

e n te rp rise , b u t th ey h ad p ro c e e d e d m u ch fa rth e r in th is d ire c tio n th an h ad

the A lg o n q u ia n s .

T h e A lg o n q u ia n m o d e l p ro c e e d e d fro m a d iffe re n t lo g ic an d can be

d istin g u ish e d fro m the F r e n c h on a s e r ie s o f im p o rtan t p o in ts . F ir s t o f a ll, 3

3 For wampum, see Lynn Ceci, “ The Value of Wampum among the New York Iroquois: A Case Study in Artifact Analysis,” Jo u rn a l o f Anthropological Research 38 (Spring 1982): 9 7 -10 7 ; Michael Foster, “ Another Look at the Function of Wampum in Iroquois-White Councils,” in Francis Jennings, et. al (eds.), The History and Culture o f Iroquois Diplomacy (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1985), 9 9 -14 4 . There came to be a particular set of goods adopted to the trade, as Governor Kerlerec of Louisiana put it much later, “ un gout particulier adopte par les sauvages,” Kerlerec au ministre, 4 mai 1753, AN, C 13A , v .37.

9 7

the goal o f the tran sactio n w as n ot n e c e ssa r ily p ro fit - s e c u r in g the m ax im u m

m ate ria l ad v a n tag e . It w a s, a s w ill b e e x p la in e d b e lo w , to sa tis fy the besoins, o r

n e e d s , o f e ach p arty . S e c o n d , the re la tio n o f the b u y e r an d the se lle r w as not

in c id e n ta l to the tran sac tio n ; it w a s c ritica l. I f n o n e e x is te d , o n e had to be

e sta b lish e d . T h ir d , the n e e d o f the b u y e r w as an im p o rtan t e le m e n t in the

lo g ic o f e x c h a n g e , b u t it e x e rte d an in flu e n c e o p p o site to that it e xe rted in the

F r e n c h m o d e l. T h e g re a te r the n e e d - p ro v id e d a so c ia l re la tio n sh ip had

b e e n e s ta b lish e d - the g re a te r the c la im o f the b u y e r o n the se lle r .

T o u n d e rsta n d th is e x c h a n g e system it is b e st to take a p a rtic u la r e xam p le

o f A lg o n q u ia n e x c h a n g e . N ic o la s P e rro t g iv e s a g o o d a c c o u n t o f “ tra d e ”

b e tw e e n th e O ttaw as an d C r é é s in the 16 6 0 s :

The Outaouas went away toward the north, and sought to earn' on trade with those tribes, who gave them all their beaver robes for old knives, blunted awls, w'retched nets, and kettles used until they were past service. For these they were most humbly thanked; and those people declared that they w'ere under great obligation to the Outaouas for having had compassion upon them and having shared with them the merchandise which they had obtained from the French. In acknowledg­ ment of this, they presented to them many packages of peltries, hoping that their visitors would not fail to come to them every year, and to bring them like aid in trade-goods.6

T h e r e a re se v e ra l s ig n ific a n t a sp e c ts o f th is a c c o u n t. T h e first is that

n e ith e r s id e p ro d u c e d g o o d s s im p ly fo r e x c h a n g e . B o th s id e s u se d w h at th ey

tra d e d fu lly b e fo re the trad e to ok p la c e . T h e C r e e g av e castor gras - o ld

b e a v e r ro b e s , w o rn , d irty , an d n o lo n g e r o f m u ch u se to th em - fo r g o o d s

that to th em se e m e d a m a z in g - the iro n to o ls that m a d e th e ir e ve ry d a y lives

su b stan tia lly e as ie r . T h e O ttaw as s u rre n d e re d E u ro p e a n g o o d s , w h ic h w e re

n o t c o m m o d itie s that e x iste d o n ly as a m e d iu m o f e x c h a n g e ; th ey w e re g o o d s

that h ad b e e n n early u se d u p b e fo re they w e re p a sse d o n to o th e rs w h o

la c k e d th em .

A se c o n d s ig n ific a n t fe a tu re h e re w as that b o th s id e s fra m e d the e xch a n g e

in te rm s o f g ifts ra th e r than trad e . T h e C r é é s th an k e d the O ttaw as fo r

sh a r in g w ith th em an d , in tu rn , m ad e p re se n ts to the O ttaw as o f o th e r

p e ltr ie s . T h e y p ra ise d th e O ttaw as fo r the so c ia l v irtu e o f “ c o m p a ss io n ” ; the

e x c h a n g e co n stitu te d a so c ia l re la tio n sh ip o f a k in d that w a s v e ry co m m o n .

G i f t s c re a te d “ p e a c e an d a so rt o f co n d itio n a l fr ie n d sh ip b e tw e e n p o te n tia lly

h o stile p e rso n s o r g r o u p s .” A n d p re c is e ly b e c a u se “ to b re a k o f f th e g ift

g iv in g [w as] to b re a k o f f the p e a c e fu l re la t io n s h ip s ,” th e e xc h a n g e w as

c o n sc io u s ly an d p u rp o se fu lly u n even . A fte r g iv in g the castor gras fo r the

98 The middle ground

Perrot, Memoir, i 7 3 - 7 4 .6

The fur trade

E u ro p e a n g o o d s , the C r é e s m a d e a fu rth e r g ift o f fu rs to in d u c e o r, p e rh a p s ,

o b lig ate the O ttaw as to re tu rn .

T h is e lab o ra te a rra n g in g o f a so c ia l sp a c e an d the e sta b lish m e n t o f so cia l

re la tio n sh ip s w ith in it w e re in se p a ra b le fro m th e trad e . F r ie n d s h ip w as

e sse n tia l fo r th is k in d o f e x c h a n g e . O th e r so c ia l re la t io n sh ip s (and o th e r

k in d s o f g o o d s) d ic tated o th e r fo rm s o f e x c h a n g e . C a d illa c , fo r e xam p le ,

d e sc r ib e s th e e x c h a n g e b e tw e e n a h u n te r an d h is k in sp e o p le an d fe llo w

v illa g e rs . T h e “ g o o d h u n te rs ,” h e c o n c lu d e d , “ p ro fit the least fro m th e ir

h u n tin g .”

They often make feasts for their friends or relatives, or distribute the animals they have killed among the cabins or the families of the village. One proof of the liberality or the vanity which they acquire from this occupation is that those who are present when they arrive at their village are permitted to appropriate all the meat in the canoe of the hunter who has killed it, and he merely laughs.7 8

T h is k in d o f re d istr ib u tio n b e tw e e n k in sp e o p le an d fe llo w v illa g e rs fo rm ed

one p o le o f e xch a n g e . S tr a n g e rs an d e n e m ie s , w h o te n d e d to e x c h a n g e

g o o d s b y th e ft , fo rm e d th e o th e r e x tre m e . B o th Iro q u o is an d A lg o n q u ia n s

re a d ily p lu n d e re d e ach o th e r. In b e tw e e n th ese e x tre m e s lay the “ tra d e ” that

P e rro t d e sc r ib e d .

9 9

II

T h e A lg o n q u ia n d e s ire fo r trad e g o o d s an d the E u ro p e a n d e s ire fo r fu r

fo rce d an a cco m m o d atio n b e tw e e n th e se d iffe re n t m o d e s o f e x c h a n g e , b u t

the d e s ire fo r g o o d s w as n e ith e r a u to m atic n o r s im p le . T h e r e is in tr ig u in g

an d su g g e stiv e e v id e n c e that A lg o n q u ia n an d Iro q u o ia n In d ia n s w e re first

a ttracte d to E u ro p e a n g o o d s n o t fo r th e ir m ateria l u tility b u t ra th e r fo r th eir

sym b o lic va lu e . N o rth e a s te rn In d ia n s , fo r e xa m p le , e q u a te d g la ss b e a d s w ith

n ative c rysta l an d va lu e d m irro rs h ig h ly b e ca u se th ey re fle c te d im a g e s an d

th u s, like w a te r , b e ca m e to ols fo r d iv in atio n . N a tiv e c o p p e r , c ry s ta ls , and

sh e lls a lre a d y h ad rich ritu al s ig n ific a n c e fo r A lg o n q u ia n s , an d the E u ro p e a n

7 See George Dalton, “ The Impact o f Colonization on Aboriginal Economies in Stateless Societies,” Research tn Economic Anthropology* 1 : 1 1 3 - 8 4 , quote, 138. For a fuller explanation o f this kind o f uneven exchange see Sahlins, Stone Age Economics, 30 2 -0 3 . Once the exchange stopped being one of preciosities and the Ottawas themselves lost their position to the French, this exchange relationship could turn to war as when the Ottawas and some coureurs de bois attacked and pillaged the Créé. Dulhut â M. de Frontenac, 5 avril 1679, Fierre Margry, Découvertes et établissements des Français. . . de l Amérique Septentrionale, 16 14 -i6ç8, 6 vols. (Paris: Maisouneuve et Cie, 1879, repr. New York, AM S, r974), 6 :3 0 -3 1 .

8 For quotation, see Milo Quaife (ed.), The Western Country in the Seventeenth Century: The Memoirs o f Lamothe Cadillac and Pierre Liette (Chicago: Lakeside Press, 19 17), 2 1.

100

e q u iv a le n ts o f g la ss an d co p p e r a rr iv e d e n d o w e d w ith re a d y -m a d e sym b o lic

v a lu e . In d e e d , E u ro p e a n s c o u ld in itia lly b e re g a rd e d as m an ito u s b e c a u se

th ey a rr iv e d b e a r in g o th e rw o rld ly g ifts . In d ia n s th u s at first w e re “ trad in g

in m e ta p h o r ,” an d th e va lu e o f trad e g o o d s w a s th en “ p re d o m in a n tly

c e re m o n ia l a n d id e o lo g ic a l.” 9

In a n o th e r se n se , too , E u r o p e a n trad e g o o d s ac ted lik e e x istin g g o o d s.

L ik e w a m p u m , n ot o n ly w e re th ese trad e g o o d s o b je c ts o f e v e ry d a y u se , b u t

they w e re a lso ritu a l o b je c ts w h ic h , w h e n g iv en a s g ifts , c re a te d sp e c ia l b o n d s

b e tw e e n so c ie t ie s . W ith E u ro p e a n c o m m o d itie s A lg o n q u ia n s co u ld tran sfo rm

p o te n tia l e n e m ie s in to fr ie n d s an d p re p a re the w a y fo r in te rm a rr ia g e that

w o u ld so lid ify th is ten tative co n n e c tio n in to one o f k in sp e o p le an d a llie s .

S o c ia l g ro u p s m ig h t h ave m an y re a so n s fo r e x te n d in g th e ir n e tw o rk o f

p e a c e fu l co n tacts . T h e y m ig h t n e e d a llie s fo r d e fe n se o r a p la c e o f re fu g e i f

fo rc e d to fle e . T h e y m ig h t w an t to cre a te so u rc e s o f a id in tim es o f fo o d

sh o rtage o r fa m in e . A n d a ll o f th e se m ig h t b e c o m b in e d in an in c lu s iv e b u t

m o re d iffu se d e s ire fo r p o lit ica l sta tu s. A c c o rd in g to th at m o st astu te o f early

F r e n c h o b se rv e rs , F a th e r L a f ita u , h o n o r - the re sp e c t a c c o rd e d b y o th e rs -

w a s the m a in sp r in g o f in d iv id u a l In d ia n a ctio n s. P e o p le p u rsu e d th e se e n d s

e ve n w h e n th e e x c h a n g e s th ey in sp ire d , w h e n c a lc u la te d in te rm s o f

e co n o m ic p ro fit , b ro u g h t o n ly lo s s e s .10

B y th e late se v e n te e n th an d e a r ly e ig h te e n th c e n tu r ie s , w a m p u m (a trad e

item n o w a c q u ire d th ro u g h E u ro p e a n s) an d E u ro p e a n trad e g o o d s en jo ye d

p rim a c y o f p la c e in g ift e x c h a n g e s b e tw e e n v a r io u s In d ia n g ro u p s . F o r

d ip lo m atic e x c h a n g e s th ey w e re e sse n tia l. G i f t s o f A lg o n q u ia n s to E u r o p e a n s

u su a lly c o n s is te d o f w a m p u m b e lts an d b e a v e r fu rs ; a ffa ir s o f g re a t m o m e n t

b e tw e e n In d ia n s th e m se lv e s w e re m a rk e d b y g ifts o f trad e g o o d s an d

w a m p u m b e lts . W h e n M o n s o , a M a s c o u te n c h ie f, so u g h t to h ave the Illin o is

e xp e l L a S a l le , h e g ave th em k e ttle s , h a tc h e ts , an d k n iv e s . In 1 7 0 1 w h e n

K o n d ia ro n k , o r the R a t , so u g h t to e n su re the p artic ip a tio n o f the n a tio n s

a ro u n d G r e e n B a y in the g re a t p e a c e c o n fe re n c e w ith the Iro q u o is , he gave

O n a n g h isse o f the P o ta w a to m is a kettle an d a g u n . W h e n M ic h ip ic h y , a

H u ro n c h ie f, tr ie d to p e rsu a d e the M ia m is to re se ttle at D e tro it , he gave g ifts

o f w a m p u m b e lts , k e ttle s , h a tch e ts, b la n k e ts , sh irts , a cap o te , a g u n , p o w d e r

an d b a ll. G i f t s that b ro u g h t in flu e n c e , p re s t ig e , an d h o n o r w e re , b y an d

y For this argument see Christopher L. Miller and George R. Hamell, “ A New Perspective on Indian-White Contact: Cultural Symbols and Colonial Trade,” Jo u rn a l o f Am erican History 73 (Sept. 1986): 3 1 1 - 2 8 , for quotes, 326. Hamell has developed this argument in more detail in “ Strawberries, Floating Islands, and Rabbit Captains: Mythical Realities and European Contact in the Northeast During the 16th and 17th Centuries,” Jo u rn a l o f Canadian Studies 21 (Feb. 1987).

10 For an excellent discussion of political motives for exchange, see Dalton, “ Impact of Colonialization,” 138 -4 4 . Joseph-François Lafitau, Customs o f the American Indians. Com­ pared with the Customs o f P rim itive Times (Toronto: Champlain Society, 19 74 -77), 2:61.

The middle ground

The fur trade 10 1

la rg e , g ifts o f sc a rc e E u ro p e a n g o o d s . T h e y a llo w ed the g iv e r in flu e n ce

a c ro ss s ig n ific a n t so cia l b o u n d a r ie s . T h u s , lo n g b e fo re th ey w e re a m ateria l

n e ce ss ity , E u ro p e a n g o o d s b e c a m e a c u ltu ra l n e c e ss ity fo r th o se w h o so u g h t

to stab ilize the re fu g e e c o m m u n it ie s an d fo r th ose w h o so u g h t p o s it io n s o f

in flu e n c e an d h o n o r in th is n e w , h e te ro g e n e o u s s o c ie ty .11

L a P o th e r ie ’ s a cco u n t o f the P o ta w a to m is p re se n ts , p e rh a p s , the b est

illu stratio n o f the p o litica l d isp o sa l o f trad e g o o d s. T h e P o ta w a to m is gave

aw ay su ch g o o d s in a c o n sc io u s a ttem p t to exten d th e ir p o lit ica l ties and

e stab lish in flu e n c e in the v illa g e s su rro u n d in g G r e e n B a y .

They have made themselves arbiters for the tribes about the bay, and for all their neighbors; and they strive to preserve for themselves that reputation in every direction. Their ambition to please everybody has of course caused among them jealousy and divorce; for their families are scattered to the right and to the left along the mecheygan.. . . With a view of gaining for themselves special esteem, they make presents of all their possessions, stripping themslves of even necessary articles, in their eager desire to be accounted liberal. Most of the merchandise for which the Outaouas trade with the French is carried among these people.12

T h e d istrib u tio n o f g o o d s c re a te d o b lig atio n and e sta b lish e d sta tu s, b u t

h e re , in e x te n d in g a llia n c e s an d so c ia l re la t io n sh ip s , P o taw ato m i le a d e rs

n e g le c te d e x istin g in tern a l o b lig atio n s an d e ve n tu a lly fra g m e n te d th e ir v i l­

la g e s and c lan s. T h e p o lit ica l o r re lig io u s b e n e fits A lg o n q u ia n s o b tain ed

fro m E u ro p e a n g o o d s sh o u ld n o t b e c o n fu se d w ith the p re stig e E u ro p e a n s

a sso c iated w ith w ea lth . A lg o n q u ia n s , as in d iv id u a ls , d id n o t accu m u late

w ea lth . G o o d s in A lg o n q u ia n so c ie ty a c tu a lly b e lo n g e d to n o s in g le p e rso n ,

a lth o u gh th e y a lw ays rested w ith so m e p e rso n fo r a tim e. T h e Je s u it s noted

in 1 6 7 5 th at w ith th e e xce p tio n o f ro sa r ie s , th e ir c a te c h ists d id n o t k e e p the

g ifts the p r ie s ts gave them . T h e y p a sse d th em o n to o th e rs . G o o d s , in e ffe c t ,

o n ly p a u se d w ith a re c ip ie n t an d th en flo w e d o n th ro u g h e sta b lish e d so cia l

c h a n n e ls . T h is d id n ot m ean that an y c o m m o d ity b e lo n g e d to e v e ry o n e in

c o m m o n - fo r all th ese so c ia l s tre a m s w e re d istin ct, and p e o p le sh a re d only

in p a rtic u la r o n es - b u t ra th e r that th o se p e o p le w ith in w h a t m ig h t b e ca lled

the so c ia l w a te rsh e d o f fa m ily , c lan , o r v illa g e m ig h t e ve n tu a lly c o m e to c la im

the item fo r a tim e. E a c h re c ip ie n t in c u rre d a re c ip ro c a l o b lig atio n to the g iv e r th u s e n su r in g that g o o d s w e re c o n stan tly in m o tio n . D e f in in g w h at w e re

' 1 For examples of other gifts being necessary' for social and political nerworks, see (Monso) Lettre du Découvreur . . . 29 sept. 1680, Margry, Découvertes, 2:41; (Michipichy) Paroles des quatre Hurons, 17 février 17 0 1, ibid. 2:266-67; (Kondiaronk) Claude Charles Le Roy, Sieur de Bacqueville de la Potheric, H istoire de l'Amérique septentrionale. . . (Paris: J - L Nion & F., Didot, 1722, microcard, Lost Cause Press, Louisville), 4:224.

12 Quotation is from La Potherie, History, 1 :3 0 2 -3 ; see alsojames Clifton, The P rairie People: Continuity and Change in Potawatomi Indian Culture (Lawrence: Regents Press, 1977), 67.

102

su rp lu s g o o d s in th is s itu a tio n - g o o d s b e yo n d the b a s ic n e e d s fo r s u b s is ­

te n ce an d p ro d u c tio n - is d iffic u lt , s in c e g ro u p s , n o t in d iv id u a ls , a c c u m u la te d

g o o d s , an d p o sse ss io n w a s so flu id . T h e on ly d a m that sto p p ed the c irc u la ­

tion o f g o o d s in th e se so c ia l s tre a m s w a s d eath . T h e d e a d a c q u ire d g o o d s

th ro u g h b u ria l g ifts , b u t th ey c o u ld n o lo n g e r r e c ip ro c a te .13

P e rh a p s the m o st s tr ik in g w a rn in g ag a in st a s s e s s in g the m e a n in g o f g o o d s

s im p ly in te rm s o f m a teria l u se an d a c c u m u la t io n is the d ram a tic in c re a se in

the am o u n t o f g rave g o o d s b u rie d w ith the d e a d an d g iv en aw ay to h o n o r the

d e a d fo llo w in g the o p e n in g o f the fu r trad e . In th e M ic h ilim a c k in a c a re a , fo r

e x a m p le , th ere w e re 1 3 0 tim e s m o re b u ria l g o o d s fo r e ac h b u ria l at the

h isto ric L a s a n e n site than at the p re h is to r ic Ju n tu n e n site . A n d o f th ese

g o o d s , 99 p e rc e n t w e re e ith e r o f E u ro p e a n o rig in o r w e re m a n u fa c tu re d w ith

in tro d u ce d E u ro p e a n te c h n o lo g y .14

A c c o rd in g to P e rro t , w h e n an A lg o n q u ia n w a s at the p o in t o f d eath , “ he

[w as] d e c k e d w ith all th e o rn a m e n ts o w n e d by the fa m ily - I m e a n , a m o n g

h is k in d re d an d h is c o n n e c tio n s b y m a rr ia g e ,” w h o “ c la d h im in the b est

c lo th e s , p la c e d h is w e a p o n s an d a rt ic le s o f w a r b e s id e h im , an d su rro u n d e d

h im w ith n e c k la c e s o f w a m p u m an d g la ss b e a d s .” T h e s e g o o d s a c c o m p an ie d

h im to the g rave w h ile h is re la tiv e s g a th e re d o th e r item s to d istrib u te to the

m o u rn e rs . A m o n g the A lg o n q u ia n s o f the n o rth e rn G r e a t L a k e s su ch a

13 Perrot, M em oir, 6 7 -7 0 \ JR 59 :231; La Potherie, H istory, 2 :12 7 -2 8 . The key work on gifts remains Marcel Mauss, The G ift: Forms and Functions o f Exchange in Archaic Societies (New York: W. W. Norton, 1967), see particularly 67. Stephen Gudeman, “ Anthropological Economics: The Question of Distribution,"A n n u a l R eview o f Anthropology (1978): 3 4 7 -7 7 , raises suggestive questions about the creation and distribution of surpluses in societies such as this, but data available for the Algonquians does not allow them to be pursued very far.

14 For Lasanen and Juntunen, see James E. Fitting, “ Patterns of Acculturation at the Straits of Mackinac,” in Charles Cleland, C ultural Change and Continuity (New York: Academic Press, 1976), 330-31. At the Lasanen site, male burial goods were heavily European in origin. Decorative items in the graves tended to be imported. There were far more glass beads (5,481) and wampum beads (13,298) than catilinite beads and pendants (131) or native shell beads and pendants (25). Compared with decorative items, the iron artifacts were few (40) but valuable. An important male, for example, had six clasp knives, ten sheath knives, three iron awls, an iron harpoon, a pair o f ember tongs, a copper saw, a bond hand saw, a gun Hint, a bone cup, a beaver jaw, a shell bead, a shell gorget, and a bear effigy pipe buried with him. All except the saw, beaver mandible, and possibly the pipe were o f European manufacture; see Charles E. Cleland, The Lasanen S ite : A n Historic B u ria l Locality in M ackinac County, M ichigan (East Lansing: Publications of the Museum, Michigan State University, 1971), 90-9J. For heavy use o f European goods at Gros Cap burials, see Craign F. Nem and Charles E. Cleland, “ Gros Cap Cemetery Site: St. Ignace, Michigan,” M ichigan Archaeologist (March 20, 1974): 1-56. Fitting, “ Patterns of Acculturation,” 331, points out that the Lasanen site contains 130 times more artifacts per burial than the neighboring precontact Juntunen site and that 99 percent o f these burial goods were either trade goods or items manufactured with introduced European technology. For burial goods at other sites, see James E. Brown (ed.), “ The Zimmerman Site: A Report on Excavations at the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia, La Salle County, Illinois,” Illinois State M useum, Report o f Investigations, no. 9 (Springfield: Illinois State Museum, 1961), 60-67. Here 6 of the 20 burials contained European trade goods, but in these virtually all of the grave goods mentioned are European.

The middle ground

The fur trade

d istrib u tio n o f su rp lu s g o o d s w a s b u t a p re lim in a ry to a la rg e r re d istrib u tio n

at the F e a s t o f the D e a d , a c e re m o n y that the F r e n c h , w ith th e ir id e a s o f

p e rso n a l a c c u m u la tio n , saw as m ad . T h e F e a s t o f the D e a d w a s in A lg o n q u ia n

te rm s, h o w e v e r, o n ly the lo g ica l c o n c lu s io n o f a d istrib u tio n system in w h ich

the m o v em e n t o f b o th su rp lu s g o o d s an d n e c e ss it ie s va lid a te d so c ia l re la t io n ­

sh ip s , h o n o re d the re c ip ie n t, an d c re a te d p re stig e fo r an d o b lig a tio n to the

g iv e r .15

In p re p a ra tio n fo r the F e a s t o f the D e a d , w h ich to ok p la c e p e r io d ic a lly in

o rd e r to re b u ry the d e a d a fte r a te m p o ra ry in term en t, the h ost v illage

am asse d la rg e am o u n ts o f E u ro p e a n an d n ative g o o d s . T h e s e th ey g av e as

g rave o ffe r in g s an d as g ifts to a llie d g ro u p s in vited to the fe ast . T h e h osts,

w h o o ften d evo ted an e n tire y e a r to g a th e r in g the n e c e ssa ry g o o d s,

lavish all that they possess in trade goods or other articles; and they reduce themselves to such an extreme of poverty that they do not reserve for themselves a single hatchet or knife. Very often they keep back for their own use only one old kettle; and the sole object for which they incur all the expenditure is, that they may render the souls of the departed more happy and more highly respected in the country of the dead.16

E v e n ts su ch as the F e a s t o f the D e a d are u se fu l fo r d e c o d in g the m e a n in g

that E u ro p e a n v a lu a b le s took on in th is so ciety . T h e d istr ib u tio n o f the

su rp lu s that th ey re p re se n te d w a s o f a so c ia l an d p o lit ica l n a tu re . M a n y o f

the g o o d s g iven aw ay in th e se c e re m o n ie s lost th eir u tilitarian v a lu e . W h at

w en t in to the g rave d id n ot co m e b a c k ou t. O th e r g o o d s d id n o t d isa p p e a r

fo re v e r. M o u r n e r s w o u ld re c ip ro c a te w h e n d eath to u ch ed th e ir fa m ilie s , bu t

th ese g ifts sh o u ld n o t be c o n s id e re d so m e h id d e n fo rm o f in vestm en t. T h e i r

re a l s ig n ific a n c e w a s so cia l. T h e y b o u n d p eo p le to e ac h o th e r. T h e v illage

fu n e ra ls an d o th e r o cc a s io n s fo r e x c h a n g e s s tre n g th e n e d an d m a d e m a n ife st

th ro u g h the re a llo ca tio n o f g o o d s a la rg e r n e tw o rk o f so c ia l re la tio n sh ip s .

T h e flow o f g o o d s w ith in th e se re la tio n sh ip s se e m e d b a ck w ard to the

F r e n c h : L e a d e r s d id not am ass w ea lth b u t, ra th er, g av e it aw ay ; the d e a d did

not le av e p ro p e rty to the liv in g ; in ste a d , the liv in g b e sto w e d sc a rc e g o o d s on

the d e a d . A lg o n q u ia n s h ad p u t E u ro p e a n g o o d s to th e se rv ic e o f an e x istin g

so c ia l rea lity .

E u ro p e a n g o o d s e n te re d v illa g e so c ie t ie s to serve fa m ilia r p ra c tica l and

sym b o lic p u rp o se s , b u t th ey w e re , n o n e th e le ss , su b v e rs iv e . T h e y g rad u a lly

c re a te d n ew m ean in g s an d a lte re d the m e a n in g s o f o ld o b je c ts . F u r s , fo r

15 For quotation, see Perrot, Memoir, 7 8 -8 3 . For French objections to Feast of the Dead, see ibid., 87-88 .

16 For quotation, sec Perrot, Memoir, 88. For the standard treatment of the Feast of the Dead, see Hickerson, “ The Feast o f the Dead.”

103

e x a m p le , a c q u ire d a sp e c ia l so c ia l m e a n in g b e c a u se , m o re than an y o th e r

g o o d s p ro d u c e d b y the A lg o n q u ia n s , th ey c o u ld b e tra n s fo rm e d into

E u ro p e a n g o o d s . A n d the A lg o n q u ia n s , a p p are n tly fo r th is re a so n , b e g a n to

treat fu rs d iffe re n tly fro m o th e r p ro d u c ts o f th e h u n t. B y th e la te se v e n te en th

ce n tu ry , fo r e x a m p le , an y h u n g ry m an w a s en titled to k ill g a m e e ve n o u tsid e

h is u su a l v illa g e o r trib a l h u n tin g te rr ito ry , b u t i f a h u n te r d id n o t h ave

h u n tin g r ig h ts in a te rr ito ry , h e w a s o b lig e d to g ive th e fu rs o f the an im a ls he

k illed to th o se w h o d id . In o th e r w o rd s , to o b tain fo o d , h u n te rs c o u ld kill

a n im a ls w h e re v e r they fo u n d th em ; to o b ta in k e ttle s o r b la n k e ts , h o w e v e r,

th ey c o u ld k ill o n ly w h e re th ey h ad c e rta in r ig h ts .1 7

S im ila r sm a ll c h a n g e s to ok p la c e e lse w h e re as A lg o n q u ia n s fitted E u ro p e a n

g o o d s in to e x is t in g so c ia l n ic h e s , fo r A lg o n q u ia n s in c re a s in g ly re lie d on

E u ro p e a n s fo r cu ltu ra lly re q u ire d item s. A c q u ir in g su ffic ie n t E u ro p e a n

g o o d s b e c a m e a re q u ire m e n t o f A lg o n q u ia n c e re m o n ia ls an d d ip lo m acy . In

o n e se n se , su c h g o o d s b e c a m e as “ In d ia n ” a s m o c c a s in s , b u t in an o th er,

c o m p le m e n ta ry se n se th ey re m a in e d e xo tic , fo r th is is wrh a t gave th em th eir

v a lu e . In d ia n s n o w c le a r ly d e s ire d g o o d s th ey c o u ld n o t p ro d u c e th e m se lv e s ,

b u t m o re th an that, they h ad in te g ra te d th e se v a lu e d g o o d s in to a se r ie s o f

so c ia l re la t io n sh ip s on w h ic h the h o n o r, p o w e r, an d p re stig e o f b oth

in d iv id u a ls an d g ro u p s d e p e n d e d . T h o s e w h o h ad a c c e ss to g o o d s had

a c c e ss to in flu e n c e to ta lly o u t o f p ro p o rtio n to the p h y s ic a l e ffe c ts th e g o o d s

they g av e aw ay c o u ld a c h ie v e . In 1 6 8 3 - 8 4 , L a D u ra n ta y e m ad e a g ift o f tw o

g u n s. T h e g u n s h ad little m a te r ia l im p a ct o n the o u tco m e o f the Iro q u o is

w a rs , b u t as g ifts , th ey h e lp e d h o ld th e a llia n c e to g e th e r d u r in g a c r is is and

p la c e d h u n d re d s o f w a rr io rs in the fie ld . K o n d ia ro n k ’ s g ift o f a gu n ,

s im ila rly , w o n o v e r the P o taw ato m i le a d e r O n a n g h isse , w h o , in tu rn , b ro u g h t

th e w a v e r in g G r e e n B a y p e o p le s to M o n tre a l to m ak e p e a c e w ith the

Iro q u o is in 1 7 0 1 . S y m b o l an d u tility m e rg e d h ere to g ive E u ro p e a n trad e

g o o d s an in flu e n c e fa r b e y o n d th e ir s im p le u se v a lu e .17 18

10 4 The middle ground

I l l

T h e a c c o m m o d a tio n b e tw e e n F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n m o d e ls o f e x c h a n g e

that b e c a m e the F r e n c h fu r trad e o f ihtÿays d'en haut w a s s tru c tu re d b y the

o v e ra rc h in g p o litica l re la tio n sh ip o f F r e n c h fa th ers to th e ir A lg o n q u ia n

17 For hunting rights, see La Potherie, Histoire, 3 :17 6 -7 7 ; 4 :17 9 -8 1 . By the early eighteenth century disputes over hunting territories and the willingness o f French traders to buy even immature beaver had led to serious depletion, Mémoire que les Directeurs . . . , 26 avril 1703, AN, C i iA , v. 2 1, f. 13 2 -4 3 .

18 See, e.g., Perrot, Memoir, 6 7 -7 0 ; La Potherie, History, W IIC 16:3, 8. For these gifts, sec Expense Account of La Durantaye, 16 8 3-8 4 , IH C 23:60-67. For Kondiaronk, see La Potherie, Histoire, 4:224.

The fur trade

c h ild re n . T h is a llia n ce p ro v id e d the m e a n s fo r lin k in g the A lg o n q u ia n

system o f e x c h a n g e , w ith its e m p h a sis on the p rim a c y o f so c ia l re la tio n , to a

m u ch la rg e r w o rld e co n o m y. S u c h a c o n n e c tio n in vo lved c o n s id e ra b le

cu ltu ra l ad ju stm e n t, b u t th is a d ju stm e n t c a n n o t b e u n d e rsto o d se p a ra te ly

fro m the w h o le ran g e o f o th e r c h a n g e s tak in g p la c e o n the m id d le g ro u n d .

Its d e p a rtu re p o in t w a s the a llian ce a g a in st the I r o q u o is .19

In the 1 6 5 0 s an d 16 6 0 s , w ith th e Iro q u o is th re a t d o m in an t, e x c h a n g e took

p la c e in an o p e n ly p o litica l fo ru m - the M o n tre a l trad e fa irs - w h o se ru le s

in itia lly c o n fo rm e d c lo se ly to A lg o n q u ia n c u ltu ra l fo rm s. D u r in g the y e ars

w h e n the Iro q u o is d id n o t b lo c k the w e ste rn trad e ro u te s , la rg e co n vo ys o f

O ttaw as, H u r o n -P e tu n s , S a u lte u rs (an d o th e r p ro to -O jib w a g ro u p s),

N ip p is in g s , an d o cc a s io n a lly P o ta w a to m is ca m e to M o n tre a l. U n d e n ia b ly , a

stro n g d e s ire fo r E u ro p e a n go o d s p ro m p te d th e se d a n g e ro u s jo u rn e y s , b u t

th is w a s n ot th e ir so le m o tive . A s e a r ly F r e n c h trad e rs in th e W e st su ch as

R a d is s o n an d D e s G r o s e il l ie r s d isc o v e re d , th e d e s ire fo r a llie s ag a in st the

Iro q u o is c o u ld s tir w e ste rn In d ia n s to trad e w h e n p u re ly co m m e rc ia l in c e n ­

tives co u ld not. T h e In d ia n s re g a rd e d th ese trad e fa irs b o th a s an n u a l

re n e w a ls o f the a llia n ce and as c o m m e rc ia l tran sac tio n s . T h e In d ia n s h e ld

c e re m o n ie s an d fo rm a l co u n c ils writh the F r e n c h o ff ic ia ls , w e re fe a ste d ,

e xc h a n g e d g ifts , re n e w e d the a llia n ce , e n g a g e d in su p e rv ise d e x c h a n g e , and

d e p a r te d .20

T h e In d ia n s w h o b ro u g h t the fu rs d o w n to M o n tre a l w e re m id d le m e n

w h o g a th e re d the fu rs o f n u m e ro u s g ro u p s fo r e x c h a n g e at the trad e fa irs .

T h e m o tives and id en titie s o f th ese m id d le m e n a re , h o w e v e r, e a s ily c o n ­

fu se d . T h e “ O tta w a s” w e re p e rh a p s the m o st fa m o u s m id d le m e n o f the late

se ve n te en th ce n tu ry , b u t the n am e Ottawas, a s u sed in the late se v e n te en th

c en tu ry , d o e s n o t n e c e ssa r ily d e s ig n a te a n y sp e c ific trib a l g ro u p . D u r in g

m u ch o f the se v e n te e n th cen tu ry , Ottawa w a s the g e n e r ic F r e n c h n am e fo r

an y w e ste rn In d ia n w h o trav e le d e ast to trad e w ith the F r e n c h . O ttaw as

se e m e d to m o n o p o lize the trad e , b u t as the Je s u it s e x p la in e d , “ all w h o go to

! 0 5

19 For attachment to world economy, see Eric Wolf, Europe and the People Without History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), 15 8 -19 4 .

20 M. Duchesneau’s Memoir on Western Indians, 13 Nov. 168 1, N Y C D 9 :2 0 -2 1 . The Potawatomis appear on at least one occasion to have consented to accompany the French to Montreal as much from fear of losing the French as allies as from a desire for trade goods; Arthur Adams (ed.), The Explorations o f Pierre Esprit Radisson (Minneapolis: Ross & Haines, 1967), 9 8 -10 0 ; I.a Potherie, History 1:337.

For a discussion o f the trade fairs and their forms, see Abraham Rotstein, “ Trade and Politics: An Institutional Approach,” Western Canadian Jo u rn a l o f Anthropology’ 8 (1972): 13 -2 2 . For Huron trade ceremonies, see Bruce Trigger, The Children o f Aataentisic. A History o f the Huron People to 1660, 2 vols. (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1972). For a contemporary account, see J R 4 2 :2 19 - 1 1 . For I.ahontan’s description of fairs, see Reuben Gold Thwaites (ed.), New Voyage to North Am erica by the Baron de Lahontan, 2 vols. (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1905), 1:9 2 -9 5 .

trad e w ith the F r e n c h , a lth o u gh o f w id e ly d iffe re n t n a tio n s, b e a r the g e n e ra l

n am e o f O u ta o u a c s , u n d e r w h o se a u sp ic e s th e y m ak e the jo u rn e y .” W h e n

the s o u rc e s are sp e c ific , it is c le a r th at th e O jib w a s (p a rt ic u la r ly the

S a u lte u rs ) , the N ip p is in g s , an d le ss o ften the P o ta w a to m is , a s w e ll as the

O ttaw as p ro p e r , all ac ted as m id d le m e n in th e G r e a t L a k e s tra d e .21

T h e F r e n c h In te n d an t D u c h e s n e a u g av e th re e re a so n s fo r the e x is te n c e

o f m id d le m e n in 1 6 8 1 : the d istan ce o f m a n y In d ia n s fro m the F r e n c h , th eir

in ab ility to m a n u fa c tu re o r m a n e u v e r the b irc h b a rk c a n o e s n e e d e d fo r the

trad e , an d in tim id atio n b y the O ttaw as, w h o w ish e d to m o n o p o lize d ire c t

e x c h a n g e w ith the F r e n c h . In fac t, th e first tw o re a so n s w e re fa r m o re

im p o rtan t th an th e th ird . In d e e d , the O tta w as p ro p e r d o n o t se e m to have

tr ie d to e x c lu d e o th e r tr ib e s fro m the e ar ly tra d e , o n the c o n tra ry , th ey

attem p ted to e n tic e th em to jo in the e x p e d it io n s . E x p e d it io n s to M o n tre a l

d u r in g the 1 6 5 0 s an d 16 6 0 s , w h e n Iro q u o is w a r p a rtie s lay in w a it, w e re a

flirta tio n w ith d e a th , an d O ttaw as, “ v e ry c o w a rd ly an d little u se d to w a r ,” in

th e o p in io n o f N ic o la s P e rro t, h ad n o d e s ire to fa c e th e d a n g e r a lo n e . T h e

p ro b le m w a s n ot e x c lu d in g p e o p le fro m th e flo tilla s ; it w a s re c ru it in g th em

an d h o ld in g th em to g e th er. R e p e a te d ly the co n v o y s d w in d le d o r w e re

a b a n d o n e d b e fo re the Iro q u o is th re a t. N o t o n ly d id H u ro n s , S a u lte u rs , an d

N ip p is in g s all re g u la r ly jo u rn e y to M o n tre a l, b u t the O ttaw as sh o w e d a

re m a rk a b le w illin g n e ss to h elp th e p e o p le w ith w h o m th ey h ad o n c e en jo ye d

e x c lu s iv e e x c h a n g e re la tio n s to e sta b lish co n tact w ith the F r e n c h . T h e y

e sc o rte d P o ta w a to m is to M o n tre a l in th e la te 16 6 0 s , an d in 16 6 4 the

O tta w as b ro u g h t the C r é é s , th e ir m a jo r su p p lie rs o f fu r , to M o n tre a l to trad e

d irectly w ith the F r e n c h . T h e O ttaw a c la im to e x c lu s iv e m id d le m a n sta tu s,

in so fa r as it e x is te d a t a ll, w a s a n arro w o n e . T h e y c la im e d on e x c lu s iv e rig h t

to th e O ttaw a R iv e r ro u te to the F r e n c h se ttlem e n ts an d e xp e cte d g ifts fro m

all w h o u sed it. T h e i r p u re ly e co n o m ic in te re st, th e re fo re , lay in in c re a s in g

the trad e , n ot lim itin g it.22

T h is g e n e ra l w illin g n e ss o f m id d le m e n to sh a re th e c a rry in g trad e h as an

im p o rtan t e xce p tio n , h o w e v e r, w h ic h is o ften m isre a d as a d e s ire to m ain tain

21 For Jesuit quote on Ottawas, sccjfR 5 1 :2 1 ; also see Mildred Mott Wedel, “ Le Sueur and the Dakota Sioux,” in Eldon Johnson (ed.), Aspects o f Upper Great Lakes Anthropology. . . , Minnesota Prehistoric Archaeology- Series, no. n , Minnesota Historical Society (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1974), 159. For groups acting as middlemen in the trade, see JR 45:105; Adams (ed.), Radisson, 1 1 2 , 1 1 4 - 1 6 ; Letter of La Salle, 1682, W1IC 16 :107 ; Margry, Découvertes 2:252; J R 4 1:7 7 -7 8 ; Perrot, Memoir, 157 ; Clifton, Prairie People, 64.

22 For Duchesneau’s analysis, see Duchesneau Memoir, 13 Nov. 1681, NYCD 9 :16 1. For quotation, see Perrot, Memoir, 2 1 1 . For desertion from convoys and fear o f attack, see J R 4 2 :2 19 -3 3 , J R 4 9 :2 4 5 ;^ 5 0 - 1 1 7 ; J/? 4 5 :16 1-6 2 ; Perrot, Memoir, 17 5 -7 6 ; Adams (ed.), Radisson, 96-99. F o r Ottawas bringing others to the French: Potawatomis, see La Potherie, History, 303, 3 1 3 - 1 4 , 336—39; Clifton, Prairie People, 5 2 -5 3 ; Créés, see J R 48:237. For Ottawa daim to the river, sec JR 5 1 :2 1 .

io6 The middle ground

The fur trade

an e c o n o m ic m o n o p o ly . B e c a u s e e x c h a n g e an d a llia n c e s w e re so c lo se ly

lin k ed , n o n atio n co u ld c o u n te n a n c e trad e , p articu la rly in w e a p o n s , w ith its

e n e m ie s o r its e n e m ie s ’ a llie s . In 1 6 8 0 a M a s c o u te n c h ie f n am e d M o n s o ,

ac tin g as the a g e n t fo r o th e r F r e n c h tra d e rs , tr ied to p e rsu a d e the Illin o is n ot

to o p en a llian ce and e x c h a n g e re la tio n s w ith L a S a lle b e c a u se , M o n s o

a sse rte d , h e w a s an ally o f the Iro q u o is . A s the F r e n c h ro le in the ca rry in g

trad e in c re a se d , n a tio n s re p e a te d ly in te rv e n e d to b lo c k th e ir e n e m ie s ’ a c c e ss

to th e F r e n c h . T h e O ttaw a, F o x , H u ro n -P e tu n , an d Illin o is a ttem p ts to cu t

o f f trad e w ith the S io u x b e c a m e p a rtic u la r ly n o to rio u s. O u ts id e the in te r­

lo ck in g n e tw o rk s o f fam ily , c la n , v illa g e , an d n ation th ere w e re fo r

A lg o n q u ia n s o n ly p o ten tia l e n e m ie s . E n e m ie s e x c h a n g e d g o o d s, b u t the

m ean s th ey u se d w a s fo rc e an d the e x c h a n g e it s e lf w a s th e ft .23

F o r th e A lg o n q u ia n s e x c h a n g e and a llia n ce at the trad e fa irs w ere

n e c e ssa r ily m u tu a lly re in fo rc in g . T h e e x c h a n g e o f g o o d s it s e lf e sta b lish e d

co n d itio n s o f p e a c e . P e a ce b e tw e e n s tra n g e rs co u ld b e va lid ated o n ly b y g ifts

and c o u ld b e m a in ta in e d o n ly th ro u g h th e co n tin u atio n o f g ifts . W h e n the

e x c h a n g e o f g ifts c e a se d , the re la tio n sh ip te rm in a te d . A t the M o n tre a l trad e

fa irs , h o w e v e r, F r e n c h m e n , in th e c la s s ic gam b it o f th e m id d le g ro u n d ,

p ro ved q u ite a d e p t a t u s in g A fg o n q u ia n c u ltu ra l fo rm s fo r th e ir o w n e n d s .

In stead o f p a rtic ip a tin g in an e x c h a n g e o f g ifts , In d ia n s fo u n d th e m se lv e s

su b je c te d to a se r ie s o f ex to rtio n s b y F r e n c h o ffic ia ls and th e ir su b o rd in a te s .

T h e so ld ie rs se n t to g u ard In d ia n p e ltr ie s d e m a n d e d la rg e p re se n ts fo r th eir

se rv ic e s . F r e n c h o ffic ia ls re fu se d the c u sto m a ry g ifts o f m o o se h id e s and

w 'am pum and d e m a n d e d in stead la rg e q u an tit ie s o f b e av e r . T h e re c ip ro c a l

p re se n ts g iven b y the F r e n c h w e re sm a ll an d , to th e In d ia n s , d e m e a n in g . In

M o n tre a l In d ia n m en w e re a rre ste d an d h u g e ra n so m s in b e a v e r d e m an d e d

fo r th e ir re le a se ; b ra w ls e ru p te d and In d ia n s w e re b e aten . In su ch

c a se s In d ia n s re tu rn e d h o m e an g ry , b itte r , and e a g e r fo r re v e n g e . T h e

P o taw ato m is , m istre ated in M o n tre a l, re ta lia te d b y a b u s in g the F r e n c h “ in

1 07

23 For the monopoly interpretation, see Harold A. Innis, The F u r Trade in Canada: A n Introduction to Canadian Economic History (Toronto: University o f Toronto Press, 1956), 54—55. Louise De Chene, too, presents the traditional picture o f Ottawa middlemen in Habitants et marchands de M ontréal au xuii siècle (Paris: Librairie Plon, 1974), 173. La Salle thought that Monso was a Miami (Lettre du découvreur à un de ses associés, 29 sept. 1680, Margry Découvertes 2 :4 1-4 2 ), but he was more likely, as Le Clercq said, a Mascouten (Le Clercq, “ Narrative,” in Isaac J . Cox, The Journeys o f Robert C avelier de I .a S a lle , 2 vols. (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1905), 1 :10 2 -0 3 since the Miamis and the Illinois were then at odds. For blocking French trade to enemies, see “ The Voyage of St. Cosmc, 16 9 8 -9 9 ” in Louise P. Kellogg (ed.), Early N arratives o f the Northwest, 1674-/699 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 19 17), 344, 353; Thwaitcs (cd.), Lahonlan's Voyages, 1 : 17 5 -7 6 . LaPotherie, History 1:366; Licenses of Trade Revoked, De Champigny, 13 Oct. 16 9 1, M P H C 33:75; Narrative . . . o f Occurrences, 1692, 1693, N Y C D 9:570; Parolles des sauvages . . . 12 juillet 1699, AN, F3, Moreau de St. Mery, v. 8, f. 13 6 - 4 1 .

i o 8

d e e d an d w o rd , p illa g in g an d ro b b in g th em o f th e ir g o o d s . . . an d su b je c tin g

th em to u n b e a ra b le in so le n ce an d in d ig n ity .” B y th e 1 6 7 0 s the fa ir s w e re

c le a r ly fa ilin g to fu lfill In d ia n e x p e c ta t io n s .24 25

T h e fa irs d w in d le d d u rin g th e 1 6 7 0 s an d 16 8 0 s . T h e a b u se s that h ad

c re p t in to the fa irs an d the in c re a s in g p e n e tra tio n o f the W e st b y b o th ille g a l

c o u re u rs d e b o is an d le g a l v o y a g e u rs b ro u g h t ab o u t th e ir d e c lin e . D u r in g the

d e c a d e an d a h a lf th at fo llo w e d th e p e a c e m ad e w ith the Iro q u o is in 16 6 6 ,

F r e n c h tra d e rs tra n s fe rre d the site o f e x c h a n g e to the fo rts , In d ia n v illa g e s ,

an d h u n tin g c a m p s o f the W e st. A s e a r ly a s 1 6 7 1 , F r e n c h o ffic ia ls c o m ­

p la in e d th at b e c a u se o f the c o u re u rs d e b o is , In d ia n s w e re n o t c o m in g to

M o n tre a l. D ip lo m a tic a n d m ilitary m iss io n s c o n tin u e d to d raw so m e w e ste rn

In d ia n s d o w n an d th e se p e o p le u su a lly c o n d u c te d so m e trad e , b u t the o ld fu r

co n v o y s g ra d u a lly v a n ish e d . E v e n th e te m p o ra ry re s u rg e n c e o f fu r co n v o y s in

the late 1 6 7 0 s se e m s to h ave c o n s is te d in la rg e p art o f In d ia n s b r in g in g d o w n'j r fu rs a lre a d y o w n e d b y th e F r e n c h .

A s v o y a g e u rs o u tfitte d b y M o n tre a l m e rc h a n ts re s itu a te d the trad e in the

pays d'en haut it se lf , the C ro w n attem p ted to re a sse r t its co n tro l b y a llo w in g

o n ly a lim ite d n u m b e r o f congés, o r p e rm its to trad e , in th e W e st. T h e sa le o f

th e se congés p ro v id e d C a n a d a w ith re v e n u e in te n d e d to su p p o rt the p o o r an d

c re a te d , at le a st th e o re tica lly , a w a y to lim it th e su p p ly o f fu rs c o m in g in to

C a n a d a . T h e C r o w n d id not re ap th is re v e n u e d ire c tly . A fermier, u su a lly a

co m p a n y o f F r e n c h m e rc h an ts , le a se d the r ig h t to e xp o rt b e a v e r fu r fro m

C a n a d a . In e x c h a n g e fo r th is m o n o p o ly , the fermier h ad the o b lig atio n to b u y

at a fixed p r ic e a ll th e b e a v e r sk in s that m et c e rta in sta n d a rd s . O th e r fu rs an d

an im a l sk in s re m a in e d o u tsid e th is m o n o p o ly . I f the fermier h ad to p u rc h a se

too m an y fu rs o r p aid too h igh a p r ic e fo r th em , it fa c e d b a n k ru p tc y .26

T h e congé sy ste m o f the late e ig h tee n th c e n tu ry p ro v e d o n ly p artia lly

s u c c e s s fu l, an d th e re a rc m an y s ig n s o f a c r is is in e x c h a n g e in th e 1 6 7 0 s an d

1 6 8 0 s . C o u r e u r s d e b o is w h o trav e le d th ro u g h o u t the pays d ’en haut trad in g

The middle ground

24 Mémoire sur le Canada, 1687, AN, C i 1 A, v. 2; Mémoire sur quelques . . . dans la ferme de Canada, 1684, AN, C i 1 A, v. 6; Duchcsneau to Seignelay, 10 Nov. 1679, AYCZ) 9 :13 4 -3 5 . King to Frontenac and Champigny, 1692 IH C 23:257. For Potawatomi anger over their mistreatment, see JT? 5 5 :18 5 -8 7 ; La Pothcrie, Histoty 333.

25 Description du Canada, 16 7 1 AN, C 11A , v .3 . De Frontenac sometimes tried to pass such diplomatic and French convoys off as the old trade convoys. Frontenac au Ministre, 9 oct. 1679, AN, C 11A , v. 5; Frontenac au Ministre, 12 nov. 1690, RAPQj 19 2 7 -2 8 , 38. Other sources make it clear that this was not the case; see Duchesneau to Scignelay, Nov. 13 , 16 8 1 , NYCD 9 :15 4 -5 5 ; Champigny au Ministre, 16 nov, 1689, AN, C i iA , v. 10; Narrative o f . . . Occurrences. . . 1692, 1693, NYCD 9:562; Champigny au Ministre, 8 août 1686, AN, C 11A , v. 10.

26 Alice Jean Elizabeth Lunn, “ Economic Development in New France, 1 7 1 3 - 6 0 ” (Ph.D. diss., McGill University, 1942), 1 1 2 - 1 3 , 13 6 -5 5 . For nostalgia over trade fairs as late as 17 15 , see Mémoire sur ce qui concerne le commerce des castors. . . (1715), R,4PQ 19 4 7-4 8 , 6 9 -73 .

The fur trade

w ith o u t congés w e re a p e re n n ia l th re a t to g o o d o rd e r. C a n a d ia n o ffic ia ls

m a n ip u la te d congés and m ilita ry e x p e d itio n s fo r th e ir o w n b e n e fit . T h e

system fa ile d to p re v e n t o v e rp ro d u c tio n ; it fa ile d to sto p the d ra in o f

m a n p o w e r to the W e st; an d it fa ile d to p re v e n t d iso rd e r . T h e d is o rd e r so

o ften m en tio n e d d u r in g the p e rio d w a s , in p art, a re su lt o f the fa ilu re o f

the F re n c h an d the A lg o n q u ia n s to a g re e on ap p ro p ria te m e c h a n ism s o f

e x c h a n g e .

In the W e st, in d iv id u a l F r e n c h tra d e rs w e re no m o re re a d y to a c c e d e to

the A lg o n q u ia n lo g ic o f e x c h a n g e th an th e y h ad b e e n at M o n tre a l, T h e y

re je c te d A lg o n q u ia n d e m an d s fo r g e n e ro s ity a s e x c e ss iv e an d so u g h t to

o b tain w h at th e m ark e t w o u ld b ear. T h e y sawr the w e ste rn c o u n try as, in L a

P o th e r ie ’s apt p h ra se , a “ P e r u ,” fo r th e “ sa v a g e s c o u ld not u n d e rsta n d w h y

th e se m en c a m e so fa r to se a rc h fo r th e ir w o rn -o u t b e a v e r ro b e s ; m ean w h ile

th ey a d m ire d a ll th e w a re s b ro u g h t to th em b y the F r e n c h w h ic h they

re g a rd e d as e x tre m e ly p r e c io u s .” T h e m iss io n a r ie s D o llie r an d G a lin e 'e

w e re a sto n ish e d in 1 6 7 0 to fin d that at S a u lt S a in te M a r ie a fa th o m o f

to b acco , o r s ix k n ive s , o r a q u a rte r p o u n d o f p o w d e r c o u ld o b tain a b e a v e r

ro b e . E ig h te e n y e a rs later, at M ic h ilim a c k in a c , L a h o n ta n still fo u n d F r e n c h

p ric e s “ e x tra v a g a n t,” but by th en F r e n c h m e n had p u sh e d w e st w h e re they

h o p e d , as H e n n e p in sa id o f L a S a lle in 1 6 7 9 , “ to b u y all the F u r s an d S k in s

o f the re m o te st S a v a g e s , w h o , a s th ey th o u g h t, d id n o t k n o w th e ir V a lu e ; and

so e n rich th e m se lv e s in o n e s in g le v o y a g e .” 2 '

F re n c h tra d e rs in se arc h o f th e ir P e ru so th o ro u g h ly m a n a g e d to d isab u se

the F o x an d P o taw ato m is o f e x p e cta t io n s o f g en e ro sity that b y 1 6 7 0 F a th e r

C la u d e - Je a n A llo u e z fo u n d th em w ith “ a p o o r o p in io n o f the F r e n c h .”

A c c o rd in g to P e rro t, In d ia n s w h o h ad in itia lly w e lc o m e d th em as p o w e rfu l

b e n e fa c to rs ca m e to b e so d isg u ste d b y the F r e n c h o b se ss io n w ith o ld b e a v e r

ro b e s a s to “ re g a rd th o se o f the F r e n c h n atio n as w re tc h e d m e n ia ls an d the

m o st m ise ra b le p e o p le in the w o r ld .” In 1 6 7 0 , fro m the S e n e c a s w e st, the

so u rce o f d isd a in w a s the sa m e - cu p id ity . F re n c h m e n d raw n w e st fo r w ea lth

had a zea l fo r ac c u m u la tio n an d an eye fo r th e m ain c h an c e that o n ly d rew

sco rn fro m the w e ste rn v illa g e s . T h e In d ia n s , the In te n d an t D u c h e s n e a u

c la im e d , “ d e sp ise d u s o n a c c o u n t o f the g re a t cu p id ity w e m a n ife s te d .” 28

2/ Quote from La Potherie, History, 1:307; also “Journey of Dollier and Galinee,” in Quaife (cd.), The Western Country, 207; Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan’s Voyages, 1:148 ; Reuben Gold Thwaites (ed.), Father Louis H ennepin’s A N ew Discovery o f a Vast C ou n ty in Am erica (facsimile ed., Toronto: Coles, 1974 repr. o f 1903 ed.), n o . André Penicault, Fleur de Lys and Calum et: Being the Penicault N arrative o f French Adventure in Louisiana, edited by Richebourg Gaillard McWilliams (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1953), 53.

28 For Allouez quotation, see J R 54:225. For Perrot quotation, see Perrot, M em oir, 6 3-6 4 . For Duchesneau quotation, see Duchesneau to dc Seignclay, 10 Nov. 1679, NYCD 9 :133 . For similar assertions, see Duchesneau’s Memoir on Western Indians, Sept. 13 , 168 1, N Y C D 9 :16 1-6 2 ; Perrot, M em oir, 263-64. De Dedonvilie à M. de Seignelay, aoust 1688, AN, C i 1 A, v. 10.

109

I 1 0

A lg o n q u ia n s w h o c a m e to d e sp ise an d sc o rn g re e d y F re n c h m e n co u ld

h a rd ly b e e x p e c te d to re g a rd th em as fr ie n d s an d a llie s . T h e y c o u ld easily

re c la ss ify th em as e n e m ie s , an d the p ro p e r fo rm o f e x c h a n g e w ith e n e m ie s

w a s th eft. W h e n tra d e rs fa ile d to fu lfill A lg o n q u ia n e xp e cta t io n s o f leg itim ate

e x c h a n g e , th ey b e c a m e v u ln e ra b le to the k in d o f exto rtio n an d v io le n c e th ey

th e m se lv e s h ad u se d ag a in st the A lg o n q u ia n s in M o n tre a l. T h e lo w o p in io n

A lg o n q u ia n s c a m e to h o ld o f v e n a l F r e n c h tra d e rs th re a te n e d n o t o n ly the

liv e lih o o d b u t th e liv es o f F r e n c h m e n . V io le n c e b e c a m e ra m p an t in the

trad e . In 16 8 4 a lo n e , the th ir ty -n in e F re n c h m e n w h o d ie d at the h a n d s o f

w e s te rn A lg o n q u ia n s w e re te stim o n y o n the d a n g e rs o f n o t m e e tin g

A lg o n q u ia n e xp e cta tio n s . D u lh u t ’ s tria l o f the m u rd e re rs at M ic h ilim a c k in a c

an d h is su b se q u e n t sh o w o f fo rc e a t G r e e n B a y fu rth e r d e m o n stra te d the

b re a k d o w n o f p e a c e fu l e x c h a n g e an d the d rast ic ste p s th e F r e n c h fe lt w e re

n e c e ssa ry fo r th e ir ow n sa fe ty .29

S c h o la r s re g u la r ly m is in te rp re t th e v io le n c e s u rro u n d in g the trad e as an

A lg o n q u ia n p o lit ica l a ttem pt to re g a in o r re ta in m id d le m a n sta tu s. B u t su ch

an a rg u m e n t is se r io u s ly fla w e d , fo r, in fac t, F r e n c h o ff ic ia ls w e re m u ch

m o re e a g e r fo r In d ia n s to b e m id d le m e n th an In d ia n s w e re to re ta in the

p o sit io n fo r th e m se lv e s . F r e n c h a u th o ritie s , w ith th e ir m e rc a n tilis t p la n s fo r

the d e v e lo p m e n t o f C a n a d a , fe a re d the d e p a rtu re o f so m u c h sc a rc e F r e n c h

m a n p o w e r to the W e st. T h e y a lso b e lie v e d that the O ttaw as an d o th e r

m id d le m e n m u st h ave re se n te d the u su rp a tio n o f the c a rry in g trad e by the

F r e n c h . T h e i r e v id e n c e , h o w e v e r , s e e m s to h ave b e e n th at an y ratio n al

p e rso n in p u rsu it o f e c o n o m ic g a in w o u ld h ave re se n te d su c h a lo ss a n d not

that the In d ia n s a c tu a lly re se n te d it .30

E v e n tu a lly , in 16 9 8 , o ffic ia ls in F r a n c e ac ted on th e ir b e l ie f th at i f the

congés (the lic e n se s to ca rry g o o d s to th e W est) w e re e lim in ate d o r cu rta ile d ,

29 Raisons qu’on proposée à la cour, 1697, AN, C i 1 A, v. 15 ; f. 27. 10 For assertions of Ottawa resentment o f loss o f middleman status and eagerness to resume it,

see Commerce du Castor de Canada, 1699, AN, C 11A , v. 17 ; Pontchartrain to Frontenac, May 2 1 , 1698, NYCD 9:678; Mémoire du Roi, 17 avril 1697, RAPQ 19 18 -2 9 , 329; Mémoire, 1699, AN, C 11A , v. 17. f. 19 3 -9 5 . Historians picture the Fox as fighting to preserve middleman status at a rime when they could hardly be middlemen since they themselves lacked access to European goods. Later, when the Fox regained access to French goods, they used them not for economic profit but to secure an alliance with and a potential haven among the Sioux. For Sioux refuge, see letter of Ramezay, Jan. 10, 1723 , WHC 16 :4 2 2 -2 3 ; Memoir, 1726, WHC 16:464. This was common among tribal peoples. See Dalton, “ Impact of Colonization,” 15 4 -5 5 . The French attempted to cut off this haven by opening their own exchange relations with the Sioux; see Memoir, 1726, WHC 16:464; WHC 3 :15 3 -5 4 . The Fox were worried about alienating the Sioux and did not try to completely sever that nation’s contacts with the French. Extrait. . . Vaudreuil, 4 nov. 1720, Margiy, Découvertes, 6 :510; Charlevoix, Journals, 2 :74 -75 . I* *s more likely that the goal of the Fox trade was political and not economic, as the Jesuit Father Chardon contended in 1725; see Longueuil & Begon au Ministre, 3 1 oct. 1725, AN, C 1 1A , v. 47, f. 134. For the ease with which the French passed the supposed blockade, see Relation of Father Guignas, May 29, 1728, WHC 17:24.

The middle ground

The fur trade 1 1 1

In d ia n s w o u ld g lad ly re a ssu m e the m id d le m a n ro le . T h e re su lts are re v e a l­

in g. T h e r e w as little e n th u sia sm o n th e p art o f the w e ste rn n atio n s fo r

ca rry in g th e ir fu rs to M o n tre a l. T h e co n vo ys d id re su m e a fte r 1 7 0 1 , b u t th ey

w e re tied ra th e r c lo se ly w ith la rg e d ip lo m atic g a th e rin g s . T h e g re a t Iro q u o is

p e a c e c o n fe re n c e o f 1 7 0 1 , n e g o tia tio n s o ve r v a r io u s m atte rs in 1 7 0 2 , an d

c o n d o le n c e s on the d e a th o f C a ll iè re s in 1 7 0 3 w e re as c e n tra l to In d ia n

jo u rn e y s to M o n tre a l as w a s trad e . E v e n d u r in g th ese y e a rs , co n vo ys c o u ld

n ot be d e p e n d e d on . In 1 7 0 3 fe w In d ia n s cam e d o w n d u r in g the su m m e r

trad in g se aso n b e c a u se o f fe a rs o f the e p id e m ic th en ra g in g in M o n tre a l, an d

o n ly the d eath o f C a ll iè re s a ttrac te d even a sm a ll d e le g a tio n to o ffe r

c o n d o le n c e s in the fa ll. T h e g e n e ra l a b se n c e o f In d ia n s in 1 7 0 3 d o es not,

h o w e v e r, se e m to h ave in te rru p te d th e flow o f fu rs , s in ce the re ce ip ts o f

castor sec, the m a jo r w e ste rn trad e item , w e re a c tu a lly h ig h e r that y e a r than

fo r an y o th er y e a r b e tw e e n 1 7 0 1 a n d 17 0 4 . P e o p le o th e r than w e ste rn

In d ia n s wrc re o b v io u sly still tran sp o rtin g fu rs to M o n tre a l an d Q u e b e c .31

A fte r 1 7 0 4 , trad e jo u rn e y s to M o n tre a l w e r e , at b e st, sp o rad ic .

D ’A ig re m o n t re p o rte d in 1 7 1 0 that few w e ste rn In d ia n s h ad co m e to trad e at

M o n tre a l fo r e igh t o r n in e y e a rs , e x c e p t in 1 7 0 8 , w h e n sixty ca n o e s h ad

d e sc e n d e d , an d th ese h ad c o m e in la rg e p art fo r d ip lo m atic re a so n s . I f

D ’ A ig re m o n t e xa g g e ra te d , h e d id so o n ly s lig h tly . In 1 7 0 6 G o v e rn o r d e

V a u d re u il h ad lam en ted the ru in o f the M o n tre a l trad e , an d la te r o ffic ia ls

re p o rted in th e ir mémoires, th e ir rep o rts to F r a n c e , th at lo w p ric e s had

v irtu a lly e n d e d the trad e . F r e n c h o ffic ia ls an d la te r sc h o la rs , in th eir

co m m o n b e l ie f that the In d ia n s a rd e n tly d e s ire d a m id d le m a n ro le , have

m is in te rp re te d m u ch o f the h isto ry o f e x c h a n g e in the G r e a t L a k e s trad e .

W h a te v e r w a s d r iv in g A lg o n q u ia n e x c h a n g e , it w as n o t a se a rc h fo r m o n o p o ly

p ro fit .32

31 Canadian officials, who admittedly often had a financial interest in the interior trade, tended to be far more skeptical o f the Indian desire to journey to Montreal. See Frontenac et Champigny au Ministre, 9 nov. 1694, RAPQ , 19 2 7 -2 8 ,19 9 ; Mémoire . . . de Frontenac and de l’intendant Bochart de Champigny au Ministre, 26 oct. 1696, PAPQ, 19 28 -29 , 322; De Champigny to Pontchartrain, 13 oct. 1697, M PH C 33:76; Narrative o f . . . Occurrences . . . 1694, by Lamothe Cadillac, NYCD 9 :586-87; Narrative o f , . . Occurrences . . . 1695, 1696, NYCD 9:647. For revocation o f congés and opinion o f the court, sec Proclamation, Jean . . . de Champigny, 15 juin 1698, AN F3, Moreau St. Mery, v. 8, f. 85; Louix XIV to de Frontenac and Champigny, May 26, 1696, NYCD 9 :637-38 ; Mémoire du Roi pour le gouverneur de Frontenac et l’intendant Bochart de Champigny, 27 avril 1697, RAPQ, 19 28 -19 29 , 3 2 8 -3 5 , Pontchartrain to Frontenac, May 2 1, 1698, NYCD 9:678.

The convoys had not resumed by 1698, Mémoire sur la Ferme, 1698, AN C i 1 A, v. 16, f. 2 0 9 -16 , For 170 1 conference, sec La Pothcric, Histoire, 4 :203-65. For diplomatie negotiations o f 1702, see Parolles de Outauoiiaes, 5 juillet 1702, AN, F3, Moreau St. Mery, v. 8, f. 3 1 0 - i i . For 1703 and fur receipts, sec Etat. . . des castors, 1705 (mutilated copy, title missing), AN C 11A , v. 23; Vaudreuil et Beauharnois au Ministre, 15 nov. 1703, AN C i i A, v. 2 1; and Vaudreuil to Pontchartrain, Oct. 14, 1703, NYCD 9:743.

32 For deterioration of trade fairs, see D ’Aigremont Report, Nov. 18, 17 10 , WHC 16: 266; Parolles des Outtauois. . . 23 juillet 1708, AN C 11A , v. 28, f. 2 0 5 - 1 1 ; letter of

I 1 2

D e s p ite the v io le n c e , e x c h a n g e n e v e r c o m p le te ly b ro k e d o w n b e c a u se the

la rg e p o lit ica l re la tio n sh ip o f w h ic h it w a s a p art p e rs is te d . T h e F r e n c h -

A lg o n q u ia n a llia n c e an d re n e w e d w a r w ith the Iro q u o is gave b o th s id e s an

in ce n tiv e to c o n tro l v io le n c e . T h e y e ve n tu a lly re a c h e d a tac it c o m p ro m ise on

e x c h a n g e typ ica l o f the m id d le g ro u n d . T h e F r e n c h a c c e p te d m u ch o f the

o ld A lg o n q u ia n stru c tu re o f e x c h a n g e , b u t w ith in th at s tru c tu re s ig n ifica n t

c h a n g e s in m e a n in g took p la c e . T h e A lg o n q u ia n s m a n a g e d , d e sp ite sp o rad ic

F r e n c h e ffo r ts to d ise n g a g e the tw o, to k e e p e x c h a n g e a n c h o re d w ith in the

a llia n ce itse lf. L ik e the m o d e l fo r the a llia n c e , the m o d e l fo r e x c h a n g e w as

fam ilia l. T h e F r e n c h w e re fa th e rs an d the A lg o n q u ia n s th e ir c h ild re n .

F r o m th is c e n tra l m e tap h o r certa in c o n se q u e n c e s flo w e d . G o v e r n o r dc

B e a u h a rn o is an d the In te n d an t H o c q u a r t e xp la in e d to the c o u rt in 1 7 3 0 ,

“ Y o u k n o w , M o n s e ig n e u r , that all th e n a tio n s o f C a n a d a re g a rd the g o v e r­

n o r as th e ir fa th e r , w h ich in c o n s e q u e n c e , fo llo w in g th e ir id e a s , h e o u gh t

at all t im es to g ive th em w h at th ey n e e d to fe e d th e m se lv e s , c lo th e th em -•j i se lv e s , an d to h u n t.” T h e o b lig atio n o f O n o n tio to p ro v id e fo r the n e e d s

o f h is c h ild re n b e ca m e the b a s is fo r trad e , an d th is in tu rn o b lig a te d the

A lg o n q u ia n s , as go o d an d sa tis fie d c h ild re n , to o b ey an d aid h im . A s

the sp e a k e r fo r th e S a in t Jo s e p h P o ta w a to m is p u t it in 1 7 5 0 : “ W h y n o t love

th e F r e n c h , s in c e y o u , m y fa th e r , p ro v id e fo r all o u r n e e d s an d w ith o u t the

F r e n c h w e w o u ld la ck k n iv e s an d all the rest? W e re s p e c t y o u r co m m a n d s

an d h ave n o th in g m o re at h e a rt th an to o b ey th e m .” A h a lf c e n tu ry a fte r

O n a n g h isse , the P o ta w a to m is c o n tin u e d , at le ast rh e to r ic a lly , to c o n c e p ­

tu alize e x c h a n g e a s the m e a n s b y w h ic h th e ir fa th e r p ro v id e d fo r th e ir

n e e d s .34

O n o n tio m o st o b v io u sly fu lfille d h is o b lig atio n to p ro v id e fo r h is c h il­

d r e n ’ s n e e d s th ro u g h g ifts . H e g av e sp e c ia l g ifts to th o se w h o v is ite d h im at

M o n tre a l, Q u e b e c , o r at h is p o sts , an d h e gave an n u a l p re se n ts to h is

c h ild re n . T h e n a tu re o f g ift e x c h a n g e s h a d , h o w e v e r, a lte re d d u r in g the

se v e n te e n th an d e ig h te e n th c e n tu r ie s in a c o m p ro m ise b e tw e e n F r e n c h and

A lg o n q u ia n e xp e cta tio n s . T h e F r e n c h d e s ire d to attach the g iv in g o f g ifts to

s e rv ic e s p e r fo rm e d . T h e y w a n te d to m ak e th em , in e f fe c t , p a y m e n ts fo r

s e rv ic e s re n d e re d o r b r ib e s fo r fu tu re se rv ic e s . T h e y w a n te d a d ire c t

c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n g ifts an d sp e c ific a c t io n s .33

The middle ground

D ’Aigremont, Oct. 18, 17 10 , M P IIC 33:488; Vaudreuil to Minister, 4 Nov. 1706, M PHC 3 3 :3 1 1 ; Copies, Traittesdes Sauvages, 1 7 1 1 , AN C i iA, v. 32, f. 190. Even when the French returned west, the crown tried to reserve middleman roles for the Miamis and Illinois, who, as noncanoe Indians, had never had such a role, and the Ottawas, Mémoire du Roy, 10 juillet 17 15 , AN F3, Moreau St. Mery, v.9, f. 306.

” Beauharnois et Hocquart au Ministre, 15 oct. 1730, AN C n A , v. 5 1 , f. 3 3 -3 6 . 34 Parolles des P8tet8atamis de la riviere St. Joseph, 29 juin 1750, AN C i 1 A, v. 95, f. 249. The

figure “ 8” in “ P8tet8atamis” is pronounced “ dh.” 35 The French claimed the reciprocal gifts were always o f lesser value, Beauharnois et

The fur trade

In 1 6 8 3 and 16 8 4 , f ° r e xa m p le , w h ile c o m m a n d in g at M ic h ilim a c k in a c ,

O liv e r M o r e l , S ie u r d e la D u ra n ta y e , w o rk e d to m a in ta in th e w e ste rn

a llia n ce ag a in st the Iro q u o is an d to p la c e A lg o n q u ia n w a rr io rs in the fie ld

w ith the F r e n c h . H e la te r su b m itte d an a c c o u n t o f b o th the p re se n ts and

p aym e n ts he m a d e to th e n a tio n s at M ic h ilim a c k in a c and G r e e n B a y

b e tw e e n Ju ly 1 6 8 3 an d J u ly 16 8 4 . In it g ifts p e r sc (“ G a v e to the

P o ta w a to m i. . . 2 1 b . o f to b a c c o ” ), p aym e n ts fo r se n d e e s ( “ G a v e to e ig h t

m e n . . . w h o m I w a s o b lig e d to take to g u id e m e to the O u tag a m ie v illa g e ” ),

and g ifts to o b tain la rg e r e n d s (“ G a v e to the O u ta g a m ie in o rd e r to keep

th em in th eir v i lla g e ” ) are all m ix e d to geth er. T a k e n to g e th e r , h o w e v e r,

th e se g ifts are d ire c te d to w ard a qu ite sp e c ific end . L a D u ra n ta y e u sed h is

e x p e n d itu re s to h o ld th e a llian ce to g e th e r an d b r in g th e w e ste rn In d ia n s in to

the fie ld a g a in st the E n g lis h .36

T h e F r e n c h w e re n ot ab le , h o w e v e r, to k e e p th e ir p aym en ts g e a re d

p re c ise ly to se rv ic e s re n d e re d , to m ak e th e m , in e ffe c t , w a g e s an d b rib e s . A

la rg e p ro p o rtio n o f the g ifts th at the F r e n c h g av e w e re u n c o n n e c te d w ith an y

sp e c ific ac tio n s o n the p art o f the A lg o n q u ia n s . A s the Iro q u o is w ars

co n tin u e d , g ifts b e c a m e an an n u a l o c c u rre n c e an d g re w in n u m b er. G if t s

“ a u x N a tio n s S a u v a g e s é lo ig n é s ” in 16 9 3 am o u n te d to 9 ,5 2 7 liv re s in va lu e .

It is u se fu l to k e e p in m in d w h a t th is m e a n t in a c tu a l g o o d s . G u n s w e re the

m o st va lu a b le item d istr ib u te d , a lth o u g h 1 ,9 3 5 liv re s w o rth o f g u n s

am o u n te d to o n ly 1 5 8 fu s ils . ( T h e r e w e re a lso 8 3 p isto le ts at 2 4 9 liv re s .) In

fin ish ed c lo th in g , the In d ia n s re c e iv e d 7 6 c a p o ts , 1 3 ju s ta u c o rp s , 2 2 8 sh irts ,

an d 2 1 6 b lan k e ts, p lu s c lo th . In te rm s o f n u m b e rs d istrib u te d ra th e r th an

va lu e , p o w d e r , b a ll, g u n flin ts, an d to b ac c o d o m in ate d th e g ift lists . S u c h

item s a llo w e d sm all g ifts to in d iv id u a l In d ia n s : 9 3 0 p o u n d s o f to b a c c o co u ld

b e d istrib u te d a m o n g m an y p e o p le . T h e am o u n t sp e n t o n p re se n ts a p p are n tly

c o n tin u e d to rise a fte r 1 6 9 3 . B y 16 9 6 the C r o w n sp e n t 2 5 ,0 0 0 liv re s a y e a r on

g ifts to In d ia n s (not a ll o f th em in the W e st). V a r io u s a ttem p ts to re d u c e g ift

g iv in g fo llo w e d , b u t by 1 7 1 6 the F r e n c h b u d g e te d 2 0 ,0 0 0 liv re s a y e a r fo r

In d ia n p re se n ts . T h e a c tu a l am o u n t sp e n t on g ifts o fte n ro se w e ll b e yo n d

th is fig u re . P re se n ts h ad b e c o m e , an d w o u ld re m a in , a c r itica l c o m p o n e n t o f

F r e n c h a ttem p ts to h o ld A lg o n q u ia n lo yalty in the fa ce o f E n g lis h trad e

ad v a n tag e s .37

E x c h a n g e s b e tw e e n in d iv id u a l In d ia n s an d trad e rs b e ca m e p a rt o f this

Hocquart au Ministre 25 net. 1729, AN C i i A, v. 5 1 , for provisions for gifts at post, sec I.case for Post at Green Bay, 1747, WHC 17:454.

36 Expense Account o f La Durantaye, 16 8 3-8 4 , ///C 23:60-67. I made no attempt to distinguish here between payments to those who rendered some service, such as guiding the French, and direct gifts.

37 Etats des marchandises et munitions distributees en 1693, AN C n A , v. 12 ; for another estimate of presents necessary’ for a major expedition down the Mississippi, see Tonti, Mississippi Navigation, Sept. 12 , 1693, IH C 23 :280-82, and to secure peace among the

113

c o m p ro m ise . T h e A lg o n q u ia n s d id n o t c o n fin e the fa m ilia l m e tap h o r o f

e x c h a n g e to O n o n tio an d h is c h ie fs . T r a d e r s w h o ca m e to th e ir v illa g e s a lso

h ad to g ive g ifts w h ic h the In d ia n s re c ip ro c a te d . T h e g ifts g iv en by tra d e rs

e ith e r e sta b lish e d the sy m b o lic t ie s o f k in sh ip o r fo rt ifie d the ties so that

fu rth e r e x c h a n g e c o u ld p ro c e e d . In the tu rm o il o f the 16 8 0 s , F re n c h m e n in

the W e st le a rn e d th at the a b se n c e o f su c h ties c o u ld c o st th em th e ir lives. T o

avo id b e in g g re e d y s tra n g e rs , tra d e rs gave g ifts , b u t th ey d id n o t ab a n d o n

th e ir o v e ra rc h in g se a rc h fo r p ro fit.

B e c a u s e the m id d le g ro u n d c o n siste d , in p art, in the a c c e p ta n c e an d

tra n sfo rm a tio n o f a n o th e r p e o p le ’ s cu sto m s, F r e n c h trad e rs c o u ld at o n e an d

the sam e tim e a c c e p t the p ra c tic e o f g iv in g g ifts an d b e g in to a lte r it. G i f t s

p ro v id e d F r e n c h tra d e rs w ith the o p p o rtu n ity to se c u re g re a te r co n tro l o v e r

In d ia n fu r p ro d u c tio n . G if t s o f p o w d e r o r b la n k e ts g iv en in the fa ll b e fo re a

h u n t w o u ld b e re c ip ro c a te d in the sp rin g w ith fu rs . T h e F r e n c h g ra d u a lly

re in te rp re te d th e se g ifts a s lo a n s to b e p a id b a c k re g u la r ly , ra th e r than to b e

re c ip ro c a te d at a tim e w h e n the g iv e r n e e d e d a id an d the re c ip ie n t w a s ab le

to g ive it. T h e F r e n c h a ttem p t to c o rru p t g ifts in to lo a n s b e ca m e su c h a

c a u se o f p e re n n ia l c o n flic t in the trad e that m an y o ff ic ia ls w ish e d to b an the

g iv in g o f c re d it. C r e d it re m a in e d cen tra l to the trad e , b u t In d ia n s n e v e r fu lly

a c k n o w le d g e d a d v a n c e s a s d e b ts . W h e n the am o u n t o f fu rs th ey w e re

e xp e cte d to g ive in re tu rn s e e m e d exo rb itan t, e s p e c ia lly d u rin g p e r io d s w h e n

g o o d s w e re sc a rc e , th ey re fu se d to m e e t th e ir o b lig a t io n s .88

Chippewas and Dakotas, see Wedel, “ Le Sueur,” 159 -6 0 . For 1696 estimate, see Mémoire sur les affaires du Canada, 1696, AN C 11A , v. 14, f. 305.

Twenty thousand livres continued to be budgeted (Projet de la dépense . . . 1733, AN, C 11A , v. 60, f. 19 1), but costs often exceeded this. In 1729, e.g., 24,662 livres were spent (Hocquart et Beauharnois au Ministre, 15 oct. 1730, AN, C i lA , v. 51), and in 1736 24,436 livres (Presens fait aux sauvages en 1736, AN, C i 1 A, v. 63, f. 87). In addition, officers were forced to expend other money on gifts, Statement o f Boisbriant, Mar. 26, 1725, M P A 2 :4 2 2 -2 3 ; Dupuy to Minister, Oct. 20, 1727, W H C 16 :4 7 0 -7 1. Costs began to escalate precipitously in the 1740s and 1750s bringing complaints from the Minister and apologies and excuses from Canadian officials. For 1741 figures at Montreal, see Extrait des munitions. . . jusqu’au premier septembre, 17 4 1, AN, C 11A , v. 75, Beauharnois to M in­ ister, Oct. 13 , 1743, N \'C D 9:1098-99 ; Bigot au Ministre, 2 nov. 1752, AN, C 11A , v.08, f. 308. The installation o f new governors and the Indian visits this entailed proved particularly costly, Duquesne to Rouillé, Oct. 27, 1753, I I IC 29 :8 4 1-4 3 . By the 1750s the annual expenditure on Indian presents had reached 150,000 francs (or livres) a year, Bougainville Memoir, W HC 18 :195.

fo r an early recognition o f the importance of presents in Indian diplomacy, see Wilbur R. Jacobs, Diplomacy and Indian G ifts: Anglo-French R ivalry along the Ohio and Northwest Frontiers, 17 4 8 -6 3 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1950). For English recogni­ tion, see Thomas Elliot Norton, The F u r Trade in Colonial N ew York, 16 8 6 -17 7 6 (Madison: University o f Wisconsin Press, 1974), 4 1.

38 French commanders and governors were accused of extorting gifts and o f not fulfilling the promises their acceptance entailed; Cadillac: Report o f Sr. D ’Aigremont, Nov. 14, 1708, M P H C 33:426; Vaudreuil: Raudot to Minister, ib id ., 33:465. For suggestion that credit be banned, see Louvigny to Council, Oct. 15 , 1720, W HC 16 :3 8 7 -9 1. During the revolt of the

1 14 The middle ground

The fur trade

B o th trad e rs and o ffic ia ls o ften re se n te d the n e c e ss ity fo r g ifts , bu t th ere

w e re s ig n ific a n t o b stac le s to th e ir d e s ire s to re o r ie n t e x c h a n g e aw ay fro m the

m id d le g ro u n d and to w ard th e m ark et. F ir s t o f a ll, n o t a ll F re n c h m e n w ere

w illin g to se e e x c h a n g e as so m e th in g re g u la te d by su p p ly an d d e m an d . T h e

m o st o b v io u s e xa m p le is the te n a c io u s an d o fte n su c c e s s fu l o p p o sitio n o f the

Je s u it s to the b ran d y trad e, even w h e n the E n g lis h trad e in ru m co st the

F r e n c h fu rs . S e c o n d , the fu r trad e in its v e ry o rg an iza tio n c o u ld n o t be

d ise n tan g le d fro m p o lit ica l an d im p e ria l c o n c e rn s . B e c a u s e the F r e n c h fu r

trad e w as a co m b in atio n o f e n tre p re n e u r ia l tra d e rs , m e rc h an t fin a n c ie rs ,

l ic e n se d m o n o p o lists , an d g o v e rn m e n t re g u la to rs , it w a s a h iv e o f d iv e rse

in te re sts w h ic h , w h ile in c o rp o ra tin g m a rk e t c o n c e rn s , te n d e d to c h e c k th e ir

d o m in an ce . T h e c ro w n d e riv e d re v e n u e s fro m its sa le o f th e b e a v e r m o n o ­

p o ly to the fermier an d th u s d e p e n d e d o n the h ea lth o f the fu r trad e to h e lp

fin a n ce C a n a d a . O n th e o th e r h a n d , s in c e the In d ia n s h ad a lre a d y e sta b lish e d

a c le a r co n n ectio n b e tw e e n a llia n ce an d trad e, an y m e a su re s th at in c re a se d

re v e n u e s b u t a lie n ate d the In d ia n s w o u ld re b o u n d ag a in st F r e n c h p o litica l

an d im p eria l in te re sts . T h e C ro w n c o u ld n o t a ffo rd to ig n o re A lg o n q u ia n

d isco n te n t wdth the c o u rse o f trad e . S im ila r ly , th e fermier d e p e n d e d on ro ya l

a ss ista n ce to su p p re ss sm u g g lin g an d e n fo rc e the m o n o p o ly , b u t the fermier c o u ld n o t a ffo rd to b e in se n sitiv e to th e d e m a n d s o f In d ia n p o licy . T h e

tra d e rs c erta in ly d e s ire d u n lim ited gain in the W e st, b u t th ey w e re c o n ­

stra in e d , at le a s t th eo re tica lly , b y th e p re se n c e o f F r e n c h o ff ic e rs , the

re g u la tio n o f C a n a d ia n o ffic ia ls , an d the p o w e r o f the p r ie s ts to g ran t

ab so lu tio n fo r th eir s in s in re g a rd to tra n sg re ss io n s su ch as the sa le o f b ran d y

to th e In d ia n s . In th e e ig h tee n th cen tu ry , o ff ic ia ls su ch as G o v e r n o r de

B c a u h a rn o is fe a re d p o lic ie s , su c h a s le a s in g th e p o sts , th at w o u ld le av e the

tra d e rs fre e to se e k p ro fit an d n e g le c t F r e n c h p a te rn a l o b lig atio n s. A

sca th in g mémoire w ritte n in 1 7 5 8 in d ica te d that B e a u h a rn o is ’s fe a rs h ad

co m e tru e : G r e e d y le s s e e s h ad a lie n a te d the In d ia n s an d w o u ld b rin g ab o u t

the fa ll o f C a n a d a .19

T h e A lg o n q u ia n s c o n ju re d u p an d fe d the fe a rs o f the F r e n c h C ro w n .

A lg o n q u ia n s h ad b e e n u n a b le fu lly to im p o se th e ir o w n lo g ic o f e x c h a n g e on

the F r e n c h , b u t th ey h ad e xac te d a c o m p ro m ise that lim ite d the ra n g e o f

F r e n c h o p tio n s in the trad e . T h e co n c e p t bon marché e m b o d ie d th is c o m ­

p ro m ise . W h at the In d ia n s u n d e rsto o d as a bon marché w as c lo se to the

E u ro p e a n c o n cep tio n o f a ju st p r ic e . T h e A lg o n q u ia n s c a m e to a c c e p t u n it

p r ic e s fo r item s, b u t th ey d id n ot a c c e p t m a rk e t v a r ia tio n s in p ric e . R e a l

1 1 5

late 1740s, Indians refused to pay on goods advanced them by the traders, Bigot to Minister, Oet. 22, 1748, WHC 17:502.

39 For leasing, Beauharnois et D ’Aigremont au Ministre, 1 oct. 1728, AN, C 11A , v. 59, f. 3 1 - 3 2 . For mémoire complaining of results, see Mémoire, Canada, 1758, AN, C 11A , v. 103, f .5 1 1 .

v a lu e d id n o t c h a n g e ; it w a s cu sto m a ry . T h is d id n ot m ean that A lg o n q u ia n s

e xp e cte d e x c h a n g e ra te s to b e ab so lu te ly stab le . B e c a u s e In d ia n s c o n c e p ­

tu a lized e x c h a n g e in te rm s o f th e g e n e ro s ity o f a fa th e r to h is c h ild re n , they

d id n o t c o m p la in i f h e b e c a m e m o re g e n e ro u s . T h e y o n ly c o m p la in e d w h e n

he b e c a m e le ss so . S in c e O n o n tio and h is c h ie fs w e re fa th e rs , it w a s th eir

o b lig atio n to m ak e su re that th e ir A lg o n q u ia n c h ild re n s e c u re d a bon marché fro m O n o n tio ’ s F r e n c h c h ild re n , the trad e rs . T h e A lg o n q u ia n s e xp e cte d the

g o v e rn o r to in te rc e d e w ith the trad e rs w h e n p ric e s ro se .

G iv e n th e se A lg o n q u ia n e x p e cta tio n s , the b e a v e r m o n o p o ly h a d u n a n ti­

c ip a ted ad v a n tag e s fo r the F r e n c h . B e c a u s e p r ic e s w e re fix e d , e x c h a n g e

o ften p ro c e e d e d , at least at the p o sts , at p re d ic ta b le ra te s w ith o u t exten sive

b a rg a in in g . A s G o v e rn o r d e B e a u h a rn o is an d In te n d an t H o c q u a r t re p o rte d

to th e C ro w n , In d ia n s n o rm a lly re c e iv e d the sam e q u an tity o f m e rc h a n d ise

in e x c h a n g e fo r th e ir b e av e r . W h e n , h o w e v e r, m o n o p o lists fa c e d b an k ru p tcy

b e c a u se o f o v c rsu p p ly an d fa llin g p r ic e s in E u ro p e o r h ad to fa c e in ten se

E n g lis h co m p e titio n , o r w h e n the c ro w n tried to cu t co sts b y fa rm in g out

p o sts to in d iv id u a l trad e rs o r ra is in g the p r ic e s on g o o d s th at the k in g

su p p lie d , th en the F r e n c h ab ility to m e e t A lg o n q u ia n e xp e cta tio n s fa lte re d

an d the w h o le s tru c tu re o f the a llia n c e sh u d d e re d . It w a s d u r in g su ch

p e r io d s o f c r is is that the A lg o n q u ia n u n d e rsta n d in g o f h o w trad e sh o u ld

p ro c e e d w a s m o st c le a r ly a rt ic u la te d .40

T h e first o f th e se re v e a lin g c r is e s o c c u rre d at the e n d o f the Iro q u o is w ars.

W ith the F r e n c h m ark et fo r fu rs g lu tte d , the va lu e o f b e a v e r d ro p p in g , and

congés fo r th e W e st d isc o n tin u e d , G o v e rn o r d e C a lliè re s a ttem p ted to in d u ce

the w e ste rn In d ia n s c o m in g to M o n tre a l to a c c e p t a lo w e r rate o f e x c h a n g e

o n th e ir fu rs . H e u rg e d the c h ie fs n o t to a sk h im , as th e ir fa th e r , to g u a ra n tee

a bon marché b u t, ra th e r, to g o fro m m e rc h a n t to m e rc h a n t se e k in g the b e st

b arg a in . S u c h a re q u e st a p p a re n tly c o n fu se d the O ttaw as. In 1 7 0 1 the

O ttaw a le a d e r O to n tag an , sp e a k in g fo r the S a b le O ttaw as an d th e S a u lte u rs

on a g ift o f fo u r p ac k s o f b e a v e r , to ld O n o n tio : “ It is u se le ss to a sk yo u fo r a

bon marché, b e c a u se w e k n o w that e ach p e rso n is m a ste r o f h is m e rc h a n d ise ,

n e v e rth e le ss u rg e th em to g ive the sa m e p ric e a s la st y e a r .” W h en

O to n ta g a n ’ s n e go tia tio n s w ith the m e rc h an ts fa ile d to o b ta in a bon marché, he

re tu rn e d m u ch tro u b led to C a ll iè r e s to ask h im to in te rc e d e . A t D e tro it tw o

y e a rs la te r , L e P e sa n t o f the O ttaw as d e liv e re d a s im ila r sp e e c h , b u t he w as

no m o re re a d y th an O to n tag an to d e tach the id ea o f a bon marché fro m the

re q u ire m e n ts o f the a llian ce . L e P e sa n t d id not a sk fo r O n o n tio ’ s in te r ­

c e ss io n . H e th re a ten ed to go to the E n g lis h .41

F a ilu re to se c u re a bon marché s tra in e d the a llia n c e to the b re a k in g p oin t.

4U Beauharnois et Hocquart au Ministre, 15 oct. 1744, AN, C 11A , v. 81. 41 La Potherie, Histoire, 4:203, 205, 2 12 ; for Le Pesant, see Conseil. . . 29 aoust 1703, Margry,

Découvertes, 5 :294-97.

1 1 6 The middle ground

The fur trade 1 1 7

M ic h ip ic h y , sp e a k in g fo r all the In d ia n s at D e tro it , a n g rily d e n o u n c e d the

g o v e rn o r as a lia r. A lth o u g h C a d illa c c ited p re v io u s w a rn in g s b y the g o v e r­

n o r to the In d ia n s that the m e rc h a n ts w e re “ le s m a îtres d e la m a rc h a n d is e ”

an d th u s co u ld a lte r p r ic e s , M ic h ip ic h y co n te n d e d that the In d ia n s had

se ttled at D e tro it o n ly on the p ro m ise o f g e tt in g g o o d s at the sa m e p ric e s as

at M o n tre a l. “ W h en w e cam e h e r e ,” M ic h ip ic h y a sse rte d , “ the g o v e rn o r d id

n o t te ll u s that the m e rch an ts w e re m a ste rs o f the m e rc h a n d ise . H e h as lied

to u s .” 42

In d ia n s in te rp re te d the fa ilu re to g e t c u sto m a ry p ric e s w ith in the fam ilia l

lo g ic o f the a llia n ce . It w a s p r o o f that th e F r e n c h no lo n g e r “ lo v e d ” th em ,

that th ey h ad a b a n d o n e d th em an d n o w “ s to le ” th e ir b e av e r . It w a s now' the

E n g lish w h o lo ved th em . T h e F r e n c h m ig h t d e n o u n c e the A lg o n q u ia n s fo r

“ n e v e r h av in g o th e r fr ie n d s th an th o se w h o g ive th em a g o o d b a rg a in ,” b u t

to m ain tain the a llian ce th ey w o u ld h ave to g ive the A lg o n q u ia n s p h y sica l

to k en s o f th e ir p ate rn a l lo ve . W h e n , a fte r the W a r o f the S p a n is h S u c c e s ­

sio n , the m o n o p o ly fo u n d e re d in the fa ce o f an in c re a s in g ly d e te rm in e d

E n g lis h a ttem p t to w in w e ste rn trad e , the A lg o n q u ia n s aga in p h ra se d the

p ro b le m in te rm s o f p ate rn a l n e g le c t . S h a m g o u e s c h i, an O ttaw a c h ie f fro m

S a g in a w , e xp la in e d in 1 7 1 7 that the O ttaw as an d P o taw ato m is had d e p a rte d

fro m D e tro it to trad e w ith the E n g lis h b e c a u se the c o m m a n d e r at D e tro it ,

S a b re v o is , “ w h o m w e lo o k e d u p o n as o u r fa th e r at D e tr o it ,” h ad not, in

tu rn , lo o k e d “ u p o n u s as h is c h ild r e n .” A fa ilu re to d e liv e r a bon marché w as

p art o f a la rg e r ca ta lo g o f p a te rn a l n e g le c t . H is fa ilu re to fe ast the c h ie fs , to

g ive the ap p ro p ria te g ifts , an d “ to g ive u s s u c k ” (that is, to g iv e the In d ia n s

b ran d y to d rink) h ad “ o ffe n d e d o u r o ld m en e x tre m e ly , an d . . . d r iv en u s to

ad o p t the c o u r s e . . . o f g o in g in the d ire c tio n o f O ra n g e [A lb a n y ].” T h e

rem o va l o f S a b re v o is an d , a fte r h im , T o n t i te stifie d to the F r e n c h n e ed to

m ee t A lg o n q u ia n o b je c tio n s to the c o m m a n d e rs . In d e e d , A lg o n q u ia n e x p e c ­

tatio n s b e ca m e a ra tio n ale fo r try in g to e n su re th at c o m m a n d e rs h ad no

in tere st in the trad e itse lf. C o m m a n d e rs w ith a stake in th e trad e , the S ie u r

de N o y a n re p o rte d , co u ld n o t act as fa th e rs , an d the In d ia n s c la im e d that

th ey h ad in su ch m en to rm e n to rs in ste a d o f fa th e rs .43

N o t even w a r, w ith its c o n c u rre n t sh o rta g e o f g o o d s d u e to E n g lis h

b lo c k a d e s , re lie v e d th e F r e n c h o f th e ir p a te rn a l o b lig atio n s. In 1 7 4 4 an d

1 7 4 5 w h e n in c re a se s in fre ig h t an d in su ra n c e co sts an d the fa ilu re o f F r e n c h

su p p lie s to a rr iv e d ro v e u p the p rice o f g o o d s , the S ie u r d e C h a le t , w h o h ad

42 Conseil tenu au fort Pontchartrain dans le D etro it... 8 juin 1704, AN, F3, Moreau St. Mery, v. 2, f. 378.

43 For argument that French no longer loved them, see Mémoire à M. le Comte de Pontchartrain, AN, C i 1 A, v. 27, f. 135 ; it is also in Mémoire . . . les moyens de rétablir le commerce . . . 1707, AN, C i 1 A, v. 27, f. 112 4 . For Sabrevois, see A Talk with the Ottawas and Their Reply, June 2 4 ,1 7 17 ,M P H C 33:584—85. For De Noyan, see De Noyan, State of Canada in 1730, M P H C 33:77.

p u rc h a se d the ferme at N ia g a ra an d F ro n te n a c , fo u n d that he c o u ld n o t p ass

o n the p rice h ik e s to th e In d ia n s w ith o u t e n d a n g e r in g the a llia n ce . T h e

A lg o n q u ia n s , “ a c c u sto m e d as th e y are to se ll th e ir fu rs at a c e rta in p r i c e , . . .

h ave tro u b le re so lv in g to re c e iv e in e x c h a n g e o n ly a p art o f the m e rc h an d ise

that th ey h ave trad e d at o th e r t im e s .” W h e n the In d ia n s re fu s e d to a c c e p t

F r e n c h d iffic u lt ie s as a le g itim a te c a u se fo r a c h a n g e in p r ic e , th e in ten d an t

b la m e d the S ie u r d e C é lo ro n , th en in co m m a n d , fo r fa ilin g to e xp la in the

re a so n s p ro p e rly o u t o f h o stility to th e fermier. B u t in th e e n d , In ten d an t

H o c q u a r t w e n t to th e c o re o f the d ifficu lty . S in c e the p ro b le m w as n o t the

p r ic e r ise p e r sc , b u t th e c h a n g e in the e x c h a n g e rate o f g o o d s fo r b e a v e r that

th is in v o lv e d , h e p e rs u a d e d th e C o m p a g n ie d e s In d e s to ra ise the m o n o p o ly

p rice o n b e a v e r th u s re s to r in g in e f fe c t the o ld e x c h a n g e . T h is w o rk e d at

N ia g a ra b u t did n o t a llev ia te th e sh o rta g e o f g o o d s fa rth e r w e s t .44

T h r e a t s to d e se rt th e a llia n ce an d ap p e a ls to O n o n tio ’ s p a te rn a l d u ty to

g u a ra n te e a bon marché, lik e the o ld e r tactic o f th e ft, b u ffe r e d the im p act o f

the m a rk e t o n the A lg o n q u ia n fu r trad e . C u s to m a ry p r ic e s m ig h t d ate fro m

the y e a rs w h e n th e W e st w a s a P e ru , b u t th e g ro w in g b u rd e n o f g ifts , h ig h

tran sp o rta tio n co sts , an d E n g lis h p re ssu re o n the d e fin itio n o f a bon marché to o k th e ir to ll o f F r e n c h p ro fits . In th e late se v e n te e n th an d e ar ly e ig h tee n th

c e n tu r ie s , ce rta in ly the pays d ’en haut d id n ot d e liv e r the b o n an zas e a r ly

w r ite rs h ad p ro m ise d . L a S a l le h ad p ro je c te d p o te n tia l p ro fits o f fro m

1 5 0 - 2 0 0 p e rc e n t o n th e trad e at F o r t F ro n te n a c in the e a r ly 16 8 0 s , an d the

B a r o n d e L a h o n ta n e stim ate d in th e m id 16 8 0 s that tw o c a n o e lo a d s o f

g o o d s se n t w e st y ie ld e d p ro fits o f 7 0 0 p e rce n t. E v e n in the 1 7 2 0 s the n o rm al

m a rk u p o f g o o d s p u rc h a s e d in M o n tre a l an d tra n sp o rte d w e st w a s a p p are n tly

1 0 0 p e rce n t. A t the Illin o is , the C o m p a g n ie d e s In d e s so ld to the tra d e rs at

5 0 p e rc e n t ab o v e th e p u rc h a se p r ic e in F r a n c e , p lu s 2 0 0 liv re s p e r ton in

fre ig h t c h a rg e s . L o u is e D e C h ê n e , in e v a lu a tin g su ch p o te n tia l p ro fits , h as

c a u tio n e d that “ a lth o u g h su ch c a lc u la tio n s o f p ro fit a re ju stifia b le , th ey a re

va lid o n ly i f w e sp lit u p the v a r io u s tran sac tio n s an d e x c lu d e so m e fro m the

c a lc u la t io n s .” H e r ow'n b re a k d o w n o f the v a r io u s tran sac tio n s an d e x p e n se s

that w en t in to the la te se v e n te e n th - an d e arly e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry trad e

in d ic a te s a p ro fit o f ab o u t 2 1 p e rc e n t o n a c a rg o , an d sh e w a rn s that th is m ay

h ave b e e n e xce p tio n a l. N o n e th e le s s , it w a s a p ro fit h ea lth y e n o u g h to su sta in

the trad e as lo n g a s the c ro w n co n tin u e d to c o v e r the la rg e an d co n stan tly

r is in g co sts o f p re se n ts an d se rv ic e s n e c e ssa ry to k e e p the In d ia n s lo y a l.45

44 Beauharnois & Hocquart au Ministre, 23 oct. 1744, AN, C i iA , v. 8 1, f. 72; for quotation, see Beauharnois & Hocquart, 15 oct. 1744, AN, C i 1 A, v. 8 1, f. 43. For continuing crisis and need to hold Indians, see Beauharnois & Hocquart au Ministre, 23 oct. 1745, AN, C 11A , v. 83. For Céloron, see Hocquart au Ministre, 23 oct. 1744, AN, C 11A , v. 8 1, f. 406. For Hocquart’s plan, see Hocquart au Controlleur General, 16 oct. 1744, AN, C n A , v .8 1,

. f-350. 43 Louis Armand de Lam d’Arc, Baron de Lahontan, Collection Oakes. Nouveaux doatments de

1 1 8 The middle ground

The fur trade

T h e id e a o f bon marché w a s fle x ib le e n o u g h to e n c o m p a ss b o th a F r e n c h

p ro fit an d the A lg o n q u ia n n o tio n o f a fa th e r ’ s g e n e ro s ity to h is c h ild re n , bu t

th e ro o m to m a n e u v e r w ith in it re m a in e d lim ited . T o v io la te the c o m p ro m ise

w o rk e d o u t fo r e x c h a n g e on the m id d le g ro u n d an d e x a c t e x c e ss iv e p r ic e s

th re a te n e d the en tire s tru c tu re o f re la tio n s . W h e n , in 1 7 4 5 , M . L e n o rm a n t ,

a “ z e a lo u s se rv an t o f th e K in g ,” a tte m p te d to co rre c t th e d isa s tro u s fin a n c e s

o f L o u is ia n a by d o u b lin g the p ro fit o f the k in g o n the g o o d s that h e

d isp a tch ed to the p o sts o f that co lo n y , G o v e rn o r d e V a u d re u il p ro te ste d .

S u c h th in g s , he w ro te , c o u ld n o t b e e a s ily c h an g e d .

He [Lenormant] has never been near understanding the ways of the Indians and the manner in which one must conduct oneself with them, and in the time that he has been staying here he has been too much occupied with fulfilling his mission. . . to have been able to acquire a sufficiently perfect idea of the management of these nations. . . but because people sometimes wish to conserve the interests of the King overmuch they often incur greater expenses, as would be the result if the new practices continued longer.

F o r c in g c h a n g e s o n the In d ia n s led n ot o n ly to k illin g s b u t a lso to the

In d ia n s ’ re fu sa l to re p a y the tra d e rs fo r g o o d s a d van ce d th em an d , u ltim ate ly ,

to th e ir re so rtin g to th e E n g lis h . F r e n c h g o v e rn o rs an d in te n d a n ts cam e to

se e th e se arch fo r la rg e p ro fits (a lth o u g h th ey e x e m p te d th e ir o w n e ffo rts) as

a d a n g e r to the la rg e r g o o d o f the c o lo n y .46

1 1 9

IV

It w a s th e E n g lis h , o f c o u rse , w h o gave the A lg o n q u ia n s th e fre e d o m to

exto rt th is h yb rid e x c h a n g e system fro m the F r e n c h . W h e n the F r e n c h tried

to a rra n g e the trad e so le ly a c c o rd in g to the su p p ly o f fu rs an d th e d e m an d in

E u r o p e , the A lg o n q u ia n s w e n t to the E n g lis h , w h o v irtu a lly a lw ays o ffe re d

th em b e tte r term s th an the F r e n c h . T r a d e w ith th e E n g lish firs t b e c a m e a

se r io u s p o ssib ility fo r the A lg o n q u ia n s o f the pays d'en haut in the 16 9 0 s . T h e

Iro q u o is in m a k in g p e a c e o v e rtu re s to the O ttaw as an d H u ro n -P e tu n s

Lahontan sur le Canada ei Terre-M euve, édités avec introduction par Gustave Lanctôt (Ottawa: J . O. Patenaude, 1940), 27; L)e Chêne, Habitants el M archands, 163 (quotation), 170; Representation o f Sieur de la Salle, 1682, N Y C D 9:220; Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan's Voyages, 1 :5 3 -5 4 , 9 9 - 10 1 , 14 6 -4 7 ; Memorandum of Goods which M. de Boucherville Was Obliged to Give for the King’s Service, Oct. 12, 17 2 8 -2 9 , W H C 17 :8 3-8 6 . For Louisiana, see Mémoire, aoust 1724, AN, C 13A , v. 8, f. 222,

4f’ La Galissonière to Minister, Oct. 23, 1748, W HC 17:503; Bigot to Minister, Oct. 22, 1748, W H C 17:502; Abstract of dispatches, La Galissonière and Bigot, April 30, 1749, N Y C D 10 :19 9 -200 . For Vaudreuil quotation, see Vaudreuil to Maurepas, Oct. 30, 1745, M PA

4:251-

12 0

o ffe re d a c c e ss to su ch trad e , an d N e w Y o r k tra d e rs actu a lly tr ie d to

p en e tra te the pays d'en haut. W ith the fa ilu re o f th ese p a rtie s , a tte m p ts at

d ire c t trad e la p se d , b u t b y the e a r ly e ig h tee n th c e n tu ry b o th F re n c h m e n an d

m iss io n In d ia n s fro m M o n tre a l w e re a c tiv e ly e n g a g e d in sm u g g lin g fu rs to

A lb a n y . A ttra c te d b y h ig h e r E n g lis h p r ic e s fo r fu rs an d b y b e tte r q u a lity

c lo th , c o u re u rs d e b o is an d m iss io n In d ia n s , a c tin g fo r F r e n c h m e rc h a n ts ,

d iv e rte d so m an y b e a v e r to E n g la n d that the fermier re c e iv e d o n ly 7 ,0 0 0

liv re s o f b e a v e r fu r b y w e ig h t in 1 7 0 7 . T h is re p re se n te d a tr ick le c o m p a re d

to th e flo o d o f b e a v e r that had re a c h e d n e a rly 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 liv re s in 1 6 9 9 .47

T h is illic it fu r trad e to A lb a n y w a s th e b e g in n in g o f an E n g lis h c o m m e r­

c ia l a ssau lt. W ith the en d o f the W a r o f the S p a n is h S u c c e s s io n , in 1 7 1 3 , the

E n g lis h c ap ita lized on b o th c la u se 1 5 o f the T r e a t y o f U tre c h t , w h ich

g u a ra n te e d e q u a l F r e n c h an d E n g lish a c c e ss to the In d ia n trad e , an d the

b e g in n in g o f a p e r io d o f A n g lo -F r e n c h p e a c e in E u ro p e , w h ic h in h ib ite d the

u se o f fo rc e b y the F r e n c h ag a in st the E n g lis h tra d e rs in N o rth A m e r ic a , to

a ttem p t the ca p tu re o f the w e ste rn trad e . G o v e rn o r R o b e r t H u n te r o f N e w

Y o r k ( 1 7 1 0 - 1 9 ) an d th en h is s u c c e s s o r , G e o r g e B u rn e t , u se d an u n ­

re str ic te d trad e in b ra n d y , s u p e r io r E n g lis h w o o le n stro u d s , b e tte r k ettles ,

lo w e r p r ic e s , an d a s im p le g ra d in g syste m fo r fu rs to e xp a n d w h at h ad

p re v io u s ly b e e n a v e ry lim ited d ire c t trad e w ith the w e ste rn A lg o n q u ia n s .

T h e va lu e o f b e a v e r exp o rts fro m N e w Y o r k d o u b le d in 1 7 1 3 an d n e arly

d o u b le d ag a in in 1 7 1 4 . 48

B y 1 7 2 0 N e w Y o r k o ffic ia ls w e re c o n fid e n t e n o u g h o f s u c c e s s in se c u r in g

d ire c t trad e to o u tlaw th e s m u g g lin g o f fu rs b e tw e e n M o n tre a l a n d A lb a n y ,

th u s s tr ik in g at the F r e n c h so u rce fo r w h at h ad b e c o m e th e m o st im p o rtan t

m a n u fa c tu re d g o o d in the w e ste rn trad e - E n g lis h stro u d s . T h e h ig h q u a lity

The middle ground

47 For smuggling, see Yves Zoltvany, Philippe de Rigaud de Vaudreuil, Governor o f New France, 1JO 3-25 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1974), 7 5 -7 6 ; Guy Fregault, “ La Compagnie de la Colonie,” Revue de l ’Universite d'Ottawa 30 (i960): 7 - 1 3 , 14 3 -4 8 ; Innis, The Fur Trade in Canada, 7 1 - 8 1 ; Ramezay au Ministre, 1708 AN, C n A , v. 29. For cloth, see Lunn, “ Economie Development,” 15 7 —61.

48 In 17 16 and 17 17 Hunter granted licenses for traders to go to Irondequoit halfway between Niagara and Oswego on Lake Ontario, Norton, The Fur Trade in Colonial New York, 15 8 -5 9 . Using Indian emissaries, the English also sent wampum belts and gifts of liquor west to inform the Algonquians that the French robbed them and that the English would offer better prices. Vaudreuil au Conseil, 14 oct. 17 16 , AN, C n A , v. 37; Conseil. . . dec. 17 17 , AN, C i 1 A, v. 37, f. 379 -8 0 ; Sabrevois to Vaudreuil, Apr. 8, 17 17 , M PH C 3 3 :58 2-8 5 . For actual departures, see A 'Falk with the Ottawas, and A Talk of the Foutouatamis, both M PH C 33:584-86 , and Vaudreuil to Council, 12 Oct. 17 17 , M PH C 3 3 :5 9 1-9 2 . For Ohio, see Outauacs et autres sauvages, 14 oct. 17 16 , AN, C i iA , v.36, f.79.

For British plans, see Norton, The Fur Trade in Colonial New York, 13 4 -3 5 ; State of British Plantation in America in 17 2 1 , Sept. 8, 17 2 1 , D IIN Y 5:621 -2 5 ; Beauharnois au Ministre, 22 sept. 1726. AN, C i 1 A, v. 48; 13 4 -3 5 . Figures from Stephen Cutcliffe, “ Indian Policy and the Rise o f Imperialism, New York and Pennsylvania, 16 7 4 - 17 5 5 ,” unpublished paper in author’s possession.

The fur trade I 2 I

an d lo w p r ic e o f E n g lish b lan k e ts an d stro u d s an d the In d ia n d e m an d fo r

th em gave th e E n g lish p e rh a p s th e ir g re a te st ad van tag e o v e r the F re n c h .

R e d stro u d s - the écarlatines - b e c a m e the p re fe r re d trad e item in the pays d'en haut.4g

B u rn e t b e lie v e d the n ew la w s w o u ld c a u se M o n tre a l to “ s in k to n o th in g ”

an d saw th em as b u t the first step in a p lan “ to trad e in to all the G r e a t L a k e s

o f N o rth A m e r ic a w ith all the In d ia n s b o rd e r in g on th em , w ith w h o m w e

m ay h ave an im m e n se trad e n e v e r y e t a ttem p ted b y u s, an d n o w c a rr ie d on

b y the F r e n c h w ith g o o d s b ro u g h t fro m th is P r o v in c e .” B y 1 7 2 0 , V a u d re u il

an d h is in ten d an t, M ic h e l B é g o n , w e re re p o rtin g that the E n g lis h w e re

th re a ten in g to se cu re “ the g re a te r p art o f the p e ltr ie s b o th o f th e F r e n c h

an d In d ia n s b e lo n g in g to the U p p e r C o u n tr y ,” an d in J u ly 1 7 2 1 B u rn e t

re p o rte d an “ im m e n se n u m b e r o f In d ia n s o f far N a t io n s ” flo c k in g to A lb an y .

T r a d e fig u re s fro m S c h e n e c ta d y d ram a tic a lly re fle c t the c h a n g e s in w e ste rn

co m m e rc e . B e tw e e n 1 7 1 6 an d 1 7 2 0 o n ly 3 0 c a n o e s o f “ fa r ” In d ia n s cam e

th ere ; fro m 1 7 2 0 to 1 7 2 4 , 3 2 3 c a n o e s a rr iv e d - a te n fo ld in c re a se in tra d e .50

B y 1 7 2 5 th e F r e n c h trad e s e e m e d to b e h e m o rrh a g in g . A n E n g lish

estim ate fo r that y e a r p u t the w e ste rn trad e a t tw elve h u n d re d p ac k s o f sk in s

an d fu rs . T h e c o m b in e d trad e o f F o r t F ro n te n a c at the e a ste rn e n d o f L a k e

O n ta rio , an d o f N ia g a ra at the w e ste rn en d , w h ic h w as v a lu e d at 4 0 ,9 1 1

liv re s in 1 7 2 3 , an d at 2 9 ,2 9 7 liv re s in 1 7 2 4 , p lu m m e te d to 9 , 1 5 1 liv re s in

1 7 2 5 , C a d w a lla d e r C o ld e n , N e w Y o r k ’ s su rv e y o r, e xu b e ra n tly p re d ic te d that

su ch e n c ro a c h m e n ts on the F r e n c h trad e w o u ld d e p riv e F r a n c e o f h e r a llie s ,

re n d e r C a n a d a u se le ss to th em , an d o b lig e th em to a b an d o n the co lo n y

a lto g e th e r .31

4g Representation of Lords o f Trade, July 14, 1724, N Y C D 5 :70 7-8 ; Albany, Norton, The F u r Trade in Colonial New York, 137. For woolens and French efforts to match, see Raudot to Minister, 14 Nov. 1709 ,M P H C 3 3 :4 6 0 -6 1; Vaudreuil & Bégon au Ministre, 20 sept. 17 14 , R 4PQ, 19 47-48 , 285; Minutes, Conseil, ig jan . 17 17 , AN, C 11A , v. 37, f. 35; Vaudreuil au Conseil 30 oct. 17 17 , AN, C i iA, v. 38; Bégon & Vaudreuil au Conseil, 17 oct. 1722, AN, C h A, v. 44; Vaudreuil & Bégon au Ministre, 14 oct. 1723, AN, C i i A, v. 45. Also see I.unn “ F.conomic Development,” 15 7 -6 0 .

50 For Bumet quotation, see Burnet to Lords o f Trade, Nov. 26, 1720, N Y C D 5:577, 580. For Vaudreuil and Bégon quotation, see Abstract of Vaudreuil and Bégon, Oct. 20, 1720, N Y C D 9:897; also see Vaudreuil & Bégon au Conseil, 26 oct. 17 19 , AN, C i iA , v. 40. For number o f Indians, see Burnet to Lords o f Trade, 12 July 17 2 1 , N Y C D 5:587. In June 1723 he reported that 20 men of the far nations had come in the spring, 80 more from Michilimackinac (and apparendy Detroit) had arrived in June, and 40 or 50 more were en route from the pays d'en haut. All o f these parties had also brought women and children. Burnet to Lords of Trade, 25 June 1723, N Y C D 5:684-85; for origins, see Conference . . . Western Tribes, May 29, 1723, N Y C D 5:693-97. For trade figures, see Governor Burnet to Lords o f Trade, Nov. 2 1, 1724, N Y C D 5:739.

51 For 1725 estimate, see Norton, The F u r Trade in C olonial N ew York, 164. In 1725 on a voyage to Iroquoia, I.ongucuil met more than 100 canoes o f Indians from the upper country either coming to trade with the English or returning. The English, Longueuil complained, were trading at the Niagara portage, despite the blockhouse the French had built there, and were

12 2

In th is c o n te x t the E n g lis h p o st e s ta b lish e d at O sw e g o in the Iro q u o is

c o u n try in 1 7 2 7 se e m e d to b o th s id e s a k n ife p o in ted at the h ea rt o f C a n a d a .

L o c a te d at o n e o f th e fe w sh e lte re d h a rb o rs o f L a k e O n ta rio an d w ith e asy

a c c e ss to the pays d ’en haut, the E n g lis h at O sw e g o th re a te n e d , in co m b in atio n

w ith in c u rs io n s b y E n g lish tra d e rs on th e O h io , to d e tach the A lg o n q u ia n s

fro m the F r e n c h a llia n ce an d jo in th em to the co v e n a n t c h a in o f the

Iro q u o is . T h e F r e n c h fe a re d O sw e g o , b u t b y an d la rg e th ey m a n a g e d to

b lu n t the th re a t that it re p re se n te d . A s C h a r t 3 . 1 sh o w s, th e trad e at F r e n c h

p o sts in c re a se d b e tw e e n 1 7 3 0 an d 1 7 5 7 . 52

T h e F r e n c h b lu n ted the E n g lis h c h a lle n g e b y e x p a n d in g in to n ew are a s

an d b y su b s id iz in g th e trad e in o ld o n e s . T h is su b sid y to ok se v e ra l fo rm s.

T h e c ro w n an d p riv a te tra d e rs gave p re se n ts . T h e C ro w n a lso p ro v id e d the

se rv ic e s o f b la c k sm ith s an d g u n sm ith s to the In d ia n s at th e F r e n c h fo rts . A s

a fin al d ire c t su b s id y , the C ro w n took o v e r fo r lo n g p e r io d s o f tim e the

trad e at F o r t s N ia g a ra an d F r o n te n a c an d e v e n tu a lly e s ta b lish e d a p o st at

T o r o n to . H e re In d ia n s on th e ir w a y to th e E n g lish fo u n d F r e n c h g o o d s so ld

at o r n e a r E n g lis h p r ic e s . T h e C ro w n took a lo ss on su ch sa le s in o rd e r to

k e e p th e trad e fro m the E n g lis h .53

T h e s e w e re o n ly the d ire c t su b s id ie s . T h e F r e n c h -A lg o n q u ia n w ars

ag a in st the F o x an d the C h ic k a s a w s in th e 1 7 3 0 s an d the im p e r ia l w a rs o f

th e 1 7 4 0 s an d 1 7 5 0 s te n d e d , b e c a u se o f th e d ista n ce s in vo lve d , to d ive rt

w a rr io rs fro m th e hun t. T h e F r e n c h n ot o n ly e q u ip p e d the w a rr io rs an d

m a d e th em g ifts fo r sca lp s an d to re d e e m p r iso n e rs , b u t th e y a lso h e lp e d to

su p p o rt th e w iv e s an d c h ild re n o f th o se a b se n t on w a r p a rtie s . T h e am o u n ts

e x p e n d e d in th e se w ars w e re c o n s id e ra b le . T h e u n s u c c e s s fu l F o x ca m p a ig n

o f 1 7 2 8 , fo r e x a m p le , a lo n e c o st 2 8 ,4 0 1 liv re s an d b e tw e e n 1 7 3 2 an d 1 7 3 5 ,

the e x p e n d itu re s m ad e in the p o sts o f the pays d'en haut a lo n e w e re 3 3 ,8 3 3

The middle ground

selling rum within a day and a half of Fort Frontenac, Longueuil & Bégon au Ministre, 31 oct. 1725, AN, C 11A , v.47. For the trade o f Fort Frontenac and o f Niagara, see Bégon au Ministre, 30 oct. 1723 , AN, C 11A , v. 45; Estât des Pelleteries . . . 17 2 4 -2 5 , AN, C i 1 A, v.47; Estât de les ventes des Pelleteries. . . 1726, AN, C 11 A, v. 49. For Colden, see O f the Trade of New York by C. Colden, N Y C D 5:687.

52 For Oswego established, see Burnet to Board of Trade, May 9, 1727, D H N Y 1:447. F ° r French fear of, see Beauhamois & D ’Aigremont au Ministre, 1 oct. 1728, AN, C i 1 A, v. 50, f .27; Projet pour s’opposer à l’agrandissement des A nglais.. . 15 oct. 1729, AN, C 11A , v. 5 1 , f. 467. Oswego always remained a thorn in the French side, Galissonière & Bigot au Ministre, 20 oct. 1748, AN, C 11A , v. 9 1; Jonquière & Bigot au Ministre, 1 oct. 1749, AN, C i 1 A, v. 93. Ohio, Mémoire concernant les Ilinois, 1732, AN, F3, v. 24, f. 138.

53 For new posts, see Mémoire, Beauharnois & 1 loequart au Ministre, 1737, AN, C i 1 A, v. 67, f. 10 1 ; Réponse au Mémoire du Roy, 13 oct. 1745, AN, C 1 1A , v. 63, f. 84. For problems faced, see Hocquart au Mss. Les Directeurs de la Compagnie des Indies, 1 nov. 1739, AN, C i 1 A, v. 72, f. 167. For no hope for profit on royal posts, see Hocquart au Ministre, 10 oct. *734. AN, C 1 1A , v.62, f .3 7 -4 0 . For Toronto, see La Jonquière au Ministre, 20 aoust, 1750, AN, C i i A, v . 95, The English recognized the French tactic, Colden to Clinton, Aug. 8, 17 5 1 , N Y C D 6:743.

T h e f u r t r a d e

Chart 3.1: Total Packs 12 3

1730

1757

2500-

2000

1500-

1000 *

500

Mich.# 111 .# D e t . i

O .V .#

Mich.= Michilimackinac and dependencies; Det. = Detroit and dependencies; O.V. = Ohio Valley; 111. = Illinois

Notes: Michilimackinac total for 1730 included dependent forts: Saint Joseph, Nipigon,

Green Bay, Gamasettigoya, and Michipicton; in 1757 it included dependent posts at Green Bay, Saint Joseph, Chequamegon, Kamanistigoya, Michipicton, and Sault Sainte Marie.

Detroit in 1730 included the posts at Miami and the Wea post (Ouiatenon); in 1757 it included the Miami, Wea, and Vincennes posts.

The Ohio Valley posts where trade was conducted were Fort Duquesne and the Riviere au Boeuf.

Illinois trade included the whole confederation. Sources: Noyan, State of Canada in 1730, MPHC 34:73-85; Bougainville Memoir, WHC 18:167-195.

liv re s , m o st o f w h ic h w e n t to e q u ip p in g In d ia n w a rr io rs . O u tfittin g ad d itio n a l

la rg e w e ste rn e xp e d itio n s in c u rre d o th e r su b stan tia l c o sts , at le ast p a rt o f

w h ich e ve n tu a lly fo u n d its w ay in to the h a n d s o f In d ia n a u x ilia r ie s . T h e

N o y a n e xp e d itio n o f 1 7 3 4 , fo r e x a m p le , co st 3 3 , 1 0 7 liv re s . S u c h p aym e n ts

le s se n e d b o th the n e c e ss ity an d the o p p o rtu n ity fo r w a rr io rs to se e k g o o d s in

trad e fro m th e E n g lis h .54 55

T h e F r e n c h a lso a lte re d th e ir tra d in g p ra c tic e s to c o n fo rm to A lg o n q u ia n

d e s ire s . T h e y in c re a se d the n u m b e r o f congés so th at b y 1 7 4 0 , N o y a n , the

c o m m a n d e r at D e tro it , c o m p la in e d that the trad e rs th ere w e re to o n u m e ro u s

an d the co m p etitio n so ru in o u s that the tra d e rs so ld at co st . S u c h co n d itio n s

d id n ot last, b u t the F r e n c h d id m ak e o th e r p e rm a n e n t c h a n g e s in th e ir fu r

trad e p ro c e d u re s . T h e y n ot o n ly m o d ifie d th e ir e lab o ra te syste m fo r g ra d in g

b e a v e r fu rs , b u t th ey a lso e x p a n d e d the k in d s o f fu rs th ey w o u ld a c c e p t in

trad e . B y the 1 7 2 0 s the A lg o n q u ia n sh ift so u th aw ay fro m the p r im e b e a v e r

co u n try fo llo w in g the Iro q u o is w a rs , c o m b in e d w ith the o v e rh u n tin g o f

b e a v e r , h ad c o n trib u te d to the d e c lin e o f th e trad e in b e a v e r fu r o v e r m u ch o f

the pays d'en haut. In d ia n h u n te rs sh ifte d to se e k in g the s o -c a lle d menues pelleteries a n d , m o re s ig n ifica n tly , to tra d in g d e e rsk in s an d b e a rsk in s ,

a lth o u gh in itia lly th e re w a s n o t m u c h F r e n c h d e m an d fo r e ith e r. In 1 7 2 6

In ten d an t D u P u y su g g e ste d im p o rtin g le a th e r w o rk e rs o r fin d in g so m e w ay

fo r the arm y to u se the sk in s w h ic h o th e rw ise w o u ld e ith e r b e sm u g g le d to

N e w Y o r k o r trad ed th ere d ire c tly b y the In d ia n s . A lth o u g h the L o u is ia n a

p o sts so u g h t d e e rsk in s , the C a n a d ia n s to o k th em o n ly fro m n e c e ss ity . A s late

as th e 1 7 5 0 s , w h e n d e e rsk in s d o m in a te d th e E n g lis h trad e , the F r e n c h

re g a rd e d th em as u n d e s ira b le .35

12 4 The middle ground

54 For war disrupting hunt, see Réponse au Mémoire du Roy, 1735 , 13 oct. 1735, AN, C n A , v.63, f .84; Mémoire, Beauhamois & Hocquart au Ministre, 1737, AN, C n A , v.67, f. 10 4 -0 5 ; for general statement of costs, see Beauhamois and Hocquart to Minster, Oct. 9, 1732, WHC 17 :16 3 -6 4 . For Fox campaign 1728, see Hocquart au Ministre, 4 oct. 1730, AN, C i 1 A, v. 53. For example o f families o f warriors, see Estât general de la depense . . . 6 juillet 1739, AN, C 11A , v. 7 1. For De Noyan, see Estât des cequi a été a fourny . . . d’un party commandé par M. dc Noyan, 6 sept. 1734, AN, C i iA , v. 62, f. 156. For pays d'en haut, sec Estât des payements faits . . . pour le prix des munitions de guerre et dc bouche et autres marchandises et effets qu’ils on fourny dans les pais d’en h au t.. , depuis les années 1732, 1 733, 1734 . . . AN, C i i A, v.63, ^ I32- direct payments in the pays d'en haut for the Chickasaw war were 8,300 livres, Detroit, De Noyan to Minister, Aug. 6, 1740, WHC 17:326,

55 The number o f beaver declined over large portions o f the Great Lakes, Mémoire, Beauhamois & Hocquart au Ministre, 1737 , AN, C 11A , v.67, f* 100. For beaver depletion around Green Ray, see Jeanne Kay, “ The Land o f La Baye: The Ecological Impact of the Green Bay Fur Trade, 16 3 4 - 18 3 6 ” (Ph.D. diss., University o f Wisconsin, 1977), 158. For deerskins, see DuPuy au Ministre 21 oct. 1726, AN, C n A , v. 48; Conseil, Louisiane, sept. 172g, AN, C 13A , v. 9, f. 221. For English demand, see Clinton A. Weslager, The Delaware Indians: A History (New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University Press, 1972), 17 3 -7 4 ; Beauhamois et D ’Aigremont, 1 oct. 1728, AN, C i 1 A, v, 50; Mémoire, Duc dc Mirepoix, 6 avril 1755, AN, C u A , v. 100; Bienville & Salmon to Maurepas, Apr. 3, 1734, Af/M 3:645. For fur trade as small part of Canadian trade, see Mémoire, Duc de Mirapoix, 6 avril 1755, AN, C i iA, v. 100.

For grading distinctions modified, see Marchands & negotiants, 1728, AN, C i 1 A, v. go, f. 270; Ordonnance, Du Puy, 21 juillet 1727, AN, C 1 1 A , v.49, f. 481. See also Lunn, “ Economic Development,” 172.

The fur trade

T h is ch an g e in the trad e is re fle c te d in the re c e ip ts o f F o r ts F ro n te n a c

an d N ia g a ra , fo rts that e x is te d p artia lly to in tercep t trad e fro m the u p p e r

co u n try d estin ed fo r O sw e g o an d A lb a n y . (S e e T a b le 3 . 1 . ) T h e fu rs th ese

p osts re c e iv e d w ere la rg e ly ra c c o o n , d e e rsk in s , an d b e a rsk in s , a lo n g w ith a

m ix o f the m o re v a lu a b le menues pelleteries. O f the p o sts in the u p p e r co u n try ,

on ly M ic h ilim a c k in a c , G r e e n B a y , an d C h e q u a m e g o n re ta in ed a su b stan tia l

b e a v e r trad e into the 1 7 3 0 s . A lth o u g h le ss p ro n o u n c e d , th is sam e tren d aw ay

fro m b e a v e r a ffe c te d the trad e as a w h o le . O f the fu rs e xp o rte d fro m C a n a d a

and re c e iv e d at L a R o c h e lle b e tw e e n 1 7 2 8 an d 1 7 3 7 , o n ly 4 7 .4 p e rc e n t w ere

b e a v e r .56 57

Iro n ica lly , the F r e n c h a lso s u c c e e d e d in re ta in in g the trad e b e c a u se o f

w h at th ey - an d N e w Y o r k o ffic ia ls - w e re to g e th e r u n a b le to a cco m p lish .

T h e F r e n c h n e v e r s u c c e e d e d in h a lt in g sm u g g lin g w ith th e E n g lish co lo n ies .

In 1 7 2 5 tw o A lb an y tra d e rs e stim a te d that 8 0 p e rc e n t o f the b e a v e r sh ip p e d

fro m N e w Y o r k to E u ro p e w a s o b ta in e d fro m F r e n c h sm u g g le rs . A s a resu lt,

F r e n c h trad e rs re ta in ed a c c e s s to re d stro u d s, the écarlatines. D e s p ite m an y

attem p ts, the F re n c h n e v e r s u c c e e d e d in m a n u fa c tu rin g stro u d s that m atch e d

th ose o f the E n g lish in e ith e r q u a lity o r p r ic e . N o r d id th ey p e rsu a d e th ose

In d ia n s w h o had a c h o ice to a c c e p t F r e n c h e q u iv a le n ts . F r e n c h trad ers

sm u g g le d stro u d s fro m N e w Y o r k , c a rr ie d th ese b la n k e ts w e st , and trad ed

th em fo r A lg o n q u ia n fu rs . A s F r e n c h o ffic ia ls re ite ra ted aga in an d again ,

écarlatines h ad b e co m e the e sse n tia l co m m o d ity in the trad e . C a u g h t b e tw e e n

the fermiers d e m an d that sm u g g lin g b e h a lted an d the n e c e ss ity fo r p ro v id ­

in g écarlatines, the F r e n c h C ro w n sp o ra d ic a lly gave ro ya l p e rm iss io n to

p u rch a se stro u d s d ire c tly fro m E n g la n d an d m ark et th em in C a n a d a , b u t theC'J m ain so u rc e w a s u su a lly sm u g g lin g .

T a k e n as a w h o le , th e F r e n c h a d ju stm e n t to th e E n g lish c h a lle n g e sh o w s

h o w m u ch the re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n c o m m e rc e an d e m p ire h ad c h an g e d

56 For decline of beaver, everywhere but Michilimackinac, Green Bay, and Chequamegon, see Mémoire, 1737, AN, C u A, v. 67, f. 10 0 - 1 . For shipments between 1728 and 37, see E. R. Adair, “ Anglo-French Rivalry,” Culture 8 (1947): 435.

57 For smuggling, see Statement of John Groesback and Dirk Schuyler on Indian Trade, Feb. 15, 1724/25, Shclbourne Papers, v. 45, Clements Library. For écarlatines, see Vaudreuil & Bégon au Conseil, 8 oct. 172 1, AN, C i 1 A, v. 44; Bcgon & De Vaudreuil au Conseil, 17 oct. 1722, AN, C 11A , v. 44; Ilocquart à M. Controlleur general, 19 oct. 1738, AN, C 11A , v. 70, f. 115 ; I.unn, “ F.conomic Development,” 157-6 3 . Beauharnois & DePuy au Ministre, 26 oct. 1726, AN, C 11A , v. 48; Abstract, 1 Oct. 1728, N Y C D 9:1 o u ; Hocquart à Mss. les fermiers generaux, 12 -2 0 oct. 1729, AN, C i 1 A, v. 51, f. 349; Beauharnois & Hocquart au Ministre, 12 oct. 173 1, AN, C 11A , v. 54; Hocquart à Mss. les directuers generaux de la Compagnie des Indies, 17 oct. 1737. AN, C 11A , v.ôg, f. 1 3 7 - 4 3 ; La Galissonière & Hocquart au Ministre, 26 sept. 1747, AN, C i iA, v .87, f. 1 16 - 17 . This demand continued until the colony's last days, Mémoire, 1758, AN, C 11A , v. 103, Le Comité à M. le Controlleur, juin 1758, AN, C 11A , v. 103.

Smuggled strouds, which escaped English duties, may actually have been sold for less by the French than by the English in the 1750s, Coldcn to Clinton, Aug. 8, 175 1, N Y C D 6:741.

125

Table 3.1. F u r trade at Forts Frontenac and Niagara (total fu r receipts)

1726 1728 1730 1733 1734 1736 1738

Value (livres) Beaver"

8,108 28%

39,948 __b

52,308 30.5%

11,844 23%

34,296 17.8%

21,410 24.3%

21,124 11.3%

a Beaver given as percentage of total value of furs traded. * Figure not available. Source: Estate de la vente des pelleteries, 1726, 1728, 1730, 1736, 1738; Estât des pelleteries, 1733, 1734; all in AN, C 11A , vis. 48, 50, 52, 53, 62, 66, 70. The figures for 1735 are not given here, because the ships failed to arrive in time to supply the posts (Beauthamois & Hocquart to Minister, October 12, 1736, NYCD 9:1048-49).

The fur trade

fro m the e a r lie r m e rca n tilis t o r ig in s o f the c o lo n y . E a r l ie r in C a n a d ia n

h isto ry the fu r trad e h ad la rg e ly ju stifie d th e e x is te n c e o f C a n a d a . F u r s h ad

p ro v id e d the lio n ’ s sh are o f the c o lo n y ’ s e xp o rts an d re v e n u e s . B u t in c re a s ­

in g ly in the e ig h tee n th ce n tu ry , the p o lit ica l b e n e fits o f th e trad e o u tw e ig h e d

its re v e n u e s . T h e trad e o f th e /w y s d ’en haut su p p o rte d C a n a d a not th ro u gh

its p ro fits , b u t b e c a u se it w a s p art o f the g lu e h o ld in g the A lg o n q u ia n s to the

a llia n ce . R o y a l o ffic ia ls a c c e p te d A lg o n q u ia n re str ic tio n s on the trad e b e c a u se

the v e ry su rv iva l o f C a n a d a s e e m e d to d e p e n d on su b o rd in a tin g trad e to the

a llia n ce . T h e a g g re ss iv e n e ss o f the E n g lis h a llo w e d the A lg o n q u ia n s to have

sig n ifica n t an d in c re a s in g in flu e n c e on the te rm s an d fo rm s o f e xc h a n g e .

T h e F r e n c h ra ise d p r ic e s fo r b e a v e r , a lte re d th e ir g ra d in g o f b e av e r ,

in c re a se d th e ir sa le o f b ra n d y , an d a c c e p te d d e e rsk in s in trad e b e ca u se

c o n tin u e d trad e w ith the A lg o n q u ia n s , an d thus the a llia n ce itse lf, d e p e n d e d

on su ch a c t io n s .38

T h e lim ited e co n o m ic an d c o n s id e ra b le p o litica l im p o rta n c e o f the trad e

w a s a p p a re n t to stra teg ists by the e n d o f the p e rio d . In 1 7 5 5 o n e F r e n c h

stra teg ist ad m itted that the fu r trad e o f the G r e a t L a k e s an d the O h io V a lle y

w a s n ot w o rth 1 p e rc e n t o f th e e xp e n se that it had co st the C ro w n . H e w o u ld

h ave g lad ly a llo w e d the e n tire trad e to go to the E n g lis h in e x c h a n g e fo r

E n g lish a c k n o w le d g m e n t o f F r e n c h b o u n d a r ie s a lo n g the O h io . C e d in g the

trad e to the E n g lis h w o u ld b e le ss e x p e n siv e than c o u rt in g the A lg o n q u ia n s .

Y e t co u rt the A lg o n q u ia n s the F r e n c h d id . T h e E n g lis h w e re n ot re a d y to

ack n o w le d g e F r e n c h c la im s in the O h io V a lle y , an d if, b e c a u se o f lo w e r

p r ic e s , the E n g lish w e re ab le “ to p e rsu a d e the In d ia n s that th ey h ave m o re

re g a rd fo r the in tere st o f the n a tio n s than the F r e n c h ,” th en the F r e n c h

c o u ld lo se n o t o n ly th e ir su p p ly o f fu rs , b u t the a llie d In d ia n s . A n d the

F r e n c h w e ll knew' “ w h at im p o rta n ce it is to the co lo n y to m ain ta in th em in

the a llia n c e .” I f the F r e n c h in c re a se d the p r ic e s th ey c h a rg e d fo r g o o d s an d

lo w e re d th o se th ey gave fo r b e a v e r , th ey th re a ten ed n o t ju st c o m m e rc e b u t

p e rh a p s the “ c o lo n y it s e lf .” '’9

F r e n c h c o n c e ss io n s p ro v e d e n o u g h , a t le ast u n til the late 1 7 4 0 s , to sa tis fy

A lg o n q u ia n d e m a n d s fo r g e n e ro s ity . T h e In d ia n s re c o g n iz e d , an d co n stan tly

re m in d e d the F r e n c h , that the E n g lis h o ffe re d b e tte r b a rg a in s an d b e tter

g o o d s than the F r e n c h . A n d , o f c o u rse , th ere w e re a lw ays th o se w h o m ru m

o r c h e a p e r w o o le n s lu re d to O sw e g o . B u t su ch stra y in g c o u ld b e easily 58 59

58 For examples oflndian pressure, see Du Puy au Ministre, 20 oct. 1727, AN, C i i A, v. 49, f. 207; Beauhamois & Hocquart, 8 oct. 1741, Postes des Pays d’en haut, AN, C i 1 A, v. 78.

59 For small value of trade, see Mémoire sur la dépêché de M. Le Duc de Mirepoix du 6 avril 1755, AN, C 11A , v. 100. For importance of alliance, see Observations sur les Réponses fournies par la Compagnie des Indies.. . (1749), AN, C i iA,v, 93, f. 10 - 12 . For rationale of setting prices so as not to alienate Indians, see Ordonnance de M. de Beauhamois et Hocquart. . . 6 juin 1746, AN, C i iA, v. 85, f. 3.

127

1 2 8

e n o u g h in c o rp o ra te d in to the lo g ic o f the a llia n c e as a n e c e ssa ry re b u k e to

th e ir fa th e r ’ s la ck o f g en e ro sity . I f ru m le d to m u rd e rs a m o n g the In d ia n s ,

the F r e n c h , in tu rn , co u ld a rg u e th at b y re g u la t in g the sa le o f liq u o r , th ey

w e re , u n lik e the E n g lis h , lo o k in g o u t fo r th e ir c h ild re n ’ s w e lfa re . T h e

a llia n c e , in an y c a se , re m a in e d m o re th an e x c h a n g e , an d A lg o n q u ia n s o ften

d id re sp o n d to F r e n c h a p p e a ls to the o th e r lin k s b e s id e trad e that tied the

F r e n c h an d the A lg o n q u ia n s to g e th e r an d to re m in d e rs o f p a st Iro q u o is

an d E n g lis h p e r fid y . A n d the E n g lis h th e m se lv e s o ften e n o u g h c o o p e ra te d

b y d e m o n stra tin g the d a n g e rs o f trad e w ith o u t a llia n ce a n d a fa th e r to

w h o m o n e c o u ld a p p ea l fo r ju s tic e . In th e w o rd s o f L ie u te n a n t G o v e r n o r

M o n tg o m e rie o f N e w Y o r k , the tra d e rs , “ g re e d y o f g a in , n e v e r c o n s id e re d

w h at w a s ju st, b u t so m e tim e s w ith a h ig h h a n d , so m e tim e s w ith d e c e it an d

A rt ific e , su rre p tit io u s ly g o t fro m the In d ia n s th e ir F u r r s an d p e ltry , an d

w h e n th ey w e re th u s p o s e s s t o f th em , o b lig e d th ese p o o r w re tc h e s to take

w h a t th ey w o u ld g ive th em , w h e re b y th e y w e re in a g re a t m e a su re d e te rre d

fro m c o m in g to O sw e g o , an d c o m p e lle d by th is u sag e to se e k a n o th e r m a rk e t

a m o n g the F r e n c h .” T h e O ttaw as an d H u r o n -P c tu n s d r ifte d to w ard the

E n g lish in th e 1 7 2 0 s , an d the v illa g e rs so u th o f the G r e a t L a k e s o p e n e d

e xten sive trad e re la tio n s w ith the E n g lis h in the 1 7 4 0 s an d 1 7 5 0 s , b u t o n the

w h o le th e F r e n c h a llia n c e h e ld , e v e n th o u g h by the late 1 7 4 0 s it w as in a

p e rp e tu a l sta te o f c r is is .60

The middle ground

V

T r a d e g o o d s se rv e d b oth sy m b o lic an d u tilita rian p u rp o se s . T h e sam e kettle

that se rv e d to c e m e n t an a llia n ce a lso c o o k e d v e n iso n . I h ave th u s fa r

s tre sse d the sy m b o lic an d p o litica l a sp e c ts o f e x c h a n g e , n e g le c tin g the

u tilita rian ap p ea l o f trad e g o o d s . T u r n in g to trad e g o o d s a s item s o f

e v e ry d a y u se d raw s atten tio n to a n o th e r fa c e t o f e x c h a n g e : the p o ss ib ility o f

d e p e n d e n c y . T h e q u e stio n o f d e p e n d e n c y - the p o ss ib ility that w ith o u t

E u ro p e a n g o o d s an d the fu r trad e the A lg o n q u ia n s w o u ld n o lo n g e r b e ab le

to fe e d , c lo th e , o r h o u se th e m se lv e s - lo o m s o v e r re c e n t s tu d ie s o f the trad e .

T o d e te rm in e i f th is p o ss ib ility b e c a m e fac t d u r in g the F r e n c h fu r trad e , it is

n e c e ssa ry to a s s e s s the p la c e an d p re v a le n c e o f trad e g o o d s in e ve ry d a y

m a teria l life an d the d e p e n d e n c e o f A lg o n q u ia n s u p o n th em .

S u p e r fic ia lly , A lg o n q u ia n sta te m e n ts an d a c tio n s re g a rd in g th ese m atte rs

60 For French appeal to other connections (French as father; gratitude toward priests; allies against Iroquois; French who have died to defend them), sec Paroltes aux anciens chefs des Illinois, oyatanons, et miamis. . . 1736 (misdated, actual date c. 1715), AN, C i 1 A, v. 65. For quotation, see Montgomerie to Lords of Trade, Dec. 1, 1730, N Y C D 5:907. For continued complaints of frauds, see Colden to Clinton, Aug. 8, 175 1, N Y C D 6:744.

The fur trade 1 29

se e m to m im ic the te rm s o f the m a rk e tp la c e an d in d ica te a m ateria l

d e p e n d e n c e o n the F r e n c h . O n c lo s e r e xam in atio n , h o w e v e r , th e ir v iew s an d

actio n s m ak e se n se o n ly in the c o n tex t o f the p a r t ic u la r so c ia l re la tio n sh ip s

that the g o o d s th e m se lv e s h e lp e d to e sta b lish . In re fe rr in g to e x c h a n g e ,

A lg o n q u ia n s sp o k e in te rm s o f th e ir besoins - th e ir n e e d s o r n e c e ss it ie s - an d

th ey v isu a lize d e xc h a n g e as a w a y o f sa tis fy in g th ese n e e d s . Besoin, as u sed by

the A lg o n q u ia n s , w a s n o t s im p ly a s ta te m en t o f d e s ire ; the te rm h ad a

p a rtic u la r re so n a n c e in th e ir so c ie ty b e c a u se , o n c e an a p p ro p ria te so cia l

re la tio n sh ip h a d b e e n e sta b lish e d , an a sse rt io n o f n e e d fo r so m e th in g co u ld

b e co m e a sp e c ia l c la im on the th in g n e e d e d . T o b e n e e d y is to exc ite p ity

an d th u s to d e se rv e aid . J u s t a s in a d d re s s in g m an ito u s A lg o n q u ia n s so u g h t

to p o rtra y th e m se lv e s a s w e a k an d m ise ra b le , so in a d d re ss in g O n o n tio ,

Je s u it s , o r trad e rs , th ey u su a lly s tre sse d th e ir o w n m ise ry an d n e e d . T h e

A lg o n q u ia n s ’ e m p h asis on e x c h a n g e a s a w ay o f sa tis fy in g th e ir besoins,

th e re fo re , h ad a m e a n in g q u ite d iffe re n t fro m that e x p re sse d in the F re n c h

v iew o f c o m m e rc e as a w a y o f fillin g n e e d s .61

In s tre ss in g th e ir besoins, the A lg o n q u ia n s w e re a c tu a lly m a k in g a c la im on

the F r e n c h . B e c a u s e th ey n e e d e d g o o d s an d w e re fr ie n d s an d a llie s o f the

F r e n c h , th e y d e se rv e d to h ave th o se g o o d s that th e F r e n c h p o sse sse d b u t d id

n ot th e m se lv e s im m e d ia te ly re q u ire . In d ia n s , lik e the F o x at th e ir first

co n tact, th o u g h t that “ w h a te v e r th e ir v is ito rs p o sse sse d o u g h t to b e g iven to

th em gratis ; e v e ry th in g a ro u se d th e ir d e s ire s , an d y e t th ey h ad fe w b e av e rs to

s e ll .” A m o n g th e P o taw ato m is at in itia l co n tact, th e F r e n c h d e m an d fo r

p ay m e n ts fo r g o o d s th at In d ia n s re c e iv e d led to v io le n c e . A c c o rd in g to

A lg o n q u ia n c u ltu ra l lo g ic , th e F r e n c h , as a llie s , sh o u ld act as i f th ey w e re

k in sp e o p le o f th e A lg o n q u ia n s . E a c h s id e w o u ld su p p ly th e o th e r ’ s n e e d s .

E a c h s id e w o u ld g ra c io u s ly b e sto w w h a t th e o th e r la c k e d .62

S u c h a c o n c e p tio n o f e x c h a n g e m ak es it c le a r e r w h y m id d le m a n statu s w a s

a m atte r o f re la tive in d iffe re n c e to the A lg o n q u ia n s . I f the F r e n c h ch o se to

b r in g th em g o o d s at th e ir v illa g e s , th is w a s to be p ra ise d n ot o p p o se d . T h e s e

w e ste rn A lg o n q u ia n s c o n c e iv e d o f tra d e rs as m en w h o ca m e to su p p ly th e ir

besoins, an d th ey w e lc o m e d th em fo r th e ir p re s e n c e w h ic h p ro m ise d to

en h an ce the p re stig e , w ea lth , an d stre n g th o f th e ir v illa g e s . W h at in fu ria te d

th em w a s n ot the lo ss o f th e o p p o rtu n ity to m ak e the lo n g an d a rd u o u s

jo u rn e y s to iM on treal to o b tain th e ir besoins, b u t the F r e n c h a n n o u n ce m e n t in

th e late 16 9 0 s that th ey w e re w ith d ra w in g th e ir tra d e rs fro m the pays d'en haut an d that th ey e x p e cte d the A lg o n q u ia n s to re su m e th e ir trad e jo u rn e y s .

61 Besoins may be taken as the language of dependency if the Algonquians either acted as if they were dependent or could be shown in these early years to have been dependent on European goods for survival, but this, as will be shown later, was not the case.

62 E'or Fox quotation, see La Potherie, H istory, 319.

130 O n a n g h isse , the P o ta w a to m i le a d e r w h o se p e o p le the F r e n c h p re su m e d to

b e p o te n tia l m id d le m e n , w a s o u tra g e d :

Father! Since we want powder, iron, and every other necessary which you were formerly in the habit of sending us, what do you expect us to do? Are the majority of our women who have but one or two beavers to send to Montreal to procure their little supplies, arc they to intrust them to drunken fellows who will drink them and bring nothing back? Thus, having in our country none of the articles we require and which you, last year, promised we should be furnished with, and not want; and perceiving only this - that nothing whatsoever is yet brought to us, and that the French come to visit us no more - you shall never sec us again, I promise you, if the French quit us; this Father, is the last time we shall come to talk with you.6^

S ig n ific a n tly , O n a n g h isse sa id n o th in g ab o u t lo w e r p r ic e s o r p oten tia l

p ro fits ; h e sp o k e fo r th e w o m e n , w h o , b y im p lica tio n , w e re a m a jo r fo rc e in

e x c h a n g e in the v illa g e s . T h e y an d the o th e r P o ta w a to m is re lie d on the

F r e n c h fo r th e ir besoins, th e ir “ little s u p p lie s .” E x c h a n g e in M o n tre a l w a s the

d o m ain n o t o f c a lc u la tin g m id d le m e n ou t fo r p ro fit b u t o f “ d ru n k e n fe llo w s ”

w h o d ra n k u p th e ir b e a v e r an d fa ile d to b r in g h o m e the besoins th ey h ad b e e n

se n t to fe tc h . A lth o u g h th ese besoins w e re h ig h ly v a lu e d g o o d s , th ey w e re n o t

ye t e sse n tia l to P o taw ato m i su rv iv a l. F o r i f th ey w e re , h o w c o u ld O n a n g h isse

h ave sp o k e n o f n e v e r s e e in g the F r e n c h ag a in an d th u s, p re su m a b ly , d o in g

w ith o u t th em ?

T h is o rie n ta tio n to w ard besoins ra th e r th an p ro fits a p p e a rs a lso in the

re ac tio n o f the O tta w as an d H u ro n -P e tu n s o f M ic h ilim a c k in a c to the

F r e n c h d o m in atio n o f th e ir o ld c a rry in g trad e to the w e ste rn tr ib e s. T h e

O ttaw as, H u ro n -P e tu n s , an d v a r io u s w e ste rn C h ip p e w a b a n d s co n tin u e d , as

th ey h ad fo r y e a rs , to g a th e r fu rs o n the lak e s, b u t th ey n o w o p e ra te d on the

m a rg in s ra th e r th an at th e c e n te r o f e x c h a n g e . T h e O ttaw as lo st th e ir o ld

lu cra tiv e trad e w ith the C r é é s , w h o h ad b e g u n tra d in g at H u d s o n ’ s B a y .

O n ly th e S a u lte u rs , w h o as a llie s o f the S io u x c a rr ie d F r e n c h g o o d s to that

p e o p le , c o n tin u e d to tap a m a jo r so u rce o f p rim e b e a v e r . T o o b tain th e ir

besoins, the H u r o n -P e tu n s an d O ttaw as o f M ic h ilim a c k in a c , as w ell as the

P o ta w a to m is o f G r e e n B a y , b e c a m e p r o v is io n e d o f the trad e . T h e y so ld c o rn

an d fish to the F r e n c h w h o , a c c o rd in g to C a d illa c , re e q u ip p e d th e m se lv e s

o n ce o n th e o u tw ard jo u rn e y fro m M o n tre a l an d aga in on th e ir re tu rn . T h e y

c o m p e n sa te d fo r the h u g e c h a rg e s the F r e n c h m a d e fo r th e ir g o o d s by

se ttin g p r ic e s on th e ir o w n c o m m o d itie s that m a d e the F r e n c h h o w l in

p ro test. A s L a P o th e rie re c o g n iz e d , th ey n o w 63

The middle ground

63 For quotation, see Narrative o f . . . Occurrences. . . 1696, 1697, N Y C D 9:673.

The fur trade

[do] not need to go hunting in order to obtain all the comforts of life. When they choose to work, they make canoes of birch-bark, which they sell two at three hundred livres each. They get a shirt for two sheets of bark for cabins. The sale of their French strawberries and other fruits produce means for procuring their ornaments, which consist of vermillion and glass and porcelain beads. They make a profit on everything.64

W h at L a P o th e rie c a lle d th e ir p ro fit, h o w e v e r , w as p ro b a b ly n ot

u n d e rsto o d b y the In d ia n s in th ese te rm s, fo r , as L a P o th e r ie a lso n o ted , all

e x c e p t the H u ro n -P e tu n s save d n o th in g an d re a liz e d no la stin g g ain fro m

su ch e x c h a n g e s . “ T h e y w o u ld be e x c e e d in g ly w e ll- to -d o i f th ey w ere

e c o n o m ic a l,” b u t the so c ia l and c u ltu ra l d e m a n d s o f th e ir o w n so c iety

p re v e n te d su c h a ccu m u la tio n . T h e y gave aw ay th e ir la st fo o d to a v is it in g

s tran g e r an d th en d id n o t h esita te to b e g fo r fo od fro m the F r e n c h w h o cam e

a m o n g th em . T h e u n d e rly in g lo g ic o f su ch e x c h a n g e p attern s w as th at besoins took p re c e d e n c e o ve r p ro fits . T h e y h ad an o b lig atio n to v is ito rs , an d the

F r e n c h h a d an o b lig atio n to th e m .65

T h e actu a l d e m an d fo r the g o o d s th at the A lg o n q u ia n s id e n tifie d as th e ir

besoins w as s u rp r is in g ly lim ited d u r in g the c e n tu ry o f the F r e n c h fu r trad e

that e n d e d in 1 7 6 0 . F a th e r C h a r le v o ix o b se rv e d in the 1 7 2 0 s that In d ian

w an ts w e re , b y E u ro p e a n s ta n d a rd s , m e a g e r . W h en h e a sse rte d th at the

In d ia n s w e re “ tru e p h ilo so p h e rs an d the sig h t o f all o u r c o n v e n ie n c e s ,

r ich e s , an d m a g n ifice n c e a ffe c ts them so little that th ey have fo u n d o u t the

art o f e as ily d isp e n s in g w ith th e m ,” he w a s n o t s im p ly in d u lg in g in the m yth

o f the n o b le sa v a g e . In d ia n w an ts do a p p e a r to h ave re m a in e d lim ite d e ve n at

the h e igh t o f the trad e an d In d ia n d e m a n d re m a in e d re la tiv e ly in e la stic .

U n le s s p re se n te d w ith b ran d y , A lg o n q u ia n s trad ed la rg e ly to c lo th e an d

o rn a m e n t th e m se lv e s , b u y so m e m etal to o ls , an d a c q u ire e n o u g h g u n p o w d e r

fo r the n ext h u n t. A n an a ly s is o f F r e n c h a c c o u n t b o o k s fo r M ic h ilim a c k in a c ,

O u ia te n o n , D e tro it , an d G r e e n B a y b e tw e e n 1 7 1 5 an d 1 7 5 0 re v e a ls that

c lo th , b lan k e ts, g u n p o w d e r, and sh irts w e re the d o m in an t trad e g o o d s at all

the p o sts . T h e s e , a lo n g w ith ca p o tes an d , at D e tro it , b ran d y , a c c o u n te d fo r

b etw een 6 0 and 7 5 p e rc e n t o f the trad e . T h e In d ia n s d id not trad e fo r the

g u n s th ey u sed in the h u n t, fo r su ch g u n s ra re ly a p p e a r o n the trad e

64 For intertribal exchange, see Mémoire que la direction . . . 26 avril 1703, AN, C i 1 A, v. 24, f. 142-44; Speech of Ottawas, July 23, 1708, M P H C 33:39. For ioss of Cree trade by Ottawas and Sioux-Chippewa exchange, see Mémoire que la direction. . . , ib id ., and Callières et Champigny au Ministre, 5 oct. 170 1, AN, C 11A , v. 19. For corn and fish, see Quaife, The Western Country, 17 - 18 . For long-standing French protests over prices, see Declaration des marchands, 14 avril 1684, AN, C i 1 A, v. 6; Narrative o f . . . Occurrences . . . 1689, 90, N Y C D 9:481. For quotation, see La Potherie, History 1:282.

(,s La Potherie, H istory, 28 -8 2 .

* 3 1

m a n ife s ts . G u n s se e m to h ave c o m e la rg e ly as p re se n ts fro m the C ro w n . T h e

in c re a se in the sc a le o f tra d e ap p a re n t a fte r 1 7 2 0 re su lte d la rg e ly fro m the

w id e sp re a d ad o p tio n o f w o o le n s and o th e r c lo th to re p la c e fu r ro b e s an d

le a th e r g a rm e n ts .66

In lo ca l e c o n o m ie s w h e re trad e g o o d s sa tis fie d lim ited besoins, th e fu r

trad e in vo lved re la tiv e ly little d isru p tio n o f n ative su b s is te n c e system s.

P ro d u c tio n fo r the fu r trad e ca m e fro m a h u n t n ot ye t se p a ra te d fro m the

la rg e r su b s is te n c e c y c le . S u c c e s s in th e h u n t re m a in e d a fu n ctio n o f the

h u n te rs ’ re la tio n s w ith th e m an ito u s w h o c o n tro lle d th e g a m e . A n d a

s u c c e s s fu l h u n t y ie ld e d g o o d s w h o se d istr ib u tio n p ro c e e d e d a c c o rd in g to the

d e m a n d s o f the m an ito u s an d the besoins o f k in sp e o p le . T h is w a s n o t an

e c o n o m y in w h ic h the p ro d u c tio n o r d is tr ib u tio n o f g o o d s fo rm e d a se p a ra te

sp h e re o f p ra c tic a l activ ity . N o r w as it an e c o n o m y that h ad yet, in an y

m e a n in g fu l se n s e , re n d e re d th e A lg o n q u ia n s p o lit ic a lly d e p e n d e n t o n the

E u ro p e a n s . A ll o f th e se p o in ts o b v io u sly d e m an d su b stan tia tio n .67

T a k e n as a w h o le , the m a te r ia l d a y - to -d a y e x is te n c e o f In d ia n p e o p le s

sh o w e d re m a rk ab le co n tin u ity d u r in g the se v e n te e n th an d e arly e ig h te e n th

c e n tu r ie s . T h e fu r tra d e b a re ly a lte re d A lg o n q u ia n h o u s in g , tran sp o rta tio n ,

an d d iet. T h e fu r trad e d id in itia lly p u t a g re a te r e m p h a sis o n b e a v e r

h u n tin g . A n d c e r ta in g ro u p s su ch as the O tta w as an d H u r o n -P e tu n s in ­

c re a se d the sc a le o f th e ir h u n t. B u t fo r m o st g ro u p s , the fu r trad e d id n ot

im m e d ia te ly o r d rast ic a lly a lte r h u n tin g o r su b s is te n c e p attern s . F u r s w e re

the p ro d u c ts o f h u n ts in w h ic h m en , w o m e n , an d c h ild re n d e p a rte d to g e th e r

an d in w h ic h h o u se h o ld u n its c o n su m e d the m ea t w h ile p ro c e s s in g and

re se rv in g the fu rs fo r m a rk e t. T h e trad e c e rta in ly in c re a se d the am o u n t o f

la b o r w o m e n h ad to d e vo te to p re p a rin g fu rs fo r e x c h a n g e , but, on the o th e r

h an d , th e p u rc h a se o f c lo th an d re a d y -m a d e c lo th in g le sse n e d the la b o r

in vo lved in p ro d u c in g fin ish e d g arm e n ts . H o w th is b a la n c e d o u t in the e n d is

im p o ss ib le to d e te rm in e fro m the e x is tin g e v id e n c e .68

66 For quotation, see Pierre tie Charlevoix, Jo u rn a l o fa Voyage lo N orth A m erica (London: R. and J. Dodsley, 176 1, microprint facsimile ed., 1966), 2:107. F ° r account books, see Dean Anderson, “Variability in Trade at Eighteenth-Century French Outposts,” unpublished paper in author’s possession.

67 There were assertions as early as 1706 that without powder the Indians would starve, but such claims have to be put within the cultural context of Algonquian attempts to make themselves appear miserable when asking favors (e.g., Extraits, De Tonti, 15 oct., AN, C i 1 A, v. 24, f. 203). In fact, a modified bow technology long remained in place, Charlevoix, Jo u rn a l, 2:208; Sabrevois Memoir, 1718, W H C 16:373; La Potherie, H istoire, 4:216.

68 In 1688 the Baron de Lahontan witnessed the return of 400 to 500 Ottawas to Michilimackinac after a winter hunt in the Saginaw: Bay region, Thwaites (ed.), Lahontan 's Voyages, 1:143. A party of this size certainly included women and children. In the same area during 1685-86 the Iroquois had captured children as well as adults when they raided winter hunting camps. Denonville to Seignelay, June 12, 1686, N Y C D 9:293—94. I .a Potherie, who wrote in the early eighteenth century, indicated that largely all-male hunts occurred out of Michilimackinac in the 1690s (La Potherie, H istory 1:28 1-82), but during

1 3 2 The middle ground

The fur trade

E v e n w h e n b e a v e r fa ile d an d In d ia n s tu rn e d to o th e r g am e , the im m e d ia te

c o n se q u e n c e s w e re n ot se v e re . D e e r an d b e a r , the s ta p le s o f th e fu r trad e o f

the O h io V a lle y an d lo w e r G r e a t L a k e s , a lso y ie ld e d m eat. S u b s is te n c e an d

the h u n t fo r fu rs re m a in e d as c lo se ly lin k e d as e ve r. W h e n the d ista n c e o f

b e a v e r fro m the v illa g e s an d the sc a rc ity o f o th e r g am e in the re g io n d id

c re a te a co n flic t, the d e m an d s o f su b s is te n c e to ok p rio rity . E v e n a ro u n d

G r e e n B a y in to the m id 17 4 0 s , In d ia n s lo n g in vo lved in the trad e still h ad to

b e activ e ly re c ru ite d to h u n t b e a v e r in the S io u x b o rd e r la n d s in stead o f

re m a in in g n e a re r th e ir v illa g e s to h u n t d e e r an d b e ar . T h e ties to the trad e o f

trib es su ch as the S io u x , w h o se in v o lve m e n t in the trad e w as m u ch m o re

re ce n t, w e re e ve n w e a k e r . T h e F r e n c h fe a re d th at in c re a se s in p r ic e s fo r

trad e g o o d s w o u ld c a u se the S io u x to “ lo se th e ir a rd o r fo r c o m in g to fin d the

m e rc h an d ise w h o se u se th ey h ave k n o w n o n ly fo r a little w h ile .” O n ly la ter in

the e ig h tee n th an d n in e tee n th c e n tu r ie s , an d e ve n th en o n ly a m o n g som e

tr ib e s, d id p ro d u c tio n fo r m a rk e t b e c o m e a se p a ra te sp h e re in w h ic h m en ,

le av in g th e ir fa m ilie s b e h in d , d e p a rte d o n lo n g h u n ts w h o se so le g o a l w a s the

accu m u la tio n o f fu rs fo r m a rk e t.69

I f p ro d u c tio n d id n o t d e m an d im m e d ia te a lte ra tio n s in the so c ie ty , n e ith e r

d id th e E u ro p e a n g o o d s that e n te re d th e so c ie ty tran sfo rm it. In d ia n s

a c q u ire d trad e go o d s at a su rp ris in g ly g ra d u a l ra te . A p re e x is t in g n ative

te ch n o lo g y su rv iv e d fo r a re m a rk a b ly lo n g tim e a lo n g s id e th e n e w te ch n o lo g y .

K e tt le s b o ile d w ater, k n iv e s c u t m eat, an d g u n s k illed g a m e , b u t th ey d id not

ch ain th e ir u se rs in ev itab ly , in e x o ra b ly , an d im m e d ia te ly to the w ill o f the

su p p lie rs . A fa r le ss e ffic ie n t, b u t still s e rv ic e a b le , n ative te c h n o lo g y r e ­

m a in e d ava ilab le i f trad e g o o d s w e re la ck in g .

G iv e n e x ist in g in terp re ta tio n s o f the sc a le an d im p o rta n ce o f the fu r trad e,

the a sse rtio n th at E u ro p e a n g o o d s re m a in e d re la tive ly sc a rc e in the pays d'en haut fo r g e n e ra tio n s an d th at a n ative te ch n o lo g y re m a in e d a v a ilab le is

b o u n d to b e c o n tro v e rs ia l. B a s ic a lly , th ere are th re e m a jo r p ro b le m s w ith

a ssu m in g th at E u ro p e a n g o o d s ra p id ly an d n e a rly c o m p le te ly re p la c e d n ative

m a n u fa c tu re s in the pays d ’en haut. F ir s t , a c c o rd in g to th e a rc h a e o lo g ic a l

re c o rd , n ative te ch n o lo g y p e rs is te d fo r a c o n s id e ra b le tim e. S e c o n d , g iven

the c a rry in g cap ac ity o f F r e n c h c a n o e s an d the lim ited n u m b e r th at d e p a rte d

an n u a lly fo r the W e st, th ere w a s s im p ly n o w ay to tra n sp o rt all the g o o d s that

133

the eighteenth century virtually the whole village departed on the hunt from Detroit and Michilimackinac.

69 In concentrating on the fur trade, as Charles Cleland has rightly emphasized, scholars have ignored the persistence of basic subsistence patterns during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; see Charles Cleland, “ The Inland Shore Fishery of the Northern Great Lakes: Its Development and Importance in Prehistory,” Am erican A ntiquity 47 (1982): 776. Surpluses from the existing native economy fed Europeans in the West during much of this period. For Sioux, see Copie de Particle de la lettre du S. Chalet à mes. les directeurs . . . 28 oct. 1746, AN, C i 1 A, v. 85.

w o u ld h ave b e e n n e c e ssa ry to su p p ly th e n ative p o p u la tio n . T h ir d , w h en

re a d c a re fu lly , co n te m p o ra ry a c c o u n ts m ak e it c le a r that E u ro p e a n goo d s

re m a in e d re la tiv e ly sc a rc e o v e r m u ch o f the pays d'en haut w e ll in to the

e ig h tee n th cen tu ry .

It is n e c e ssa ry h e re to c ite o n ly a fe w e xa m p le s o f th is e v id e n c e . S to n e

to o ls p e rs is te d a lo n g sid e m etal to o ls in the O jib w a s ites on the n o rth sh o res

o f L a k e H u ro n an d L a k e S u p e r io r that w e re o c c u p ie d d u r in g the late

se v e n te e n th and e a r ly e ig h te e n th c e n tu r ie s . S ite s in the M ic h ilim a c k in a c

re g io n , the n e x u s o f the trad e , sh o w the sam e p attern . A t the L a s a n e n site,

p ro b a b ly an O ttaw a an d H u r o n -P e tu n b u ria l site u se d p rim a rily b e tw e e n

16 9 0 and 1 7 0 0 , “ p ro je c tile p o in ts , sc ra p e rs an d sto n e k n iv e s im p ly the

m a in te n a n c e o f the p re h is to r ic te c h n o lo g ic a l an d e co n o m ic p a tte rn s .”

S im ila r ly , at the late se v e n te e n th -c e n tu ry S u m m e r Is la n d site in G r e e n B a y ,

sto n e to o ls p e rs is te d a lo n g sid e E u ro p e a n m eta l to o ls . F a r th e r so u th , the

Z im m e rm a n site th at the K a s k a s k ia s o c c u p ie d b e tw e e n 16 8 3 an d 1 6 9 1

sh o w s the sam e p attern o f s to n e te c h n o lo g y lin g e r in g a lo n g sid e m eta l too ls.

E v e n at th e e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry G u e b e r t site o cc u p ie d b y the K a sk a sk ia s

a fte r 1 7 1 9 , th ere are v e stig e s o f sto n e te ch n o lo g y . T h e Je s u it s c o u ld co lle c t

sto n e d a g g e rs in e v e ry d a y u se as late as 16 8 7 , an d , a c c o rd in g to F a th e r

S e b a s t ia n R a le , a rro w s tip p ed w ith sto n e re m a in e d the p r in c ip a l w e a p o n into

the 16 9 0 s . N a tiv e p o tte ry p e rs is te d e v e n lo n g e r ; it is re a d ily ava ilab le at all

late se v e n te e n th - an d e ar ly e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry s ite s .70

O th e r g o o d s p e n e tra te d the re g io n e v e n m o re slo w ly . B y 1 6 7 9 the F o x

In d ia n s , a trib e d e sc r ib e d o n ly five y e a rs la te r as a m a jo r su p p lie r o f fu rs , had

a c q u ire d fire a rm s, b u t a 1 2 0 -m a n w a r p arty e n c o u n te re d b y the F r e n c h that

y e a r p o sse sse d o n ly e ig h t m u sk ets . C lo th re m a in e d so ra re that w h e n the F o x

ca p tu re d a co at fro m the F r e n c h , th ey r ip p e d o f f the b u tto n s an d cu t u p the

m ateria l in o rd e r to d iv id e th e c o a t in to the m ax im u m n u m b e r o f p ie c e s . I f

the W isco n sin F o x e v e r a c q u ire d la rg e am o u n ts o f c lo th , su ch su p p lie s

v a n ish e d a fte r th e ir e s tra n g e m e n t fro m the F r e n c h . In 1 7 1 8 the m en still

w o re “ sc a rc e ly an y g arm e n ts m a d e o f c lo th .” S im ila r ly , in the 16 8 0 s ,

m e m b e rs o f the L a S a lle e x p e d it io n re p o rte d that the Illin o is , the b e st a rm ed

70 For persistence and only gradual replacement, see Warren L. Wittry, “ The Bell Site, Wnç, An Early Historic Fox Village,” The W isconsin A rcheologist, N. S., 44 (March 1963): 35; James Fitting, The Archaeology o f M ichigan (Bloomfield Hills, Michigan: Cranbrook Institute of Science, 1975), 2 1 0 - 1 1 ; Ronald J. Mason, G reat Lakes A rchaeology (New York: Academic Press, 1981): 404; Cleland, Lasanen S ite , appendix A. Nern and Cleland, “ The Gros Cap Cemetery Site,” 9 - 16 , 48; J. V. Wright, “ A Regional Examination of Ojibwa Culture History,” A nthropoligica 9 NS 7 (1965): 196, 202, 208; David S. Brose, “ Summer Island 1 1 1 : An Early Historic Site in the Upper Great Lakes,” H istorical Archaeology 4 (1970), 5 -6 , 13 -2 3 ; Brown (ed.), “ The Zimmerman Site,” 13, 72 -73 , 53-54 ; Mary Elizabeth Good, “ The Guebert Site: An Eighteenth-Century Historic Kaskaskia Indian Village in Randolph County, Illinois,” C entra l S ta les A rchaeological Societies M em o ir 2 (n.p., 1972), 78-79. For stone daggers, sec J R 63:291. For stone arrowheads, see Good, “ Guebert Site,” 12.

13 4 The middle ground

The fur trade 135

trib e so u th o f L a k e M ic h ig a n , h ad v irtu a lly no g u n s an d that the p e o p le s

a ro u n d th em la ck e d m eta l kn ives an d h atch e ts. In 1 7 0 6 , n e a rly h a lf a cen tu ry

a fte r the firs t g u n s a p p e a re d a m o n g th em , the P e o r ia s , o n e o f th e tr ib e s o f

the Illin o is c o n fe d e ra tio n , a ttack ed a J e s u it p r ie s t , F a th e r G r a v ie r . N o t on ly

d id th ey sh o o t h im w ith a rro w s, b u t the a rro w s w e re tip p ed w ith flin t. It is

e q u a lly n o tab le that the F r e n c h re sp o n se w a s to cu t o f f p o w d e r fo r su ch gu n s

as the Illin o is p o s s e s s e d . T h e in c id e n t is a c le a r e xa m p le o f the p e rs is te n c e

o f o ld te ch n o lo g y a lo n g sid e the n ew . W h e n , to w ard the e n d o f the F r e n c h

an d In d ian W a r, su p p lie s o f p o w d e r fa ile d at D e tro it , the O ttaw as, H u ro n -

P e tu n s, P o ta w a to m is an d C h ip p e w a s th ere re su m e d h u n tin g w ith b o w s an d

a rro w s. T h e y d id it w ith o u t e n th u s ia sm , b u t th ey d id it. W h e n F r e n c h

trad e rs d u rin g the sam e p e rio d fa ile d to su p p ly c lo th to the Illin o is , th ose

In d ian s c lo th e d th e m se lv e s in s k in s .71

T h is fa ilu re o f E u ro p e a n g o o d s ra p id ly to d isp la c e n ative m a n u fa c tu re s is

m o re u n d e rsta n d a b le w h e n w e e xa m in e e stim ate s o f ava ilab le c a rg o sp ace

d u rin g the late se v e n te e n th an d e a r ly e ig h te e n th c e n tu r ie s . T h e F r e n c h

co u ld n o t tran sp o rt th e am o u n t o f g o o d s n e c e ssa ry to p ro v id e A lg o n q u ia n s

w ith the to o ls an d c lo th e s they w o u ld n e e d to a b an d o n n ative m a n u fa c tu re s .

T h e in ten d an t J e a n B o c h a r t d c C h a m p ig n y e stim a te d that ab o u t seve n ty

can o e lo a d s o f g o o d s re a c h e d the W e st in the late 16 8 0 s (see T a b le 3 .2 ) ,

w ith th is n u m b e r in c re a s in g d ram a tica lly in th e e a r ly 16 9 0 s , w h e n G o v e rn o r

d e F ro n te n a c , on the p re te x t o f su p p ly in g M ic h ilim a c k in a c an d o th e r p o sts ,

a llo w e d la rg e a m o u n ts o f a d d itio n a l trad e g o o d s , in c lu d in g b ra n d y , to be

sh ip p e d w e s t .72

W h e n th e se c a rg o e s are p la c e d n e x t to e stim ate s o f th e p o p u latio n they

w e re m ean t to su p p ly , the re a so n s fo r th e p e rs is te n c e o f n ative te c h n o lo g y

b e co m e a p p are n t. U n til som e tim e a fte r 1 7 0 0 , th is w a s a p o p u la tio n in

d e c lin e fro m d ise a se , d isp la c e m e n t, an d w a r , b u t it w a s still s izab le . C o n ­

s id e r in g o n ly the m a jo r p o p u la tio n c lu ste rs , th ere w e re 1 5 ,0 0 0 - 2 0 ,0 0 0

71 For Fox war party, see Thwaites (ed.), H en n ep in ’s A N ew D iscovery, 130 -33 . For their role in the fur trade, see La Durantaye au Gouverneur, 22 avril 1684, AN, C i 1 A, v. 6. For the Fox in 1718, see Memoir on the Savages of Canada . . . 1718, W H C 16 :371. For the Illinois in 1680, sec Chretien Le Clercq, “ Narrative,” Co x , Jo u rn eys o f L a S a lle , 1 :118 . For La Salle on the Illinois country, see enclosed with letter of Frontenac, Nov. q, 1680, IH C 23:12. Emily J. Blasingham, “ The Depopulation of the Illinois Indians,” Ethnohistory 3 (Summer 1 q86): 197, citing Margry’s narrative account of La Salle, indicates the Illinois had several hundred guns in 1680, but I have been unable to find substantiation in the documents. For the Peorias, s a t J R 66:53-57, 265-67. The Kickapoos and Mascoutens still used the bow and arrow. The Illinois still used the bow and arrow a great deal and dressed in skins in 1718, “ Memoir,” W H C 16:373. Lor Detroit Indians, see Conseil tenu le 28 novembre 1760 au détroit, AN, C 11A , v. 105, f. 358, For resumption of use of skin garments, see Macarty à Kerlerec, 30 aoust 1759, AN, C.13A, v. 41. f. 103.

72 W. J. Eccles, Frontenac: The C ourtier G overnor (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1959), 275- 78-

136 The middle ground

T a b le 3.2. Estimates o f annual canoe loads and goods reaching the West

1670s 1690 1680s- 1690s

ExtremeLow High Congés Low High

Canoes (number) 40 55 70 85 100 130 Guns (number) 320 440 560 680 800 1,040 Blankets (number) 60 825 1,050 1,275 1,500 1,950 Tobacco (livres) 2,560 3,520 4,480 5,440 6,400 8,320 Cloth (ells) 3,160 4,345 5,530 6,715 7,900 10,270 Hatchets (number) 1,440 1,980 2,520 3,060 3,600 4,680 Knives (number) 16,320 22,240 28,560 34,680 40,800 53,040

Note: The canoe numbers above come from the following estimates: 40: the minimal trade for the early 1670s; 55: the capacity based on the high range of fur receipts for the 1670s; 70: Champigny’s 1690 figure, which, since it is close to the estimated figure for combined fur receipts and furs smuggled to the English, is the best official estimate; 85: the high figure based on fur receipts for the 1680s and 1690s; 100: Hennepin’s estimate for 1679 and probably the high figure for the 1690s; 130: the extreme 1684 estimate.

p e rso n s in the tow n s a ro u n d G r e e n B a y in the 1 6 7 0 s , n e a rly 2 0 ,0 0 0 in the

Illin o is , M ia m i, an d S h a w n e e v illa g e s a ro u n d S ta rv e d R o c k d u rin g the

1 6 8 0 s , 3 ,2 0 0 in C h e q u a m e g o n at its h e ig h t in the m id 16 6 0 s , and an

e stim ate d 6 ,0 0 0 - 7 ,0 0 0 in M ic h ilim a c k in a c in 1 6 9 5 . S u c h e stim ate s ig n o re

the S io u x , C r é é s , N ip p is in g s , M is s is s a u g a s , an d o th e r O jib w a g ro u p s , e xce p t

the S a u lte u rs , all o f w h o m w e re se rv e d at le a st p artia lly b y the F r e n c h fu r

trad e . K n iv e s an d , p e rh a p s , h a tch e ts h ad p ro b a b ly b e g u n to m ee t the

d e m an d b y the en d o f the c e n tu ry , b u t o th e r g o o d s , even b y the h ig h e st

e stim ate s , c o u ld n ot h ave re p la c e d n ative m a n u fa c tu re s .73

C o n d it io n s d id c h an g e a fte r 1 7 2 0 w h e n E n g lis h an d F r e n c h co m p etitio n

73 The best discussion of the demography of the region is Jeanne Kay, “ The Fur Trade and Native American Population Growth,” Elhnohistory 31 (1984), 265-87. Kay effectively challenges the usual account of constant population decline after contact. For epidemics and initial decline, see Marest to Vaudreil, Aug. 14, 1706, W IIC 16:237, and Marest to Vaudreuil, 4 June 1708, M P H C 33:386, For Ohio Valley, see discussion in Chapter 5.

For population, see Green Bay: J R 56:125 (16 71-72); J R 61:149, 15 3 -5 4 (1679); Starved Rock: Wayne C. Temple, In d ia n Villages o f the Illin o is Country: H istoric Tribes, Scientific Papers, Illinois State Museum, vol. 2, pt. 2 (Springfield: Illinois State Museum, 1958), 27; Chequamegon: J R 50:273, 301. I translated warriors into total population by using a 4:1 ratio. For Michilimackinac, see H R N 1 15:399,773 ~74- For Cadillac, see letter of I .amodie Cadillac, Aug. 3, 1695, in E. M. Sheldon, The E a rly H istory o f M ichigan from the F irst Settlem ent to 18 15 (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1956), 74.

The fur trade

fo r the fu r trad e in c re a se d the n u m b e r o f g o o d s m o v in g w est. B y the 1 7 2 0 s

the canots de maître h ad re p la c e d th e m u c h sm a lle r e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry

c a n o e s , an d c o n s id e r in g the n u m b e r o f congés fo r w e ste rn p o sts , it a p p ears

that in a y e a r su ch as 1 7 3 9 the f ifty -s ix c a n o e s a llo w e d u n d e r the congés co u ld

co n ta in c a rg o s o f a p p ro x im a te ly 3 3 6 ,0 0 0 liv re s o f g o o d s by w e ig h t (5 6 @

6 ,0 0 0 = 3 3 6 ,0 0 0 ) a s aga in st 1 7 5 ,0 0 0 tran sp o rte d w e st in the late 16 9 0 s ( 1 0 0

ca n o e s @ 1 ,7 5 0 = 1 7 5 ,0 0 0 ) . S in c e th e se c a rg o fig u re s d o n o t in c lu d e that

p o rtio n o f the trad e o f th e Illin o is co u n try th at w e n t d o w n the M is s is s ip p i to

N e w O rle a n s , the p o rtio n o f tra d e at F o r ts N ia g a ra an d F ro n te n a c that

cam e fro m th e W e st, the ille g a l trad e o f c o u re u rs d e b o is o p e ra tin g w ith o u t

congés, o r the trad e at O sw e g o , even th is su b stan tia l in c re a se still o b v io u sly

u n d e re stim a te s th e total. A ro u g h estim ate w o u ld b e that N ia g a r a -O s w e g o -

F ro n te n a c n o rm a lly su p p lie d an a d d itio n a l ten can o e lo ad s o f g o o d s to the

pays d ’en haut d u r in g the 1 7 3 0 s an d 1 7 4 0 s .74

T h is r ise in the sca le o f trad e se e m s to h ave b e e n la rg e ly a fu n ctio n o f an

in c re ase in In d ia n c o n su m p tio n o f c lo th an d w o o le n g o o d s. C lo th h ad b e e n a

s ig n ifican t trad e item sin ce the late se v e n te e n th ce n tu ry , b u t d u r in g the early

e ig h tee n th c e n tu ry E u ro p e a n c lo th h ad y e t to re p lace n ative c lo th in g . In

1 7 1 8 the In d ia n s a ro u n d D e tro it , an d p re su m a b ly the p e o p le s w h o b o rd e re d

th em , w o re a m ix tu re o f E u r o p e a n c lo th in g and n ative g arm en ts . T h e

P o taw ato m i m en , fo r e xa m p le , w o re “ re d o r b lu e c lo th ” in the su m m e r, b u t

th e ir w in te r c lo th in g w as b u ffa lo ro b e s . F a r t h e r w est, the m en o f the Illin o is ,

the F o x , an d p re su m a b ly the o th e r p e o p le s o f the re g io n m o stly co n tin u e d to

wre a r c lo th in g fa sh io n e d fro m an im al sk in s .75

r 3 7

74 For the Illinois trade, see Bienville, Memoir on Louisiana, 1725-26 , M P A 3:533. French voyageurs in 1729 promised to ship 20,000 livres worth of beaver to New Orleans annually, Perier de la Chasse to Director, Jan. 30, 1729, M P A 2:619. Problems of storing furs in warm, humid New Orleans always hindered the fur trade there.

In 1750, 300 packs of fur went to Oswego from Lake Superior, Jonquière to Minister, Sept. 20, 1756, W H C 18:67. At 7.1 packs per canoe, this would represent more than forty canoes, but these were smaller Indian canoes and they carried more passengers and less cargo.

Louise De Chêne, H abitants et M archands, 130, says the larger freight canoes carrying 3,000 livres of cargo were in use by 1714 . For capacity of 5,000 livres, sec Dc Noyan to Minister, Oct. 18, 1738, W H C 17:295. 1 have used a higher 6,000-livre estimate given in Beauharnois & Hocquart au Ministre, Mémoire, 17 17 , AN, C i iA, v. 67, f. 104, in order to avoid the risk of underestimating shipments west. In addition, and for the same reason, I have calculated as if the entire cargo space were taken up by trade goods and furs, although it is estimated that up to one-third of the capacity was used for provisions for the journey itself. Sec Carolyn Gilman, W here Two W orlds M eet: The G reat Lakes F u r Trade (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1982), 36. Since the livre was a measure of both weight and money, many cargo references are unclear. I have cited only those in which the reference is clearly to the weight of the cargo.

75 For the increased use of woolen clothing during the 1690s, sec Frontenac au Ministre, 25 oct. 1696, RA FQ j 1928-29, 3 1 2 - 1 3 . In 1685 the Chippewas of Chequamegon had only recently adopted woolen clothes, Narrative o f . . . Occurrences, 1694-95, tTYCD 9 :6 11. For

138 The middle ground

T a b le 3.3. Relative percentages o f cargoes by category (in livres/value)

Textiles and clothing

Arms and ammunition

Metal implements

Alcohol

Detroit 1732 358/25% 509/36% 200/14% 178/13%

Detroit 1736 504/57% 68/8% 20/2% 167/19%

Green Bay 1740 4,545/53% 2,549/30% 541/6% 421/5%

Green Bay 1747 14,938/73% 3,049/15% 1,133/5% 628/4%

Source: Dean L. Anderson, “ Merchandise for the Pays d’en Haut: Eighteenth Century Trade Goods and Indian Peoples of the Upper Great Lakes,” paper presented at the Canadian Archaeological Association Annual Meeting, April 24-27, 1986, Toronto, Ontario.

B y the 1 7 2 0 s an d 1 7 3 0 s , c lo th c le a r ly d o m in ate d the trad e . (S e e T a b le

3 .3 .) W h e th e r sm u g g le d E n g lis h c lo th o r im p o rte d F r e n c h c lo th , it w a s c lo th

an d c lo th in g that filled the c a n o e s g o in g w e st. A n e xam in a tio n o f fo u r

su rv iv in g lists o f c a rg o e s sh ip p e d to D e tro it an d G r e e n B a y b e tw e e n 1 7 3 2

an d 1 7 4 7 re v e a ls that c lo th an d c lo th in g d o m in ate d e v e ry c a rg o e xce p t the

o n e sh ip p e d to D e tr o it in 1 7 3 2 , w h e n am m u n itio n w a s b e in g se n t w e st in

p re p a ra tio n fo r w a r ag a in st the F o x .

Y e t e ve n w ith the in c re a se in c a rg o cap ac ity an d the rap id sp re ad o f

E u ro p e a n c lo th in g , In d ia n c o n su m p tio n o f trad e g o o d s re m a in e d re la tiv e ly

low . W h e n the c a rg o e s sh ip p e d to G r e e n B a y d u rin g the 1 7 4 0 s are an a lyzed

in the co n te x t o f total p o p u la tio n se rv e d b y the tra d e rs , it b e c o m e s c le a r that

th e fu r trad e at G r e e n B a y w o u ld n o t s u ffic e to su p p ly e ve ry In d ia n

in the G r e e n B a y trad e a re a w ith a b lan k e t. T h e trad e w o u ld , h o w e v e r,

c e rta in ly su p p ly th em a ll w ith k n ive s , a c lo th g a rm e n t - a b lan k e t, sh irt, o r

cap o te - an d p o w d e r . F a r t h e r e ast, w h e re the a b u n d a n c e o f im p o rts w a s

g re a te r an d so u rc e s o f su p p ly m o re v a r ie d , the trad e p ro b a b ly d id se rv e to

cloth and skin clothing in 1718 , see Memoir on the Savages of Canada... 1718, W HC 16:366-76. A proposal to ban the sale of woolen goods in order to increase the amount of castor gras - the greasy beaver obtained from beaver robes that the woolen cloth was replacing - brought an outraged Canadian response; see Mémoire sur l’etat de la ferme des castors, 10 oct. 1698, AN, C 11A , v. 16, f. 2 3 1-34 .

The fur trade

c lo th e the In d ia n s an d to p ro v id e b a s ic m etal te ch n o lo g y . It d id so , h o w e v e r,

o n ly in the p e a k y e a rs ; in o th e r y e a rs , In d ia n s h ad to b e p re p a re d to su p p ly

th e ir ow n c lo th in g an d to re ly o n o ld k n ive s, h a tch e ts , an d so fo rth , re p a ire d

b y F r e n c h b la ck sm ith s . E x c a v a tio n s at F o r t M ic h ilim a c k in a c in d ica te that

even as the n u m b e r o f trad e g o o d s in c re a se d a fte r 1 7 2 5 , re fle c t in g the

gro w th o f trad e at the site , n ative te c h n o lo g y p e rs is te d . P o tte ry an d w o rk in

b o n e , a n tle rs , and e ve n sto n e h u n g on a fte r im p o rts h ad b e c o m e p art o f

e ve ryd ay life .76

Ja m e s F it t in g h as a tte m p te d to d e te rm in e w h e th e r “ the in tro d u ctio n o f

E u ro p e a n trad e g o o d s , p a r tic u la r ly a x e s , k e ttle s , k n iv e s an d g u n s , a ltere d the

su b siste n c e p attern s o f the a re a to the p o in t that so c ia l an d id eo lo g ica l

o rie n ta tio n s ch a n g e d as w e ll .” T o d o so , h e c o m p a re d the a rtifac t c o n ­

n e ctio n s fro m the tw o v illa g e s : the Ju n t u n e n site , a typ ical late p re h isto r ic

se ttlem e n t o n the stra its o f M a c k in a c , an d L a s a n e n , an O ttaw a an d H u ro n -

P e tu n b u ria l an d v illa g e site se v e n m ile s fro m Ju n t u n e n w h ic h w a s o cc u p ie d

ap p ro x im a te ly fro m 1 6 7 1 to 1 7 0 1 . H e c o n c lu d e d : “ I f the in tro d u ctio n o f

E u ro p e a n trad e g o o d s h ad an y e ffe c t at all on the su b s is te n c e b a se , it w a s to

a m p lify th e tren d s a lre a d y p re s e n t____ W e m u st re je c t th e h y p o th e sis that

E u ro p e a n trad e g o o d s d rast ic a lly a lte re d the su b s is te n c e b a se o f the p e o p le s

o f the S tra its o f M a c k in a c .” 77 78

A p p a rc n d y , this wFas tru e n ot o n ly a t M a c k in a c b u t a lso at the B e ll s ite , a

F o x v illa g e o cc u p ie d w e ll in to the e ig h tee n th c e n tu ry . H e r e , to o , “ co n tact

w ith the W h ite s h ad n ot ye t d ra st ic a lly a lte re d th e ir m o d e o f l i fe ,” an d

F ittin g , in e v a lu a tin g the sa m e site , se e s the wFay o f life a s “ s im ila r to that o f

p e o p le s o f the L a t e W o o d la n d p e r io d .” F a r th e r n o rth , at L a k e N ip ig o n , K .

C . A . D a w s o n c o n c lu d e s , w ith the in tro d u ctio n o f E u r o p e a n g o o d s “ no

m a jo r d isco n tin u ity a p p e a rs e v id e n t .” A n d D a v id B r o s c , w h ile h y p o th e s iz in g

that the S u m m e r Is la n d site ( 1 6 5 0 - 1 7 0 0 ) in G r e e n B a y w a s o cc u p ie d as a

d ire c t re su lt o f the fu r trad e , a lso says that n ative m a n u fa c tu re s re m a in e d

m o re s ig n ific a n t than E u ro p e a n an d that the n ative to o ls m o st c lo se ly 7 W

a sso c ia ted w ith su b siste n c e w e re the s lo w e st to ch an g e .

76 Lyle M. Stone, “ Archaeological Research at Fort Michilimackinac, An Eighteenth-Century Historic Site in Emmet County, Michigan, 1959-1966 Excavations” (Ph.D. diss., MSU, 1970), 1:60. Moreau S. Maxell, “ Indian Artifacts at Fort Michilimackinac, Mackinaw City, Michigan,” M ichigan A rchaeologist 10 (1964): 23-30 .

77 James Fitting, “ Patterns of Acculturation at the Straits of Mackinac,” in Charles Cleland (ed.), C u ltu ra l C hange an d C ontinuity: Essays in H onor o f fa m es R . G riffin (New York: Academic Press, 1976), 327.

78 For the Bell site, sec Paul W. Parmalee, “ Vertebrate Remains from the Bell Site, Winnebago County, Wisconsin,” W isconsin A rcheologist, NS 445 (Mar. 1963): 58, and Fitting, Archaeology o f M ich igan , 208. For Lake Nipigon, see K. C. A. Dawson, A lgonkians o f L a k e N ipigon : A n A rchaeological S u rvey , National Museum of Man, Mercury Series, Archaeological Survey of Canada, Paper no. 48 (Ottawa: National Museums of Canada, 1976), 30. For Summer Island, see Brose, “ Summer Island III,” 23.

J 39

140 T h e r e is no d e n y in g that E u r o p e a n g o o d s h ad b e c o m e an in teg ra l p art o f

A ig o n q u ia n life , b u t by the en d o f th e F r e n c h p e rio d th e re w a s n o t, as yet,

m a teria l d e p e n d e n c e . In an e m e rg e n c y A lg o n q u ia n s re m a in e d ab le to fe e d ,

c lo th e , an d sh e lte r th e m se lv e s w ith o u t E u r o p e a n a ss is ta n c e , an d m o re

s ig n ific a n tly th ey h ad m o re th an one so u rc e fo r the m a n u fa c tu re s th ey

w a n ted . P o litica lly p o w e rfu l A ig o n q u ia n g ro u p s co u ld n ot o n ly o b tain su ch

g o o d s , th ey c o u ld h ave th em b e sto w e d as g ifts . A n u n d e rsta n d in g o f re g io n a l

re la tio n sh ip s an d o f the e m e rg in g lin k s b e tw e e n F r e n c h an d In d ia n s d u rin g

the F r e n c h p e r io d can n o t, th e re fo re , b e b a se d on a s im p le m o d e l o f e a r ly

an d d e c is iv e m a teria l d e p e n d e n c e o f In d ia n s u p o n the F r e n c h . In ste a d it is

th e re la tio n sh ip s - p o lit ica l an d so c ia l - th ro u g h w h ic h g o o d s m o v ed and

w h ic h , in p art, gave the g o o d s th e ir m e a n in g an d in flu e n c e th at m u st b e kept

in m in d .79

H o w in trica te th is n etw o rk o f e x c h a n g e h ad b e co m e an d h o w th o ro u g h ly

it w as in te g ra te d in to the p o litica l an d so c ia l re la tio n sh ip s o f the F r e n c h an d

A lg o n q u ia n s is a p p a re n t in the jo u rn a l o f Jo s e p h d e la M a lg u e M a r in fo r

1 7 5 3 - 5 4 . M a r in w as the c o m m a n d e r at G r e e n B a y an d a m e m b e r o f the

c o m p a n y that le a se d the p o st th e re . H e th u s acted b o th as an a g e n t o f the

k in g an d as a tra d e r , an d h e h ad v irtu a lly no d e a lin g s w ith th e In d ia n s in

w 'hich g o o d s d id n ot c h a n g e h a n d s. O n h is a rr iv a l, m e e tin g the in h ab itan ts o f

th e firs t sm a ll M e n o m in e e v illa g e on h is ro u te , he gave th em “ the g ifts fo r

th e ir v i l la g e .” H e re p e a te d ly m a d e su ch g ifts , “ c o m m e n su ra te w ith th eir

n u m b e r ,” to the in h ab itan ts o f e a c h v illa g e o f F o x , S a u k s , M e n o m in e e s ,

W in n e b a g o s , an d S io u x he v is ite d . W h e n su ch v illa g e s h ad s u ffe re d the lo ss

o f p ro m in e n t in h ab itan ts, h e fre q u e n tly m ad e ad d itio n a l g ifts to c o v e r the

g ra v e s o f the d e a d .80

S u c h g ifts w e re the e xp e cte d c o u rte s ie s o f a llie s , b u t M a r in a lso h ad to

d isb u rse g o o d s to a c h ie v e sp e c ific e n d s . H e w o rk e d s im u lta n e o u sly , fo r

e xa m p le , to p re v e n t w ars b e tw e e n the G r e e n B a y p e o p le s an d the Illin o is ,

w h o h ad attack ed a S a u k v illage in Illin o is an d k illed a F r e n c h m e n , an d to

k e e p the p e a c e b e tw e e n the S io u x an d M e n o m in e e s and the w este rn

C h ip p e w a s . A ll th ese n e go tia tio n s in vo lve d c o v e r in g the d e a d , c o n so lin g the

7<) Those who thought that the Indians depended on Europeans to meet their basic needs tended to be those who were least familiar with them. In 1758, e.g., the French minister, Rouillé, objected to the introduction of the potato among the Indians because it would detach them from the French by allowing them to feed themselves without French aid, Governor Vaudreuil and Intendant Bigot had to point out that the Indians fed themselves, trading only for munitions and clothing. Vaudreuil & Bigot au Ministre, 8 aoust 1758, AN, C 11A , v. 103, f. 04.

so Kenneth P. Bailey (cd. and trans.), Jo u rn a l o f Joseph M arin, French Colonial Explorer and M ilitary Comm ander in the Wisconsin Country, Aug. 7, 17 5 3 -Ju n e 20 , 1754 (Los Angeles: printed for the author, 1975): gifts for village, 5 1; to inhabitants, 52-54 , 57, 62; cover dead, 34. 52> 82, 91.

The middle ground

The fur trade

m o u rn e rs w ith g ifts o f b ra n d y , an d re w a rd in g In d ia n e m issa r ie s active in the

n e g o tia tio n s. H e a lso gave p re se n ts to tu rn b ack w a r p a rtie s an d to re w ard

th o se w h o h ad re fu se d to o rg an iz e w a r p artie s . U lt im a te ly , to g u aran tee

n e go tiatio n s, h e a g re e d to g ive the S a u k s an d F o x a la rg e p re se n t to g iv e to

the Illin o is so that th ey w o u ld c o n se n t to p e a c e . W h e n the p e a c e w as

c o n c lu d e d , he c lo th e d an d p ro v is io n e d the Illin o is d e le g a tio n an d th en m a d e

ad d itio n a l g ifts to the S a u k s an d F o x . M a r in e stim a te d h is co st in p re v e n tin g

the Illin o is w a r a lo n e at 10 ,0 0 0 l iv re s .81

W h ile all th is w a s g o in g on , o th e r g o o d s c h a n g e d h a n d s th ro u g h trad e .

F r e n c h trad e rs g ran ted g o o d s to the In d ia n s on c re d it w ith p aym e n t to co m e

in the sp rin g a fte r the h u n t. O th e r F r e n c h trad e rs d e p a rte d w ith the In d ia n s

to th e ir h u n tin g ca m p s. D e sp ite a ll M a r in ’s e ffo rts , th e re tu rn s o f th is trad e

w e re p ro b le m a tic . T h a t w in te r th e L a k e S io u x , fe a r fu l o f C h ip p e w a attacks,

did n ot h u n t, th u s d e p r iv in g th e F r e n c h o f a m a jo r so u rc e o f fu r s .82

F o r b o th the In d ia n s an d the F r e n c h all o f th e se e x c h a n g e s w ere o f a

p ie c e ; th ey b o u n d the F r e n c h an d the A lg o n q u ia n s to g e th e r . C o n c e p tu a lly

trad e an d g ift e x c h a n g e s w e re d iffe re n t , b u t in a c tu a l so cia l p ra c tic e they

c o u ld n o lo n g e r be d ise n ta n g le d w ith o u t the co lla p se o f the e n tire e x c h a n g e

n etw o rk . A n d w h e n th e n e tw o rk w o rk e d p ro p e rly , the A lg o n q u ia n s c o u ld

co n tin u e to c o n c e iv e o f it as a sy ste m d e s ig n e d to sa tis fy th e ir besoins ( ju s t as

the F r e n c h trad e rs th o u g h t o f it as a so u rce o f p ro fit) . A s a S a u k sp ea k e r,

W e a se l, to ld b oth the S a u k s an d the F o x , th ey m u st b e o b lig e d to the F r e n c h

for all they were doing to help them. They came from a long way off and endured many difficulties and much misery7 to bring them the things they needed. Not only that but they were good enough to take an interest in reconciling them with the people they warred against. And but for that their villages would soon be reduced to nothing. And if they would think about all that, they would be at a loss to how to show their gratitude to the French for all the trouble they take for them. They would all indeed be ungrateful if they didn’t do as I wished, especially as I [i.c., Marin] only spoke for their own good.83

In the e x c h a n g e n e tw o rk , c o m m e rc e w a s o b v io u sly a p art b u t h a rd ly the

w h o le o f a la rg e r s tru c tu re . A n d to u n d e rsta n d A lg o n q u ia n a c tio n s w ith in

th is s tru c tu re , se n tim e n ts su ch as th o se o f W e a se l m u st b e taken se r io u s ly

fo r th ey re p re se n t n o t the illu s io n s o f d u p e d p rim itiv e s b u t a p o w e rfu l

fo rm u la tio n o f a re a lity A lg o n q u ia n s an d F r e n c h h ad c a lle d in to b e in g .

W ith o u t the m id d le g ro u n d , W e a se l w a s a fo o l; w ith it, he w a s a w ise an d

p e rce p tiv e m an .

81 Bailey (ed.), Jo u rn a l o f Joseph M arin , for Sioux-Chippewa peace, 64; covering dead, 59-60, 69; rewards, 82; Fox-Illinois peace, 86, 99; cost, Marin to General, 1 June 1754, ibid., 133.

82 Ib id ., credit, 62; hunting camps, 93. 83 Ib id ., quotation, 87; was speaker, 66.

14 1

4

The alliance

There is no king in the tribe, but a chief who is not a chief of state [and] has no authority at his disposal, no power of coercion, no means of giving an order. The chief is not a commander, the people of the tribe are under no obligation to obey. The space of the chieftanship is not the locus of power, and the “ profile” of the primitive chief in no way foreshadows that of a future despot.

Pierre Clastres, Society Against the State

I

O u t o f the F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n tr iu m p h o v e r the Iro q u o is th ere evo lv ed

d u rin g the e ig h te e n th c e n tu iy a Ja n u s - fa c e d a llia n ce . F a c in g cast, the

F r e n c h a p p e a re d a t the h e a d o f an A lg o n q u ia n h ost. T h is w a s the a llia n c e

a rm e d a n d b re a th in g fire in the se rv ic e o f im p e r ia l F r a n c e , the a llia n ce that

co w e d the Iro q u o is an d re p e a te d ly fo u g h t the fa r m o re n u m e ro u s B r it ish to a

stan d still. T h is e aste rn fa ce o f th e a llian ce is too o ften the o n ly o n e that

a p p e a rs in h isto r ie s o f the e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , b u t b y it s e l f it is in co m p le te

an d in scru ta b le . T o e x p la in w h y A lg o n q u ia n w a rr io rs re sp o n d e d w h e n

O n o n tio su m m o n e d th e m , it is n e c e ssa ry to e xa m in e th e o th e r fa ce o f the

a llia n c e . F a c in g w est, O n o n tio an d h is c h ie fs - F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n -

id e a lly c a rr ie d the c a lu m e t, n o t the h a tch e t. T h e y so u g h t to c o v e r the d e a d ,

n ot to a v e n g e th em . O n o n tio w a s a b e n e fa c to r . H e m e d ia te d the q u a rre ls o f

h is A lg o n q u ia n c h ild re n . H e su p p lie d th e ir n e e d s w ith p re se n ts an d trad e .

O n ly w h e n fa c e d w ith d iso b e d ie n t c h ild re n d id O n o n tio a p p e a r a rm e d and

an g ry . A c c o m p a n ie d b y h is o th e r c h ild re n , he cam e to sc o u rg e th o se w h o

embrouillent la terre (e m b ro il the lan d ); b u t e ve n h e re h is o n ly g o a l w a s to

re im p o se th e p e a c e that a llo w e d h is c h ild re n to h u n t, to fa rm , an d , in the

ritu al la n g u a g e o f the c o u n c ils , to sm o k e p e a c e a b ly on th e ir m ats. In rea l

p o lit ica l te rm s, th is p e a c e in itia lly e a se d the m o v e m e n t o f the A lg o n q u ia n s

in to la n d s e m p tied b y the Iro q u o is w a rs o f the se v e n te e n th c en tu ry .

T h e s e a re , o f c o u rse , th e a tr ic a l im a g e s , s im p lific a tio n s o f a m o re tan g led

rea lity . A lg o n q u ia n s d id n o t fig h t s im p ly fro m lo yalty to th e ir fa th er ; the

F r e n c h so u g h t m o re in th e W e st than an a re n a in w h ich to e x e rc ise th e ir

p a tr ia rc h a l b e n e v o le n c e . M o re o v e r , th e fa c e s c o n n e c te d . B e tw e e n th em -

th e ir c o m m o n m in d , in a se n se - w a s the m id d le g ro u n d w h e re the p o litic s o f

1 4 2

The alliance

the v illage an d o f the e m p ire m et. T o u n d e rsta n d the a llia n c e , its n e g le c te d ,

n e a rly in v is ib le w e ste rn fa c e m u st b e taken se rio u s ly ; o n ly then can a

fu lle r se n se o f even ts on the c o n tin e n t in the im p eria l age e m e rg e . N o t

su rp ris in g ly , th is b e n e v o le n t w e ste rn fa ce o f the a llian ce w a s n ot so m u c h a

re fle c tio n o f F r e n c h b e n e fic e n c e as it w a s a p ro d u c t o f a tan g led an d b lo o d y

h isto ry .

T h e a llia n c e , b e ca u se it w a s la rg e ly A lg o n q u ia n in fo rm an d sp irit,

d e m an d e d a fa th e r w h o m ed ia te d m o re o ften th en he c o m m a n d e d , w h o

fo rg a v e m o re o ften than h e p u n ish e d , an d w h o gave m o re th an he re c e iv e d .

T h e s e d e m a n d s fru stra te d the F r e n c h even as th ey p re se rv e d C a n a d a , and

th ey lo n g e d fo r - an d sp o ra d ic a lly tr ie d to cre a te - an a llia n ce that w a s a

s im p le e x te n sio n o f the F r e n c h state.

E v e n ts in 1 7 0 1 g av e a p a rtic u la r u rg e n c y to su ch F r e n c h a ttem p ts to re cast

the a llian ce in a m o re c o n ve n tio n a l an d fa r le ss e xp e n siv e im p e r ia l m old .

F r a n c e , d e sp ite its v ic to ry o v e r the Iro q u o is - in d e e d , b e c a u se o f it - w as

lo s in g c o n tro l o f the pays d'en haut. T h e A lg o n q u ia n w o rld w a s b re a k in g up

an d its m e m b e rs w e re sp re a d in g o u t o v e r p re v io u sly em p ty la n d s. M ig ra n ts

avo id e d the still fo rm id ab le S io u x an d b e g a n to settle the la n d s to the east

an d so u th o f th e re fu g e e c e n te rs - la n d s that p ro m ise d a m o re se cu re

a g r ic u ltu re an d a b u n d an t g am e . T h e s e w e re n o t the p r im e b e a v e r la n d s , fo r

the b est b e a v e r w e re fo u n d n o rth o f th e W isc o n s in R iv e r , b u t th en th ese

w e re n ot a p e o p le d e p e n d e n t on b e a v e r fo r trad e . T h e s e m ig ra tio n s , the

p ro d u c t o f p e a c e , e ve n tu a lly b ro u g h t c o n flic t a m o n g the m ig ran ts th em se lve s

an d b e tw e e n A lg o n q u ia n s an d Iro q u o is . T h e y a lso b ro u g h t the A lg o n q u ia n s

in c re a s in g ly in to p ro x im ity to the E n g lis h . T h u s , the F r e n c h a ttem p t to

re sh a p e the a llia n ce in 1 7 0 1 a ro se fro m a d e s ire to se c u re the frag ile

Iro q u o is p e a c e an d to p re v e n t the d e fe c tio n o f th e ir a l l ie s . 1

T h e a llia n ce that the F r e n c h d e s ire d re c e iv e d sy m b o lic e x p re ss io n at the

g reat c o n fe re n c e o f ' 1 7 0 1 that ra tifie d p e a c e w ith the Iro q u o is fo llo w in g th e ir

d e fe a t b y the a llia n c e . T h e e x p re ss io n w as so m e w h a t m a cab re b e c a u se , q u ite

lite ra lly , th e n e w v e rs io n o f the a llia n c e an d c h ie fta in sh ip th at the F re n c h

p re se n te d to th e A lg o n q u ia n s sp ra n g fro m the c o rp se s o f the o ld c h ie fs . A s

K o n d ia ro n k h ad to ld G o v e rn o r d e C a ll iè r e s in h is o p e n in g sp e e c h at the

c o n fe re n c e , the a llie s h ad fo u n d th e ir b ro th e rs d e ad a lo n g the r iv e rs as they

jo u rn e y e d to M o n tre a l, b u t th e y h ad m ad e a b r id g e o f th e se b o d ie s to re a c h

the city . “ L a m a la d ie ” h ad ra v ag e d the In d ian c a m p s at M o n tre a l that

su m m e r. A c c o rd in g to L a P o th e r ie , the F r e n c h , lo o k in g fo r b e n e fit in the

m id st o f d isa ste r , took the e p id e m ic as a s ig n o f G o d ’ s m e rc y s in ce he

a llo w ed In d ia n s to d ie w h e re th ey m ig h t b e b ap tized . K o n d ia ro n k d ie d at

1 For a similar reinterpretation of the French alliance, see W. j . Eccies, “ The Fur Trade and Eighteenth-Century Imperialism,” W illiam a n d M ary Q uarterly 40 (July 1983); 341 — 62,

M 3

T4 4

M o n tre a l; C h ic h ik a to lo o f the M ia m is d ied o n the w ay h o m e. O n a n g h isse o f

the P o taw ato m is d ie d so m e tim e in the next y e a r on a jo u rn e y to the I llin o is .2 3

T h e F r e n c h se iz e d o n K o n d ia r o n k ’ s d eath to try to re tr ie v e ad van tag e

fro m a c o n fe re n c e that w a s o n the v e rg e o f d isa ste r . A stu te , e lo q u e n t, an d

b ra v e , h e w as b o th “ o f th e p ra y e r” (C h ristia n ) an d o f h ig h statu s in h is ow n

so c ie ty (he w a s S a s ta re tsy o f th e H u ro n -P e tu n s ) . K o n d ia ro n k w a s A d a r io in

the B a r o n d e L a h o n ta n ’ s Voyages ( 1 7 0 3 ) an d th u s the m o d e l fo r all the n o b le

sa v a g e s w h o fo llo w e d h im in E u r o p e a n lite ra tu re . A t the tim e h e d ie d he w as

fu r io u s w ith F r e n c h c o n d u c t at the treaty c o u n c il, b u t the F r e n c h h o n o re d

K o n d ia ro n k in d eath as i f h e h ad b e e n a tru sted a g e n t o f th e sta te . In d o in g

so , th ey tr ie d to u se h is d e a th to tra n sfo rm th e n a tu re o f c h ie fta in s h ip .1

T h e F r e n c h b u rie d K o n d ia ro n k in an e la b o ra te c e re m o n y in w h ich

re p re se n ta t iv e s o f an in stitu tio n o f th e F r e n c h sta te w e re p a ire d w ith

d e le g a tio n s o f In d ia n s re p re se n tin g a ro u g h ly p a ra lle l se g m e n t o f H u ro n -

P e tu n so c ie ty . A F r e n c h o f f ic e r an d sixty so ld ie rs m a rc h e d in fro n t o f the

c o ffin , an d s ix tee n H u ro n w a rr io rs , d re s s e d in b e a v e r ro b e s an d c a rry in g

g u n s , fo llo w e d . T h e n ca m e the F r e n c h c le rg y an d b e h in d th em six w a r

le a d e rs c a rry in g the c o ffin w h ich w a s c o v e re d w ith flo w e rs an d u p o n w h ich

re ste d a p lu m e d h at, a sw o rd , an d a g o rget. K o n d ia r o n k ’ s re la tiv e s fo llo w e d

b e h in d the c o ffin a c c o m p a n ie d b y th e O ttaw a an d H u r o n -P e tu n c h ie fs .

F in a lly , M m m e . d e C h a m p ig n y , w h o w as the w ife o f the in ten d an t; M . de

V a u d re u il, th en g o v e rn o r o f M o n tre a l; o th e r F r e n c h d ig n ita r ie s ; an d the

e n tire o f f ic e r c o rp s c lo se d the p ro c e ss io n . A t the g ra v e the so ld ie rs an d the

w a r le a d e rs fired a sa lu te . T h e F r e n c h m ark ed K o n d ia r o n k ’s re stin g p la c e

w ith an in scrip tio n that re a d : Cy git le Rat, Chef des Hurons (“ H e re lie s the

M u s k ra t , C h ie f o f th e H u r o n s ” ) .4

2 Nicolas Perrot, M em oir on the M anners, Customs, and Religion o f the Savages o f North Am erica, in Emma Helen Blair (ed.), The Indian Tribes o f the Upper M ississippi Valley and Region o f the Great Lakes, 2 vols. (Cleveland; Arthur H. Clark, 1912), 115 .

3 For sickness at Montreal, see Claude Charles Le Roy, Sieur de Bacqueville de la Potherie, H istoire de TAmerique septentrionale. . . (Paris: J -L Nion & F. Didot, 1722, microcard, Lost Cause Press, Louisville, 1967), 4:202, 209, 232, 228-29, 239, 262. For Onanghisse, see Parolles des Kiskakons, Sakis, Poux, and Puants, 23 juillet 1702, AN, C 11A , v. 8, f. 312.

Kondiaronk at the time of his death felt betrayed by the French failure to compel the Iroquois to return Algonquian prisoners, and he was threatening to disavow the peace. His death was thus tactically fortunate for the French, but his loss was nevertheless dismaying. For Kondiaronk’s opposition to peace without the restoration of prisoners, see La Potherie, H istoire, 4:205-6, 2 2 1-2 6 ; for description, see ibid. 4:221, 228-29. The demands for the return of the prisoners made by Joncaire and Father Bruyas were apparendy undercut by Callieres and his emissary M. de Maricourt. See Le Roy de la Potherie à Comte de Pontchartrain, n.d. AN, F3, Morcau-St. Mery, v. 2, f. 378; sec also Instruction pour le P. Bruyas . . . 15 juin 1701, AN, F3, Moreau-St. Mery, v. 8, f. 260.

For Adario, see Reuben Gold Thwaites (ed.), N ew Voyage to North Am erica by the Baron de Lahontan, 2 vols. (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1905), 2 :5 17 -6 18 .

4 La Potherie, H istoire, 4 :234-35. I would like to thank Jim Clifton, who may not agree with this particular interpretation, for pointing out to me the significance of Kondiaronk’s funeral.

The middle ground

The alliance

T h e F r e n c h u se d th e d e ad K o n d ia ro n k to d e m o n stra te w h a t a c h ie f

sh o u ld b e . B y e q u a tin g K o n d ia ro n k in d eath w ith F r e n c h ru le rs and

in stitu tio n s, the F r e n c h e n v is io n e d c h ie fs w h o w o u ld co m m a n d an d th u s

re je c t c o n se n su a l p o litics an d n o n c o e rc iv e p o w e r . T h e c h ie fs w o u ld b e co m e

th e g o v e rn o rs o f p etty p r in c ip a lit ie s an d age n ts o f th e F r e n c h state .

F ro m the G r a n d S e tt le m e n t o f 1 7 0 1 u n til the d e m ise o f F r e n c h C a n a d a

th e re w o u ld p e rs is t an u n re so lv e d te n s io n b e tw e e n the A lg o n q u ia n id ea l o f

a llia n ce an d m e d ia tio n an d the F r e n c h d re a m o f fo rc e an d o b e d ie n c e . T h e s e

d u al a g e n d a s , w h ic h u n d e rla y the c o n tro v e rsy that sw ir le d a ro u n d L e P e san t

at D e tro it in 1 7 0 6 , h e ld the a llia n ce in p e rp e tu a l te n sio n . T h e A lg o n q u ia n s

h ad to c o m p e l O n o n tio to act as an A lg o n q u ia n fa th e r o r the pays d'en haut w o u ld b e aw ash in b lo o d as O n o n tio ’ s c h ild re n s la u g h te re d e ach o th er.

O n o n tio c o m p lie d , fo r h e n e e d e d to m a in ta in A lg o n q u ia n lo ya lty and at le ast

th e fo rm o f th e ir p artic ip a tio n in the d e fe n se o f N e w F r a n c e . T h e re su lt w as

an o d d im p e ria lism w h e re m e d ia tio n su c c e e d e d an d fo rc e fa ile d , w h e re

co lo n ize rs gave g ifts to the co lo n ize d an d p a tr ia rc h a l m e tap h o rs w e re the

h ea rt o f p o lit ics .

J 4 5

II

A lg o n q u ia n s c lu n g stu b b o rn ly to th e ir im a g e o f O n o n tio as a fa th e r m e d ia t­

in g a m o n g h is c h ild re n , in la rg e p art b e c a u se th e y n e e d e d h is m ed ia tio n

b ad ly . A s the re fu g e e c e n te rs d isso lv e d , they w e re re p la c e d in the e arly

e ig h tee n th c e n tu ry by a se r ie s o f re g io n a l v illage b lo c s . In m o v in g an d

sca tte rin g th e ir se ttlem e n ts an d in s e c u r in g a m o re a b u n d a n t su b siste n c e

b ase , m o st A lg o n q u ia n s h ad m a d e th e ir v illa g e s le ss v u ln e ra b le ta rg ets fo r

d ise a se . E p id e m ic s co n tin u e d to strik e an d lo sse s w e re o fte n h eav y , b u t

m an y o f th e se p e o p le s n o w re c o v e re d an d re p la c e d th e ir d e ad . A p o p u latio n

in c re a se , a lb e it an u n even o n e , took p la c e a m o n g v irtu a lly a ll the tr ib e s w h o

re m a in e d a lo n g the G r e a t L a k e s o r w e st o f th em . F o r re a so n s th at a re n ot

e n tire ly c le a r , o n ly the Illin o is an d the M ia m is co n tin u e d to d e c lin e . T h e

M ia m is fe ll d ram atica lly in n u m b e r ; th e ir total w a rr io r stren g th d ro p p e d

fro m 1 ,4 0 0 o r 1 ,6 0 0 in 1 7 1 8 , to 6 0 0 o r 7 0 0 in 1 7 3 3 , to ab o u t 5 5 0 in 1 7 3 6 .

T h e o n ce p o w e r fu l Illin o is c o n fe d e ra tio n eve n tu a lly c o u rte d o b liv io n . W h a t­

e v e r the c a u se o f the d iffe re n t d e m o g ra p h ic p a tte rn s , the le ss h igh ly

o rg an iz e d p e o p le s e x p a n d e d in p o p u la tio n w h ile the m o re e lab o ra te p ro to -

c h ie fd o m s o f the la rg e r iv e r v a lle y s d w in d le d .5

5 Jeanne Kay, “ The h'ur Trade and Native American Population Growth,” Elhnohistory 31 (1984): 265-87; Emily J. Blasingham, “ Depopulation of the Illinois Indians,” Ethnohistory 3 (Summer 1986): 36 1-96 . In 1718 the Miamis proper numbered about 400 warriors. Below them on the Wabash were five villages of people the French lumped under the name

T h e s e re g io n a l b lo c s , the su b u n its o f the pays d ’en haut, w e re fle x ib le and

sh iftin g ; th ey g a in e d an d lo st m e m b e rs . M e m b e r s o f a s in g le tr ib e w e re o ften

sca tte re d th ro u g h se v e ra l d iffe re n t b lo c s . In the e a r ly e ig h te e n th ce n tu ry the

firs t an d m o st w e ste r ly b lo c s tre tc h e d fro m S a in t Jo s e p h an d C h ic a g o on

lo w e r L a k e M ic h ig a n u p th ro u g h M ilw a u k e e an d G r e e n B a y an d th en w e st

to the M is s is s ip p i. M o s t o f its m e m b e rs h ad o n c e liv e d a ro u n d G r e e n B ay .

T h e S a u k s , F o x , K ic k a p o o s , an d M a s c o u te n s m a in ta in e d p artic u la rly c lo se

ties an d in te rm a rr ie d e x te n siv e ly , b u t th e b lo c a lso e n c o m p a sse d the W in n c -

b a g o s , M e n o m in c e s , an d the m o re w e ste r ly P o ta w a to m i v illa g e s .

T h e se c o n d re g io n a l g ro u p in g c e n te re d o n th e Illin o is c o u n try an d w a s

m a d e u p o f the Illin o is c o n fe d e ra tio n . T h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f S ta rv e d R o c k ,

the g re a t re fu g e e c e n te r o f the Illin o is co u n try , p ro v e d te m p o ra ry fo r so m e

P e o r ia s e ve n tu a lly re tu rn e d to settle th ere , b u t the m a jo r P e o r ia se ttlem e n t

re m a in e d at P im ito u i. T h e K a s k a s k ia s an d o th e r m e m b e rs o f the c o n fe d e ra ­

tion g ra d u a lly c o n c e n tra te d in the a re a w h e re the K a s k a s k ia R iv e r m et the

M iss is s ip p i. T h e S h a w n e e s h ad b y n o w le ft the Illin o is c o u n try en tire ly to

se e k Iro q u o is an d E n g lis h p ro te c tio n east o f th e A p p a la c h ia n s , b u t fo r a

b r ie f p e r io d m e m b e rs o f the M ia m i c o n fe d e ra t io n m a in ta in e d a m a rg in a l

m e m b e rsh ip in th is b lo c . T h e M ia m is , h o w e v e r, g ra d u a lly m o v ed e ast to

S a in t Jo s e p h an d D e tr o it b e fo re se ttlin g the M a u m e e an d the W ab ash

re g io n .6

T h e e astw a rd m o v e m e n t o f the M ia m is b ro u g h t so m e o f th em te m p o ra rily

in to th e th ird , and m o st v o la tile , re g io n a l b lo c - the o n e th at c e n te re d on

D e tro it . In 1 7 0 1 , A n to in e L a u m e t d e L a M o th e , S ie u r d e C a d illa c , h ad

in d u c e d p art o f the O ttaw as an d m o st o f the H u r o n -P e tu n s to h is n ew

se ttle m e n t at D e tro it . E v e n tu a lly so m e P o ta w a to m is , M ia m is , and o th e r

g ro u p s a lso c o n g re g a te d th ere . T o the e ast o f D e tro it , an d lo o se ly a sso c ia te d

w ith it, w e re v illa g e s fo rm e d b y so m e o f the p ro to -O jib w a b a n d s w h o n o w

b e c a m e the M is s is s a u g a s o f n o rth e rn L a k e E r ie an d L a k e O n ta r io .7

146 The middle ground

Ouiatenons and the: English called the Weas, but who were actually the remaining tribes of the confederation: the Weas proper, the Piankashaws, Pepikokias, Kilatikas, and Megakonias. Together they mustered an additional 1,000 to 1,200 warriors. Because there had been a major smallpox epidemic in 1715 these figures were certainly larger before 1715. Sabrevois, Memoir on the Savages, 1718, W H C 16 :375-76; Ramc7.ay to Minister, Nov. 3, 17 15 , W H C 16 :322-24. Smallpox struck again in 17 3 2 -17 3 3 . In 1733 the number of warriors belonging to the five tribes on the Wabash had declined to 600 to 700, and by 1736 was down to 350. For 1733 figures, see Vincennes à ?, mars 1733, AN, C 13A , v. 17, f. 259. For 1736, see Census of Indian Tribes, W H C 17:250.

6 Blasingham, “ Depopulation of the Illinois,” 193-224, 3 6 1-4 13 , and Wayne C. Temple, In d ian Villages o f the Illin o is C ountry: H istoric Tribes, Scientific Papers, Illinois State Museum, vol. 2, pt, 2 (Springfield, III.: Illinois State Museum, 1958).

7 For Ottawa movements and divisions, see Speech of Miscouaky, 26 Sept. 1706, M P IIC 33:288; Report of Detroit in 1703, M P H C 33 :16 2-6 3; Marest to Vaudreuil, 4 June 1708, M P H C 33:383-86; Marest to Vaudreuil, June 2 1, 17 12 , W H C 16 :290-91. For general

The alliance

T h e fo u rth re g io n a l g ro u p in g c e n te re d on M ic h ilim a c k in a c an d in c lu d e d

the C h ip p e w a v illa g e at S a u lt S a in te M a r ie an d th e O ttaw a v illa g e on

M a n ito u lin Is la n d . T h e C h ip p c w a s , lik e the M is s is s a u g a s , a ro se o u t o f the

p ro to -O jib w a b a n d s o f w h o m the S a u ltc u rs h ad b e e n the m o st p ro m in en t.

T h e F r e n c h co n tin u e d to r e fe r to all th e C h ip p e w a b a n d s o f L a k e S u p e r io r

as S a u ltc u rs , b u t b y the e a r ly e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry d if fe r e n c e s w e re fo rm in g

b e tw e e n th e C h ip p c w a s o f C h e q u a m c g o n an d K e w e e n a w o n w e ste rn L a k e

S u p e r io r an d the S a u lte u rs p ro p e r at S a u lt S a in te M a r ie . In c re a s in g ly the

w e ste rn C h ip p e w a s e m e rg e d as a se p a ra te g ro u p . T h e S a u lte u rs m ean w h ile

b e c a m e c lo se ly lin k ed w ith th e O ttaw as o f M ic h ilim a c k in a c . T o g e th e r , the

tw o g ro u p s eve n tu a lly co lo n ize d S a g in a w B a y an d the O tta w as th e m se lv e s

g ra d u a lly sh ifte d w e st o n to the sh o re s an d is la n d s o f n o rth e rn L a k e

M ic h ig a n . B y the 1 7 4 0 s the v illa g e s o f the o ld M ic h ilim a c k in a c O ttaw as

c e n te re d on A rb re C ro c h e on L itt le T r a v e r s e B a y .8

In c re a s e d in te rm a rria g e b e tw e e n the O ttaw as an d C h ip p e w a s aro u n d

M ic h ilim a c k in a c and th e m o v e m e n t w e st o f the C h ip p e w a s o f C h e q u a m c g o n

cre a te d a fifth re g io n a l g ro u p in g , c o m p o se d o f the C h ip p c w a s o f w e ste rn

L a k e S u p e r io r . F ir s t th e a llia n c e o f th ese p e o p le w ith th e S io u x aga in st

m o st o th e r A lg o n q u ia n s , a n d , la te r , w a rfa re b e tw e e n the C h ip p e w a s an d the

S io u x m ad e th e u p p e r M is s is s ip p i an a re a o f c h ro n ic c o n flic t in the late

se v e n te en th c e n tu ry an d the e ig h te e n th .

T h e fin al re g io n a l g ro u p in g , an d the last to c le a r ly e m e rg e , w a s in the

O h io V a lle y . T h is re g io n , w h ic h w ill b e trea te d in m u c h g re a te r d eta il la ter,

in c lu d e d th e la n d s fro m L a k e E r ie so u th to th e O h io an d th e A p p a la c h ia n s

an d w e st to the W a b a sh . T h e m e m b e rs o f th is b lo c e v e n tu a lly in c lu d e d

m ig ran ts fro m v irtu a lly all the o th e r b lo c s as w e ll a s n ew m ig ran ts fro m

o u tsid e th e pays d ’en haut. M e m b e r s o f th e M ia m i c o n fe d e ra tio n m o v ed into

it fro m the n o rth , a s d id , e ve n tu a lly , the K ic k a p o o s an d M a s c o u te n s . A

sp lin te r g ro u p o f H u r o n -P e tu n s w h o p ro c la im e d th e m se lv e s the W yan d o ts

se ttled a t S a n d u s k y an d a fe w O ttaw as a lso m o ved so u th o f L a k e E r ie . F r o m

the n o rth e ast cam e v a r io u s Iro q u o is w h o b e c a m e kn ow n as the M in g o s .

F 'rom P e n n sy lv an ia the S h a w n e e s , th e D e la w a re s , an d v a r io u s sm a lle r

re fu g e e g ro u p s m o ved first to the A lle g h e n y and th en d e e p e r in to th e reg io n .

W ith in a b lo c , the n o rm al m e c h a n ism s o f v illag e p o lit ic s c o u ld o ften

p re se rv e the p e a c e w ith o u t re c o u rse to O n o n tio . l h is w a s the rea lm o f

p o litics that F a th e r C h a r le v o ix la te r fo u n d so p u z z lin g an d im p re ss iv e . It

m igh t, C h a r le v o ix th o u gh t, se e m that n a tio n s “ w h o m ay b e sa id to p o sse ss

n o th in g , n e ith e r p u b lic n o r p riv a te , an d w h o h ave no am b itio n to exten d th e ir

te rr ito ry , sh o u ld , in a p p e a ra n c e , h ave fe w a ffa ir s to settle w ith o n e a n o th e r .”

account of movements, see H B N I, 15 :772-74. 8 For Chippewas, see Harold Hickerson, The Chippewa and Their Neighbors: A Study in

Elhnohistory (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970).

1 4 7

Y e t th e In d ia n s w e re “ e te rn a lly n e g o tia t in g .” T h e y a lw ays “ h ad so m e a ffa irs

o r o th e r on th e tap is su ch as the c o n c lu d in g o r re n e w in g o f tre a tie s , o f fe r s o f

se rv ic e , m u tu a l c iv ilit ie s , m a k in g a llia n c e s , in v itatio n s to b e c o m e p a rtie s in a

w a r, an d lastly , co m p lim e n ts o f c o n d o le n c e on the d eath o f so m e c h ie f o r

c o n s id e ra b le p e r s o n .” 9

B u t the p o lit ic s that w o rk e d w ith in a b lo c k w e a k e n e d o u ts id e o f it. A s the

m ig ratio n c o n tin u e d an d m e m b e rs o f d iffe re n t b lo c s ca m e in to co n tact,

d isp u te s , h o stility , an d c o n flic t a ro se . W ith o u t O n o n tio to m e d ia te , the re su lt

w a s o ften w a r. T h e v io le n c e la rg e ly o c c u rre d a lo n g the b o rd e rs o f re g io n a l

g ro u p in g s : b e s id e the u p p e r M is s is s ip p i, at D e tro it , an d a lo n g th e n o rth e rn

e d g e s o f th e Illin o is co u n try . T h e s e w e re the fau lt lin es o f the pays d'en haut. E v e n b e fo re the e n d o f the Iro q u o is w a rs , A lg o n q u ia n -S io u x w a rfa re had

re su m e d a lo n g th e M is s is s ip p i. In n o rth e rn Illin o is th e F o x an d th e ir a llie s

m o v in g o u t o f G r e e n B a y ca m e in to c o n flic t w ith m e m b e rs o f th e Illin o is

c o n fe d e ra tio n . A t D e tro it C a d il la c ’ s a ttem p ts to a ttract d isp a ra te g ro u p s to

the re g io n le d to co n stan t fr ic tio n .

F r e n c h w ith d ra w a l fro m th e pays d ’en haut h ad c re a te d a v a c u u m that the

A lg o n q u ia n s la ck e d the re s o u rc e s to fill. M e d ia t io n , g iv en th e n a tu re o f

A lg o n q u ia n p o lit ic s , w a s e x p e n s iv e an d t im e -c o n su m in g . O n ly the F r e n c h

p o sse sse d the w e a lth , the c o n ta c ts a c ro ss the en tire pays d'en haut, an d the

in c e n tiv e to u n d e rta k e m e d ia tio n o n a la rg e sca le . N o A lg o n q u ia n g ro u p

c o u ld tak e th e ir p la c e . C o n flic ts w e re w e ll u n d e rw a y by th e p e a c e c o n fe re n c e

o f 1 7 0 1 , an d th ey m ad e e ve n th at y e a r ’s c e re m o n ie s o f the a llia n c e se e m o n ly

g ild in g o v e r a d e e p rot. T h e S io u x an d th e ir a llie s , th e w e ste rn C h ip p e w a s o f

C h e q u a m e g o n , w e re at w a r w ith v irtu a lly all o f the o th e r tr ib e s o f the pays d'en haut. T h is fig h tin g ag a in st the S io u x sh o u ld n o t h ave d ire c tly a ffe c te d

the F r e n c h s in c e th ey h ad su p p o se d ly w ith d raw n fro m the re g io n , b u t, in

fac t, c o u re u rs de b o is an d o th e rs still m o v ed o ve r th e w e ste rn la k e s , and

m an y F r e n c h m e n su ch as P ie r re C h a r le s L e S u e u r so u g h t the S io u x co u n try

w h e re r ic h p e lts c o u ld b e o b ta in e d fo r fe w g o o d s. T h e s e m e n b ro u g h t arm s

to the S io u x . T o stop th is tra ffic , A lg o n q u ia n s o n c e m o re m u rd e re d and

p illa g e d F r e n c h m e n in the u p p e r c o u n tr y .10

T h e F r e n c h g o v e rn o rs c o n d e m n e d b o th the trad e an d the a ttack s, b u t

th ey p ro v e d in cap a b le o f s to p p in g e ith e r. O f the w e ste rn v illa g e rs w h o

a rr iv e d in M o n tre a l that y e a r , the M ia m is , F o x , Illin o is , S a u k s , P o ta w a to m is ,

an d M a s c o u te n s h ad re c e n tly e ith e r a tte m p te d o r s u c c e e d e d in m u rd e r in g

148 The middle ground

'* Pierre de Charlevoix, Jo u rn a l o f a Voyage to North Am erica (London: R. & J. Dodslcy, 1761), 2:27.

10 For French worry over these wars, see Relation de cequi s’est passé en C anada... de l’anneé 1694 jusqu’au mois de nov. 1695, AN, F3, Moreau-St. Mery, v. 7, f. 342; Relation de cequi s’est passé en Canada . . . de l’anneé 1696 jusqu’au mois d’oct. 1697, AN, F3, v. 8,

The alliance 149

an d p illa g in g F re n c h m e n . T h e y e x p re sse d re g re t , an d G o v e rn o r de C a ll iè re s

n e g o tia ted a p e a c e b e tw e e n th e F o x an d S a u lte u rs , b u t th e p e a c e w a s as

fle e tin g as the re g re t. T h e r e w e re no m o re P e rro ts to w o rk fo r bonnes affaires. T h e A lg o n q u ia n s lam en ted the a b se n c e o f F r e n c h c h ie fs o v e r m u ch o f the

pays d ’en haut an d th e fa ilu re o f th o se c h ie fs p re se n t at D e tro it to m ed ia te

th e ir q u a rre ls . A s o n e o f th e rare M e n o m in e e en vo ys fro m that re g io n d u rin g

th ese y e a rs to ld V a u d re u il, e ve ry o n e d iso b e y e d O n o n tio an d w a g e d w a r

ag a in st e ach o th e r. T h is iso la tio n an d w a r fa re w a s a co n stan t c a u se fo r

d is tre ss a m o n g m ost o f the A lg o n q u ia n s o f the fa r w est. T h e P o ta w a to m is o f

S a in t Jo s e p h re sp o n d e d to the tu rm o il that fo llo w e d the c r is is o f 1 7 0 6 at

D e tro it by a sk in g fo r a re tu rn o f lic e n se d tra d e rs , a g a rriso n , an d a F r e n c h

c o m m a n d e r. B y 1 7 1 2 the P e o r ia s re c a lle d the d ays o f T o n t i an d F o r t S a in t

L o u is as a g o ld e n a g e o f p e a c e an d p le n ty an d co n tra ste d it w ith the v io le n c e

an d d ep rivatio n o f th e ir p re se n t co n d itio n . T h e W e a s , too , a sk e d fo r F r e n c h

o ffic e rs an d m is s io n a r ie s .11

In se e k in g to e sca p e the b u rd e n s o f v illa g e p o lit ic s , the F r e n c h fo u n d that

re fu s in g to m ed ia te q u a rre ls o ften m e a n t p artic ip a tio n in th em . It w a s a h ard

le sso n to acce p t, an d the F r e n c h h ad to le a rn it re p e a te d ly at a g re a t cost to

b o th the A lg o n q u ia n s an d th e m se lv e s . T h e i r te a c h e rs w e re o ften the F o x ,

an d the firs t le sso n the F o x a d m in is te re d took p la c e at D e tro it .

Ill

T h e F o x w a rs p ro v id e d the b asic p r im e r fo r a llia n c e p o lit ic s . T h e y to ld a

cau tio n ary tale to F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n a lik e . F r o m th em all in vo lve d

c o u ld d raw a ca ta lo g o f m istak e s an d the fa ilu re s o f c h ie fta in sh ip that, i f

u n c o rre c te d , w o u ld d estro y the a llia n c e . P o p u la te d by fa th e rs w h o fa ile d in

th e ir p a tr ia rc h a l d u tie s an d c h ie fs w h o fa ile d to m ed ia te , the F o x w a rs

d e m o n stra te d h o w frag ile the w h o le s tru c tu re o f a llia n ce w a s.

T h e F o x w a rs b e g a n in the la n d s a ro u n d D e tro it . D u r in g m o st o f the first

" For attempts to negotiate peace in the upper country, see La Potherie, H istoire, 4 :2 15 -16 , 255; Callières to Minister, 16 Oct. 1700, N Y C D 9:713; Callières au Ministre, 4 oct. 1701, AN, C 11A , v. 19; Aveneau to Cadillac, June 4, 1702, M P H C 33:123; Callières & Beauharnois au Ministre, 3 nov. 1702, AN, C 11A , v. 20; Conferences of Indian Envoys, Sept. 27, 1703, W HC 16 :22 1-27 . For attacks on Frenchmen, see Report on Detroit in 1703, M P H C 33 :173-76 ; Parolles, 5 juillet 1702, AN, Moreau St. Mery, F3, v. 8. For Vaudreuil’s condoning the war, see 19 oct. 1705, RA PQ , 1938-39,92. For later conflicts, Vaudreuil & Raudot au Ministre, 2 nov. 1710 , R A PQ , 1946-47, 390; Vaudreuil au Ministre, 3 nov. 1710 , ib id ., 396; Memoir of De la Forest, July 14, 17 1 1 , M P H C 33:512. For the Menominee speech, see Parolles des folles avoines, 23 juillet 1708, AN, C i 1 A, v. 28, f. 2 11 . For Potawatomis, Chardon à M. de Vaudreuil, 6 mai 1708, AN, C 11A , v. 28. For Peorias, see Parolles de Chachagouesse . . . 20 aoust 17 12 , AN, C i 1 A, v. 33. For Weas, see Conseil, 1 1 jan. 1718; Vaudreuil, 12 Oct. 17 17 , AN, C 11A , v. 124.

d e c a d e o f the e ig h tee n th ce n tu ry , D e tr o it w a s th e o n ly seat O n o n tio

m a in ta in e d in the W e st o u ts id e o f the m iss io n s . C a d illa c h ad p e rsu a d e d

Je r o m e P h e ly p e a u x de P o n tc h a rtra in , the F r e n c h m in is te r o f the m a rin e , to

a llo w h im to o cc u p y D e tro it b y a rg u in g that the A lg o n q u ia n s h e g a th e re d

th ere c o u ld in tim id ate th e Iro q u o is in to o b se rv in g n e u tra lity in c a se o f fu tu re

F r e n c h w a rs w ith E n g la n d . T h e se ttle m e n t o f D e tro it in 1 7 0 1 , w h e n co u p le d

w ith the S ie u r d ’ Ib e rv ille ’ s n e w ly fo u n d e d co lo n y o f L o u is ia n a in the so u th ,

w o u ld su p p o se d ly b lo ck E n g lis h e x p a n s io n .12

D e tr o it th u s o ffic ia lly fa c e d e ast to w ard the Iro q u o is an d the E n g lis h

w h o m it w as in te n d e d to c o n fin e . C a d illa c at D e tro it an d O n o n tio at Q u e b e c

re m a in e d m e d ia to rs , b u t th ey d e s ire d to m ed ia te o n ly d isp u te s b e tw e e n th e ir

a llie s a ro u n d D e tro it and the Iro q u o is , n o t d isp u te s a m o n g o th e r A lg o n q u ia n

g ro u p s . D u r in g the W a r o f the S p a n is h S u c c e s s io n , G o v e r n o r d e V a u d re u il

re p e a te d ly s tre sse d that Iro q u o is n e u tra lity w as a s in e q u a n o n fo r the

su rv iva l o f C a n a d a . N e u tra l, th ey b lo c k e d th e in vasio n ro u te fro m N e w Y o r k

to N e w F r a n c e . T o k e e p the F iv e N a tio n s n e u tra l, V a u d re u il p la y e d on th eir

fe a r o f h is w e s te rn a llie s , w h ile s im u lta n e o u s ly d e fu s in g an y a c tu a l v io le n ce

that m ig h t d rive the Iro q u o is in to the a rm s o f the E n g l is h .13

T h is task d e m a n d e d all o f V a u d r e u il ’ s c o n s id e ra b le ta len ts. A lth o u g h

the p e a c e o f 1 7 0 1 h ad e n d e d o p e n w a rfa re , the fa ilu re o f the Iro q u o is to

re tu rn all th e ir cap tive s c re a te d a g re a t d e a l o f te n sio n , an d the O ttaw as,

M is s is s a u g a s , N ip p is in g s , an d S a u lt e u r s in c re a se d the p re s s u re b y c o n tin u ­

in g to re o c c u p y lan d s n o rth an d so u th o f L a k e E r ie an d n o rth o f L a k e

O n ta rio fro m w h ic h they h ad p re v io u s ly b e e n d riv en by th e Iro q u o is . T h e

is su e in th is re g io n w as n o t te rr ito ry p e r se , b u t ra th e r the r ig h t to trap b e a v e r

fo r trad e . V ir tu a lly all In d ia n s g ran te d the r ig h t o f h u n g ry p e o p le to take

g am e , in c lu d in g b e a v e r , w h e re th ey fo u n d it, b u t th e fu rs b e c a m e the

p ro p e rty o f th o se w h o h ad th e p r im a ry h u n tin g rig h ts o n th e lan d . T h e s e

rig h ts the Iro q u o is c la im e d b y c o n q u e st , b u t the A lg o n q u ia n s re g a rd e d the

Iro q u o is as u n in v ited an d u n w e lc o m e g u e sts ra th e r than as c o n q u e ro rs . A s a

15 0 The middle ground

12 Jean Delanglez. summarized Cadillac’s efforts at Detroit in a series of articles: “ The Genesis and Building of Detroit,” “ Cadillac at Detroit,” “ Cadillac, Proprietor of Detroit,” M id - A m erica 30 (1948): 75 -10 4 , 152 -76 , 233-56 ; 32 (1950): 155-88 , 226-58. For plans of D’Iberville, see Mémoire de D’Iberville, 20 juin 1702, in Pierre Margry, D écouvertes et établissem ents des F ra n ça is . . . de l A m ériqu e Septentrionale, 16 14 - 16 9 0 , 6 vols. (Paris: Maisonneuve et Cie, 1879, rcpr., New York, AMS, 1974), 4:593-607. For a critique by de Champigny, see Champigny Mémoire, 1702, AN, C13A , v. 1. For Detroit, see Mémoire adresse au Comte de Maurepas, Margry, D écouvertes, 5 :138 -5 3 ; and Cadillac to Minister, Oct. 18, 1700, M P H C 33 :9 6 -10 1. For controversy over the wisdom of the Detroit settlement, see Louis XIV to Callières & Beauharnois, May 30, 1703, N Y C D 9:742; and Vaudreuil to Pontchartrain, Nov. 14, 1703, N Y C D 9:743-44.

13 Yves Zoltvany, “ The Problem of Western Policy under Philippe de Rigaud de Vaudreuil, 170 3-2 5 ,” R apport 19 6 4 de la Société H istorique du C anada, 9 - 1 1 , and Yves Zoltvany, P h ilip p e de R igau d de V audreuil: G overnor o f N ew France, i y o j- 2 5 (Toronto: 1974), 46.

The alliance

resu lt, b o th g ro u p s m u rd e re d e ac h o th e r w ith a la rm in g fr e q u e n c y an d

re c k le ss ly o v e rh u n ted the b e a v e r an d o th e r fu r b e a re rs in the co n te ste d a re a .

Y o u n g b e a v e r , w h ic h the F r e n c h re p o rte d had e a r lie r b e e n ro u tin e ly sp are d ,

n o w flo o d e d the m ark et. A p p a re n tly , In d ia n h u n te rs acted on the th eo ry that

th e ir riva ls w o u ld take an y a n im a ls that th ey le f t . 14

O n ly G o v e rn o r d e V a u d r e u il ’ s re p e a te d p e rso n a l in terve n tio n p re v e n te d

w a r. H e c o v e re d the d e ad h u n te rs an d o b ta in e d co m p e n satio n fo r A lg o n q u ia n

attacks. B u t h is su c c e s s w a s p re c a r io u s . W h e n the W a r o f the S p a n is h

S u c c e s s io n e n d e d , the Iro q u o is w e re p re p a r in g to strike b o th C a n a d a an d

the pays d'en haut. W h e n , to c o u n te r th is th reat, V a u d re u il su m m o n e d h is

a llie s to M o n tre a l to in tim id ate th e Iro q u o is an d , i f n e c e ssa ry , to take up the

h atch et, he d isc o v e re d that y e a rs o f n e g le c t h ad re d u c e d the w e ste rn a llian ce

to a sh a m b le s . T h e c o n fe re n c e w a s an e m b a rra ss in g fa ilu re . O n ly the

fo rtu ito u s en d o f the w a r in E u ro p e save d h im . T h e F r e n c h th e m se lv e s

w o u ld h ave to re d isc o v e r th ro u g h e x p e r ie n c e that the a llia n ce c o u ld n o t face

east u n le ss it s im u lta n e o u sly fa c e d w e s t . 15

D u r in g the W a r o f the S p a n is h S u c c e s s io n , G o v e r n o r d e V a u d re u il h ad

a llo w e d eve n ts in the W e st, e v e n a t D e tro it itse lf, la rg e ly to take th e ir ow n

c o u rse , an d the o ld a llian ce h ad p re d ic ta b ly d is in te g ra te d . In 1 7 0 6 , ju st

b e fo re fig h tin g eru p ted b e tw e e n the H u r o n -P e tu n s , M ia m is , an d O ttaw as,

L e P e sa n t h ad c o n fro n te d M . d e B o u rg m o n t, c o m m a n d in g at D e tro it in

C a d il la c ’ s a b se n c e , w ith a lo n g list o f d e a d . T h e F r e n c h h ad p ro m ise d

m ed ia tio n an d h ad h e ld b a c k O ttaw a w a r p artie s , b u t th ey h ad , in e ffe c t ,

don e n o th in g . T h e y w e re a llo w in g the W e st to b e co m e the sc e n e o f b itte r

and fe s te r in g c o n flic ts .16

W ith O n o n tio fa ilin g to act as fa th e r , h is c h ie fs - F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n

- m a n e u v e re d fo r ad van tag e . O n ly th e In d ia n s aro u n d D e tro it an d , to a

le s se r exten t, th o se at M ic h ilim a c k in a c h ad re lia b le a c c e ss to O n o n tio , an d

the F r e n c h a ttem p t to d raw m a n y d iffe re n t p e o p le s to D e tro it m ad e it a

1 5 1

14 For overhunting of beaver and nature of land dispute, see Mémoire que les Directeurs, 26 avril 1703, AN, C 11A , v .2 1, f. 132 -4 3 ; I.a Potherie, H istorié, 3 :176 -77 , 4 :17 9 -8 1. For Iroquois position and tactic of ceding conquest to English, see Deed from the Five Nations, July 13, 1701, N Y C D 4:908-09. For mediation, see Parolles. . . Teganisorenstles, 25 mai 1701, AN, Moreau St. Mery, F3, v, 8, f. 231 — 33; Paroles de Afleouoyue, 19 fev, 1702, Margry, D écouvertes, 5:268-69; Vaudreuil to Pontchartrain, 16 Nov. 1704, N Y C D 9:758-60; Vaudreuil & Beauharnois au Ministre, 17 nov. 1704, R A P Q , 1938-39, 54-55; Conference, Aug. 16, 1705, N Y C D 9:767-69; Vaudreuil au Ministre, 19 oct. 1705, R A P Q , Î938-39, 93; Parolles des Outtauous de Michilmakina . . . 23 juillet 1708, AN, C i 1 A, v. 28. For Seneca recognition of cost of war, see Peter Wraxall, A n A bridgm etit o f the Indian A ffa ir s . . . , ed. Charles Howard Mcllwain (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1915). 73-

3 For trouble at conference, see Vaudreuil to Pontchartrain, Nov. 6, 1712, N Y C D 9:860. Zoltvany covers this in his first chapter of V audreuil.

16 Conseil tenu au Fort Ponchartrain, 8 mars 1706, AN, F3, v. 2 Moreau-St. Mery, f. 378.

152

n e x u s o f v illa g e an d trib a l r iv a lr ie s , in tr ig u e s , an d v io le n c e . W ith the F r e n c h

fa ilu re to m ed ia te th ese d isp u te s , the c h ie fs lo g ica lly so u g h t to u se the

F r e n c h a g a in st th e ir riva ls . In th is s tru g g le , th e O tta w as an d H u ro n -P e tu n s ,

w h o w e re the firs t p e o p le s to settle at D e tro it , se c u re d an in itia l ad van tag e

that th ey tr ie d to m a in ta in ag a in st la te r a rr iv a ls . T h e F r e n c h w e re su ck ed

in to the m a e lstro m o f r iv a lr ie s b o th w ith in v illag e s an d b e tw e e n v illa g e s . A t

D e tro it b y 1 7 1 1 the co n flic ts o f v illa g e s h ad b e g u n to d o m in a te the p o litic s o f

e m p ire .

T h e la n g u a g e o f the a llian ce d isg u ise d artfu l m an ip u la tio n . C a d illa c had

e m p lo y ed the H u ro n -P e tu n c h ie f M ic h ip ic h y (o r Q u a ra n te S o ls ) as h is

p r im e a g e n t in p e rs u a d in g A lg o n q u ia n v illa g e rs to se ttle at D e tro it . C a d illa c

a ssu m e d , o f c o u rse , th at h e w a s c o n tro llin g M ic h ip ic h y , b u t b y 1 7 0 4 ,

G o v e r n o r d e V a u d re u il w a s w o rr ie d that th e ir c o lla b o ra tio n w a s “ in c o n ­

trad ic tio n w ith o u r in variab le p o l i c y . . . o f re ta in in g the In d ia n s in a so rt o f

su b m is s io n .” C a d illa c h ad p la c e d n e g o tia tio n s c ritica l to the e n tire im p eria l

s tra te g y in the h a n d s o f a le a d e r o f th e H u r o n -P e tu n s , a n a tio n that h ad fo r

y e a rs m a in ta in e d ties w ith th e Iro q u o is , the v e ry g ro u p th e F r e n c h h ad

so u g h t to in tim id ate in se ttlin g D e t r o it .17

G o v e rn o r d e V a u d re u il h ad go o d re a so n to w o rry . T h e in tere sts

M ic h ip ic h y p u rs u e d w e re o n ly in c id e n ta lly F r e n c h in te re sts . U n k n o w n to

C a d illa c , h e c a rr ie d on p a ra lle l n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e Iro q u o is an d , a t o n e

p o in t, c o n s id e re d se ttlin g h is p e o p le a m o n g them . B y 1 7 0 4 even h is n o m in a l

su b m iss io n w a s so slig h t that a s sp e a k e r fo r the D e tro it In d ia n s , h e c a lle d the

g o v e rn o r a lia r. H e re fu s e d to a llo w C a d il la c ’s w ife to re tu rn to M o n tre a l,

fe a r in g that it w a s a s ig n th at the F r e n c h w e re a b o u t to a b a n d o n th e p ost.

A n d in 1 7 0 6 it w a s M ic h ip ic h y w h o a u d a c io u s ly tra n s fo rm e d C a d il la c ’ s

re q u e st that the M ia m is jo in a F r e n c h -c o n d o n e d attack o n the S io u x in to the

m e ssa g e that g av e F r e n c h a p p ro va l to the H u r o n -P e t u n -M ia m i attack on

th e O ttaw as. T h e s e attacks b e g a n the n e go tia tio n s o v e r th e fa te o f L e P e sa n t

that fo rc e d th e F r e n c h b a c k in to o p e ra tin g on the actu a l m id d le g ro u n d

in stead o f in a fan tasy w o r ld o f F r e n c h d o m in a tio n .18

The middle ground

17 For Vaudreuil’s concerns, see Vaudreuil to Pontchartrain, 16 Nov. 1704, N Y C D 9:760. For Michipichy’s negotiations, see Parolles des sauvages, Hurons, 14 juillet 1703, AN, C1 1A, v. 21, f. 74; Mermet to Cadillac, Apr. 19, 1702, M P H C 33: 1 18; Marest to Cadillac, 30 May 1702, M P H C 3 3 : 1 2 1 - 22 ; Vaudreuil to Pontchartrain, Oct. 14, 1703, N Y C D 9:743-44. Mermet to Cadillac, Apr. 19, 1702, M P H C 3 3 : 1 1 8 - 1 9 ; Proposals Made by . . . Cornbury . . . to Five Nations, July7 15, 1702, N Y C D 4:989; Proposals. . . by Farr Indians, July 10, 1702, N Y C D 4:979. Many of Michipichy’s actions sprang from Huron-Petun resentment of the Ottawas. The murder of Kondiaronk’s son in 1696 had badly inflamed existing resentments. The French had anticipated trouble between the two groups. Champigny au Ministre, 18 aoust 1696, AN, C i iA, v. 14, f. 182; Narrative o f . . . Occurrences, 1695-96, N Y C D 9:648; Vaudreuil to Minister, May 5, 1705, M P H C 33:242; Vaudreuil to Minister, 5 Nov. 1705, M P H C 33:242.

18 For plans for movement to Iroquoia and problem of independence, see Vaudreuil to

The alliance 1 5 3

T a b le 4. 1. Chiefs representing tribes at conferences with French or emissaries

Group 1694-98 1699-1708 1701 conference

Fox 2 3 3 Huron-Petuns" 6 18 3 Illinois — 4 4 Mascoutens — 1 1

Menominees 1 2 1

Miamis (including Weas 3 13 3 and Piankashaws)

Ottawas" 12 46 5 Potawatomis 3 5 2 Sauks 1 1 1

Chippewas (Amikwas, 1 6 2

Saulteurs, and Mississaugas)

Winnebagos — 1 1

Total: 29 10 0 26

"The Ottawas and Huron-Petuns combined made up 62 percent of the repre­ sentatives during the period 1694-98 and 64 percent during 1699-1708. The figure rises to 76 percent during 1699-1708 if the 1701 conference is eliminated. Sources: La Potherie, Histoire, and conferences recorded in AN, C11A, AN, F3, Moreau St. Mery, MPIIC, NYCD, and Margry, Découvertes.

B u t the F r e n c h m o v em e n t w a s in su ffic ie n t; in d e e d , the s tro n g e r the

F r e n c h m ad e th e ir co n n e ctio n s w ith the In d ia n s at D e tro it , the w e a k e r w as

th e ir h o ld on o th e r p e o p le s o f the pays d ’en haut. W h ile the o ld a llian ce

h ad m ain ta in e d its fo o tin g by in c o rp o ra tin g a v a r ie ty o f A lg o n q u ia n and

F re n c h c h ie fs , d u r in g th e se c ritica l e arly y e a rs o f the ce n tu ry , re la tiv e ly fe w

A lg o n q u ia n c h ie fs d o m in a te d the c o u n c ils w ith O n o n tio and C a d illa c . A s

T a b le 4 . 1 sh o w s, the O ttaw as an d I lu r o n - P c t u n s o f D e tro it an d , to a le s se r

d e g re e , o f M ic h ilim a c k in a c m o n o p o lize d co n tacts w ith th e F r e n c h . E v e n

d u rin g the 16 9 0 s th ese tw o g ro u p s had b e e n d isp ro p o rtio n a te ly re p re se n te d

Minister, 5 May 1705, M P H C 33:242; D ’Aigremont, Nov. 14, 1708, M P H C 33:447; Raudots au Minstre, 12 nov. 1708, AN, C1 1A, v. 28. For calling governor a liar, etc., see Conseil tenu au fort Pontchartrain . . . 8 juin 1704, AN, F3, Moreau-St. Meiy, v. 2, f. 378. For later Huron-Petun and Miami collaboration and plan for assault on Detroit, see Vaudreuil and Raudot to Pontchartrain, Nov. 14, 1708, M P H C 33:404; Report of D ’Aigremont, Nov, 14, 1708, M P H C 33:436. Michipichy’s solicitation of Miami aid against the Ottawas in 1706 was an attempt to get satisfaction from the Ottawas and probably to increase his own standing among the Petuns. Speech of Miscouaky, 26 Sept. 1706, M P H C 36:289; Report of D ’Aigremont, Nov. 14, 1708, M P H C 33:433.

in the M o n tre a l c o n fe re n c e s , b u t th en the In d ia n s o f the fa rth e r w e st had

e asy a c c e s s to the F r e n c h c h ie fs at the p o sts o r to lic e n se d tra d e rs in th e ir

v illa g e s . A fte r 1 7 0 0 the d o m in a n c e o f the O ttaw as an d H u r o n -P e tu n s w as

n e a rly total.

Q u a rre ls b e tw e e n the O ttaw as an d the H u ro n -P e tu n s e n g u lfe d D e tro it in

1 7 0 6 , b u t that fig h tin g o n ly fo re sh a d o w e d a fa r g re a te r c a ta c ly sm in 1 7 1 2 -

1 3 , w h e n the F r e n c h fa ile d to d e fu s e te n sio n s re su lt in g fro m th e m ig ratio n

o f m o re p o w e r fu l o u ts id e rs - th is tim e the F o x - to D e tro it . T h e re su lt w as

fig h tin g on su ch a sca le that the F r e n c h m isto o k a c la sh b e tw e e n v illa g e rs fo r

an im p e r ia l co n fro n ta tio n . A s th ey h ad e a r lie r in the co n tro v e rsy o v e r L e

P e sa n t, v illa g e p o lit ic s o v e rw h e lm e d im p e ria l p o lit ic s .19

T h e tro u b le b e g a n in 1 7 1 0 w h e n m o re than a th o u sa n d F o x a lo n g w ith

th e ir K ic k a p o o an d M a s c o u te n a llie s m o v ed to D e tro it at the in vitatio n o f

C a d illa c . F r o m D e tro it th ey h u n ted in so u th e rn M ic h ig a n , n o rth e rn In d ian a ,

an d n o rth e rn Illin o is . T h e y a lso o p e n e d , as h ad the O tta w as , H u ro n -P e tu n s ,

an d M ia m is b e fo re th em , ten tative d ip lo m atic an d trad e n e g o tia tio n s w ith

the Iro q u o is an d the B r it ish . T h e y d id a ll th is w ith an a rro g a n c e an d re ad y

v io le n c e th at a la rm e d all the n a tio n s fro m M ic h ilim a c k in a c so u th to the

P e o r ia s . T h e F o x c la im e d (p re s u m a b ly on the b asis o f th e ir re s id e n c e in the

a re a b e fo re the Iro q u o is w ars) that th ey w e re the r ig h tfu l m a ste rs o f D e tro it .

S o o n riva l h u n ters w e re m u rd e r in g e ach o th e r in th e w o o d s .20

T h e s itu a tio n , c re a te d b y th e F r e n c h , d e m a n d e d F r e n c h m e d ia tio n , b u t

19 The Fox wars, which spanned a generation between 1710 and 1740, have long perplexed historians because they have insisted on seeing them as primarily wars between the French and the Fox rather than as intertribal wars that eventually became an imperial war by default. Having made these wars a conflict between the French and the Fox, historians have been forced to find a cause. So, despite Fox trade with the French since at least the 1660s, their voluntary movement to Detroit, and the willingness of their chiefs to have French posts among them, otherwise perceptive historians write of their “ implacable resistance to French trading posts and military garrisons.” Others talk of their fighting to protect “ their trade monopoly,” or their middleman role, when there is virtually no evidence for such a trade monopoly and not much more for an economic middleman role. Portraying the Fox as either premature Indian nationalists or as Indians with the mentality of French bourgeoisie eliminates the need to understand them in the more complicated context of alliance politics and Algonquian rivalries. In fact, peace, not war, with the Fox served French interests, and only when they despaired of their ability to mediate peace between the Fox and their neighbors did the French attempt a war of extermination. They would try to eliminate the Fox role in intertribal wars by eliminating the Fox. I Iere, too, they failed. For quotations, see James Axtell, The Invasion W ithin : The Contest o f Cultures in C o lon ia l N orth A m erica (New' York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 49, and Gary C. Anderson, K insm en o f A noth er K in d : D akota-W h ite R elations in the U pper M ississipp i Talley, 16 5 0 -18 6 2 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984), 40. The evidence against this view will be discussed below, but for Fox fighting with other tribes and their demands for renewal of later wars, see Canada, Guerre des Renards, AN, C i 1 A, v. 50, f. 383.

20 For invitation by Cadillac, see “ Another Account,” W IIC 16:293. For Fox claims, see Dubuisson to Vaudreuil, 15 June 1712, W H C 16:268. The Wagenhaes, the generic Iroquois name for western Algonquians, who made an alliance with the Seneca in 1709 and who appeared at Onondaga to conclude an alliance with the Iroquois as a whole in 1710 were almost certainly Fox. In 1 7 1 1 six “ farr Indians from Tuchsakrondie” or Detroit appeared to

15 4 The middle ground

The alliance

G o v e rn o r de V a u d re u il w a s at the tim e u n d e rsta n d a b ly p re o c c u p ie d w ith the

d a n g e r o f an A n g lo - I ro q u o is in vasio n o f C a n a d a . A lth o u g h he p re sc ie n tly

w a rn e d the F o x n o t to p ro v o k e a c o n flic t that m ig h t d e stro y th em , h e

d e le g a te d the a ffa ir to the D e tro it c h ie fs an d to th e te m p o ra ry c o m m a n d e r at

D e tro it , Jo s e p h G u y o n D u b u is s o n . E v e n ts ra p id ly e sc a p e d D u b u is s o n ’ s

co n tro l. T h e re p o rt th is p o o r F re n c h m a n su b m itte d o f w h a t fo llo w e d is fu ll

o f m y ste rio u s c o m in g s an d g o in g s , B r it ish p lo ts , fo rtu ito u s re sc u e s , an d the

in exp licab le fa ilu re o f the F o x to u n d e rta k e the a ttack ab o u t w h ic h th e y an d

the B r it ish h ad su p p o se d ly lo n g c o n sp ire d . It is a d o c u m e n t w ritte n b y a m an

w h o n e v e r u n d e rsto o d w h at w a s g o in g on a ro u n d h im .21

D u b u is s o n h ad go tten h is c o n sp ira to rs w ro n g . T h e F o x w e re n o t c o n ­

sp ir in g to e lim in ate th e F r e n c h ; in ste a d , v irtu a lly all the A lg o n q u ia n s fro m

the P e o r ia s to th e O ttaw as o f M ic h ilim a c k in a c had a g re e d to e lim in ate the

F o x , M a s c o u te n s , an d K ic k a p o o s fro m so u th e rn M ic h ig a n an d su rro u n d in g

a re a s . T h e o th e r D e tr o it In d ia n s an d th e ir a llie s n o t o n ly re fu se d to

n ego tiate th e ir d iffe re n c e s w ith the F o x , b u t th ey p re v e n te d the F r e n c h fro m

d o in g so . It w a s th ey w h o m a n a g e d to c o n v in c e the F r e n c h that the F o x w e re

co n sp ir in g to d e stro y D e tro it . T h e A lg o n q u ia n ro o ts o f the fig h tin g at

D e tro it arc re v e a le d in a re m a rk a b le sp e e c h d e liv e re d by M a k is a b e , a

P o taw ato m i w a r le a d e r an d c h ie f fro m S a in t Jo s e p h w h o , on the v e rg e o f

d e a th , sp o k e to G o v e rn o r d e V a u d re u il in M o n tre a l in 1 7 1 2 . A c c o rd in g to

M a k is a b e , the o rig in a to r o f the p lan to attack th e F o x w a s S a k im a , a m u ch

fe a re d M ic h ilim a c k in a c O ttaw a w a r le a d e r an d c h ie f. H e e n lis te d M a k is a b e

w h o in tu rn e n liste d h is o w n p e o p le an d th e M ia m is an d the P e o r ia s . D u r in g

the fa ll and w in te r o f 1 7 1 1 - 1 2 , the P o ta w a to m is an d O ttaw as attack ed

the M a sc o u te n s h u n tin g a lo n g the h e a d w a te rs o f the S a in t Jo s e p h R iv e r ,

s la u g h te re d the p r iso n e rs th ey took, an d d e stro y e d the v illa g e th ey fo u n d . In

the e a r ly sp rin g the M a s c o u te n s fled to w ard D e tro it p u rsu e d by a la rg e fo rce

o f P e o r ia s , P o taw ato m is , O ttaw as, an d a sc a tte r in g o f o th e r p e o p le s .

T h e M a s c o u te n s fled to w ard D e tro it n o t o n ly b e c a u se th e ir F o x a llie s

tell the English that they were mindful of their original agreement with the Iroquois in 1709. Since the Fox had settled at Detroit in 1710, it appears that all of the Wagenhaes negotiations were in fact with the Fox and their allies. For negotiations with the Iroquois and English, see Wraxall, Indian A ffairs, 64, 70, 73, 74; Hunter to Lords of Trade, July 24, 1710, N Y C D 5:168; Conference of Governor Hunter . . . Aug. 16, 1710, N Y C D 5:221. Vaudreuil knew of these negotiations, Vaudreuil to Minister, 8 Sept. 1 7 1 1 , M P H C 33:532. For murders of and by Fox, see Words of De Vaudreuil, 1 7 1 1 , M P H C 33:504, 505. As the Potawatomi leader Makisabe said in 1712, excepting only himself, there had been a struggle of various peoples and their chiefs to be master at Detroit, Parolles de Makisabe, 17 aoust 1712, AN, C1 1A, v. 33. For the Fox claim to be masters at Detroit, see Words of De Vaudreuil, 1 7 1 1 , M P H C 33:505.

21 Zoltvany, Vaudreuil, 108-9. Vaudreuil at this time had also to deal with the Chippewas, who were threatening to widen the fighting around Green Bay, and the Mississaugas and Potawatomis, who in separate incidents had murdered and cruelly mutilated Iroquois; see Vaudreuil & Raudot au Ministre, 2 nov. 1710, P 4P Q , 1946-47, 391; Vaudreuil au Ministre, 3 nov. 1710, R A P Q , 1946-47, 397-98. For Vaudreuil’s orders, see Memorandum of

155

w e re th ere b u t a lso b e c a u se th ey e x p e c te d the F r e n c h to m ed ia te the

c o n flic t. D u r in g th e fig h tin g that w in te r , th e y h ad a lre a d y o ffe r e d to su b m it

the d isp u te to D u b u is s o n , b u t M a k is a b e an d S a k im a h ad re fu se d . S a k im a

g re a d y fe a re d that o n c e the M a s c o u te n s re a c h e d D e tr o it th ey w o u ld re c e iv e

p ro tec tio n an d m e d ia tio n fro m th e F r e n c h . H e sa id , a c c o rd in g to M a k is a b e ,

that he w o u ld n ot h esita te to attack the F r e n c h i f th ey tried to p ro te c t

the M a s c o u te n s . H e h ad no n e e d to w o rry . A t D e tro it , D u b u is s o n h ad

c o n v in c e d h im s e lf that h e w as ab o u t to b e a ttack e d b y the F o x w h o se

b e h a v io r h ad g ro w n in c re a s in g ly m o re in su lt in g an d th re a te n in g as th ey

su sp e c te d F r e n c h co m p lic ity in th e k illin g o f th e ir a llie s . I f the F o x w e re ,

h o w e v e r, a c tu a lly co n te m p la tin g the attack on D e tro it , th ey h ad a ra th e r o d d

p lan . T h e F r e n c h n u m b e re d o n ly th irty m en an d c o u ld n o t even m an all the

fo rtific a tio n s at a p o st w h o se p a lisa d e s , in an y c a s e , w e re ro tten a n d fa llin g

d o w n . N o r c o u ld D u b u isso n re ly on the O ttaw as an d H u ro n -P e tu n s o f

D e tro it fo r h e lp . M o s t w e re still a b se n t o n th e ir w in te r hun t. In ste a d o f

a ttack in g , h o w e v e r, the F o x a llo w e d D u b u isso n to re p a ir h is fo rt an d se n d

d e sp e ra te m e s sa g e s to the H u r o n -P e tu n s an d O tta w as to co m e a n d re sc u e

h im . In the m id st o f a ll th is , M a k is a b e a rr iv ed w ith th e n e w s that h u n d re d s o f

Illin o is , O ttaw as, an d P o ta w a to m is , a lo n g w ith so m e S a u k s , M e n o m in e e s ,

an d even a fe w O sa g e s an d M is s o u r is , w e re on th e ir w a y to “ r e s c u e ”

h im fro m th e F o x . D u b u is s o n re g a rd e d th e ir a rr iv a l as “ m ir a c u lo u s .”

M a k is a b e ’ s a n d S a k im a ’s w a rr io rs jo in e d the re tu rn in g O ttaw as, H u ro n -

P e tu n s , S a u lte u rs , an d M is s is s a u g a s o f D e tro it in b e s ie g in g the F o x an d

M a s c o u te n s w h o m the b e w ild e re d D u b u is s o n w as n o w c o n v in c e d w e re the

a g e n ts o f a B r it is h p lo t .22

15 6 The middle ground

Vaudreuil for Sieur Dubuisson, Sept. 3, 1710, M P H C 33:485. De la Forest, an experienced officer, had been named as successor to Cadillac at Detroit, but quarrels with Cadillac over the terms of his possession of the post and business in Canada prevented his taking immediate command. Vaudreuil to Minister, 3 Sept. 1710, M P H C 33:480; Report from Vaudreuil, Nov. 7, 1 7 1 1 , M P H C 33 :530-31 , and Memorandum of De la Forest, July 14, 1 7 1 1, M P H C 33:521. For warning to Fox and reliance on Ottawas and I luron-Petuns, see Words of Vaudreuil, 1 7 1 1 , M P H C 33:505-6. Vaudreuil considered the Iroquois more of a danger “ than the whole of New England” and thus gave them the most attention, Vaudreuil to Minister, Sept. 8, 1 7 1 1 , M P H C 33:529-30, 535. The major French account of the fighting is the Report of Dubuisson, June 15, 1712, W H C 16:267-87. The most convincing account is Parolles de Makisabe, 17 aoust 1712, AN, C i i A, v. 33; Francis Parkman noted long ago that the known events at Detroit are difficult to interpret as a Fox plot to attack the post. For his account, sec Francis Parkman, A H a lf Century o f Conflict (New York: Collier Books, 1962), 192-207.

21 Ironically, until Dubuisson’s account arrived, the French seem to have made an accurate assessment of what was happening at Detroit. The first reports stressed fighting between the tribes, not an assault on the French; see Memorandum of M. De La Forest, July 14, 1 71 1 , M P H C 33:512 and Vaudreuil to Minister 7 Nov. 1 7 1 1 , M P H C 33:530. A later account, too, actually says that the Ottawas and Hurons conspired against the Fox. Account of Siege of Detroit, W H C 16:292-95. For presentation as Fox assault on Detroit, see Vaudreuil to Minister, 15 Oct. 1712, M P H C 33:570. After Makisabe’s arrival, Vaudreuil seems to have

T h e alliance * 5 7

il

j l& . E riu* ron «4 ««Cdft ÿ * r tm.*u L s t J A r m c i

T >m J . ,* - tT lt R l iJ On I 1 j «1 f * « m A u U

P» t + ^ i ' T t u l U s l * * j N m t t f i n * Pr r m u n l L * a I>« A F ^ i L«^ C h * i t A L j

n . i r f

# n A ^ i L a i l t f f i B% î * .« - B a u t

The French caption testifies to the considerable respect the French and their allies had for Fox military abilities. (Bibliothèque nationale, Paris)

D u r in g the b lo o d y fig h tin g that fo llo w e d , the F o x re p e a te d ly so u g h t

D u b u is s o n ’ s in te rc e ss io n . D u b u is s o n h im s e lf d e sc r ib e d th e ir a ttem p ts to

g ain m e rcy :

Their messengers were their two great chiefs, one of peace, the other of war; the first named Allamima, and the other Pemoussa. With them were two great Mascouten chiefs, one Kuit, and the other Onabimaniston. Pemoussa was at the head of the three others, having a crown of wampum hung upon his head and many belts of wampum on his body, and hung over his shoulders. He was painted with green earth [a symbol of life], and supported by seven female slaves, who were also painted and covered with wampum. The three other chiefs had each a chichory [probably chichikoué, a small drum used by shamans] in their hands. All of'them marched in order, singing and shouting with all their might to the song of the Chichories, calling all the devils [manitous] to their assistance, and to have pity on them.

T h e y m a d e D u b u is s o n th e m a ste r o f th e ir liv es . “ D o n o t b e lie v e I am a fra id

to d ie ,” P e m o u ssa to ld h im . “ It is th e life o f o u r w o m e n , an d o u r c h ild re n ,

that I a sk o f y o u .” D u b u is s o n , u n d e r p re s s u re fro m M a k is a b e , S a k im a , and

th e H u ro n -P e tu n s , re fu se d th em m e rcy . T h e F r e n c h h ad p a sse d fro m

b e in g m e d ia to rs in the pays d'en haut to b e in g a p artic ip a n t in in te rn e c in e

A lg o n q u ia n w a rfa re . W h e n the c a rn a g e w a s o ver, n e a rly a th o u sa n d F o x and

M a s c o u te n s w e re d e ad o r p r iso n e rs .

In m an y w ays, 1 7 1 2 m a rk e d th e n a d ir o f the a llia n c e . C o n fu s e d and

m a n ip u la te d , the F r e n c h b e c a m e p r iso n e rs in a w e b o f th e ir o w n m ak in g . N o

lo n g e r m e d ia to rs , th ey h ad b e c o m e p artic ip a n ts in the s la u g h te r o f a p eo p le

w h o h ad a sk e d th e ir m ed iatio n . T h e v ic tim s w o u ld n o t fo rg e t th e ir b etraya l.

158 The middle ground

once more obtained some perspective on the affair, although he still also clung to the Fox conspiracy theory. For activities o f Makisabe, see Parolles de Makisabe, 17 aoust 17 12 , AN, C i 1 A, v. 33. Father Marest credited Sakima and Makisabe with planning the war while Vaudreuil made Sakima the leader. Marest to Vaudreuil, June 2 1, 17 12 , WHC 16:289 and Vaudreuil au Ministre, 6 nov. 17 12 , RAPQ 1948-49 , 163. For Sakima, see Words of Ottawas, June 18, 1707, MPIIC 3 3 :3 2 0 -2 1 ; Words of Ottawas, Sept. 24, 1707, MPHC 33:347; Marest to Vaudreuil, 4 June 1708, MPHC 33 :38 4 -8 5 ; Parolles des Outtauois . . . 23 juillet 1708, AN, C 1 1A , v. 28, f. 2 0 5 - 12 ; Parolles de Makisabe, 17 aoust 17 12 , AN, C.11A , v. 33.; Report o f Dubuisson, June 15 , 17 12 , WHC 16:275. The Peorias were at this period eager to repair their relations with the French. They had been isolated since the shooting of Father Gravier, JfR 66:265-95. The Osage and Missouris who were present must have come with the Illinois.

23 Another Account of the Siege o f Detroit, WHC 16 :293-95. Even in Dubuisson’s account, it was the Indian leaders who controlled the fighting with the Fox and demanded their destruction. Father Marest said 800 Fox and Mascoutens died or were captured at Detroit and another 200 Mascoutens were killed in Sakima’s and Makisabe’s winter attack at the Grand River. See Marest to Vaudreuil, June 2 1, 17 12 , WHC 16 :288-89. Dubuisson put the loss at Detroit alone at 1,000; sec Report of Dubuisson, June 15 , 17 12 , WItC 16:284. For speech, see ibid., 2 8 1-8 2 .

The alliance 159

T h e su rv iv in g F o x , so m e o f w h o m so u g h t re fu g e a m o n g the Iro q u o is , an d

o th e rs w h o h ad re m a in e d at G r e e n B a y a lo n g w ith th e ir a llie s , to ok th e ir

v e n g e a n c e a c ro ss n e arly the en tire b re a d th o f the pays d'en haut. B o th

F re n c h m e n and o th e r A lg o n q u ia n s p a id w ith th e ir lives. T h e F o x attacks

w e re o n ly the m o st se r io u s f is su re in the a llian ce . T h e M ia m is an d W e as

w e re at w a r w ith the P e o r ia s , an d the S a u lte u rs fo u g h t w ith the n atio n s o f

G r e e n B a y . T h e B r it ish g ra n te d th e m se lv e s th e m o st lib e ra l p o ss ib le in te r­

p re ta tio n o f the T r e a t y o f U tre c h t , w h ic h , in e n d in g the W a r o f th e S p a n is h

S u c c e s s io n , h ad a ck n o w le d g e d B r it ish su ze ra in ty o v e r the Iro q u o is w h ile

o p e n in g the trad e o f the pays d ’en haut to b o th B r ita in an d F r a n c e . T h e

B r it ish u sed the d isa rra y o f the a llia n c e to re n e w th e ir a ttem p ts to lu re ry a

w e ste rn In d ia n s o u t o f the F r e n c h o rb it.

IV

T h e d isa ste r a t D e tro it in 1 7 1 2 h ad a d u a l legacy . It m a d e th e su rv iv in g F o x

an d th e ir a llie s a d a n g e ro u s m e n a c e to th e F r e n c h , b u t it a lso sp u rre d a

F r e n c h a tte m p t to re sto re th e o ld a llia n c e to the pays d'en haut. It p u sh ed

the p o litica l p e n d u lu m b a c k to w ard m e d ia tio n . A fte r 1 7 1 3 G o v e r n o r de

V a u d re u il re c o g n iz e d that the a llia n ce h ad to fa ce w e st as w e ll as e ast an d it

c o u ld n o t d o so w ith o u t the o ld fo rts , re g u la te d trad e , an d re g u la r g ifts b e in g

re sto re d . H is o ld a llie s , h e re p o rte d , “ w e re d e stro y in g o n e an o th e r, h av in g

no p e rso n in the p la c e [M ic h ilim a c k in a c ] to p re v e n t th e ir d o in g s o .” 24 25

V a u d re u il n e e d e d , o f c o u rse , to p ro v id e the c o u rt w ith a c o n v in c in g

ra tio n a le fo r re c o n stru c tin g the e x p e n s iv e F r e n c h p re s e n c e in the W e st. F o x

c o n n e c tio n s w ith th e Iro q u o is p ro v id e d su ch a ra tio n a le . T h e g o v e rn o r

a rg u e d that the F o x w e re a g e n ts o f the Iro q u o is ju st a s the Iro q u o is w e re

sp u rre d on b y the B r it ish . T o su b d u e the F o x w a s th u s to c o u n te r the

B r it ish . It is n ot c le a r w h e th e r G o v e r n o r d e V a u d re u il re a lly b e lie v e d th at the

B r it ish w e re re sp o n s ib le fo r F o x a c tio n s , b u t h e d id not h esita te to u se the

F o x a s e v id e n c e o f the d a n g e r th e B r it ish p o se d to the pays d'en haut an d o f

the n e ce ss ity o f re e sta b lish in g a F r e n c h p re s e n c e in the re g io n . G ra d u a lly ,

b e tw e e n 1 7 1 2 an d 1 7 2 0 , the congés w e re re sto re d an d p o sts o c c u p ie d at

M ic h ilim a c k in a c , G r e e n B a y , O u ia te n o n , C h e q u a m e g o n , S a in t Jo s e p h , and

24 For Fox attacks, fear of English and intertribal war, see Extracts, Ramezay and Begun to Minister, Sept. 13 and 16, 17 15 , WHC 16:320. De Louvigny, 26 oct. 17 15 , AN, C 11A , v. 35> f- 355 ■ Proceedings of Council of Marine, Dec. 2, 17 2 1, WHC 16:397. For attempts to restore peace, see Vaudreuil to Minister, Sept. 6, 17 12 , M PH C 3 3 :5 6 1-6 4 ; Vaudreuil to Council, 12 Oct. i l l - ] , M PH C 3 3 :59 2-9 3 ; Vaudreuil au Conseil, 30 oct. 17 18 , AN, C 11A , v.39. Louvigny au Conseil, 21 sept. 17 17 , AN, C 11A , v.38, f. 19 6-9 9 ; Memorial of De Louvigny to Council, Oct. 15 , 1720, WHC 16 :3 8 7 -9 1.

25 For quotation, sec Vaudreuil to Pontchartrain, Nov. 6, 17 12 , NYCD 9:863.

P im ito u i; a F r e n c h o ff ic e r w a s a lso s ta tio n e d at the M ia m is . T h e g o v e rn m e n t

o f L o u is ia n a , fo r its p art, e sta b lish e d F o r t C h a r tre s n e a r the m ou th o f the

K a s k a s k ia R iv e r in 1 7 2 0 a m o n g the K a s k a s k ia s , M ic h ig a m e a s , T a m a r o a s ,

an d F r e n c h an d la te r e s ta b lish e d a p o st at V in c e n n e s , on the lo w e r W a b a s h .26

B u t b lo c k in g a n y re sto ra tio n o f the a llia n c e w as the b lo o d o f the h u n d re d s

o f d e a d F o x an d M a s c o u te n s that sta in e d A lg o n q u ia n a n d F r e n c h h an d s.

W ith v e n g e fu l F o x w a rr io rs s tr ik in g a ll a lo n g th e la k e s , the O tta w as , H u ro n -

P e tu n s , an d S a u lte u rs d e m a n d e d F r e n c h c o o p e ra tio n in re n e w e d a ttack s on

the F o x . V a u d re u il, w h o w a s a b se n t in F r a n c e in 1 7 1 4 , la te r a sse rte d th at h is

in variab le p o lic y w a s to avo id In d ia n w a rs . H e h ad a lw ays so u g h t, h e sa id , to

“ re u n ite th e d iv id ed n atio n s to the e n d o f m a in ta in in g th e se p e o p le in u n ity ,”

an d C la u d e d e R am e z ay , w h o g o v e rn e d in h is a b se n c e , h o p e d to obtain

p e a c e w ith the F o x w ith o u t fig h tin g . B u t th e firs t stage o f F r e n c h m ed iatio n

w a s a p re p a ra tio n fo r w ar, n o t p e a c e . T h e y tr ie d to so o th e a n ew e sca la tio n

in the te n s io n s b e tw e e n the O ttaw as an d H u ro n -P e tu n s . T h e S ie u r de

V in c e n n e s m e d ia te d b e tw e e n the M ia m is an d W e as an d the P e o r ia s . F r e n c h

a llie s re so lv e d th e ir d iffe re n c e s o n ly to d e m an d F r e n c h a id a g a in st the F o x .

T h e F r e n c h la u n ch e d an in itia l e xp e d itio n ag a in st the F o x in 1 7 1 5 . It w a s a

fia sco . In 1 7 1 6 the S ie u r d e L o u v ig n y , a fte r m ed ia tin g d if fe r e n c e s b e tw e e n

the S a u lt e u r s an d th ose n a tio n s o f G r e e n B a y n o t a llie d w ith the F o x

th e m se lv e s , u n d e rto o k a se c o n d e x p e d it io n .27

I 6o The middle ground

26 For use o f English threat, see Vaudreuil to Duke of Orleans, Feb. 17 16 , N Y C D 9:868; Mémoire, 17 13 , AN, C 11A , v .3 , f. 36 3-6 5 . Zolrvany, Vaudreuil, 137 , 14 3 - 5 1 . For alloca­ tion of congé, see Etat des conges, 9 nov. 17 18 , AN, C i i A, v. 38. The congé now operated alongside a continuing system of trade concessions such as the one at Detroit, Conseil, dec. 17 17 , AN, C i 1 A, v. 37. By 17 15 , there were 20 soldiers at Michilimackinac, 10 more were ready to go to die Illinois country, and 10 others destined for Detroit. Ramezay to Minister, Nov, 7, 17 15 , W H C 16:336. For officers among Miamis and Illinois, see Vaudreuil to Minister, Sept. 6, 1 7 1 2 ,M P H C 33:56 1. For court approval, see Ministre à M. de Vaudreuil, 4 juillet 17 13 , P 4P Q , 1948-49, 2 2 t; Ramezay to Minister, Sept. 18, 1 7 1 1 , W H C 16 :301; Vaudreuil au Ministre, 16 sept. 17 14 , &4P Q , 19 4 7-4 8 , 266. For overall plan on posts, see Conseil, jan. 17 18 : Vaudreuil, 12 oct. 17 17 , AN, C 11A , v. 124; for withdrawal of com­ mander, Deliettes, from the post among the Illinois at Pimitoui, see Conseil, mars 1720, AN, C 11A , v. 4 1, f. 98. He also requested, but failed to receive, missionaries; see Conseil, jan. 17 18 : Demande de missionarie, AN, C 11A , v. 124. In 17 17 there were 3 Jesuits at Michilimackinac. There were also 2 missions among the Illinois, and at least plans for a mission on die Wabash. Conseil, 16 fcv. 17 17 , AN, C i 1 A, v. 123, f.366. For Chequamegon, see Vaudreuil to Council, Oct. 28, 17 19 , W H C 16:380. For E’ort Chartres, see Blasingham, “ Depopulation of the Illinois,” 261. For post on lower Wabash, see Frances Krauskopf (ed.), Ouiatanon Documents (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1955), 145.

27 For Vaudreuil’s claim, see Vaudreuil au Ministre, 25 oct. 1724, AN, C 1 1A , v. 46. For importance o f mediation in his activities in the West, see Conseil, n jan. 17 18 : Vaudreuil, 12 net. 17 17 , AN, C 11A , v. 124, f. 46, Vaudreuil rejected war for, among other reasons, being too expensive, Conseil, 28 mars 17 16 , AN, C 11A , v. 123, f. 144. For earlier mediation, see Ramezay to Minister, Sept. 18, 17 14 , W H C 16:307; Ramezay & Begon to Minister, Sept. 13 , 17 15 , W HC 16 :3 13 ; Ramezay and Begon to Minister, Nov. 7, 17 15 , W HC 1 6:333 — 34; Vaudreuil & Begon au Ministre, 20 sept. 17 14 , R A P Q 19 4 7-4 8 , 279; Conseil,

The alliance 16 1

A lth o u g h L o u v ig n y c o m m a n d e d an a rm y , h is in ten tio n in 1 7 1 6 w a s “ to try

to m ak e p e a c e w ith the F o x ,” n o t to c o n q u e r them . A y e a r e a r lie r , in a se rie s

o f b rillian t re p o rts to the co u rt , h e h ad e x a m in e d the lim its o f F r e n c h p o w e r

in th e W e st an d the d a n g e rs in vo lved in the u se o f m ilita ry fo rc e . C o m p e lle d

to re so rt to a rm s, L o u v ig n y h ad o rg a n iz e d a p e a c e m iss io n d isg u ise d a s an

arm y. H is o w n a llie s w e re o u trag e d w h e n , a fte r b rie fly b e s ie g in g the m a jo r

F o x v illa g e , he q u ic k ly n e g o tia ted a se ttle m e n t and o p e n e d trad e . M e d ia t io n

in th is in stan ce d isap p o in te d h is a llie s , b u t it a lso e sta b lish e d F r e n c h p r i­

m acy in a m a n n e r m ilita ry v ic to ry n e v e r c o u ld . P e a c e , h o w e v e r, w a s n e ve r

fin a l; it h ad co n stan tly to b e re n e w e d , an d in th is c a se it w a s n ot even

c o m p le te .28

T h e im m e d ia te o b je c ts o f m e d ia tio n an d the m a jo r o b sta c le s to p eace

a m o n g the A lg o n q u ia n s w e re the d e a d , w h o h ad to b e c o v e re d , b u rie d , and

fo rg o tte n , an d th e cap tive s . P r iso n e rs h ad to b e re tu rn e d o r a c k n o w le d g e d as

h a v in g a ssu m e d a n ew id en tity a m o n g th e ir cap to rs . T h e p e a c e L o u v ig n y

h ad e sta b lish e d h ad not c le a r ly se ttle d the statu s o f p r is o n e rs taken aw ay

fro m D e tro it b y the P e o r ia s in 1 7 1 1 . A n d b e c a u se th e F r e n c h h ad not

m ed ia te d th is is su e , fig h tin g so o n b ro k e o u t a lo n g th e Illin o is b o rd e r . F ir s t

the M a s c o u tc n s an d K ic k a p o o s an d th en th e F o x re n e w e d th e ir w a r w ith the

P e o r ia s w h o , th ey c la im e d , h ad n e v e r re tu rn e d the p r is o n e rs tak en at D e tro it

as th ey h ad p ro m ise d . T h e P e o r ia s re ta lia te d by to rtu rin g all the F o x they

ca p tu re d . In 1 7 2 1 , w h e n F a th e r C h a r le v o ix v is ited P im ito u i, h e e n te re d p ast 9

9 avril 17 17 , AN, C i 1 A, v. 123, f . 372. For Louvigny’s efforts, see Louvigny au Ministre, 30 oct. 17 15 , AN, C i 1 A, v. 35. For success among Illinois, Miamis, and Weas, see Conseil, jan. 17 18 : Vaudreuil, 12 oct. 17 17 , AN, C i 1 A, v. 124. For Ramezay and Algonquian pressure to pursue war and intertribal conflicts, sec Conseil, mai 17 13 , AN, C 11A , v. 123, f. 1 4 - 1 5 ; Ramezay and Bégon to Minister, Nov. 7, 17 15 , W HC 16:329, 333. For extracts, see Ramezay and Bégon to Minister, Sept. 13 and Sept. 16, 17 15 , W H C 16 :32 1.

28 For Louvigny’s criticisms of wars in the West, which he had already, in part, made verbally while in France, see Louvigny au Ministre, 9 sept. 17 15 , 20 oct. 17 15 , 30 oct. 17 15 , all in AN, C i iA , v. 35. Nicolas Perrot, by now largely ignored, shared these criticisms; see Perrot, Memoir, 266-68. For decision to go to war and lack of enthusiasm, see Vaudreuil & Bégon au Ministre, 20 sept. 17 14 , RAPQ 19 4 7-4 8 , 279-80; Louvigny au Ministre, 26 oct. 17 15 , AN, C 11A , v .35; Ministre à Vaudreuil & Bégon, 8 mai 17 14 , RAPQ 19 47-48 , 255. For plans, see Ramezay & Bégon to Minister, Sept. 13 and 16, 17 15 , W H C 16 :3 1 1 - 2 2 . For disaster, see Ramezay to Minister, Nov. 3, 17 15 , W HC 16:322, Ramezay & Bégon to Minister, Nov. 7, 17 15 , W HC 16 :32 7-2 8 , Louvigny au Ministre, 26 oct. 17 15 , AN, C 11A , v .35. See also Zoltvany, De Vaudreuil, 14 0 -4 2 . For Louvigny’s determination to secure peace, see Ramezay & Bégon to Minister, Nov. 7, 17 15 , W HC 16:328. For Council’s desire for peace, see To Be Laid Before the Council o f the Regency, Apr. 28, 17 16 , M P H C 33:573. For authorizarion o f campaign, see Mémoire du Roi, 15 juin 17 16 , R/ÎPQ 1947-48 , 296-99. For campaign, see Vaudreuil to Council o f Marine, Oct. 14, 17 16 , W IIC 16 :3 4 1-4 4 , Louvigny au Conseil, 14 oct. 17 16 , AN, C n A , v.36; for location of Fox village, see Wittry, “ Bell Site,” 3. For terms, see Louvigny au Conseil, 14 oct. 17 16 , AN, C n A , v.36. The expenses for the 17 15 and 17 16 expeditions were 27,563 livres; see Expenses, in Bégon to Council, Nov. 10, 17 2 1 , W H C 15 :4 0 0 -7 . For complaints see Charlevoix, Jo u rn a l, 2 : 1 0 - 1 1 .

the c h a rre d an d ro ttin g b o d ie s o f F o x c a p tiv e s still h a n g in g fro m the X -

sh a p e d s c a ffo ld s w h e re th e y h ad d ie d .29

T h e Illin o is b o rd e r b e c a m e an o p e n so re o f the a llian ce b e c a u se fro m the

lo w e r W a b a sh , n orth to th e Illin o is R iv e r , an d th en a lo n g the u p p e r

M is s is s ip p i h o stile re g io n a l b lo c s o f A lg o n q u ia n v illa g e rs c o n fro n te d e ach

o th e r w h ile L o u is ia n a an d C a n a d a c o m p e te d fo r p re e m in e n c e . A t issu e

b e tw e e n the tw o c o lo n ic s w a s the fu r trad e o f the u p p e r M is s is s ip p i. A lo n g

th is b o rd e r , it w a s no lo n g e r p a r tic u la r ly m e a n in g fu l to s p e a k o f “ the

F r e n c h .” T h e r e w e re Illin o is F r e n c h , w h o w e re n o w re s id e n ts o f L o u is ia n a ,

an d th e re w e re C a n a d ia n s . T h e i r in te re sts w e r e n o t the sa m e . F o x a ttack s on

tra d e rs fro m Illin o is , fa r fro m h u rtin g the C a n a d ia n s , ac tu a lly h e lp e d so lid ify

th e ir g ra sp on the b e a v e r trad e . D iv is io n s a m o n g the F r e n c h m a d e m ed ia tio n

d iffic u lt .30

T h e F r e n c h at the Illin o is e ve n tu a lly a c c u se d the C a n a d ia n s o f e n c o u ra g ­

in g F o x attack s u p o n th em in o rd e r to m o n o p o lize the fu r trad e , b u t the

p ro b le m w a s m o re c o m p lic a te d than th is. E v e n w h e n the C a n a d ia n s u n d e r ­

to o k n e g o tia tio n s in g o o d fa ith , th e ir in flu e n c e w as le sse n e d b y the w e a k n e ss

o f the F o x a llia n c e c h ie fs an d by the a c tio n s o f the Illin o is F r e n c h th e m ­

se lv e s . T h e first stag e o f the F o x w a rs h ad h ig h lig h te d the fa ilu re o f O n o n tio

to re c o n c ile h is c h ild re n . T h e se co n d stag e o f the F o x w a rs re v e a le d that

O n o n tio ’ s m e d ia tio n w a s u se le ss w ith o u t s tro n g a llia n ce c h ie fs , an d th is is

p re c ise ly w h a t the F o x an d th e I llin o is F r e n c h la c k e d .31

T h e s la u g h te r a t D e tro it an d iso la tio n fro m the F r e n c h d u r in g the p e rio d

o f im p e r ia l re tre n c h m e n t h ad p re v e n te d an y F o x le a d e r fro m b e c o m in g an

e ffe c tiv e a llia n ce c h ie f. O u a c h a la , the p rin c ip a l F o x a llia n ce c h ie f o f the

p e r io d , w a s a m an w h o b y 1 7 2 0 w a s ig n o re d an d d istru ste d p re c ise ly b e c a u se

h e se e m e d “ too w e ll a ffe c te d to w ard the F r e n c h .” H e m ad e n o p re te n se o f

c o n tro llin g e ve n ts. In 1 7 2 0 he to ld G o v e r n o r d e V a u d re u il that th e y o u n g

16 4 The middle ground

29 For renewed fighting, Vaudreuil to Council, Oct. 30, 17 18 , W H C 16 :377; Vaudreuil au Ministre, 25 oct. 1724, AN, C i i A, v. 46; Vaudreuil to Boisbriant, Aug. 17 , 1724, W HC 16 :442-44 ; Ligncry to Boisbriant, Aug. 22, 1724, W HC 16:445; Villedoné to du Tisne, Oct. 4, 1724, W H C 16 :448-49; Charlevoix, Jo u rn a l, 2 :19 8 -20 2 ; Chassin to Father Bobé, 1 July 1722, M P A 2 :276 -77 ; Speeches of Foxes, Sept. 6, 1722, W H C 16 :4 18 -2 2 . For Sioux involvement, see Lettre de Bourgmont à MM. les Commissaires . . . 1 1 jan. 1724, Margry, Découvertes, 6 :396-97.

,0 For Louisiana-Canada conflict, see Conseil, jan. 17 18 : Vaudreuil, 12 oct. 17 17 , AN, C i 1 A, v. 124. W. J . Eccles, Canadian Frontier (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1974), 148; Vaudreuil had to withdraw his commander, Deliettes, from the post among the Illinois at Pimitoui; Conseil, mars 1720, AN, C i iA , v. 4 1, f. 98. For complaints, see Extrait, Vaudreuil, 4 nov. 1720, Margry, Découvertes, 6 :5 1 0 - 1 1 ; Vaudreuil to Minister, Oct. n , 1723, W HC 16:430. For charges against Canadians by Louisiana officials and denials, see Superior Council of Louisiana to General Directors of the Company of the Indies, Feb. 27, 1725, M PA 2 :405-6 ; Vaudreuil to Minister, Oct. 1 1 , 1723 , W HC 16 :4 33 -37 , Du Tisne to Vaudreuil,

Jan, 14, 1725, W HC 16 :451; Missionaries to Du Tisne, Jan. 10, 1725, W H C 16:456.

The alliance

m en h ad lo st th e ir se n se s , an d h e w o u ld b e fo rc e d to a b an d o n p e a c e w ith the

Illin o is . H e th en p artic ip a te d in the g re a t attack o f the F o x an d th e ir

a llie s that n o t on ly fo rc e d the P e o r ia s to a b a n d o n the re se ttle d v illa g e at

S ta rv e d R o c k b u t to le av e P im ito u i as w ell. W h e n , in 1 7 2 2 , he and o th e r

c id e rs su b se q u e n tly a g re e d n o t to p e rm it fu rth e r F o x a ttack s, h e cau tio n ed

V a u d re u il that: “ Y o u k n o w w e ll that c h ie fs lik e u s , a lth o u g h th ey m ay be

w e ll-d is p o s e d , are sc a rc e ly lis te n e d to .” L a t e r , in th e m id 1 7 2 0 s , w h e n the

F r e n c h re n e w e d n e g o tia tio n s ag a in , O u a c h a la p riv a te ly to ld the F r e n c h that

w ith o u t a m iss io n ary an d an o ff ic e r w ith a sm a ll g a rr iso n a m o n g the F o x -

that is , F r e n c h c h ie fs to a ss is t h im - h e c o u ld n o t co n tro l the y o u n g m en .

U ltim ate ly the F o x th e m se lv e s sp lit u p in to p e a c e an d w a r fa c tio n s that by

1 7 2 8 h ad p h y sica lly se p a ra te d fro m e ac h o th er.

T h e P e o r ia s , too , w e re d iffic u lt to m a n a g e . T h e y w e re in L o u is ia n a an d

b e yo n d O n o n tio ’s g ra sp . T h e y c o n s id e re d th e m se lv e s so co m p le te ly r e ­

m o ved fro m C a n a d ia n p ro te c tio n th at in 1 7 3 1 they p etitio n e d th e g o v e rn o r

o f N e w F r a n c e to o n ce m o re c o u n t th em a m o n g h is c h ild re n . N e c e s s a r ily

th e P e o r ia s ca m e to re ly fo r p ro te c tio n on th e ir ties w ith the o th e r Illin o is

tr ib e s an d th e F r e n c h o f the Illin o is se ttlem e n ts . T h e i r lin k s w ith the F r e n c h

o f I llin o is w e re ac tu a l, n ot fic tive , k in sh ip tics . T h e r e w as e x te n siv e in te r­

m arriag e b e tw e e n the C h r is t ia n I llin o is and F r e n c h v o y a g e u rs , so ld ie rs ,

an d h ab itan ts , p artic u la rly in th e K a s k a s k ia re g io n w h e re F r e n c h v illag e s

ad jo in e d Illin o is v illa g e s . In te rm a rr ia g e in vo lve d the F r e n c h in th e q u a rre ls

o f th e ir k in sp e o p le . T h is in v o lve m e n t m ig h t h ave p ro v id e d an o p p o rtu n ity

fo r m ed ia tio n i f the F r e n c h , a c tin g as fa th e rs , re c o n c ile d th e ir q u a rre lin g

c h ild re n . In stead the Illin o is F r e n c h , b o th m ilita ry an d c iv ilian , s id ed w ith

the Illin o is ag a in st th e ir e n e m ie s . T h e y d id n ot act as c h ie fs . W h e n g iven F o x

p riso n e rs b y the Illin o is , the F r e n c h d id not se n d th em b a c k to th e ir o w n

v illa g e s as th e y sh o u ld h ave i f th ey w ish e d to m ed iate a p e a c e ; in stead th ey

e ith e r b u rn e d the ca p tiv e s o r b ro k e th e ir h e a d s . T h e y th u s e n su re d F o x

v e n g e a n c e an d re in fo rc e d the b e l ie f that the L o u is ia n a F r e n c h w e re a

d iffe re n t p eo p le fro m th e C a n a d ia n F r e n c h w h o so u g h t to e n d the w a r .32 33

32 Vaudreuil to Council, Oct. 22, 1720, WHC 16:393. For quotation from Ouachala, see Speeches of Foxes, Sept. 6, 1722, WHC 16:420; Memoir, 1726, WHC 16:466; Memoir Concerning the Peace, WHC 3:148; Concerning the Foxes, 1727, WHC 17:4, 6. Du Tisne also contended that the chiefs were “ not masters of their young men” ; letter o f Du Tisne, Jan. 14, 1725, WHC 16 :4 5 0 -5 1 ; and de Longueil complained of no authority in Fox villages, Reply o f . . . De I.ongueil, 1726, WHC 3:166. Indeed, Ouachala could not stop the attacks; see Journal of D ’Artaguiette, in Newton D. Mereness, Travels, in the American Colonies (New York: Macmillan, 19 16), 7 7 -8 2 . For a speech by the Fox chief, 8ekina8c, disavowing the young men and stating his willingness to abandon the war faction, Parolle de 8ekina8e, n.d., AN, C i 1 A, v. 49. The figure “ 8” in 8ekina8e is pronounced “ dh.” For Fox factions in 1728 and attacks by war faction, Extraits des lettres écrites à Mons . . . Beauharnois, 1 & 14 juillet, AN, C 11A , v. 50.

33 For an otherwise excellent account of French villages in Louisiana that utterly ignores their

l &5

1 66

T h e in ab ility o f F r e n c h and A lg o n q u ia n c h ie fs to se c u re m e d ia tio n m e a n t

that th e c h o ru s o f g h o sts d e m a n d in g re v e n g e , p a rtia lly s tilled b y L o u v ig n y ,

b e g a n to b e h e a rd o n c e m o re . In 1 7 2 4 a M ic h ig a m e a c h ie f n a m e d Jo u a c h in

d e liv e re d a lo n g an d m o v in g re c ita l o f I llin o is lo sse s . T h e d e a d - F r e n c h

an d I llin o is ; m en , w o m e n , an d c h ild re n - w e re lis te d in a lm o st H o m e r ic

c a d e n c e s . T h e i r n a m e s, th e tim es an d c irc u m sta n c e s o f th e ir d e a th s , an d the

tre a c h e ry o f the F o x all re m a in e d fre sh . N e w g h o sts , to o , ca lle d to the F o x .

T h e c h ie f a m o n g th e m w as M in c h ila y , a n e p h e w o f O u a c h a la ’ s an d a

re la tio n o f th e S a u k s \ H is g ru e so m e d e ath at the to rtu re stake h a d b ro u g h t

F o x , S a u k s , S io u x , W in n e b a g o s , M a s c o u te n s , an d K ic k a p o o s into the fie ld

to a v e n g e h im .34

T h e F r e n c h in Illin o is a c c u se d G o v e rn o r d e V a u d re u il o f d o in g n o th in g to

stem th is m o u n tin g to ll o f d e ad b e c a u se the c lo s in g o f th e u p p e r M is s is s ip p i

to I llin o is tra d e rs se rv e d C a n a d ia n in tere sts . B u t G o v e rn o r de V a u d re u il, in

fact, a tte m p te d m e d ia tio n until h is d eath in 1 7 2 5 . H e s in c e re ly d e s ire d

to avo id a w a r w h ic h w o u ld c a u se c o n s id e ra b le e x p e n se an d in terru p t

c o m m e rc e . H is s u c c e s s o r , G o v e r n o r d e B e a u h a rn o is , p e rsu a d e d that the

B r it ish w e re a t th e ro o t o f the F o x a ttack s that h ad b e g u n to take an

in c re a s in g to ll o f F r e n c h m e n , a b a n d o n e d m e d ia tio n an d d e c id e d to lau n ch

an u ltim ate ly u n su c c e ss fu l e xp e d itio n u n d e r th e S ie u r d e I d g n ery ag a in st the

F o x in 1 7 2 8 . T h is attack m ark e d a re so rt to fo rc e w e lc o m e d b y th e still

n u m e ro u s A lg o n q u ia n e n e m ie s o f th e F o x . T h e P o ta w a to m is , Illin o is ,

S a u lte u rs , H u ro n -P e tu n s , and O ttaw as e a g e r ly co o p e ra te d w ith the F r e n c h ,

an d g ra d u a lly v irtu a lly e v e ry o th e r n atio n o f th e pays d ’en haut e n lis te d in the

w a r th at w o u ld g o o n u n til 1 7 3 9 . 33

The middle ground

connections with Indians, see Winstanley Briggs, “ Le Pays des Illinois,” W illiam and M ary Q uarterly, 3rd series, 47 (Jan. 1990): 3 0 -5 6 . Charlevoix, jo u rn a l, 2 :221; Lignery to De Siette (sic), June 19, 1726, W H C 3 :15 5 -5 6 . For Louisiana and Canadian French as different peoples, Chaumuer à M. Beauharnois, 17 juin 1730, AN, C i 1 A, v. 52, f. 18 0 -8 2 ; Letter of Dutisne, Jan. 14, 1725, W H C 16 :451. For intermarriage, see discussion in Chapter 3 and also Mémoire concernant les Ilinois, 1732, AN, F3, v. 24, f. 235, which indicates the opportunities intermarriage created for conflict as well as cooperation. The Illinois ap­ parently valued residence near the French because they realized that it would inevitably involve the French in their quarrels with their enemies; sec Boullenger & Mercier au Ministre, 28 avril 1733 , AN, C 13A , v. 17. To be fair to the French, any failure to support the Illinois in these conflicts led to insults and attacks on the French; see Bienville au Ministre, 22 avril 1734, AN, C 13A , v. 18, f. 142.

34 Speech o f Illinois, 1725, W HC 16 :456 -6 3. For Illinois position, see Missionaries to du Tisne, Jan. 10, 1725, W H C 16 :4 53-55 ; Du Tisne to Vaudreuil, Jan. 14, 1725, W HC 16 :4 5 0 -5 1 . For Minchüay’s death, see Speeches o f Fox, Sept, 6, 1722, W HC 16 :4 18 -2 2 . For attacks, also see Vaudreuil to Minister Oct. 1 1 , 1723, W H C 16:434; Journal of D ’Artaguiette, in Mereness, Travels in the Am erican Colonies, 7 1 .

35 The French believed they had secured peace with the Fox not only in 17 16 , but in 17 19 , Vaudreuil to Council, Oct. 28, 17 19 , W H C 16 :3 8 0 -8 1. In 1723 the Fox sought allies against the French, Fr. Aubrey to Vaudreuil, Oct. 3, 1723, W HC 16 :4 3 1-3 2 , but in 1724, the French were again confident o f peace, De Lignery to Boisbriant, Aug. 23, 1724, W HC

The alliance

O n o n tio d e p e n d e d o n h is “ g o o d c h ild re n ” to su b d u e th e F o x , an d h is

d e p e n d e n c e in c re a se d w h e n ju st to the so u th o f I llin o is , in L o u is ia n a p ro p e r ,

the N a tc h e z ro se up an d d e stro y e d the F r e n c h se ttled a m o n g th em and th en

fled to the C h ic k a sa w s w h o w e re su p p o rte d b y B r it ish tra d e rs . T h e F re n c h

n o w h ad a se co n d c o n flic t - the C h ic k a sa w w a rs - o n th e ir h a n d s , and th is

fu rth e r in c re ase d th e ir n e e d fo r A lg o n q u ia n w a rr io rs . A n d w h ile th ese w ars

ra g e d , the B r it ish o v e rtu re s to the A lg o n q u ia n s - o v e rtu re s the w a r w a s

su p p o se d to p re v e n t - a c tu a lly in c re a se d : first fro m A lb a n y , th en O sw e g o ,

an d u ltim ate ly a lo n g th e O h io . F r e n c h a llie s , an d n o t th e F o x , m o st active ly

p u rsu e d co n ta cts w ith the B r it ish . B y the 1 7 2 0 s O ttaw as, H u ro n -P e tu n s ,

an d C h ip p e w a s a ll h ad fa irly re g u la r co n tacts w ith th e B r it ish at A lb a n y an d

O sw e g o . T h e M ia m is an d W e a s by the 1 7 3 0 s h ad d iv e rte d n e a rly a ll o f th eir

trad e to O sw e g o o r to B r it is h trad e rs on the O h io , an d the S ie u r de •j /

V in c e n n e s fe a re d that the F r e n c h m igh t lo se th e ir h o ld on the W ab ash .

In stead o f o v e ra w in g the loyal c h ild re n o f O n o n tio w ith F r e n c h m ilitary

16:444-46. For Vaudreuil’s position, see Vaudreuil au Ministre, 25 oct. 1724, AN, C i 1 A, v. 46; Memoir, 1726, W HC 16 :463-68 ; Letter of Beauharnois, Oct. 1 , 1726, W HC 3:159 . As late as 1727, Beauharnois was confident of peace, Beauharnois to Minister, May 18, 1727, W HC 16 :468-70. For continuing attacks, see Letter of Beauharnois, Oct. 1, 1726, W HC 3:160; Pcrier & De Chaise to the Directors, Apr. 22, 1727, M P A 2:539; letter of Du Tisne, Jan. 14, 1725, W HC 16 :4 5 0 -5 1 ; Beauharnois au Ministre, 25 sept. 1727, AN, C i 1 A, v.49; Bearharnois {sic) to De Siette (sic), Aug. 20, 1727, W HC 3:16 3. The death of their chiefs in this letter apparently refers to Ouachala who had been seen as the leading advocate of peace and who does not appear in the records hereafter, Extrait d’une lettre de M. M e r c ie . . .3 i jan. 1728, AN, C i 1 A, v. 50, f. 308.

In opting for war, Beauharnois, as was customary, blamed the trouble on the English, but although by this time the Fox were, not surprisingly, negotiating with the Iroquois for refuge and an alliance, and anti-French belts may very well have been circulating, there is no evidence that the war, which followed years of tension, was due to English instigation. Beauharnois and DuPuy to Minister, Oct. 25, 1727, W HC 16 :4 76 -77 ; Guerre des Renards, 1728, AN, C 11A , v. 50, f, 38 3-8 6 ; Louis XV to Beauharnois and DuPuy, N Y C D 9: 10 0 4 -5 ; Projet de Guerre (misdated 1737 , actually, 1727), AN, C 11A , v. 67, f. 204-6 ; Reflexions sur la lettre de M. P e rie r ...d u 15 aoust 1729, Indian Documents, Chicago Historical Society. For de Lignery’s attack, see Lignery to Beauharnois, Aug. 30, 1728, W HC 17 :3 1 - 3 5 . For report critical of de Lignery, Extraits, Beauharnois & D ’Aigremont, 25 jan. 1729, AN, C n A , v. 5 1 , f. 446-49. For Algonquian support and solicitation of war, Guerre des Renards, 1728, AN, C n A , v. 50, f. 38 3-8 6 .

36 For the general background to the Chickasaw wars, see Richard White, The Roots o f Dependency: Subsistence, Environm ent, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), 5 2 - 6 1 . For a brief summary, see Arrell Gibson, The Chickasaws (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971), 3 9 -5 7 . For war parties against Chickasaws and Fox, see Beauharnois and Hocquart to Minister, Oct. 1, 1732, W HC 17 :16 1 ; Boishébert to Beauharnois, 24 July 1733 , M P H C 34:108. For list of parties from one area, the Poste de Pianquichias, see AN, C n A , v .67, f. 2 12 ff.

For Oswego and trade with English, see Chapter 2; also Réponse au mémoire du Roy, 13 oct. 1735, AN, C 11A , v. 63. For fear o f English capturing trade of pays d'en haul, Beauharnois and D ’Aigremont au Ministre, 1 oct. 1728, AN, C i iA, v. 50, f. 27; also Projet pour s’opposer a l’agrandissement des Anglois en C a n a d a ..., 15 oct. 1729, AN, C .11A , v .5 1 .

1 67

1 68

p o w e r , the w a r w ith the F o x b re d u n re st. A lth o u g h b itte r e n e m ie s o f the F o x

an d im p atien t at e a r lie r re stra in t, the a llie s p ro v e d u n p re d ic ta b le o n c e w a r

w ith the F o x w a s d e c la re d . T h e g re a te r the v ic to r ie s th ey an d th e F r e n c h

w o n , the m o re A lg o n q u ia n e n th u sia sm d w in d le d . In 1 7 3 0 the F r e n c h an d

th e ir a llie s trap p e d o v e r a th o u san d F o x in the I llin o is co u n try . T h e F o x w e re

a tte m p tin g to fle e to the Iro q u o is fo r re fu g e . In th e e n su in g s la u g h te r

so m e w h e re b e tw e e n tw o h u n d re d an d th re e h u n d re d F o x w a rr io rs d ied

a lo n g w ith tw o h u n d re d w o m e n an d c h ild re n . A n o th e r fo u r h u n d re d to five

h u n d re d w o m e n an d c h ild re n w e re tak en p r iso n e rs an d d istrib u te d a m o n g

the v ic to rs . G o v e r n o r de B e a u h a m o is b r ie fly th o u g h t he d e tec ted s ig n s o f a

n ew o rd e r , “ a su b m iss io n an d re s ig n a tio n to the w ill o f the K in g ” b ro u g h t

ab o u t b y the fig h tin g . H e th o u g h t n o w th at the a b so lu te d e stru ctio n o f the

F o x w a s p o ss ib le , a d e stru c tio n , he c la im e d , so m e o f h is a llie s d e s ire d . H e

had a c c e d e d to th e ir d e m a n d s ; he w o u ld fig h t fo r g e n o c id e .3 /

B e a u h a m o is sh o u ld h ave lo o k e d m o re c lo se ly at th e e ven ts su rro u n d in g

the s ie g e fo r th ey re v e a le d the ta n g le d d e m a n d s o f k in sh ip p o lit ic s an d the

d iffic u lty o f d e stro y in g the F o x . T h e F r e n c h a llia n ce h a d b e e n re s to re d in

la rg e p a rt b e c a u se th e F o x p o se d a d u a l th reat. T h e i r a ttacks th re a te n e d

o th e r A lg o n q u ia n s , an d th e ir p o te n tia l u n io n w ith the B r it ish th re a te n e d the

F r e n c h . F o r y e a rs m o st A lg o n q u ia n s h ad u rg e d fo rc e fu l m e a su re s aga in st

th e F o x w h ile th e F r e n c h h ad p u rs u e d m ed ia tio n . W h e n the F r e n c h fin a lly

u n d e rto o k the fo rc e fu l m e a su re s u rg e d b y th e ir a llie s a n d e m b a rk e d o n a

ca m p a ig n o f g e n o c id e ag a in st th e F o x , h o w e v e r, th e u n ite d fro n t a g a in st that

n ation c o lla p se d . T h e F r e n c h n o w se e m e d a g re a te r d a n g e r than the F o x .

The middle ground

3' The French were not initially determined on genocide. They were still willing to make peace with the Fox following the failure o f de Lignery, Guerre des Renards, 21 mars 1729, AN, C i iA , v .5 1 . 4 0 5 -7 ; Beauhamois to Minister, Aug. 17, 1729, WHC 17 :6 5-6 6 . The French apparently pressed the war from fear o f appearing weak before allies who demanded that the Fox be subdued, Sauvages Renards, 1728, AN, C 1 1A , v. 50, f. 4 0 2 -3 , De Noyan Memoir: War Against the Fox, 17 3 1 , WHC 1 7 : 1 2 1 - 2 2 . Suggestions that the Renards be totally destroyed were made as early as 1727. The king, however, apparendy did not approve the decision to destroy the Renards until 1732 , Mémoire du Roy, 29 avril 1727, AN, C i 1 A, v.50, f. 36 8-70 . King’s Memoir, 1732 , WHC 17 :15 5 . The French decision for extermina­ tion apparendy arose from French successes in 1730 against the Fox. For new order, see Beauhamois & Hocquart au Ministre, 12 oct. 17 3 1 , AN, C i 1 A, v. 54, f. 155. Orders “ not to leave one o f the race alive in the upper country,” Beauhamois to Minister, July 1, 1733, WHC 17 :18 3 . For allies’ desire to destroy Fox, see Canada, Guerre de Renards, AN, C i 1 A, v.50, f.383. Beauhamois to Minister, June 24, 1730, WHC 5 :10 6 -7 ; Beauhamois au Ministre, 23 mai 17 3 1 , AN, C 11A , v. 54; Sur les sauvages, Renards, 1733 , AN, C t iA , v. 60, f. 4 36 -38 . Beauhamois to Minister, Oct. 10, 17 3 1 , WHC 17 :14 8 ; (Detroit Indians) De Noyan Memoir, War against the Fox, 17 3 1 , WHC 1 7 : 1 2 1 - 2 2 ; (Michilimackinac Indians) Sauvages Renards, 17 3 1 , AN, C i iA , v. 56. For disastrous defeat in Illinois o f those Fox who sought refuge among the Iroquois, see Deschaillons to Beauhamois, Aug. 22, 1730, WHC 17 :10 0 -2 ; Beauhamois & Hocquart to Minister, Nov. 2, 1730, with Letter o f De Villicrs, WHC 17 :10 9 - 18 ; Hocquart to Minister, Jan. 15 , 17 3 1 , WHC 17 :12 9 -3 0 (best casualty figures); Illinois, Beauhamois to Minister, Oct, 10, 17 3 1 , WHC 17 :148.

The alliance

T h e Illin o is , the H u r o n -P e tu n s , an d the m iss io n In d ia n s co n tin u e d to

p u rsu e the w a r, b u t the Illin o is g re w in c re a s in g ly fe a r fu l o f the F r e n c h and

h o stile to w ard th em . R u m o rs sp re a d a m o n g the C a h o k ia s , K a s k a s k ia s , an d

M ic h ig a m e a s that they w o u ld be th e n e x t F r e n c h v ic tim s. T h e F re n c h an d

th e ir a llie s sw itch e d ro le s . M o s t A lg o n q u ia n s in c re a s in g ly u rg e d m ed ia tio n

w h ile the F r e n c h re so rte d to fo rc e . F a c e d w ith O n o n tio the a v e n g e r , the •in

A lg o n q u ia n s d e m a n d e d the re tu rn o f O n o n tio the m ed ia to r.

T h e F o x m e m o ry o f th is p e r io d , e m b o d ie d in ta les re c o rd e d m o re th an a

c e n tu ry la ter , c a p tu re d a s im ila r te n s io n b e tw e e n the d e m a n d s fo r m ed iatio n

m ad e by c h ie fs an d th e d a n g e rs p re se n te d b y y o u n g m en e n a m o re d o f w ar,

k illin g , an d d eath . T h e ta les ab o u t W h ite -R o b e , o r W â p a sa ly a , a n am e that

b e lo n g s to th e F o x c la n o f the F o x , a sc r ib e the d isa s te rs that b e fe ll the F o x to

W h ite -R o b e ’s in ab ility to cu rb h is o w n taste fo r v io le n c e an d d eath . C h ie fs

m ad e d istin ctio n s b e tw e e n a llie s an d e n e m ie s ; fo r W h ite -R o b e all o u ts id e rs

w e re e n e m ie s . In d e e d , a m o n g o th e r p o ss ib le re a d in g s , the ta les a re texts on

c h ie fta in sh ip an d the c o n s e q u e n c e s o f its fa ilu re . W h ite -R o b e w a s a m an w h o

38 For sympathy of victorious Algonquians for Fox, see Sauvages Renards, 13 fev. 17 3 1 , AN, C l 1 A, v. 56, f. 322; account o f Sauks supplying them with food during the siege in Illinois, Victory over the Foxes, W1IC 1 7 : 1 1 1 - 1 2 . De Villiers reported that “ our tribes were very anxious to spare the Renards lives,” Letter of De Villiers, 1730, f i77C 17 :1 16 . For redemption o f captives, see Beauhamois to Minister, Oct. 15 , 1732, H77C 17 :16 7 -6 8 ; Beauhamois to Minister, May 1, 1733, WHC 17 :17 2 . For belief that all French allies secretly wanted Fox to survive and aided them, see State o f Canada in 1730, Noyan, M P77C 33:74, 82. For Sauks defending Fox, see Beauhamois & Hoequart to Minister, Nov. n , 1733, WHC 17 :18 8 - 9 1 ; Beauhamois to Minister, Oct. 5, 1734, WHC 17 :200-4 .

The English encouraged the Senecas to grant the Fox refuge, but they did not instigate the request; see Minutes of Commissioners of Indian Affairs, Nov. 23, 1730, NYCD 5 :9 12 - 13 . The French by the early 1730s were seriously concerned with the loyalty o f the Illinois, who had urged war on the Fox, and with that of the Wabash villagers. Mémoire concernant les Ilinois, AN, F3, v. 24, f. 235; Vincennes au Ministre, mars 1733, AN, C 13A , vT 17, f,259; Beauhamois to Maurepas, May 18, 1733, MPA 6 :14 - 15 ; De Loubouey au Ministre, 20 mai 1733 , AN, C t3A , v. 17, f. 226; Bienville au Ministre, 22 avril 1734, AN, C 13A , v. 18, f. 142. The French encouraged the Peorias to resettle Pimitoui in part to remove them from the French at the Illinois, king to Bienville, Feb. 2, 1732, MPA 3 :555-56 . For threat of revolt, see Les P. P. Boullcnger and Mercier au Ministre, 25 août, 1733, AN, C 13A , v. 17. For fear of Illinois, see St. Ange à?, n.d. 1733 , AN, C 13A , v. 17, f. 248. Les Peres Boullenger & Mercier au Ministre, 25 avril 1733 , AN, C 13A , v. 17. The defeat o f the Fox allowed the Peoria and Cahokia to reoccupy Starved Rock and Pimitoui in 1733, Les P. P. Boullenger and Mercier au Ministre, 28 avril 1733, AN, C 13A , v. 17 . This movement and mediation along with the arrival of a strong garrison quieted the Illinois, Beauhamois and Hoequart au Ministre, 7 oct. 1734, AN, C 11A , v. 6 1, f. 97; Bienville au Ministre, 22 avril 1734, AN, C 13 AN, v. 18, f. 142.

Mission Indians and Hurons continued to strike the Fox in 1 7 3 1 - 3 2 , Boishebert to Beauhamois, Feb. 28, 1732, WHC 17 :14 8 -5 2 ; For mission Indians’ determination to continue war, see Canada, Sauvages Renards, 9 janvier 1736, AN, C i iA , v. 66. For Illinois attacks, see Extrait d’une lettre ecritte par le Sr. Douville, 5 juillet 17 3 1 , AN, C 11A , v. 54, f. 426. A later attack by Detroit Hurons, Potawatomis, and Ottawas turned into peace negotiations, Extrait de la lettre du Sr. de Boishébert. . . à M. le Marquis de Beauhamois, 7 nov. 1732, AN, C i iA , v. 57, f. 345.

169

17 0

fa ile d to act as a c h ie f; in stead o f m e d ia tin g an d a v o id in g d isp u te s , he

p ro v o k e d th e m ; in ste a d o f p re se rv in g p e a c e , he so u g h t p e rp e tu a l w a r ;

in stead o f p ro te c tin g h is p e o p le fro m m is fo rtu n e , he n e a rly d e stro y e d th em .

In o n e v e rs io n he w a s the so n o f a g re a t m an ito u se n t to p ro te c t a F o x to w n ,

b u t in ste a d he w en t to w a r an d s la y e d p e o p le . H e n o lo n g e r h e e d e d “ w h at he

h ad b e e n to ld b y h is fa th e r .” In b o th v e rs io n s o f the ta le he w a s a m an w h o ,

d e sp ite h is statu s a s c h ie f, co n tin u a lly k illed s tra n g e rs w h o cam e in to F o x

v illa g e s , an a b so lu te v io la tio n o f the c h ie f ’ s d u ty to ex ten d h o sp ita lity an d

p ro te c tio n .

W h ite -R o b e even k illed the F r e n c h w h e n th e y c a m e a m o n g the F o x .

W h e n he sp a re d th em , he d id so o n ly to u se th em as b a it fo r o th e rs se e k in g

re v e n g e . In o n e sto ry h e s lic e d o f f the e a rs , n o se s , an d h an d s o f tw o

p r iso n e rs an d se n t th em b a ck to th e ir c o m ra d e s . “ A fe w m o re o f yo u sh o u ld

c o m e ,” h e sa id to th em . A n d w h e n the F r e n c h cam e ag a in st the F o x w ith

th e ir s o ld ie rs an d a llie s , the F o x k illed m o re . T h is is w h y the “ R e d - E a r t h s

[that is , the F o x ] w e re a ssa ile d an d e n c o m p a sse d ab o u t b y all the n a tio n s .”

In a n o th e r v e rs io n , the F o x h ad a g re a t c o n ju re r ab le to p u t e n e m ie s to

s le e p , an d he d id th is, a llo w in g the F o x to fle e th e ir c a m p s. W h e n o ve rtak e n ,

o n e g ro u p b u ilt a s to c k a d e d fo rt. F r o m th at fo rt, firs t the o ld m en an d th en

th e y o u n g w en t out, an d fe w e r an d fe w e r re tu rn e d each tim e. F in a lly

W h ite -R o b e w a s n o lo n g e r w illin g to fig h t; u n k n o w n to h im , a P e o r ia h ad

d re a m e d o f h is c a p tu re . “ L e t u s b e tak en c a p tiv e ,” he sa id . W h ite -R o b e

b ro k e th e b o w s o f h is fr ie n d s , w h o p ro te ste d , te llin g h im that he h ad c a u se d

the w a r an d n o w h e re fu se d to fight.

T h e P e o r ia ca p tu re d W h ite -R o b e an d b o u n d h im . “ A re yo u h u n g ry ,

W h it e -R o b e ,” h e w a s a sk e d . “ Y e s , ” sa id the cap tive . F ir s t th ey s lic e d aw ay

th e fle sh o f h is th ig h , ro a ste d it, an d fed it to h im ; an d th en th ey s lic e d an d

ro a ste d th e fle sh o f h is c a lv e s ; an d th e n , a ll h is f le sh . A n d th ey b u rn e d h is

b o n e s . W h e n th e y w e re a ll b u rn e d u p , an o ld P e o r ia sa id , “ ‘ W h ite -R o b e , yo u

sh a ll b u rn to g e th e r w ith y o u r to w n .’ ‘ O h , no it is w ith y o u r to w n th at I sh a ll

b u m , ’ the b o n e s o f W h ite -R o b e r e p lie d .” A n d th e te rr ifie d P e o r ia s n e a rly

c lu b b e d the o ld m an to d e a th .39

T h e v irtu e s o f a w a r le a d e r w e re n o t the v irtu e s o f a ch ie f. W ith o u t tru e

c h ie fs , th e w a r le a d e r ’ s c o u ra g e an d cru e lty in d e stro y in g e n e m ie s w o u ld a lso

d e stro y h is o w n p e o p le . F o x le g e n d an d m em o ry , an d in d e e d the actu a l

h is to iy o f the p e r io d , re v e a l the re p e a te d fa ilu re to fin d c h ie fs w h o co u ld

c h e c k the W h ite -R o b e s , w h o c o u ld c o v e r the d e ad an d re c o n c ile the liv in g .

T h e A lg o n q u ia n d iv is io n o f le a d e rsh ip so o b v io u s in the d iv is io n b e tw e e n

The middle ground

39 William Jones, Fox Texts: Publications o f the American Ethnological Society (Leiden: The Netherlands, 1907), 9 - 3 1 . This summary represents a combination of the two texts.

The alliance

w ar c h ie fs an d c iv il c h ie fs b e c a m e , to a g re a t d e g re e , im m a n e n t in the

a llian ce itse lf. F o r v io le n ce by the a llian ce to b e le g itim ate , it h a d to be

d irected o u ts id e . W h en o th e r A lg o n q u ia n s c e a se d to d e fin e the F o x as

o u tsid e , then O n o n tio sh o u ld h ave stayed the v io le n c e . W h e n he d id n ot, he

w a s n o d iffe re n t fro m W h ite -R o b e .

T h e F r e n c h attem p t to m ain ta in a p o lic y o f fo rc e a fte r m an y o f th e ir a llie s

o n ce m o re so u g h t to n u m b e r the F o x w ith in the a llia n ce , c o n d e m n e d F r e n c h

o ffic ia ls to n e a rly a d e c a d e o f fru stra tio n fo llo w in g the v ic to ry o f 1 7 3 0 . T h e

F o x , u n lik e e n e m ie s o f the a llia n ce o u ts id e the pays d ’en haut, h ad re la tiv es

an d fr ie n d s a m o n g the F r e n c h a llie s . T h e s e p eo p le a lw ays fo rm e d a laten t

p r o -F o x fac tio n . W h e n the F o x w e re s tro n g an d a g g re ss iv e , th e se fa c tio n s

w e re too w e a k to d o m in ate th e ir v illa g e s . F o r e xa m p le , W ilam e k , a le a d in g

c h ie f o f the P o taw ato m is , w a s the o ffs p r in g o f a m a rr ia g e b e tw e e n a S a u k

an d a F o x , an d h e h a d , in tu rn , m a rr ie d a m o n g the P o taw ato m is . In 1 7 1 2 ,

a rg u in g ag a in st an O ttaw a c h ie f fro m M ic h ilim a c k in a c , K 8 ta 8 ilib o e , he h ad

tried u n su c c e ss fu lly to re sto re p e a c e b e tw e e n the F o x , on the o n e h a n d , and

the P o taw ato m is and F r e n c h , o n the o th e r. W ith the o u tb reak o f w a r,

h o w e v e r, ties s u c h as th o se o f W ila m e k d id n o t van ish . T h e p re v a ilin g

sen tim en t a m o n g w a rr io rs in a v illa g e m ig h t b e a n t i-F o x , b u t p r o - F o x

w a rr io rs m ig h t w a r aga in st th em in the h o p e s o f sa v in g th eir ow n re la tiv es . In

the fig h tin g o f 1 7 1 1 , fo r e xam p le , w h ile so m e w a rr io rs b e s ie g e d the F o x ,

o th e rs re sc u e d th e ir re la tiv e s fro m the F o x fo rt. D u r in g the s ie g e o f 1 7 3 0 ,

so m e o f the a tta ck e rs b ro u g h t the F o x fo o d and w a te r d u r in g lu lls in the

fig h tin g .40

W h en m ilitary d isaste r w e a k e n e d the F o x , th ose p e o p le lin k e d to th em b y

m a rria g e c o u ld p u sh th e ir case m o re e ffe c tiv e ly . T h e F r e n c h sh o u ld have

paid m o re attention to the Illin o is w h o co m p la in e d that th e o th e r

A lg o n q u ia n s , in ste a d o f k illin g th e ir F o x p r iso n e rs as the Illin o is d id , w e re

k e e p in g th em as s laves. It w a s fro m th ese s la v e s that the v e ry tr ib e s that

d e fe a te d the F o x in 1 7 3 0 h e lp e d to re c o n stitu te that n ation . T h e F r e n c h

40 The figure “ 8” in “ K8ta8iliboe” is pronounced “ dh.” For factionalism of villages, see Vaudreuil to Minister, Oct. 1 1 , 1723, WHC 16 :4 33 -3 4 ; 398; Vaudreuil to Council, Oct. 22, 1720, WHC 16 :393-9 4 . For earlier attempts to use kinship ties to procure peace, see Villedonné to commandant at Kaskaskia, Oct. 4, 1724, WHC 16 :446-47; Speech of Illinois, 1725, WHC 16 :456-63. Kinship ties could also help promote war. The same faction of Sauks active in negotiations between the Fox and Illinois, because o f their ties with the Illinois, was also willing to wage active war against the Fox, Vaudreuil to Minister, Oct. 1 1 , 1722, WHC 16:433. For Wilamek, see Vaudreuil au Ministre, 6 nov. 17 12 , PAPQ 1948-49, 163; Vaudreuil au Ministre, 8 sept. 17 13 , RAPQ, 1948-49 , 228 -30 ; Conseil, may 17 13 , AN, C i 1 A, v. 123. For ancestry and Vaudreuil’s rejection o f peace efforts, see Vaudreuil to Minister, 6 Sept, 17 12 , M PH C 33:560. Vaudreuil au Ministre, 15 sept, 17 14 , RAPQ_, 1947-48 , 266. For aid to Fox, see Beauharnois & Hocquart to Minister, Nov. 2, 1730, WHC 1 7 : 1 1 1 - 1 2 .

171

1 7 2

w e re a p p a lle d to fin d that m an y o f th e ir a llie s h ad re le a s e d the F o x p riso n e rs

an d that the w e a k e n e d F o x h ad o b ta in e d p ro tec tio n in the S a u k v illa g e s

w h e re th ey h ad m an y re la t io n s .41

In 1 7 3 3 it b r ie fly a p p e a re d th at the S a u k c h ie fs an d the F r e n c h c h ie f, the

S ic u r d c V illic rs , w o u ld b e ab le to re sto re the F o x to the a llian ce . T h e S ie u r

de V illie rs , w ith the co o p e ratio n o f the S a u k s , p e rs u a d e d fo u r F o x c h ie fs to

go to M o n tre a l to b e g O n o n tio fo r m e rc y . T h e F o x c h ie fs , h o w e v e r,

p an ic k e d o n re a c h in g M o n tre a l an d fle d . G o v e r n o r de B c a u h a rn o is o rd e re d

the S ie u r d e V illie rs to re tu rn w e st a n d c o m p e l the S a u k s to d e stro y the F o x .

W h e n S ie u r de V illie rs tried to fo rc e the re m o v a l o f F o x re fu g e e s fro m a

S a u k v illa g e , h e n ot o n ly d ied fo r h is p a in s b u t gave F r a n c e y e t an o th e r

A lg o n q u ia n e n em y. T h e S a u k s h ad m ain ta in e d fa r s tro n g e r ties w ith o th e r

v illa g e s o f \hcpays d'en haut than h ad the F o x , an d th ey c o u ld r ig h tfu lly a rg u e

that th ey h ad in c u rre d F r e n c h e n m ity o n ly b e c a u se th ey tr ie d to d e fe n d th e ir

re la tiv e s . F r e n c h e ffo r ts to g a th e r w a rr io rs to g o a g a in st th em fo u n d e re d .

T h e O ttaw as, a fte r o r ig in a lly d e m a n d in g F r e n c h aid in a v e n g in g b o th th e ir

o w n p e o p le an d th e F r e n c h w ho h ad d ie d w ith the S ic u r d e V illie rs , re fu se d

to jo in the u ltim ate ly u n su c c e ss fu l e x p e d it io n o f the S ie u r d e N o y e lle ’ s

ag a in st the S a u k an d F o x in 1 7 3 4 - 3 5 . T h e y c la im e d th ey h ad n e v e r w ish e d

to e at the S a u k s an d O n o n tio sh o u ld p a rd o n th em . O th e r tr ib e s w e re no

m o re h e lp fu l. T h e K ic k a p o o s a p p a re n tly p u rp o se fu lly m isg u id e d N o y e lle s in

h is a ttem p ts to fin d the S a u k an d F o x .42

B y 1 7 3 7 it w a s the A lg o n q u ia n s w h o p la y e d m e d ia to r b e tw e e n the

F r e n c h an d th e S a u k s an d F o x . O tta w as , P o ta w a to m is , M e n o m in e e s , an d

W in n e b a g o s all a sk e d that the F r e n c h g ra n t the S a u k s an d F o x p e a c e . T h e

The middle ground

41 For complaint o f Illinois, see Périer to Maurepas, March 25, 17 3 1 , MPA 4:72. De Villiers reported that “ our tribes were very anxious to spare the Renards’ lives,” Letter of De Villiers, 1730, WHC 17 :1 16 . For redemption o f captives, Beauharnois to Minister, Oct. 15 , 1732, WHC 17 :16 7 -6 8 ; Beauharnois to Minister, May 1, 1733, WHC 17 :17 2 . For belief that all French allies secretly wanted Fox to survive and aided them, see State of Canada in 1730, Noyan, M PH C 33:74, 82.

42 For Sauks defend Fox, see Beauharnois & Hocquart to Minister, Nov. i t , 1733 , WHC 17 :18 8 - 9 1 ; Beauharnois to Minister, Oct. 5, 1734, WHC 17 :2 0 0 -4 . For union o f Sauk and Fox, their overtures to the Illinois, and account o f Villier’s expedition, see Bienville au Ministre, 22 avril 1734, AN, C 13A , v. 18, f. 142. On Noyelles, see Canada, Sur les sauvages: Renards & Sakis, AN, C i 1 A, v. 63, f. 246-48; Beauharnois and Hocquart to King, Oct. 7, 1734, WHC 17 :2 0 6 -12 ; Bienville and Salmon au Ministre, 16 mai 1735, AN, C 13A , v. 20; Hocquart au Minister, 14 oct. 1735 , AN, C 11A , v. 63; Beauhamois and Hocquart to Minister, Oct. 16, 1736, WHC 17 :2 54 -5 9 ; and, particularly, Canada, Sauvages Renards, 9 jan. 1736, AN, C 11A , v .66, f. 14 3 -5 4 ; Beauharnois to Minister, Oct. 9, 1735, WHC 17 :2 16 -2 0 , and Relation o f the Sieur de Noyelle, WHC 17 :2 2 1-3 0 . For Ottawas, see Beauharnois and Hocquart, Reply to King’s Memorial, Oct. 7, 1734, WHC 17 :2 0 6 -13 ; Réponse au mémoire du roy, 1735, AN, C i iA , v. 63 (f. 90); Beauharnois to Minister, Oct. 9, i735> WHC 17 :2 16 - 17 ; Sur les sauvages, Renards, janvier 1735, AN, C 11A , v. 63, f. 0 3 -0 6 . For Kickapoos, see Relation o f the Sieur de Noyelle, WHC 17:224.

The alliance

F r e n c h d id so w ith re lu c tan c e an d b itte rn e ss . A s G o v e r n o r d e B e a u h a rn o is

and In te n d an t H o c q u a rt re p o rte d to the m in iste r:

You may imagine, Monseigneur, that the Savages have their policy as we have Ours, and that they are not greatly pleased at seeing a nation destroyed for Fear that their turn may come. They manifest Much ardor towards the French, and act quite differently. We have had Recent proof of this among the outawaois, who have begged for mercy for the Sakis, although they Had an interest in Avenging the death of their people and their great Chief.43

T h e a llia n c e , w ith its m ed ia tio n , its e n d le ss n e g o tia tio n s an d ritu a l fo rm s,

an d its n e ed to re co g n iz e the p o lic ie s o f the v illa g e rs , w a s n o t an a r r a n g e ­

m en t that the F r e n c h h ad fre e ly c h o se n . W h a t G o v e rn o r d e B e a u h a rn o is

ca lled the “ c a re fu l m a n a g e m e n t” n e c e ssa ry to p re se rv e the a llia n ce w as

tim e -c o n su m in g , e x p e n s iv e , an d fru stra t in g fo r even e x p e r ie n c e d o ffic ia ls . It

is n o w o n d e r that the F r e n c h c o n tin u e d to y e a rn fo r a s im p le r w o r ld o f fo rce

an d d ictatio n , a w o r ld w h e re the F r e n c h c o m m a n d e d and In d ia n s o b eye d .

T o o ffic ia ls o r o ffic e rs fre sh ly a rr iv ed fro m F r a n c e , the a llia n c e s e e m e d , as it

d id to L o u is A n to in e d e B o u g a in v ille ,

an obligation . . . of being a slave to these Indians, of hearing them night and day in council and in private, when caprice takes hold of them, when a dream, or an excess of vapors and the constant objective of begging brandy or wine leads them on . . . an eternal little detail, petty and one of which Europe has no idea.44

T h e F r e n c h a lw a y s re ta in e d a h o p e o f re d u c in g th e ir a llie s to su b je c ts .

In d u lg in g in th e ir o w n m o d ifica tio n o f the ritu a l la n g u a g e o f that m id d le

173

43 For Sauks desire rapprochement with the French, see Hocquart au Ministre, 8 oct. 1736, AN, C i 1 A, v.66; Beauharnois and Hocquart to Minister, Oct. 16, 1736, W H C 17 :254-59 . For peace, see Réponse au mémoire du Roy, 1737, AN, C i 1 A, v. 67, f. 109; Beauharnois to Minister, Oct. 16, 1737, W H C 17 :2 7 4 -7 6 (here Beauharnois says the “ position of Affairs did not permit me . . . to hesitate . . . to grant them what they Urgently asked” and tries to put the best face possible on it); see also Beauharnois au Ministre, 14 oct. 1738, AN, C 11A , v.69, f. 1 15 ; Canada: Sauvages, Renards & Sakis, 1738, AN, C 11A , v. 70, f. 257; Canada: Sauvages, Renards & Sakis, 1739, AN, C i 1 A, v. 72, f. 289. For quotation, see Beauharnois and Hocquart to Minister, Oct. 16, 1736, W HC 17 :254 -56 ; also Beauharnois au Ministre, 14 oct. 1738, AN, C i 1 A, v.69, f*1 1 5- For other statements of Algonquian dissimulation and treachery, see Beauharnois au Ministre, 4 oct. 1738, AN, C 11A , v.69. R should be noted that the Fox, Winnebagos, and Sauks, despite their peace with the French, continued their war on the Illinois, Beauharnois to Minister, Oct. 12, 1739, W HC 17 :3 17 ; Words of Puants to Sieur Marin, Nov. 17 , 1738, W HC 17 :3 18 .

44 For recognition o f need for “ ménagement” but desire for force, see Beauharnois au Ministre, 17 sept. 1743, AN, C i 1 A, v. 79, f. 1 13 . For Bougainville, see Edward P. I lamilton (ed. and trans.), Adventure in the W ilderness: The American Jo u rn als o f Louis Antoine de Bougainville, 17 5 6 -6 0 (Norman: University o f Oklahoma Press, 1964), 133. For example of longing to instill fear and respect, see Beauharnois and Hocquart to Maurepas, Oct. 1, 17 3 1 , N Y C D 9:1030.

174 g ro u n d , G o v e r n o r d e B e a u h a rn o is an d In te n d an t H o c q u a r t c o m p la in e d in

1 7 3 1 that O n o n tio ’ s c h ild re n w e re sp o ile d an d w o u ld little b y little h ave to be

re d u c e d to a p ro p e r o b e d ie n c e , in sp ire d by fe a r an d re sp e c t , ra th e r than to a

c o o p e ra tio n se c u re d by n e g o tia tio n an d g e n e ro s ity . T h is , h o w e v e r , c o u ld be

a c c o m p lish e d o n ly te m p o ra rily o r lo ca lly u n til th e co lo n y b e c a m e m o re

p o w e r fu l o r the k in g sen t tro o p s su ffic ie n t to o v e ra w e the In d ia n s .45

S t i ll o ff ic ia ls so m e tim es tr ied . B e a u h a rn o is b e lie v e d that the stro n g

g a rr iso n d isp a tc h e d to F o r t C h a r tre s in the Illin o is c o u n try in the 1 7 3 0 s had

m a d e the In d ia n s th ere “ m o re su b m iss iv e and d o c ile .” A n d in 1 7 3 7

In te n d an t H o c q u a r t u rg e d a s tro n g g a rr iso n at D e tr o it so that fe a r co u ld

su p p le m e n t p re se n ts in c o n tro llin g th e In d ia n s. T h e F r e n c h d e s ire to

c o n tro l th e A lg o n q u ia n s b y fe a r w a s , h o w e v e r, a c h im e ra in the 1 7 3 0 s ,

1 7 4 0 s , an d 1 7 5 0 s . T h e F r e n c h w e re fo rm id a b le fo re s t fig h te rs , fa r m ore

d a n g e ro u s th an th e B r it ish , an d th e A lg o n q u ia n s c e rta in ly re ta in e d a h ea lth y

re sp e c t fo r F r e n c h m ilita ry p ro w e ss , bu t F r e n c h s o ld ie rs d id n o t co w them .

In 1 7 5 4 th e S ie u r de L e r y , h im s e lf a p ro u d an d e x p e r ie n c e d so ld ie r ,

w a tch e d as th e A lg o n q u ia n s o b se rv e d a la rg e F r e n c h fo rc e p a ra d e and

m a n e u v e r at D e tro it . F a r fro m b e in g im p re sse d b y th e s o ld ie rs se n t w e st to

sh o w th e f la g an d in tim id ate In d ia n s , th e g a th e re d A lg o n q u ia n s la u g h e d at

m a n e u v e rs th ey re g a rd e d as u s e le s s . A s th e C h ic k a sa w s - w h o d e fe a te d tw o

a rm ie s se n t ag a in st th em b y F r a n c e - an d F o x d e m o n stra te d , F r e n c h arm ies

d id n o t a lw ays ach iev e v ic to ry . D e fe a te d , the F re n c h lo st sta tu s; v ic to r io u s ,

th ey a ro u se d A lg o n q u ia n fe a rs . A s G o v e r n o r d e B e a u h a rn o is ad m itte d , he

la ck e d th e n e c e ssa ry fo rce to c o n ta in the In d ia n s o f th e/w jtf d ’en haut, a n d he

h ad to re ly o n fo re s ig h t , g o o d m a n a g e m e n t, an d d iss im u la tio n . O n ly in the

1 7 5 0 s d id th e F r e n c h m ak e a re a l a ttem p t to fu lfill th e ir fa n ta s ie s o f

d o m in a tio n , an d th e re su lt w a s d isa s te r .46

O v e r th e c o u rs e o f th e ir c a re e rs , m o st g o v e rn o rs le a rn e d the p a ra d o x

45 For an early complaint about presents, see Louis XIV to Frontenac, Mar. 25, 1699, NYCD 9:701. For later complaints and responses, see Maurepas à Hocquart, 8 may 17 3 1 , AN, C 11A , v. 56; Beauharnois et Hocquart au Ministre, 15 oct. 1730, AN, C n A , v. 5 1, f. 3 3 -3 6 ; Beahharnois & Hocquart au Ministre, 1 oct. 17 3 1 , AN, C l 1 A, v. 54. Beauharnois reiterated the necessity to manage Indians since the French lacked the force to contain them in 1743, Beauharnois au Ministre, 17 sept. 1743, AN, C n A , v .79.

4b For quotation, see Beauharnois and Hocquart to Minister, Oct. 7 ,17 3 4 , WHC 1 7 :2 10 - 1 3 ; Hocquart to Minister, Oct. 7, 1737 , WHC 17:265. Mediation and the old ritual forms still also covered murders between the French and the Algonquians, as when a Frenchman killed Corbeau, a Potawatomi chief, and the Saulteurs killed a Frenchman, Beauharnois au Ministre, 2 oct. 1740, AN, C n A , v. 74.

The Illinois were apparently not as overawed as Beauharnois thought since the Jesuits spread rumors o f a conspiracy against the French involving the Sauks, Fox, Potawatomis, Miamis, Weas, Kickapoos, and some Illinois, Bienville au Minstere, 21 juin 1737, AN, C 13A , v. 22. For the lack o f necessary force, see Beauharnois au Ministre, 17 sept. 1743, AN, C i i A, v. 79, f. 108. Journal de Joseph-Gaspard Chaussegros de Léiy . . . 13 aoust 1754, RAPQ 19 2 7 -2 8 , 400.

The middle ground

The alliance

o f p o w e r in the pays d ’en haut. B e a u h a rn o is lo n g e d fo r a w o rld in w h ic h

F r e n c h stren g th a llo w e d h im to d ictate to h is a llie s , b u t h e in c re a s in g ly

re a lize d that m ed ia tio n an d fo rg iv e n e ss w e re the b e st m ea n s fo r h o ld in g the

a llia n ce to g e th e r . In 1 7 3 4 , a fte r a figh t b e tw e e n a W e a In d ia n an d a y o u n g

F re n c h m a n h ad le d to a b ra w l in w h ic h the W e as p lu n d e re d the F r e n c h

trad e rs at th e O u ia te n o n p o st, the F r e n c h m ad e w h a t tu rn ed o u t to b e an

u n n e c e ssa ry sh o w o f fo rc e to se ttle the m atter. B e a u h a rn o is th o u g h t the

th reat o f fo rc e h ad a “ v e ry g o o d E f fe c t u p o n the n atio n s w h ic h It h as

in sp ire d w ith D r e a d .” B u t B e a u h a rn o is ’s p le a su re at in tim id atio n d id n ot

b lin d h im to the re a lit ie s o f a llia n ce p o lit ic s . H e h ad p a rd o n e d the W e a s

b e ca u se

the peace we are since some time endeavoring to establish in the Upper countries, and the conditions of affairs required mild and moderate means to be preferred on an occasion involving neither the honor of the French nation nor the King’s arms, and arising merely out of a simple fray between some drunken young Ouitanons and two or three Voyageurs, in an affair of trade.47

*75

V

T h e F o x w a rs w e re the cau tio n ary le sso n ; th ey sh o w e d w h at h a p p e n e d w h e n

c h ie fs fa ile d an d w h e n O n o n tio u se d v io le n c e ag a in st h is o w n c h ild re n . T h e

early e ig h tee n th ce n tu ry , h o w e v e r, a lso p ro d u c e d m o re p ositive le sso n s .

U n a b le to m ak e fo rce e ffe c tiv e , the F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n s g ra d u a lly

c re a te d a c o n te ste d , b u t m u tu a lly in te llig ib le , system o f c h ie fta in sh ip an d a

s tru c tu re to su sta in the a llian ce .

T h e B r it ish p ro v id e d the in d u c e m e n t fo r th is re c o n stitu tio n o f the

a llia n ce an d the e v e n tu a l re a b so rp tio n o f the F o x w ith in it. T h e B r it ish h ad

s u c c e e d e d the Iro q u o is as the g re a t d a n g e r fo r N e w F r a n c e . T h e B r it ish

cam e n ot in the g u ise o f c o n q u e ro rs b u t as m en b r in g in g g ifts an d trad e

g o o d s, g iv in g a bon marché that the F r e n c h co u ld n o t m atch . T h e actu a l

p h y sica l in c u rs io n s o f the B r it ish in to the pays d ’en haul a fte r the T r e a t y o f

U tre c h t , w h ic h e n d e d the W a r o f the S p a n is h S u c c e s s io n , w e re lim ite d , b u t

th e F r e n c h su sp e c te d the Iro q u o is o f b e in g th e ir a g e n ts . A n d , by the m id

1 7 2 0 s , the B r it ish th e m se lv e s w e re e as ily a c c e ss ib le at O s w e g o .48

47 For first quotation, see Beauharnois and Hocquart to Minister, Oct. 7, 1734, WHC 1 7 :2 10 - 1 3 . For second quotation, see Beauharnois and Hocquart to Minister, 12 Oct. 1736, NYCD 9 :10 5 0 -5 1.

48 For English posts on the Ohio, see De Vaudreuü au Conseil, 14 oct. 17 16 , RAPQ, 1947-48 , 330; Memoir on Louisiana, 1726,7MPA 3 :495-96 . On Mississippi, see Ramezay & Bégon to Pontchartrain, Sept. 13 , 17 15 , NYCD 9 :931. For fear of F.nglish trade, see Ramezay and Begon, Nov. 7, 17 15 , IVHC 16 :3 3 1; Conseil, jan. 17 18 : De Vaudreuü, 12 oct. 17 17 , AN, C n A , v. 124.; Longueuil & Bégon au Ministre, 3 1 oct. 1725, AN, C 11A , v.47.

T h e F r e n c h fe a re d th at the B r it ish w o u ld tr iu m p h b y s tr ip p in g C a n a d a o f

its a llie s an d le a v in g it d e fe n se le ss . T h e su rv iva l o f N e w F r a n c e , th e re fo re ,

m a d e it n e c e ssa ry to a c c o m m o d ate a llie s w h o , i f c o n s id e ra tio n s o f trad e

a lo n e d e te rm in e d lo yalty , w o u ld d e se rt to the B r it ish . T h e F r e n c h c o u ld n ot

trea t th e A lg o n q u ia n s as su b o rd in a te s ; O n o n tio c o u ld n o t g ive th em o rd e rs

o r ig n o re th e ir w ish e s . T h e F r e n c h o ften h o p e d that q u a rre lin g A lg o n q u ia n s

c o u ld b e se p a ra te d an d v illa g e rs q u a ra n tin e d fro m B r it ish in flu e n c e b y

the sim p le e x p e d ie n t o f m o v in g In d ia n s ab o u t the pays d ’en haut. S u c h

attem p ts ra re ly s u c c e e d e d . P la n s to m o ve the M ia m is an d W e as o u t o f the

W a b a sh co u n try an d in to S a in t Jo s e p h an d C h ic a g o b e tw e e n 1 7 1 5 a n d 1 7 2 2

fa ile d . N o r co u ld the F r e n c h fo rc e the S a g in a w O ttaw as to re tu rn to

M ic h ilim a c k in a c in 1 7 1 7 . In the late 1 7 3 0 s attem p ts to m o ve the H u r o n -

P e tu n s to M o n tre a l, an d the S h a w n e e s to D e tro it , c o lla p se d . U n a b le to

iso la te In d ia n s , the F r e n c h h ad to m e d ia te b e tw e e n th em an d k e e p th em

fro m the B r it ish by o th e r m e th o d s. A s B e a u h a rn o is a rg u e d in a tte m p tin g to

p re v e n t the C ro w n fro m b re a k in g p ro m ise s h e h ad m a d e to th e W e a s an d

th e ir n e ig h b o rs : “ T h e stra tag e m s re so rte d to b y th e E n g lish to a ttract o u r

S a v a g e s , co m p e l m e to u se g re a t c irc u m sp e c tio n to w ard th em , an d to

C o n te n t th e m as m u ch as I c a n .” T h e y “ w e re kept in c h e c k so le ly b y c a re fu l

m a n a g e m e n t, an d . . . w o u ld se ize the firs t p re te x t to b re a k the w o rd th ey

h ave g iven m e w e re I to fa il to k e e p m in e .” 49

17 6 The middle ground

49 Even Vaudreuil succumbed to panic in the fast years of his reign as governor. 1 Ie saw the whole pays d'en haut as threatened and demanded extraordinary aid from France, Vaudreuil au Ministre, 22 mai 1725 , AN, C 1 1A , v. 47, f. 16 5 -7 3 . F ° r French attempts to move the Weas to Chicago and, when that came to naught, to the Kankakee, see Ramezay to Minister, Nov. 3, 17 15 , W HC 16:326. For Miamis to St. Joseph, see Vaudreuil to Council, Oct. 28, 17 19 , W HC 16:383. By 1720 Vaudreuil, losing patience at their continued refusal, tried to coerce a relocation o f the Miamis and Weas by threatening a trade embargo, Extrait du Mémoire de M . . . de Vaudreuil, 26 août 1720, AN, C i 1 A, v. 43, f. 158 -6 0 . The attempt blew up in his face. Forty or fifty Weas moved to the Kankakee, and about 100 Miami warriors and their families removed to St, Joseph. Most o f the remaining Indians showed no sign of moving west. The Piankashaws, the single most numerous group on the Wabash, were determined to remain and French traders from the Illinois country had promised to supply them with goods. As for the Miamis, the large majority of that nation responded to the withdrawal of French traders by threatening to move east into Iroquoia where the English could easily supply them. By 17 2 1 , these Miamis were trading at Albany. In 1722, even the small group of Weas who had moved to the Kankakee returned to the Wabash. Vaudreuil abandoned further coercive measures against the various Miami villages. Vaudreuil to Boisbriant, Aug. 17 , 1724, W HC 16:443; Vaudreuil to Council, Oct. 22, 1720 W HC 16 :39 4 -9 5 ; Vaudreuil au Conseil, 24 oct. 1722; AN, C i 1 A, v. 44; Vaudreuil au Conseil, oct. 6, 17 2 1 , AN, C 1 1A , v. 44. For Saginaw Ottawas, see A Talk with the Ottawas, June 24, 17 17 , M P H C 33:58 4 -8 5 . For French attempts to bring the Shawnees to Detroit and thus cut them off from the English, see Canada, Sauvages, 1733, AN, C n A , v. 60, f. 439; Beauharnois au Ministre, 18 oct. 17 3 1 , AN, C i iA , v. 54; Paroles de . . . Beauharnois . . . aux Cha8anons, 1 aoust 1739, AN, C 1 1A , v. 7 1, f. 54.; Canada sur les nations sauvages, 17 4 1, AN, C i 1 A, v. 76, f. 3 1 6 - 1 7 . The figure “ 8” in Cha8anons is pronounced “ dh.”

For summary of attempt to move Huron-Petuns, see Canada, Sur les nations sauvages,

The alliance 177

T h e c a re fu l m a n a g e m e n t B c a u h a m o is sp o k e o f b e c a m e in stitu tio n a lize d

in to a n ew syste m o f a llia n c e c h ie fs , m e d a ls , g ifts , an d m e d ia tio n . L e s s a

m ilitan t e x ten sio n o f F r e n c h p o w e r th an a fo ru m fo r m a in ta in in g p e a c e ,

the a llia n ce b le n d e d A lg o n q u ia n ritu a ls , the k in sh ip c o n n e c tio n s b e tw e e n

v illa g e rs , an d F r e n c h g o o d s in to a p o ten t fo rc e . T h e h u m an c e n te r o f this

a llian ce w e re the c h ie fs , F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n ; fro m th em ra d ia te d the

n etw o rk o f ties that b o u n d O n o n tio to h is c h ild re n .

C re a t in g a llia n ce c h ie fs m e a n t fin d in g A lg o n q u ia n le a d e rs w h o co u ld

c o u n te r the ra sh n e ss and v io le n c e o f m e n lik e the F o x W h ite -R o b e o r the

O ttaw a S a k im a . It m ean t re ly in g on F r e n c h o ffic e rs su ch as L o u v ig n y and

av o id in g m en lik e D u b u isso n . S e le c t in g su ch m en b e c a m e a co m p lica te d

p ro c e ss that w a s n e ith e r fu lly F r e n c h n o r fu lly A lg o n q u ia n . It w a s a p ro ce ss

u n d e rsta n d a b le o n ly in te rm s o f the m id d le g ro u n d . E a c h s id e h ad to

u n d e rsta n d w h at the o th e r e x p e c te d fro m an a llian ce c h ie f. U n le s s both

s id e s a cce p te d a m an as a c h ie f, he c o u ld n ot act e ffe c tiv e ly o r m ain tain h is

p o sitio n . A s a re su lt , a F r e n c h c o m m a n d e r - that is, a F r e n c h c h ie f - an d an

A lg o n q u ia n c h ie f cam e to h ave s im ila r p ro file s . T h e S ie u r d c N o y a n ’ s

d e scrip tio n o f a s u c c e ss fu l c o m m a n d e r a s “ a l w a y s . . . tru e , p le a sa n t, and

firm , an d ab o ve a ll g e n e ro u s ” w a s e sse n tia lly a d e sc rip tio n o f an A lg o n q u ia n

c h ie f. L ik e a c h ie f, a c o m m a n d e r id e a lly gave m o re th an he re c e iv e d . A t

e ac h p o st the c o m m a n d e r saw to it that In d ia n s re g u la r ly re c e iv e d sm all g ifts

o f p o w d e r , b a ll, to b acco , an d so m e tim e s b ra n d y . H e h ad the p o st b lack sm ith

re p a ir th e ir to o ls an d w e a p o n s .50

I f a F r e n c h c o m m a n d e r v io la te d th e s ta n d a rd s o f c h ie fta in sh ip , h e risk e d

the lo ss o f h is co m m a n d . T h e H u ro n -P e tu n s an d o th e r v illa g e rs at D e tro it ,

the M is s is s a u g a s a lo n g L a k e O n ta rio , the M ia m is , W c a s , an d P ian k a sh a w s

all re a liz e d that b o th th eir p o sitio n b e tw e e n the B r it ish an d the F r e n c h and

the F r e n c h n e e d fo r a ss is ta n ce in the F o x w a rs g av e th em c o n s id e ra b le

Hurons, 1742 AN, C 11A , v. 78, f. 390. For mediation, reconciles Peorias and Saulteurs, Menominees, Nippisings, and Sauks after attack by former, see Beauharnois to Minister, Oct. 1, 1733 , WHC 17 :18 3 — 84; for mediates between mission Indians and Potawatomis, Ottawas o f Saginaw, Peorias, Nippisings, Ottawas of Michilimackinac and Mississaugas, see Beauharnois au Minstre, 3 oct. 1737, AN, C 11A , v. 67; for Potawatomis and Saginaw Ottawas, see Beauharnois to Minister, Oct. 9, 1735, WHC 17 :2 2 1; Beauharnois au Ministre, 15 oct. 1736, AN, C i 1 A, v. 65; for Saulteurs, Potawatomis, and Mascoutens, see Sauteux, Maskoutins, & Sonontoiians, Canada, Sauvages, 1738, AN, C n A , v. 70, f. 259. For between Illinois, Saulteurs, Menominees, Nippisings, and Sauks; Potawatomis and Ottawas, see Beauharnois au Minister, 1 1 oct. 1734, AN, C n A , v .6 1, f . 3 14 . For quotation, see Beauharnois to Minister, Sept. 5, 1742, WHC 17 :410 .

50 De Noyan’s description did not mean he assented. He believed that Indians must learn to fear the French, and he yearned for French dictation; for quotation, see Noyan, State of Canada, 1730, M PH C 33:84; see also 77, 82. In contrast to the seventeenth century, the presents given officers were less than what they gave away, Beauharnois & Hocquart au Ministre, AN, C n A , v .5 1 . J R 65:207-09.

le v e ra g e w ith in the a llian ce . T h e D e tro it tr ib e s h ad b y the 1 7 3 0 s ach iev ed

w h at s e e m e d a v irtu a l ve to o v e r the ap p o in tm e n t o f the c o m m a n d e r at

D e tro it . F ir s t S a b re v o is in 1 7 1 7 an d th en the age d an d e x p e r ie n c e d A lp h o n se

d c T o n t i in 1 7 2 7 lost th e ir p o s it io n s at D e tro it , in p art b e c a u se th ey had

o ffe n d e d the re s id e n t In d ia n s . In the c a se o f T o n t i , th e In d ia n s then

c o n sp ire d w ith o th e r F re n c h m e n to re m o v e h im . E v e n a m an as e x p e rie n c e d

as T o n t i c o u ld n o t re m a in o n c e h e h ad c e a se d to p le a se th e n a tio n s a m o n g

w h o m h e h ad b e e n sen t. T h e m o st e x p e r ie n c e d o ff ic e rs a g re e d that “ at the

p re se n t ju n c tu re o f a f fa ir s ,” a c h o ic e b e tw e e n a s in g le o f f ic e r an d a n ation as

im p o rtan t as th e H u r o n -P e tu n s w as n o c h o ic e at a ll. T h e H u r o n -P e tu n s and

th e O ttaw as co n tin u e d to e x e rt su c h le v e ra g e th ro u g h o u t the 1 7 3 0 s . ' ' 1

O n o n tio , o f c o u rse , c o u ld e x e rt s im ila r ve to p o w e r o v e r A lg o n q u ia n

a llia n ce c h ie fs , b u t like th e A lg o n q u ia n s , he h ad to tread a fin e lin e an d u se

h is p o w e r sp a r in g ly an d ad ro it ly . E v e n the d o m ic ile d In d ia n s o f the m iss io n s

b rid le d at an y th in g that sm a c k e d o f F r e n c h d ictatio n to a fre e p e o p le . In

1 7 5 7 th e In d ia n s at th e m iss io n o f L a P ré se n ta tio n w e re o u tra g e d that

O n o n tio p re su m e d to n am e a m an u n se le c te d by th e m se lv e s as a c h ie f. A n d

w h a t o u tra g e d m iss io n In d ia n s c o u ld be an even m o re d e lica te su b je c t

a m o n g th e a llie d p e o p le s o f the W e st. A lth o u g h m o st w e ste rn A lg o n q u ia n s

e a g e r ly so u g h t m ed a ls , th ey b e lie v e d O n o n tio o n ly re c o g n iz e d c h ie fs ; h e did

n o t m ak e th em . T h e y , to o , re s is te d an y in s in u atio n o th e rw ise . T h e r e

g ra d u a lly d e v e lo p e d an a c c e p te d p ro c e d u re fo r g u a ra n te e in g the su c c e ss io n

o f a llia n ce c h ie fs . In 1 7 4 0 , fo r e x a m p le , th e O ttaw as d e L a F o u r c h e re la y e d

b y th e ir sp e a k e r th e ta lk o f N a g a c h 8 o , an a llia n c e c h ie f w h o h ad d ie d w h ile

o n an e x p e d it io n ag a in st the C h ic k a s a w s . N a g a c h 8 o sp o k e fro m the g rave :

My father has always had pity on me during my life, and although I am dead, I am not entirely dead. I have left a second of myself at Michilimackinac before departing; he holds my place. 'Phis is my brother, Cabina. I hope that my father will have the same care of my younger brother that he had for me. I think that my brother will listen to the word of my father as I have always done.' 51 52

17 8 The middle ground

51 For Mississauges, see Conseil, 30 mars 17 16 , AN, C 11A , v. 123 , f. 149. For complaints against Sabrevois, see A Talk with the Ottawas, and Talk o f the Potawatomies, June 24, 17 17 , M PH C 33:584-86. For his removal, see Conseil, 28 avril 17 16 , AN, C 11A , v. 123, f. 277/377. For leverage, see Vaudreuil to Council, 12 Oct. 17 17 , M PH C 33 :59 0 -9 3. For Tonti, see Letter o f Tonti, Aug. 8, 1727, A f/¥/C 34:46-48; Petition from Detroit Citizens, Oct. 2 1 , 1726, M PH C 34 :38 -44 ; Beauharnois au Ministre, 25 sept. 1727, AN, C i 1 A, v. 49; Ordre 1727, AN, C .11A , v.48, f. 122; Words o f Huron, Aug. 9, 1727, M PH C 3 4 :4 9 -5 1. Intendant Du Puy protested the decision saying it was a serious matter to admit “ the complaints of the savages against Frenchmen” and that Beauharnois had no authority to deprive Tonti o f his post. Tonti’s death rendered his position moot. Du Puy to Minister, Oct. 25, 1727, M PH C 3 4 :5 9 -6 1. On the Wabash by 1733, the Sr. de Vincennes reported that the members o f the Miami confederation and the Illinois were more insolent than ever before, Vincennes à ?, mars 1733, AN, C 13A , v. 17 , f. 259.

52 For naming of chiefs, see Hamilton (ed.), Adventure in the Wilderness, 102; Charlevoix,

The alliance 179

T h e e ld e rs , in e ffe c t , w e re re c o g n iz in g C a b in a (w ho as the b ro th e r o f

N a g a c h 8 o w as first in lin e to s u c c e e d h im as h e a d o f h is p atr ilin e ag e ) as the

leg itim ate s u c c e s s o r o f N a g a c h 8 o . T h e y u sed the d e ad N a g a c h 8 o to re q u e st

a m ed a l fo r C a b in a . L e a d e rs h ip p o sitio n s re m a in e d u n d e r O ttaw a co n tro l.

J u s t as L a F o u r c h e h ad n a m e d N a g a c h 8 o as h is su c c e sso r , so N a g a c h 8 o

n am ed C a b in a an d the e ld e rs re c o g n iz e d h im . B e a u h a rn o is , too , h o w e v e r,

h ad a ro le in le g itim atin g th is tra n s fe r o f au th o rity as w a s p e r fe c tly su itab le

w h e n a c h ie f w a s to act on the m id d le g ro u n d . B e a u h a rn o is fo llo w e d the

re co m m e n d a tio n o f the c id e rs . H e g av e C a b in a a m e d a l.53

M e d a ls w e re the v is ib le m ark o f a llia n c e c h ie fta in sh ip , an d m o st

A lg o n q u ia n le a d e rs w e lc o m e d the re n e w a l in 1 7 1 9 o f the F r e n c h p ra c tice o f

b e sto w in g m e d a ls . W h en the F r e n c h b e sto w e d a m ed al on an A lg o n q u ia n

w a r le a d e r , lin e a g e h ead , or co u n c il c h ie f, they a g re e d to re c o g n iz e a m an

w h o had a lre a d y atta in ed statu s in h is v illa g e as an in te rm e d ia ry b e tw e e n that

v illage and the F re n c h . T h e F r e n c h a w ard e d su ch h o n o rs to m en w h o

“ m erit th em b y th e ir e sse n tia l se rv ic e s an d th e ir a ttach m en t to re lig io n ,” bu t

the F r e n c h a lso re c o g n iz e d , in the w o rd s o f G o v e rn o r de V a u d re u il, that

m e d a ls so m e tim e s m u st go to “ th ose I b e lie v e n e c e ssa ry to attach to o u r

in tere st by th is m ark o f h o n o r .” In o th e r w o rd s , se rv ic e to the F r e n c h o r the

n e e d o f the F r e n c h fo r o n e ’s se rv ic e s c o u ld b o th b rin g m e d a ls .54

T h e F r e n c h in te n d e d the m ed a l c h ie fs to re n d e r se rv ic e s to O n o n tio an d

to k e ep th e ir v illa g e s o u t o f the B r it ish o rb it, b u t fo r the c h ie fs the ap p ea l o f

m e d a ls w as the in flu e n c e th ey y ie ld e d w ith in the v illa g e s . M e d a ls w e re m o re

than a m ark o f h o n o r; th e ir re c ip ie n ts acted as co n d u its o f the p re se n ts g iven

by the F r e n c h to A lg o n q u ia n v illa g e rs . G if t s gave the c h ie fs the ab ility to be

lib e ra l, an d lib e ra lity w a s the g re a t m ark o f c h ie fta in sh ip . T h e F r e n c h

re c o g n iz e d that th ey in c re a se d the lim ite d p o w e r o f th ese c h ie fs by g iv in g

th em re g u la r p re se n ts . B u t th ese m e d a ls d id n o t c re a te c o m p lian t p u p p e ts ,

an d the g ifts w e re not b rib e s . T h e a llian ce w a s m o re c o m p le x th an that. A s in

the se ve n te en th cen tu ry , the a llia n ce c h ie f jo in e d tw o w o rld s , an d h is

p o sitio n in e a c h p ro v e d m u tu a lly re in fo rc in g . T h e stan d in g a le a d e r a tta in ed

Journal, 136 For eagerness for medals, see Beauharnois au Ministre, 25 sept. 1727, AN, C i i A, v.49; Beauharnois au Ministre, 19 oct. 1734, AN, C 11A , v. 6 1, f. 325; Paroles des OutaSacs de Missilimakinac de la Bande de la fourche . . . , 6 juillet 1740, AN, C n A, v. 74, f. 16. The figure “ 8” in Outa8acs and in Nagach8o in the text is pronounced “ dh.” For example of medals to help secure warriors, see Réponse au Mémoire du Roi, 13 oct. 1735, AN, C 11A , v. 63.

53 Paroles des Outa8acs. . . 6 juillet 1740, AN, C i iA , v. 74, f. 16. 54 For importance of outward marks of honor to both groups, see Hocquart au Ministre, 10 oct.

1730, AN, C i 1 A, v. 53. For granting of medals, see Vaudreuil & Bégon au Conseil, 26 oct. 17 19 , AN, C i 1 A, v. 40. He apparently had received none since 1705. Beauharnois au Ministre, 25 sept. 1727, AN, C 11A , v.49. Beauharnois to Minister, Oct. 15, 1732, WHC 17 :17 1 . For second quotation, see Vaudreuil au Ministre, 21 oct. 1722, AN, C n A , v .44, f. 364; for first quotation, see Beauharnois au Ministre, 1 oct. 1728, AN, C 11A , v. 50.

a m o n g h is o w n p e o p le c o u ld se c u re a F r e n c h m ed al and p re se n ts , an d th ese

p re se n ts , w h e n re d istr ib u te d , c o u ld th en fu rth e r in c re a se h is sta n d in g w ith in

h is v illa g e . A c c u m u la t in g w e a lth m ean t little to A lg o n q u ia n s , b u t th e statu s

and in flu e n c e th at cam e fro m b e sto w in g g o o d s on o th e rs m e a n t m u c h .

O b ta in in g F r e n c h re c o g n it io n as a c h ie f th u s b e c a m e an im p o rtan t a sp e c t o f

v illa g e p o lit ic s .5 '

In o n e se n se , p re se n ts b o u n d the c h ie fs to O n o n tio , b u t in a n o th e r se n se ,

p re se n ts m a d e O n o n tio b u t a la rg e v e rs io n o f a c h ie f. F o r the p re se n ts in

q u e stio n h e re w e re n o t the re c ip ro c a l p re se n ts that m a rk e d d ip lo m atic

a g re e m e n ts . T h e s e g ifts in stead w e re the fru its o f th e F r e n c h a c c e p ta n c e o f

the A lg o n q u ia n in terp re ta tio n o f p a tr ia rc h y . G o v e rn o r de B e a u h a rn o is an d

the In ten d an t H o c q u a r t e x p la in e d to th e c o u rt in 1 7 3 0 : “ Y o u kn ow ,

M o n s e ig n e u r , th at all the n a tio n s o f C a n a d a re g a rd the g o v e rn o r as th eir

fa th er, w h ic h in c o n se q u e n c e , fo llo w in g th e ir id e a s , he o u g h t at all tim es to

g ive th e m w h a t th ey n e ed to fe e d th e m se lv e s , c lo th e th e m se lv e s , an d to

h u n t.” 55 56

T h e m ateria l b a s is o f th e a llia n ce w a s th u s e m b o d ie d in a se r ie s o f g ifts

fro m fa th e rs to c h ild re n . A d e fin ite p ro to c o l o f d istrib u tio n e vo lv ed at the

p o sts o f th e u p p e r co u n try , a t c o u n c ils in M o n tre a l, an d in the v illa g e s . T h e

m a jo r so u rce o f p re se n ts w a s th e 2 0 ,0 0 0 liv re s g ra n te d a n n u a lly b y th e k in g .

F r o m th is fu n d p o w d e r , b a ll, g u n s , v e rm ilio n , k n ive s , c lo th , a n d o th e r g o o d s

w e re sen t to C a n a d a . O n sp e c ia l o c c a s io n s , su ch as the ap p o in tm e n t o f a n ew

g o v e rn o r o r the re tu rn o f a g o v e rn o r a fte r a v is it o f F r a n c e , O n o n tio gave

la rg e r g ifts . T h e g o v e rn o r e ith e r d is tr ib u te d th e se g o o d s to the c h ie fs o f the

n atio n s w h o ca m e to sp e a k to h im o r sen t the p re se n ts to the o ffic e rs

c o m m a n d in g n e a r th ose n a tio n s. In e ith e r c a se , the C ro w n e n v is io n e d

a llian ce c h ie fs c o n tro llin g actu a l d is tr ib u tio n s to the In d ia n s . A s G o v e r n o r

d e V a u d re u il p u t it in re g a rd to the M ia m is in 1 7 1 7 , p re se n ts sh o u ld g o to

“ th is n atio n , o r ra th e r to so m e c h ie fs fo r the p u rp o se o f e n g a g in g th em to

w o rk e ffe c t iv e ly .” 57

T h e lo g ic o f d istr ib u tio n re m a in e d c o n sta n t, b u t the site an d sp e c ific

a rra n g e m e n ts v a r ie d . A t e ach p o st, the c o m m a n d e r - ac tin g as a fa th e r - saw

to it th at in d iv id u a l In d ia n s re g u la r ly re c e iv e d sm all g ifts o f p o w d e r , b a ll,

to b acco , an d so m e tim es b ra n d y . S im ila r ly , at M o n tre a l O n o n tio m a d e su re

55 For liberality as early mark of chiefs, see La Potherie, History, WHC 16:3. For generosity of chiefs, see Abstract of the Life and Customs of the Savages of Canada, 1723, WHC 3 :14 6 -4 7 . For French recognition o f weakness o f chiefs, see Abstract, 1725, WHC 3:146; Vaudreuil au Conseil, 30 oct. 17 18 , AN, C i 1 A, v. 39; J R 66:221; Proceedings of Council of Marine, Dec. 2, 17 2 1 , WHC 16:397. For need for presents, see Ramezay and Begon to Minister, Nov. 7, 17 15 , WHC 16:337.

56 Beauharnois et Hocquart au Ministre, 15 oct. 1730, AN, C 11A , v .5 1 , f .3 3 -3 6 . 57 For Vaudreuil, see Conseil, 1 1 Jan. 17 18 ; Vaudreuil, 12 oct. 17 17 , sur les postes et conges,

AN, C 11A , v. 124.

180 The middle ground

The alliance 1 8 1

that v is it in g In d ia n s re c e iv e d ra tio n s an d th at th o se w h o c a m e as p art o f

o ffic ia l d e leg a tio n s re c e iv e d sp e c ia l g ifts . A t fo rts su c h as N ia g a ra and

F ro n te n a c , w h e re the trad e m o n o p o ly re m a in e d in the h a n d s o f th e k in g , and

a t M o n tre a l, the C ro w n b o re the e x p e n se . A t le a se d p o sts , th e fermier or

le s s e e b o re th e e xp e n se as p a rt o f the p r ic e o f the le a se , a lth o u gh the k in g

m igh t a lso su b sid ize g ifts , su ch as p o w d e r , o r m ak e sp e c ia l p re se n ts . It

a p p e a rs that fro m th e b e g in n in g the actu a l ro ya l co sts o f su ch p re se n ts fa r

e x c e e d e d the 2 0 ,0 0 0 liv re s a llo tted b y the k in g . In 1 7 4 0 p re se n ts to a ll the

In d ia n s o f C a n a d a to ta led o v e r 6 5 ,0 0 0 liv re s , an d the In ten d an t, H o c q u a rt ,

c ited the co n sta n t a u g m en ta tio n o f p re se n ts as a so u rce o f the e xce ss iv e

e xp e n se o f N e w F r a n c e .58

W h e n O n o n tio o r h is o ffic e rs gave p re se n ts to in d iv id u a l v illa g e rs , th ey

acted d ire c tly as fa th e rs , b u t in m o st d is tr ib u tio n s A lg o n q u ia n c h ie fs ac ted as

in te rm e d ia r ie s . S o m e o f th e se g ifts w e re p e rso n a l. T h e F r e n c h u su a lly

c lo th e d c h ie fs v is it in g M o n tre a l b y g iv in g th em sh irts , c a p o te s , an d le g g in g s ,

bu t su c h g ifts w e re n o t n e c e s s a r ily e xe m p t fro m fu rth e r re d istr ib u tio n . In

1 7 2 9 , fo r e xam p le , a H u ro n c h ie f re c e iv e d a se c o n d cap o te fro m the F r e n c h

b e ca u se he h ad g iv en th e fir s t to a n o th e r c h ie f. Y e a r s e a r lie r , S a k im a - aga in

a c tin g in ap p ro p ria te ly fo r a c h ie f - h ad ask ed that su ch a p e rso n a l p re se n t be

d e liv e re d to h im in se cre t , s in ce it w o u ld o th e rw ise b e taken b y h is w a rrio rs .

For use o f fund, see Zoltvany, Vandreuil, 149; Conseil, 17 16 ; Sur les 20,000 . . . , AN, C i 1 A, v, 123, f. 235. For special occasions, see Conseil, Presens a faire aux sauvages, 30 mars 17 16 , AN, C i i A, v. 123. In 17 16 , when Vaudreuil returned to Canada, 40,000 livres were allotted for presents and this was in addition to guns, powder, and ball sent from France. For rise, see Hocquart au Ministre, 24 oct. 17 4 1, AN, C 11A , v. 76, f. 14; Hocquart au Ministre, 3 1 oct. 1740, AN, C 11A , v. 73, f. 335. For additional expenditures, see Hocquart & Beauhamois au Ministre, 9 oct. 1732, AN, C 11A , v. 5. For lessee, see Dupuy to Minister, Oct. 20, 1727, WHC 16 :4 7 0 -7 1. When the commander had a share in the trade, he sup­ plied presents, Mémoire of Vaudreuil & Bégon,June 19, 1722, WHC 3 :167; Beauhamois & Hocquart au Ministre, 18 oct. 17 3 1 , AN, C n A , v. 54. For cost o f commanders’ presents, see Noyan to Minister, Oct. 18, 1738, WHC 17:295. Beauhamois et Hocquart au Ministre, 25 oct. 1729, AN, C n A , v. 5 1 ; Beauhamois au Ministre, 25 sept. 1727, AN, C n A , v. 48; Beauhamois au Ministre, 1 oct. 1728, AN, C i iA, v. 50; Minutes of Council of Louisiana, Mar. 26, 1725, MPA 2 :4 2 2-23 ; Lease for the Post at Green Bay, 10 Apr. 1747, WHC 17 :4 5 1-5 5 . For quotation, see Noyan, State o f Canada, 1730, M PH C 33:84.

For distribution of presents by location, see Presens aux sauvages, 1732 , AN, C n A , v. 59, f. 130; Beauhamois & Hocquart au Ministre, 6 oct. 1733, AN, C i iA , V. 59, f. 12 1 ; F.tat des vivres, munitions, et autres effets qui ont ete delivres des magazins du roy à Montreal aux sauvages. . . 1729, AN, C 11A , v. 53, f. 296, hereafter, E ta t .. . 1729, AN, C n A , v. 53, f. 29Ôff.

Wars and other emergencies necessitated additional presents, e.g., Memorial of Captain de Lignery to Council, 1720, WHC 16 :386-87. Conseil, 9 avril 17 17 , AN, C n A , v. 123, f. 372; Beauhamois et Du Puy au Ministre, 20 oct. 1726, AN, C i 1 A, v. 48, f. 97. Compte . . . de la campagne des Renards, AN, C 11A , v. 58, f. 2 5 -2 6 ; Hocquart & Beauhamois au Ministre, 9 oct. 1732, AN, C n A , v. 57. These costs had apparendy been borne by the officers in the 1720s, Beauhamois au Ministre, 25 sept. 1727, AN, C i iA, v.48, f. 125. For Louisiana, Statement o f Boisbriant, Minutes of Council, March 26, 1725, AlPA 2:422.

I 82

T h e F r e n c h a lso g av e th e c h ie fs m u c h la rg e r p re se n ts o f p o w d e r , b a ll, c lo th ,

k n ive s , to b acco , an d so m e tim e s a sm all am o u n t o f b ra n d y - v irtu a lly all o f

th ese item s w e re re d is tr ib u te d in th e ir v illa g e s . Im p o rtan t c h ie fs w h o d id n ot

v is it M o n tre a l o ften had su ch p re se n ts fo rw a rd e d to th e m .59

S o m e w h a t m o re p ro b le m a tic a l th an the g ifts g iven to a sp e c ific c h ie f w ere

the p re s e n ts d e s ig n a te d fo r a v illag e as a w h o le , su c h as th o se g iven “ pour distribuer aux Sauvages du Village etably au S a n g u in a n o r “ aux Sauvages du Sault Ste. Marie pour present, ” o r “ pour le village des Miamis.” In the

d istr ib u tio n lists , the F r e n c h o fte n e n u m e ra te d th e se g ifts a fte r the sp e c ific

p re se n ts th ey g av e to the m e d a l c h ie fs , an d it w a s p re su m a b ly th ese c h ie fs

w h o c a rr ie d the p re se n ts w e s t to re d istr ib u te in the n am e o f th e F r e n c h . A t

o th e r tim es the g o v e rn o r m ay h ave fo rw a rd e d su ch g ifts d ire c tly to a p o st

c o m m a n d e r fo r d istrib u tio n , p a rtic u la r ly w h e n the g ifts w e re e a rm a rk e d fo r

sp e c ific re c ip ie n ts su ch as the M ia m i w a rr io rs w h o re c e iv e d sp e c ia l p re se n ts

fro m the F r e n c h in J u ly 1 7 2 9 . 60

T h e r e w a s a fin a l c a te g o ry o f p re se n ts th at strad d le d the lin e b e tw e e n a

g ift an d a p a y m e n t fo r se rv ic e s . B o th m e d ia tin g p e a c e an d re c ru it in g and

e q u ip p in g w a r p a rtie s c o st m o n e y . In 1 7 4 1 , fo r e x a m p le , the S ie u r d e la

R o n d e c h a rg e d 2 ,3 0 4 l iv re s ’ w o rth o f g o o d s to th e a c c o u n t o f the k in g in

o rd e r to m ak e p e a c e b e tw e e n th e S a u lt e u r s an d the S io u x . S im ila r ly , p u ttin g

w a r p a r t ie s in th e fie ld ag a in st the F o x o r ag a in st th e C h ic k a s a w s in o rd e r to

a id L o u is ia n a a g a in st that re d o u b ta b le p e o p le b e c a m e a s te a d y d ra in on

F r e n c h re so u rc e s . N o t o n ly d id the F r e n c h su p p ly the w a rr io rs , b u t on

o c c a s io n th ey a lso h ad to fe e d th e ir fa m ilie s in th e ir a b se n c e s in c e lo n g w a r

e x p e d itio n s m e a n t a p re c ip ito u s d e c lin e in h u n tin g .61

M e d ia t io n an d c o m p ro m ise a c h ie v e d stab ility an d c o o p e ra tio n w h e re

fo rc e fa ile d . G i f t s c o u n te re d the a p p e a l o f B r it ish trad e . T h e F r e n c h w e re at

th e ir stro n g e st w h e n th ey a p p e a re d , at le ast to th e m se lv e s , the m o st w eak .

W h e n th ey o ffe r e d g o o d s fre e ly , w h e n th e y m ed ia te d q u a rre ls , w h e n they

stayed A lg o n q u ia n h atch e ts a n d c o v e re d the d e a d , th en th ey a c h ie v e d a

sta tu s that no o th e r g ro u p c o u ld riva l. T h e y w e re , c o n v e rse ly , at th eir

59 Etat. . . 1729, AN, C 11A , v. 53, f. 296ft. For Sakima, see Marest to de Vaudreuil, June 21, 17 12 , M PH C 33:557. The Jesuits had reported in 1675 that the Indians commonly gave away ail presents they were given with the exception o f rosaries. jfR 59 :231. For Louisiana, see Minutes o f the Council of Commerce, Sept. 13 , 17 19 , MPA 3 :2 6 0 -6 1.

60 Etat. . . 1729, AN, C i 1 A, v. 53, f. 290ff. 61 For Saulteur-Sioux peace, 17 4 1, see Mémoire des marchandises, 17 4 1, AN, C 1 1A , v. 75,

See also Dépense faite dans le Poste de Chaouamigon, 1743, AN, C i 1 A, v. 79, f. 230. For equipping war parties, see Estât des fournitures . . . par ordre . . . de St. Pierre, Commandant pour le roy au Poste Miamis, 18 juin 1742, AN, C i iA , v.76, f. 186. For supplying families, see Ramezay and Bégon to Minister, Nov. 7, 17 15 , WHC 16:329. Estât general de la depense . . . 1739, AN, C 11A , v. 7 1, f. 153 ; Mémoire de fournitures. . . Missillimackinac pour les subsistence des femmes . . . , 12 oct. 1739, AN, C i iA , v. 73, f. 273. Mémoire des fournitures . . . Missillimackinac, 26 sept. 1739, AN, C 11A , v. 73.

The middle ground

The alliance

w eak e st w h e n th ey a p p e a re d the m o st d a n g e ro u s an d p o w e r fu l. W h en

O n o n tio , e ith e r fo r h is o w n re a so n s o r at the u rg in g o f h is a llie s , ab a n d o n ed

m ed ia tio n an d d e p lo y e d fo rc e , th en h is sp e c ia l statu s b e g a n to d iss ip a te . O n e

w e lc o m e d a k in d fa th e r ; one so u g h t p ro te c tio n ag a in st a v e n g e fu l fa th e r . T h e

lo g ic o f the a llian ce c o u ld n o t e asily e n c o m p a ss a fa th e r w h o p artic ip a te d in ,

ra th e r than se ttled , the q u a rre ls o f h is c h ild re n .62

T h e A lg o n q u ia n s w re stle d the F r e n c h onto the m id d le g ro u n d , b u t fo r

th em , to o , th e a llia n c e h ad its u n c o m fo rta b le d e m a n d s. T h e ritu al s u b ­

o rd in atio n to O n o n tio d id n o t a lw ays co m e e a s ily in a so c iety that k n ew little

o f su b o rd in a tio n . “ B o m fre e an d in d e p e n d e n t,” F a th e r C h a r le v o ix w ro te ,

“ th ey a re s tru c k w ith h o rro r at w h a te v e r h as the sh a d o w o f d e sp o tic p o w e r .”

O n o n tio ’s c h ild re n a lw ays re m a in e d p ric k ly ab o u t th e ir sta tu s; th ey ac c e p te d

h im as a fa th e r n ot as a m aster . B u t th ey , to o , b e n t u n d e r the d e m an d s o f the

a llia n ce an d th e ir o w n c ra v in g fo r re sp e c t. F a th e r C h a r le v o ix cau g h t the

c u ltu ra l co m p lex ity o n w h ic h the a llia n c e w as b u ilt. “ O n the o th e r h a n d ,” h e

w ro te , “ th ese p e o p le , so h au g h ty an d so je a lo u s o f th e ir lib erty , are b e yo n d

im ag in atio n s la v e s o f h u m a n re s p e c t .” T h e a llia n c e c h ie fs w h o m ed ia te d the

q u a rre ls o f the pays d ’en haut and r itu a lly a c c e p te d O n o n tio ’s w ill, h ad o n c e

b e e n , in the w o rd s o f the c o u n c ils , the ra sh an d h e e d le ss y o u n g m en w h o

d istu rb e d the la n d , b u t the s tan d in g an d re sp e c t m e d a ls b ro u g h t fro m both

the F r e n c h an d th e ir o w n p e o p le h e lp e d in d u c e th em to c o n fo rm to a

d iffe re n t s ta n d a rd .63

In Ju ly 1 7 5 7 , “ P e n n a h o u e l” (P cn d a lB o n ), an O ttaw a c h ie f, sp o k e in

co u n c il to G e n e r a l M o n tc a lm on the eve o f the F r e n c h c a m p a ig n ag a in st the

B r it ish a t F o r t G e o r g e . L o u is A n to in e de B o u g a in v ille , a F r e n c h o ff ic e r

an d a id e -d e -c a m p o f the M a rq u is d e M o n tc a lm , re c o rd e d h is sp e e c h .

B o u g a in v ille , w h o w o u ld la te r b e c o m e fa m o u s as an e x p lo re r an d the first

E u ro p e a n to v is it T a h it i , e x p la in e d th at P e n n a h o u e l w a s “ c e le b ra te d fo r h is

sp irit, h is w isd o m , an d h is c o n v e rsa tio n s w ith M . d e la G a lis s o n iè r e .” It w as

a d e sc rip tio n that re c a lle d K o n d ia ro n k , n o w d e a d fo r m o re th an h a lf a

cen tu ry . H e , too , h ad b e e n a m an c e le b ra te d fo r h is sp irit, w isd o m , an d

co n v e rsa tio n s w ith F r e n c h m e n .64

B u t P e n n a h o u e l, B o u g a in v ille a lso n o ted , h ad n ot a lw ays b e e n o n go o d

term s w ith the F r e n c h . H e h a d “ in the w a r w ith the F o x e s c a rr ie d the

h a tch e t ag a in st u s, b u t s in ce th en h as a lw ays b e e n d evo ted to O n o n th io .”

B o u g a in v ille got the sto ry w ro n g , b u t he g ra sp e d its e sse n tia l th em e : the

tran sfo rm atio n o f an in itia lly re b e llio u s w a r le a d e r in to a d evo ted a llian ce

ch ie f. P e n n a h o u e l w a s th e ap o th e o sis o f th e tran sfo rm atio n the a llian ce

62 Beauhamois au Ministre, 17 sept. 1743, AN, C 11A , v. 79. f. 108. For Charlevoix’s quotation, see Journal, 2 :87-88 , 136,

64 Hamilton (ed.), Adventure in the Wilderness, 145.

'8 3

d e m a n d e d o f A lg o n q u ia n w a rr io rs : ra sh an d p ro u d y o u n g m en lik e W h ite -

R o b e o r S a k im a m u st b e c o m e the ritu a l, i f n ot actu a l, su b o rd in a te s o f

O n o n tio .

Y o u n g m e n w h o h ad g a in e d th e ir o w n statu s th ro u g h w a r c o u ld be

im p atie n t w ith the tin ge o f su b o rd in a tio n m e d a ls c a rr ie d . In 1 7 4 0 G o v e rn o r

d e B e a u h a m o is g av e P e n n a h o u e l a m ed a l fo r h is s e rv ic e s in the w a r ag a in st

the S a u k s an d F o x , b u t P e n n a h o u e l, a sse r t in g that h e h ad “ n o n e e d o f th is

m ark o f p re fe r e n c e to d istin g u ish h im ,” gave it to a fr ie n d . G o v e r n o r de

B e a u h a rn o is w a s a n g e re d by h is a u d a c ity b u t s u p p re sse d h is d e s ire to p u n ish

h im . In ste a d , h e h ad an in te rp re te r in fo rm P e n n a h o u e l that g ifts fro m

O n o n tio sh o u ld be re c e iv e d w ith g ra v e su b m iss io n . P e n n a h o u e l a p o lo g iz e d ,

e x c u s in g h im s e lf b y sa y in g th at h e h ad o n ly w ish e d h is fr ie n d to b e a c h ie f

a lso . B e a u h a m o is c o n c e a le d h is a n g e r , g av e P e n n a h o u e l an o th e r m e d a l, and

c o n tin u e d to g ive h im p re s e n ts .65

T h e issu e w a s n o t, h o w e v e r , se ttled . W h e n , so m e tim e la ter , G o v e rn o r de

B e a u h a rn o is su m m o n e d the c h ie fs th en at M o n tre a l to c o u n c il, P e n n a h o u e l,

w h o w a s d ru n k , re fu se d to c o m e . H e w a s , h e sa id , as g re a t a c h ie f as

G o v e rn o r d e B e a u h a m o is , and h e w o u ld co m e at h is o w n c o n v e n ie n c e . O n

say in g th is, h e th re w h is m e d a l in to th e m u d . O n re c e iv in g w o rd o f th is,

G o v e rn o r d e B e a u h a rn o is in d u lg e d h im s e lf in a ra g e m o re typ ica l o f a

F r e n c h o ff ic e r th an an A lg o n q u ia n ch ie f. H e h ad P e n n a h o u e l se iz e d , tied ,

an d exh ib ited as an e xa m p le to th e o th e rs . T h e o th e r O ttaw a c h ie fs w e re not,

it se e m s, u n h a p p y to se e P e n n a h o u e l re d u c e d an d h u m ilia te d , fo r th ere a re

s ig n s in th e in c id e n t o f im p e ria l p o lit ics se rv in g th e e n d s o f vrillage p o lit ic s . In

O ttaw a so c ie ty sta tu s w a s by an d la rg e a c h ie v e d ra th e r th an a sc r ib e d , b u t

le a d in g c iv il c h ie fs d o se e m to h ave co m e fro m c e rta in p o w e r fu l lin e a g e s ,

an d P e n n a h o u e l, th e o th e r c h ie fs in fo rm e d B e a u h a rn o is , w a s n o t “ o f the

fam ily o f c h ie fs .” A s th ey v iew e d the m atte r, O n o n tio h ad ra ise d P e n n a h o u e l

u p an d a c k n o w le d g e d h is in flu e n c e a m o n g th e w a rr io rs . I f O n o n tio n ow

w ish e d to cast h im d o w n an d th ro w h im b a ck on h is o w n re s o u rc e s , th ey

w o u ld n o t o b je c t. P e n n a h o u e l h ad o n ly h is o w n stu p id ity to b la m e .66

O n o n tio ’ s p u b lic h u m ilia tio n o f P e n n a h o u e l so b e re d h im in a d u a l se n se .

H e co u ld b la m e h is ra sh actio n on liq u o r, b u t he co u ld n ot ig n o re th e v illag e

le a d e rs h ip ’s co n se n t to h is h u m ilia tio n . T h e c h ie fs a c c e d e d to O n o n tio ’ s

re q u e st that P e n n a h o u e l n o lo n g e r be a llo w e d to sp e a k in co u n c il. O n o n tio ,

h o w e v e r, w h ile he c o u ld d e m an d ritu al su b o rd in a tio n in M o n tre a l, co u ld

not, e ve n w ith th e c h ie fs ’ c o o p e ra tio n , b re a k P e n n a h o u e l’ s in flu e n c e at

65 Beauhamois au Ministre, 3 oct. 1740, AN, C i 1 A, v. 74, f. 2 1. 66 For Pennahouel’s not being “ o f the family o f chiefs,” see Paroles de M. de Beauharnois aux

Outa8acs etc., 8 juillet 1740, AN, C i 1 A, v. 74, f. 23. For punishment, etc., see Beauharnois au Ministre, 3 oct. 1740, AN, C 1 1 A, v. 74, f .2 1 . ; Réponse des Outa8acs. . .» 7 aoust 1740, AN, C 11A , v.74, f. 25.

18 4 The middle ground

The alliance

M ic h ilim a c k in a c . H e re m a in e d a p o w e r fu l v o ic e am o n g the y o u n g m en , an d

the F r e n c h so o n fo u n d that th e y n e e d e d h im . In 1 7 4 1 the O tta w as , w h o se

la n d s at M ic h ilim a c k in a c w e re e x h a u ste d , w e re in th e m id st o f a se arc h

fo r n e w v illa g e s ites. T h e y w e re p la n n in g to m ove fro m the p o st le a v in g

it w e a k e n e d and re la tiv e ly u n p ro v is io n e d . T h e c h ie fs w e re u n w illin g to

c o n se n t to the F r e n c h c h o ic e s a m o n g p o ss ib le v illa g e sites an d h ad re so lv e d

on e ith e r m o v in g to the G r a n d R iv e r o r G r a n d T r a v e r s e B a y , w h e re so m e

h ad b e g u n c le a r in g lan d . T h e F r e n c h tu rn e d to P e n n a h o u e l fo r h e lp . B o th

h e an d the F r e n c h saw a d v an tag e s in a ra p p ro c h e m e n t. H e n e g o tia te d a

c o m p ro m ise sa tis fa c to ry to the F r e n c h , the m a in ten a n ce o f a v illa g e at

M ic h ilim a c k in a c an d n e w se ttle m e n ts at A rb re C ro c h e o n L it t le T r a v e r s e

B a y . G o v e r n o r d e B e a u h a rn o is , in re tu rn , re sto re d h im to fa v o r in 1 7 4 2 . B y

1 7 5 1 he w a s the le a d in g a llia n c e c h ie f at M ic h ilim a c k in a c . T h a t y e a r at

M o n tre a l he w a s cen tra l to the e ffo rts to re sto re the O tta w as to an a llia n ce

o n ce m o re in c r is is . H e o p e ra te d w ith sk ill an d s e lf-a s s u r a n c e , b u t he w a s

a lso fu lly a w are o f the ritu al su b o rd in a tio n to h is fa th e r that the a llian ce

d e m a n d e d .67

D u r in g th e firs t h a lf o f th e e ig h tee n th ce n tu ry the re s u rre c te d a llian ce

c re a te d a co m p lic a te d an d p re c a r io u s w o rld o f c a re fu l m a n a g e m e n t and

co n stan t c o m p ro m ise . V illa g e an d im p e r ia l p o lit ic s m e rg e d an d flo w ed into

each o th er. A cre a tu re o f th e m id d le g ro u n d , an d p e rh a p s its m o st im ­

p o s in g c re a tio n , th e F r e n c h -A lg o n q u ia n a llia n ce w a s, n o n e th e le ss , a frag ile

s tru c tu re th re a te n e d b y F r e n c h d re a m s o f fo rce an d th e r iv a lr ie s o f v illa g e

p o lit ic s . O n ly th ro u g h th e b le n d in g o f v illa g e an d im p eria l p o lit ic s h ad the

a llia n ce taken o n life , b u t th e re su lt in g m ix w a s so vo la tile that it e ve n tu a lly

e xp lo d e d in im p eria l c o n fro n ta tio n an d v illa g e re b e llio n s in the 1 7 5 0 s .

hl For French worries, see Beauharnois au Ministre, 18 oct. 174 1, AN, C u A , v. 75, f. 226; Address o f . .. Beauharnois . . . to the Outaouacs o f Missilimakinac 8 July 17 4 1, NYCD 9:1072. For new villages, see Speech of Outaouacs of Missilmackinac of the band o f la Fourche, Sinagos, and Kiskakons, June 16, 1742, WHC 17 :372. For Grand River, sec Beauharnois to Minister, Oct. 5, 17 4 1, WHC 17:367. For Grand Traverse, see Beauharnois to Outaouacs of Missilimakinac, July 8, 17 4 1, WHC 17 :3 5 1- 5 2 . Céloron to Beauharnois, Sept. 2, 17 4 1, WHC 17:60. For intervention with Pennahouel, Beauharnois to Minister, Oct. 5, 17 4 1, WHC 17:368. For restoration of Pennahouel, see Beauharnois to Min­ isters, Sept. 24, 1742, WHC 17 :4 19 -2 0 . As a successful alliance chief, see Paroles de Pennant8eunt, 7 juin 17 5 1 , AN, C 1 1A , v. 97.

185

5

Republicans and rebels

The historical reality of traditional societies is locked together for the rest of time with the historical reality of the intruders who saw them, changed them, destroyed them. There is no history beyond the frontier, free of the contact that makes it.

Greg Dening, Islands and Beaches

I

T h e a llia n c e , w ith its p a rtic u la r b le n d in g o f m ateria l in tere sts an d cu ltu ra l

lo g ic s , a lw ays se rv e d p o lit ica l p u rp o se s . It e x c lu d e d the B r it ish fro m ihtpays d'en haul; it p ro tec te d C a n a d a ; id e a lly , it p re se rv e d p e a c e a m o n g the v illa g e s

an d d istr ib u te d g o o d s to O n o n tio ’ s c h ild re n . A t one e n d o f the sp e c tru m , the

a llian ce se rv e d im p e r ia l p o lit ic s ; at the o th e r e n d , v illa g e p o litics . B u t the

c o n v e rse w a s a lso tru e . T h e a llia n ce w a s v u ln e ra b le to c h a n g e s in im p eria l

p o lit ic s , an d it w a s v u ln e ra b le to r iv a lr ie s w ith in the v illag e s . In th e 1 7 4 0 s

an d 1 7 5 0 s , th e d ire c t c la sh o f e m p ire s , la rg e ly a b se n t fo r a g e n e ra tio n ,

e xa ce rb a te d b itter p o lit ica l r iv a lr ie s w ith in v illa g e s . R e b e llio n rack e d the

a llian ce , an d the re su lt w as the rise o f w h at the F r e n c h ca lle d In d ian

re p u b lics .

F o r e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry F r e n c h a d m in istra to rs , all the co n n o tatio n s o f the

w o rd republic w e re p e jo ra tiv e . R e p u b lic s d e stro y e d h ie ra rch y , o rd e r , an d

au th o rity . T h e In d ia n re p u b lic s sh a tte re d e x is t in g p o litica l a rra n g e m e n ts ,

e a rn in g b o th B r it ish an d F r e n c h d istru st. T h e re p u b lic a n s w e re a p o ten tia lly

vo la tile m ix o f the d isco n te n te d fro m all o v e r the pays d ’en haut an d the E a st .

A s C o n ra d W e is e r n o ted o f L o g s to w n , o n e o f the le a d in g re p u b lica n v illa g e s ,

the in h ab itan ts w e re “ v e ry je a lo u s at o n e a n o th e r, th ey b e in g o f so m an y

d iffe re n t n atio n s. E a c h o f th em p re te n d in g to h ave as w ise p e o p le as the

re s t .” T h e y lived to g e th e r as m u c h fro m fe a r a s fro m fr ie n d sh ip . N o g ro u p ,

In d ia n s b e lie v e d , w o u ld attack a m ix e d v illa g e th at c o n ta in e d so m e o f th e ir

re la tiv es . O r, a s the C a n a d ia n o ff ic e r P ie r r e - Jo s e p h de C é lo ro n d e B la in v ille

o b se rv e d o f the S e n e c a s in a v illa g e o f M ia m is , “ It is the p o lic y o f th ese

n atio n s a lw ays to h ave w ith th em so m e o th e r In d ia n s w h o se rv e as sh ie ld s

[boucliers]” R ic h a r d P e te rs o f P e n n sy lv a n ia p ith ily su m m a riz e d the B r it ish

18 6

attitu d e to w ard the re p u b lic a n s : T h e y w e re “ ye S c u m o f th e E a rth . . . th is

m ixed d irty so rt o f p e o p le .” 1

M ig ra t io n p ro d u c e d th is “ m ix e d d irty so rt o f p e o p le ,” an d the g re a t

d estin atio n o f e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry In d ian m ig ratio n in the pays d ’en haut was a b ro a d ly d e fin e d u p p e r O h io V a lle y - ro u g h ly th e a re a b e tw e e n the O h io

R iv e r an d the G r e a t L a k e s an d b e tw e e n the A p p a la c h ia n s an d the W a b a sh

R iv e r . T h e m ig ratio n ca m e fro m e v e ry d ire c tio n . S c a tte re d C h e ro k e e s

m o v ed in fro m the so u th . T h e M a s c o u te n s an d K ic k a p o o s ca m e in fro m the

Illin o is co u n try . B u t the tw o la rg e st s tre a m s flo w e d fro m the n o rth an d east.

D e s p ite C a n a d ia n a ttem p ts to d ive rt th em , the M ia m i c o n fe d e ra tio n m o ved

d o w n fro m M ic h ig a n in to th e W a b a sh R iv e r V a lle y , an d la te r the W yan d o ts

b ro k e aw ay fro m the H u ro n -P e tu n s an d m o ved so u th to S a n d u sk y . In the

1720s, 1730s, an d 1740s, the Ir o q u o is an d th e ir d e p e n d e n ts , the D e la w a re s

an d S h a w n e e s , cam e fro m th e e a s t .2

M ig ra n ts cam e to the re g io n fo r a v a rie ty o f m o tive s , b u t the lu re o f

ab u n d a n t gam e u su a lly fig u re d s tro n g ly in th e ir d e c is io n . A fte r the c re a tio n

o f fo rts at O sw e g o an d N ia g a ra , F r e n c h an d B r it ish co m p etitio n in the fu r

trad e c a u se d gam e to d e c lin e p re c ip ito u s ly in b o th Iro q u o ia p ro p e r an d the

lan d s b o rd e r in g L a k e O n tario . Iro q u o is h u n te rs m o v ed w e st a lo n g the

so u th e rn sh o re o f L a k e E r ie . T h e r e th ey e n c o u n te re d O ttaw a h u n te rs

m o v in g east fro m D e tro it s e e k in g e a s ie r a c c e ss to O sw e g o . T h e S h a w n e e

an d D e la w a re m ig ran ts to th e O h io w h o cam e w e st in the 1 7 2 0 s a lso so u g h t

g am e . B u t p o v e rty an d so c ia l d isru p tio n b ro u g h t on b y th e v irtu a lly u n re ­

str ic ted ru m trad e in P e n n sy lv a n ia an d b y B r it ish p re s s u re o n th eir v illa g e

sites an d h u n tin g la n d s c re a te d a d d itio n a l sp u rs fo r th e ir m ig ratio n . T h e

ad d itio n o f the T u s c a r o r a s h ad in c re a se d the Iro q u o is c o n fe d e ra tio n fro m

1 Canada, Sauvages, 1739, AN, C 1 1A , v. 72, f. 287; Paul A. W. Wallace, Conrad Weiser, 1696-1760, Friend o f Colonist and Mohawk (Philadelphia: University o f Pennsylvania Press, 1945), 269-70 ; Journal de la Campagne . . . Celeron, 28 aoust 1749, in Pierre Margry, Découvertes et établissements des Français. . . de l'Amerique Septentrionale, 1614-1698, 6 vols. (Paris: Maisonneuve et Cie, 1879; repr., New York: AM S, 1974), 6 :715 . For Peters quotation, see Wallace, Weiser, 269-70.

2 The best maps o f villages and posts in the/»oyr d'en haut are in Helen Hombeck Tanner (ed.), Atlas o f Great Lakes Indian History (Norman: University o f Oklahoma Press, 1987); see map 9. For plans for post on Wabash, see Postes dans la colonie de la Touisianne, 27 aoust 17 16 , AN, C 13A , v. 4. For disputes over region, see Vaudreuil to Council, Oct. 22, 1720, WHC 16:394; Vaudreuil to Boisbriant, Aug. 17 , 1724, WHC 16:442; J . H. Schlarman, FromQuebee to flew Orleans: Ft. De Chartres (Belleville, 111.: Beuchler, 1929), 26 3-6 5 ; Frances Krauskopf (ed.), Ouiatanon Documents (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1955), 14 5 -4 6 ; Canada, fev. 17 3 1 , AN, C l 1 A, v. 56 (f. 294); Beauharnois & Hocquart au Ministre, 15 oct. 1730, AN, C i 1 A, v. 52, f. 29. For Piankashaws with Vincennes, see Boishébert to Beauharnois, July 24, Ï733, M PH C 34:108. In 1737, the Piankashaws quit their village and moved farther up the Wabash, Bienville au Ministre, 21 juin 1737, AN, C 13A , v. 22. At the same time, Louisiana and Canada quarreled over where the Kickapoos and Mascoutens, who were unhappy with the Miamis, should settle, ibid. For dispute between Miami and Wea chiefs which split the two tribes, sec Vaudreuil to Council, Oct. 22, 1720, WHC 16:394.

Republicans and rebels 187

1 88 five to s ix n atio n s, b u t th o se g ro u p s that w e re d e p e n d e n ts ra th e r th an

m e m b e rs o f the c o n fe d e ra t io n d id not fa re w e ll in the e a r ly e ig h tee n th

ce n tu ry . T h e S ix N a t io n s , w h ic h P e n n sy lv a n ia re g a rd e d as the o v e rlo rd s

o f th e S h a w n e e s an d D e la w a re s , not o n ly fa ile d to in te rc e d e fo r th e ir

d e p e n d e n ts b u t a b e tte d P e n n sy lv a n ia ’ s a b u se s . F o r th e M ia m is , K ic k a p o o s ,

an d M a s c o u te n s , a c c e ss to L o u is ia n a and B r it ish tra d e rs , as w e ll as b e tter

co n d itio n s fo r a g r ic u ltu re , jo in e d g am e as in d u c e m e n ts to m ig ra te .3

T h e m o v e m e n t o f S h a w n e e s , D e la w a re s , an d Iro q u o is fro m the east

in tro d u ce d in to the u p p e r co u n try p e o p le s w h o w e re not tied to the a llia n c e ,

b u t it d iffe re d in a n o th e r w a y fro m m u ch o f th e m ig ra tio n w ith in the pays d ’en haut itse lf. T h e m o v e m e n t o f th e M ia m is , W e a s , P ia n k a sh a w s , K ic k a p o o s ,

an d M a s c o u te n s - b u t n o t the W y a n d o ts - w a s a m ig ra tio n o f re la tiv e ly in tact

v illa g e an d trib a l g ro u p s . T h e m o v em e n t fro m the e ast , lik e the W y a n d o t

m ig ratio n , w a s a m ig ra tio n o f sm a lle r so c ia l u n its - v illa g e frag m e n ts ,

fa m ilie s , e ve n in d iv id u a l h u n te rs . It c re a te d n o s in g le d o m in an t trib a l o r

e th n ic g ro u p . T h e typ ica l v illa g e b e tw e e n L a k e E r ie an d th e O h io w as

m u ltie th n ic an d w ith o u t c le a r te rr ito ria l c la im s.

T h e s e m u ltie th n ic v illa g e s w e re th e first re p u b lic s . T h e y re p re se n te d a

m ix tu re o f p e o p le s w h o e sta b lish e d a p o lit ica l e x is te n c e th at w as in sid e the

pays d ’en haut b u t o u ts id e th e F r e n c h a llia n ce . T h e y w e re a lso b e yo n d the

co n tro l o f the B r it ish a n d th e ir u su a l a llie s , th e le a g u e o f the Iro q u o is . E a s t

o f the W a b a sh , th e re p u b lic a n s fe ll in to tw o la rg e d iv is io n s : the O h io R iv e r

v illa g e s an d the W h ite R iv e r v illa g e s . T h e F r e n c h c a lle d th e m o re n o rth e rly

m ig ran ts - the v illa g e rs w h o liv e d b e tw e e n L a k e E r ie an d the u p p e r

M u sk in g u m - th e W h ite R iv e r In d ia n s . T h e y w e re a m ix tu re o f all s ix

Iro q u o is n a tio n s, p a rtic u la r ly th e S e n e c a s an d O n o n d a g a s , le s s e r n u m b e rs o f

D e la w a re s an d M o h ic a n s , an d m e m b e rs o f F r e n c h - a l l ie d g ro u p s su ch as the

O ttaw as, the A b e n a k is o f S a in t F r a n c is , and th e C h ip p e w a s . T h e y n u m b e re d

s ix h u n d re d fig h tin g m e n b y 1 7 4 3 . T h e O h io R iv e r In d ia n s wre re a m ix tu re

o f Iro q u o is - w h o b e c a m e k n o w n a s the M in g o s - D e la w a re s , S h a w n e e s ,

M u n s e e s , an d v a r io u s fra g m e n ts o f F r e n c h -a l l ie d g ro u p s .4

3 For migration by Delawares and Shawnees, see James Logan to Governor Clarke, Jan. 22, 1737, Logan Papers X, 58, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, copy in Ohio Valley-Great Lakes Ethnohistorical Archives, University of Indiana, Shawnee notebook, hereafter cited as GLEHA. For French negotiations and the attempt to detach them from the Iroquois, see Réponse au Mémoire du Roy, 13 oct. 1735, AN, C 11A , v.63. The French feared the widening trade network created by English traders operating from these villages, Bienville au Ministre, 22 avril 1734, AN, C 13A , v. 18, f. 142. For motives, also see Paroles des chefs de la riviere blanche, Canantechiareron et Araguindiaque à M. de Longueüil (1744), AN, C 11A , v. 79, f. 44. For relationship of Shawnees and Delawares to Iroquois, see Francis Jennings, “ ‘ Pennsylvania Indians’ and the Iroquois,” and Michael N. McConnell, “ Peoples ‘in Between’: The Iroquois and the Ohio Indians, 1720 -1768 ,” both in Daniel K.. Richter and James H. Merrell (eds.), B eyond the Covenant C h a in : The Iroquois a n d T h eir N eighbors in In d ia n N orth A m erica, 16 0 0 -18 0 0 (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 7 5 - 1 12 .

4 The name “ White River” is a cause of some confusion because it does not refer to the

The middle ground

F r o m the o u tse t, th e F r e n c h w e re am b iv a le n t ab o u t the re p o p u la tio n o f

the la n d s b e tw e e n L a k e E r ie an d the O h io , la rg e ly e m p ty sin ce th e Iro q u o is

w a rs . D u r in g the 1 7 3 0 s , th ey n u rtu re d h igh h o p es th at th ey c o u ld in teg rate

the W h ite R iv e r In d ia n s , M in g o s , S h a w n e e s , an d D e la w a re s in to the

a llia n c e . B u t th ey fe a re d Iro q u o is a ttem p ts to lin k the m ig ran ts to the

Iro q u o is c o u n c il fire at O n o n d a g a an d B r it ish e ffo r ts to lu re the m ig ran ts

in to th e B r it ish c h a in o f fr ie n d sh ip . D e sp ite te m p o ra ry s u c c e s s e s , the

F r e n c h , B r it ish , an d Iro q u o is a ll fa ile d to ach ie v e th e ir e n d s. B u t the v e ry

co m p etitio n fo r the a lle g ia n c e o f th e se m ig ran ts sh ifte d the c r it ic a l a re a o f

E u r o p e a n -In d ia n in terac tio n so u th , aw ay fro m the o ld c e n te rs an d to w ard

the b o rd e rs o f th e pays d ’en haut. In the m id e ig h te e n th ce n tu ry , im p e r ia l co m p etitio n in N o rth A m e r ic a

fo c u se d to a s u rp r is in g d e g re e o n th e O h io co u n try , an d th is co m p e titio n

b e tw e e n e m p ire s w a s a lso a co m p etitio n w ith in the v illa g e s . T h e le a d e rs w h o

a ro se in th e O h io c o u n try wTe re m en an d , in d e e d , so m e tim e s w o m e n

p re v io u sly c o n s id e re d m in o r fig u re s b y the F r e n c h , the Iro q u o is , th e B r it ish ,

an d the F r e n c h a llia n ce c h ie fs . T h e O h io , a h e a v e n to h u n te rs , p ro v e d a

p u rg a to ry to c h ie fs . A c r is is fo r the F r e n c h a llia n ce b e ca m e in e x tr ic a b ly

lin k e d to a c r is is fo r the c h ie fs .

Republicans and rebels 189

II

T h e in c re a s in g ly d ire c t co m p etitio n o f the F r e n c h an d the B r it ish fo r

in flu e n c e in th e O h io co u n try c re a te d new' o p p o rtu n ities fo r p re v io u sly

m a rg in a l o r su b o rd in a te fig u re s in A lg o n q u ia n so c ie t ie s . T h e p ro to ty p e o f

the n ew p o lit ica l b ro k e rs w a s P e te r C h a r t ie r , the so n o f a S h a w n e e m o th e r

an d a F r e n c h fa th e r . T h is m an o f a m b ig u o u s e th n ic ity an d loyalty se rv e d as a

m irro r to re fle c t the p o ss ib ilit ie s o f a n ew so c ia l o rd e r o n the O h io .5

C h a r t ie r w a s a tra d e r w h o jo in e d the S h a w n e e m ig ratio n w e st o f the

A p p a la c h ia n s in the 1 7 2 0 s . In itia lly a lig n in g h im s e lf w ith B r it ish trad e rs w h o

h ad fo llo w e d the S h a w n e e s , he re s id e d b y the A lle g h e n y , b e lo w th e m o u th o f

the K is k im in e ta s , at a p la c e that b e c a m e k n o w n as C h a r t ie r ’s T o w n .

present-day White River in Indiana. At this period, the White River country was the area between Lake Erie, the forks of the Beaver, and the Upper Muskingum. The “ White River” itself was usually the Cuyahoga, but the name was applied, or misapplied, to many other streams. The White River Indians were ethnically overwhelmingly Iroquois, but they were increasingly only loosely bound by the Iroquois covenant chain. Like the Shawnees, they sought French sanction and protection for their migration. Navarre, Mémoire, 1743, AN, C i 1 A, v. 79, f. 48-52. For discussion of White River, see Charles A. Hanna, The W ilderness T rail, o r The Ventures an d A dventures o f the P enn sylvan ia Traders on the A llegheny P ath , 2 vols, (repr. of 19 11 cd., New York: AMS Press, 1971), 1:332 -33 . The Mingos were Iroquois, but their distance from their native villages had deprived them of an equal voice in the councils.

5 Jerry Eugene Clark, “ Shawnee Indian Migrations: A Systems Analysis” (Ph.D. diss., University of Kentucky, 1974), 41.

C h a r t ie r a lso , h o w e v e r, p artic ip a te d in the S h a w n e e n e go tia tio n s w ith the

F r e n c h , and th is so u re d h is re la tio n sh ip w ith b o th the B r it ish an d the

Iro q u o is s in ce , as d e p e n d e n ts o f the Iro q u o is , the S h a w n e e s w e re n ot

su p p o se d to u n d e rtak e in d e p e n d e n t d ip lo m atic v e n tu re s o f th e ir o w n .6

B e c a u s e o f h is B r it ish a sso c ia tio n s , the F r e n c h d istru ste d C h a r t ie r . O n ly

w h e n h e led a la rg e p arty o f S h a w n e e s w h o p lu n d e re d se v e ra l B r it ish trad e rs

in 1 7 4 5 d id the F r e n c h b e co m e c o n v in c e d o f h is loyalty . C h a r t ie r , h o w e v e r,

p ro v e d to b e no m o re re liab le a s a F r e n c h p artisa n th an h e h ad b e e n as a

B r it ish agen t. H e su c c e s s fu lly o p p o se d F r e n c h attem p ts to re lo ca te the

S h a w n e e s at D e tro it , an d h e d id h is fa th e r ’ s w ill o n ly w h e n it c o in c id e d w ith

h is o w n .7

C h a r t ie r w a s a p o lit ica l c h a m e le o n w h o se c h a n g e s in c o lo r in g re fle c te d

o p p o rtu n ities ra th e r th an co n v ic tio n s, b u t it is the sc o p e o f h is tra n s fo rm a ­

tion that it is m ost re v e a lin g . C h a r t ie r ’ s sw itch fro m a B r it ish to a F r e n c h

p artisa n is p e rh a p s le ss s ig n ific a n t than h is m e ta m o rp h o sis fro m métis tra d e r

to S h a w n e e factio n a l le a d e r . O rig in a lly he w a s an im p o rtan t b u t m arg in a l

p o lit ica l fig u re , a m an w h o ac ted th ro u g h the c h ie fs , ty in g th em to h im b y

d eb ts o r g ifts . E v e n tu a lly he b e ca m e a m an w h o c h a lle n g e d c h ie fs , and

u ltim ate ly , he acted lik e a c h ie f h im se lf. T h is w a s n o t an e asy tran sitio n , fo r

6 The Shawnees and Iroquois offered different versions of their mutual alienation. The Shawnees claimed that in 1727, when the English were putting great pressure on the Iroquois to allow them to fortify Oswego, the Iroquois had demanded that the Shawnees and Delawares prepare to take up arms against the English. When the Shawnees refused, the angry Iroquois had reduced them to the status of women within the covenant chain and ordered them to look west “ toward Ohioh, The place from whence you Came and Return thitherward,” for the Iroquois planned to sell their Pennsylvania lands. Seeing no hope of aid from the Delawares, who also bid them depart since they “ wanted to Drink ye land away,” and being harrassed by the English, who insisted that they stop sheltering runaway slaves, the Shawnees decided to leave. The Iroquois denied the particulars of this account, but their version, too, stressed land disputes as a factor in the Shawnee migration. Most likely, loss of land, a desire to escape Iroquois domination, a decline in game, and the ravages of the rum trade were all ingredients in the Shawnee migration. Message Shawnee Chiefs to Gov. Gordon, June 7, 1732, P A , series 1 , 1:329-30 . The Iroquois said that they had sold only a small amount of land to Pennsylvania, not enough to threaten the Shawnees, but the Pennsylvanians had used the sale as a pretext for seizing more. For Iroquois denial, see Conference between Lieutenant Governor Clarke and the Indians, Albany, June 28, 1737, N Y C D 6:105-6. Francis Jennings discusses this migration in both ' “ Pennsylvania Indians’ and the Iroquois,” 75-93, and Francis Jennings, Em pire o f Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, an d Tribes in the Seven Y e a n ' W ar in A m erica (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988), 25, 29-30.

For Chartier’s town, see Census, George Miranda, A true Acct. of all the men of the Shayners in the three Townes in Alegania, Sept. 27, 1737, Logan Papers IX, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, copy GLEHA. For location, see Hanna, W ilderness T ra il, 1:304. For the English and Chartier, see Edmd. Cartlidge to Gov, Gordon, May 14, 1732, P A , series 1, 1:327-28 .

7 For plunders English, see Hanna, W ilderness T ra il, 1 :3 1 1 . For Chartier’s influence in halting move to Detroit, see Canada, Sauvages, 1740, AN, Ct lA, v. 74, f, 236. Despite his visit to Montreal in 1740, Chartier was distrusted by the French who sought to isolate him, Beauharnois to Minister, Sept. 17, 1741, M P IIC 34:207-8.

1 9 0 T h e m iddle groun d

the S h a w n e e s h ad o rig in a lly n ot a c c e p te d C h a r t ie r as a S h a w n e e , let a lo n e as

a ch ie f. T h o s e S h a w n e e s w h o o p p o se d h im v ig o ro u s ly e m p h a siz e d h is

stan d in g as a françois métis. T h e y s tre sse d to G o v e r n o r de B e a u h a rn o is that

he w as o f F r e n c h fle sh {de votre viande) an d n o t th e ir o w n . U n lik e m ost

co n tem p o ra ry métis w h o re g a rd e d th e m se lv e s as F r e n c h , C h a r t ie r c la im e d to

b e S h a w n e e . W h e n h e sp o k e to G o v e rn o r de B e a u h a rn o is , he sp o k e as an

In d ian , c a llin g the g o v e rn o r “ m y fa th e r .” 8

A s a trad er, C h a r t ie r h ad p riv ile g e d a c c e ss to g o o d s , an d he u sed th is to

re c ru it h is o w n fo llo w in g in d e fia n c e o f e x is t in g so c ia l and p o litica l a r r a n g e ­

m en ts. T h e e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry S h a w n e e s w e re a c o n fe d e ra tio n ra th e r than

a s in g le trib e . T h e n atio n w a s d iv id ed in to five m o re o r le ss a u to n o m o u s

p o litica l u n its (the C h illic o th e , H a th a w e k e la , K is p o k o , M e q u a c h a k e , an d

P iq u a ), an d e a c h u n it w as fu rth e r su b d iv id e d in to b a n d s , w h ic h o ften

acted in d e p e n d e n tly . T it u la r p o litica l le a d e rs , o r “ k in g s ,” o f the en tire c o n ­

fe d era tio n w e re d raw n fro m the C h illic o th e (C a la k a ) an d the H a th a w e k e la

(0 aw ik ila). N u c h e c o n e r (or N e u c h e c o n n o ) , one o f th e se “ k in g s” o f the

S h a w n e e s , an d p ro b a b ly a C h illic o th e (C a la k a ) h e a d m a n , h ad a llied h im s e lf

w ith the F r e n c h . F r ic t io n q u ick ly d e v e lo p e d , h o w e v e r, w h e n N u c h e c o n e r

resisted th e F r e n c h a ttem p t to se ttle th e S h a w n e e s n e a r the M ia m is . In stead

he p re fe r re d se ttlin g a t S o n n o n tio , o n the lo w e r S c io to R iv e r , n e a r an

e xistin g M in g o an d S h a w n e e v illa g e . N u c h e c o n e r ’ s d iffe re n c e s w ith the

F r e n c h gave C h a r t ie r a c h a n c e to m ove fro m b e in g a c o u n se lo r o f the

ch ie fs to th e ir riva l. D ra m a tic a lly p la n tin g the F r e n c h fla g b e fo re o n e o f

N u c h e c o n e r ’s su b o rd in a te c h ie fs , he d e fie d the p u tative le a d e rsh ip and

d e m an d e d th at the S h a w n e e s fo llo w th e ir fa th e r ’ s w ill an d m ove n e a r the

M ia m is , H e m ad e h is a p p ea l d ire c tly to the w a rr io rs to w h o m h e gave a

b a rre l o f p o w d e r as a p re se n t .9

8 The nature of Chartier’s influence over the chiefs is unclear. The chiefs could have been in debt to him, or he might have had influence with them through presents. The document says “ par son credit [?] empêcher quelques chefs accrédités d’y consentir.” Ile more clearly used gifts in 1745, Anonymous Diary of a Trip from Detroit to the Ohio River, Papiers Contrecoeur, 1 - 1 0 , Archives of the Seminary of Quebec, V -V 17 :1, June 16, 1745, copy in GLEHA, Shawnee file, p. 5. For Chartier as being “ de votre viande,” see Paroles des Cha8anons, 3 aoust 1742, AN, C 11A , v. 77. P’or Chartier’s speech, see Paroles des ChaSanons, 25 juin 1740, AN, C 11A , v. 74, f. 62. By 1750 Governor de Vaudreuil of Louisiana regarded him as a chief, Vaudreuil to Rouillé, June 24, 1750, M P A 5:48. The figure “ 8” in “ Cha8anons” is pronounced “ dh.”

y The Shawnees are the most perplexing group in terms of hierarchy. In the 1720s and 1730s both the French and English recognized “ grand chefs” and “ kings.” These leaders were members of the Hathawckclas (0 awikila) and Chillicothes (Calaka). Governor dc Beauharnois, Réponse au mémoire du roy, 1737, AN, Ci 1 A, v.37, f. 139. For Nocheknonee (or Nucheconer) as “ king” of French Town, see Census, George Miranda, A true Acct. of all the men of the Shayners in the three Townes in Alegania, Sept. 27, 1737, Logan Papers, IX, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, copy GLEHA. For tribal chiefs, see H B N I 15:624, 627. The pro-French Shawnees in the early 1740s included both the king

Republicans and rebels 1 9 1

A lth o u g h m o st o f the S h a w n e e s se ttled in S o n n o n tio , C h a r t ie r le d aw ay a

fac tio n , w h ic h b e c a m e h is p e rso n a l fo llo w in g . H e , re v e a lin g ly , d id n ot le ad

h is fo llo w e rs to the M ia m i p o st, h is o s te n s ib le g o a l in b re a k in g w ith

N u c h e c o n e r . In ste a d , he se ttled te m p o ra rily in th e v ic in ity o f p re s e n t-d a y

T e r r e H a u te , b e fo re m o v in g so u th to the C r e e k co u n try . C la im s o f lo yalty to

O n o n tio se rv e d la rg e ly to e s ta b lish e d h im as an in d e p e n d e n t p o lit ica l le a d e r .

B y 1 7 5 0 C h a r t ie r h ad le g itim ize d h is p o sitio n . T h e g o v e rn o r o f L o u is ia n a , at

le ast, re g a rd e d h im as o n e o f th e S h a w n e e c h ie fs .10

U n d e rs ta n d in g the c re a tio n o f th e re p u b lic s an d the p o lit ica l c o u n te r life to

the a llia n ce that th e y c re a te d in v o lv e s tra c in g the c a re e rs o f o th e r m en like

C h a r t ie r . O ro n to n y (or N ic h o la s ) o f th e W y a n d o ts a lso th rived on the

o p p o rtu n itie s that m ig ratio n in to the la n d s b e tw e e n the O h io an d the G r e a t

L a k e s p re se n te d . H e re p re se n te d a se c o n d sta g e in the d e v e lo p m e n t o f the

re p u b lic s , fo r h e ro se to p ro m in e n c e n o t a m o n g m ig ran ts fro m th e e ast b u t

a m o n g a g ro u p c en tra l to the F r e n c h a llia n c e . H e th re a te n e d n o t o n ly the

e m p ire b u t the a llia n ce c h ie fs as w e ll; h e b e c a m e the s te e rsm a n o f a re p u b lic

in actu a l re b e llio n ag a in st O n o n tio ; an d he flo ated on a so c ia l tid e that w e

can b e st trace b y fo llo w in g h im . In itia lly co n ten t to m a n e u v e r in th e co v e s o f

v illa g e p o lit ic s , O ro n to n y e v e n tu a lly b e c a m e d iv e rte d in to m u c h w id e r an d

w ild e r w a te rs . U n d e rs ta n d in g h im in vo lve s a d e to u r b a ck in to th e m aze o f

19 2 The middle ground

Nocheknonee and Chartier, who challenged the chiefs. Nocheknonee remained at Sonnontio, and when that town rebelled and sought English aid, the English demanded his chastise­ ment. He appears to have lost influence. The younger warriors seemed to have exerted great influence at Sonnontio when it became a “ republic,” but they did give great respect to an ancient chief who appears to have been nearly senile. This was Kekewatcheky who remained loyal to the English when the other Shawnees attacked the traders, and may have acted as a figurehead for the warriors who sought English aid. For Nocheknonee and Kekewatcheky, sec Treaty at Lancaster, July 19, 1748, P C R 5:314. For old, feeble Shawnee chief, see Croghan Journal, May 21, 175 1, in Reuben Gold Thwaites (ed.), E a rly W estern Travels 1 7 4 8 - 1 8 4 6 . . . , 38 vols. (Cleveland: Arthur IF Clark, 1904-07), 1:60; “ Cochawitchiky” , Gist Journal, 107; Logstown Conference, LoisMulkearn (ed.), George M ercer Papers R elating to the O hio Com pany o f V irginia (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1954), 280, 500, n. 122, ib id ; Wallace, W eiser, 267.

For Ncuchcconno (or Neuchcnor) as a French partisan, see A Treaty . . . Lancaster, July ig, 1748, P C R 5 :3 14 - 15 . For Chartier’s actions, see Anonymous Diary of a Trip from Detroit to the Ohio River, May 22 - Aug. 24, 1745, Papiers Contrecoeur, 1 - 1 0 , Archives of the Seminary of Quebec, v. 17 :1 , p. 3 - 5 , copy in GLEHA. It would be interesting to know the identity of Chartier’s followers, but the documents do not make this clear.

10 For movement, see Anonymous Diary of a Trip from Detroit to the Ohio River, May 22 - August 24, 1745, Papiers Contrecoeur, 1 - 1 0 , Archives of the Seminary of Quebec, v. 17 :1, p. 3 -9 , copy in GLEHA. Clark, “ Shawnee Migrations,” 42, 45-48. Clark, however, had not seen Vaudreuil’s letter of 1750 that gives Chartier’s own accounts of his band’s movements (Vaudreuil to Rouillé, June 24, 1750, M P A 5:48). Not all the Shawnees who moved south followed Chartier. Vaudreuil in 1744 mentioned 70 to 80 Shawnees who had come among the Alibamons when Chartier was still in the north, Vaudreuil to Maurepas, Feb. 12, 1744, Vaudreuil Letterbook 1, Loudoun Papers, (English translation), Huntington Library. As a chief, Vaudreuil to Rouillé, June 24, 1750, M P A 5:48.

v illage p o lit ic s a m o n g th e I Iu ro n -P e tu n s - fro m w h o m the W yan d o ts w e re

an o ffsh o o t.

O ro n to n y w a s a H u ro n -P e tu n w h o b e ca m e a W y a n d o t b e c a u se o f ye t

a n o th e r in terv illag e c o n flic t at D e tro it . In the 1 7 3 0 s the H u ro n -P e tu n s m ad e

p e a c e w ith the T ê t e s - P la t te s (a g e n e r ic term fo r so u th e rn In d ia n s b u t w h ich

in th is c a se p ro b ab ly r e fe r s to the C a ta w b a s) . T ir e d o f th e w a st in g so u th e rn

w a r th ey an d o th e r A lg o n q u ia n s h ad b e e n w a g in g in co n ju n ctio n w ith the

Iro q u o is , the H u r o n -P e tu n s ac ted w ith o u t the c o n se n t o r p artic ip a tio n o f

e ith e r the F r e n c h , o r m o re c r it ic a lly - s in c e th is w a s an In d ia n w a r that did

n ot in vo lve fig h tin g b e tw e e n m e m b e rs o f the a llia n ce - th e ir A lg o n q u ia n

a llie s . W h en th e H u ro n -P e tu n s attem p ted to in c lu d e th e ir n e ig h b o rs at

D e tro it in the p e a c e , n o t on ly d id th e O tta w as , P o ta w a to m is , an d S a u lte u rs

re fu se the w a m p u m b e lts se n t b y the H u r o n -P e tu n s , th ey a c c u se d the

H u ro n -P e tu n s o f p lo ttin g to jo in the C a ta w b a s in a ttack s ag a in st th em . T h e

o th e r D e tro it v illa g e rs im m e d ia te ly o rg an iz e d a sm a ll w a r p arty to co n tin u e

the w a r. T h e H u ro n -P e tu n s , in tu rn , d isp a tc h e d w a rr io rs to w a rn the

C a ta w b a s . A s it tu rn e d o u t, th ese H u r o n -P e tu n w a rr io rs d id m o re than w arn

the C a ta w b a s ; th ey jo in e d th em in a m b u sh in g the o th e r D e tro it In d ia n s . In

the fig h tin g that fo llo w e d , o n ly th re e m e m b e rs o f the se v e n te e n -m a n O ttaw a,

C h ip p e w a , an d P o taw ato m i w a r p arty e s c a p e d .11

F o r b o th th e H u ro n -P e tu n s a n d th e ir D e tro it a llie s , the in c id e n t se e m e d

less an a b e rra tio n in th e ir fr ie n d sh ip than a re a ffirm a tio n o f the b a s ic

d iv is io n s b e tw e e n th em that F r e n c h m ed ia tio n h ad h e re to fo re b r id g e d . T h e

H u ro n -P e tu n s n o w re c a lle d h ow y e a rs e a r lie r at M ic h ilim a c k in a c , th eir

re la tiv e s at the m iss io n s o f S a u lt S a in te L o u is an d L a c d e s D e u x M o n ta g n e s

h ad in vited th em to settle n e a r M o n tre a l. T h e m iss io n In d ia n s had sa id :

“ M y b ro th e rs , yo u a re h e re , in th e m id st o f a m u ltitu d e o f n a tio n s w h o d o

n o t love y o u , yo u do n o t u n d e rsta n d th e ir la n g u a g e . Y o u a re ig n o ra n t o f th e ir

cu sto m s, an d b e ca u se o f th is, yo u a re in a p o sit io n e ac h d ay to in vo lve

y o u rse lv e s in evil a f fa ir s .” N o w , se e m in g ly fa c e d w ith a le a g u e o f a ll the

A lg o n q u ia n s ag a in st th em , the H u ro n -P e tu n s re c a lle d th is m e ssa g e an d saw

it as a d is tu rb in g ly a c c u ra te a sse ssm e n t o f th e ir c u rre n t situ atio n . T h e y w e re ,

the c o m m a n d e r at D e tro it c o n firm e d , u n iv e rsa lly h a te d .12

11 It is unclear whether this was new peace or a renewal of' an older one made in 1729; see Beauharnois to Minister, July 21, 1729, W H C 17:64-65. For basic account, see Canada, Sauvages, jan. 1739, AN, C 11A , v. 72, f. 29 1-9 3 . For the Catawba wars, see James Merrell, “ ‘Their Very Bones Shall Fight’ : The Catawba-Iroquois Wars,” in Richter and Merrell (eds.), B eyond the Covenant C h a in , 1 15 -3 4 , and James Merrell, The In d ia n s ’ N ew W orld: Cataw bas an d T h eir N eighbors from European Contact Through the E ra o f R em oval (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 135-40 .

12 For speech, see Paroles des Hurons du Detroit, 1738, AN, C 11A , v. 74, f .72 -76 (a brief synopsis which does not contain this full quote is in W H C 17:282); Memorandum of what occurred in the Affair of the Hurons of Detroit. . . from the 12 of Aug. 1738 to 12 of June 174 1, W H C 17:279; Noyelle to Beauharnois, 1 Feb. 1739, M P I I C 34:163.

R ep u b lican s and reb els 1 9 3

T h is v illa g e c r is is at D e tro it q u ic k ly b e c a m e a c r is is o f the a llia n c e w ith the

H u r o n -P e tu n s at the c e n te r . T h e p ro p e r F r e n c h ro le w a s c le a r : A s fa th e rs ,

th ey sh o u ld m ed ia te th is d a n g e ro u s d isp u te a m o n g th e ir e ld e st c h ild re n .

T h e y sh o u ld c o v e r the d e ad , a n d , it w as e ve n tu a lly a g re e d , re m o v e the

H u r o n -P e tu n s to a site aw ay fro m D e tro it . B u t the F r e n c h c o m m a n d e r

N o y a n d a w d le d an d d id n o th in g to re c o n c ile the n a tio n s. W h e n G o v e r n o r de

B e a u h a m o is a c te d , h is e m issa r ie s n e g le c te d the p ro p e r c e re m o n ie s , an d the

F r e n c h fe ll in to fa c tio n a l d isp u tes o f th e ir o w n o v e r th e p ro p e r c o u rse o f

ac tio n . F o r fo u r y e a rs a fte r th e in itia l a ttack in th e C a ta w b a co u n try ,

n e g o tia tio n s d ra g g e d on . W ith o u t a d e q u a te F r e n c h su p p o rt, an d to rn by

d iv is io n s a m o n g th e ir o w n p e o p le , th e H u ro n -P e tu n c h ie fs lost th e ir p o w e r.

A m a jo r re a lig n m e n t in the p o lit ic s o f th e n atio n b e g a n . In e ffe c t , the y o u n g

m en an d the w o m e n v e to ed the co u n c il d e c is io n s . T h e c lan m a tro n s took

su c h a p ro m in e n t ro le in o p p o s in g th e F r e n c h attem p ts to m ove the

H u r o n -P e tu n s to M o n tre a l th at G o v e r n o r de B e a u h a rn o is ’ s n e p h e w and

a g e n t, th e C h e v a lie r de B e a u h a rn o is , re so rte d to s e c re t c o u n c ils re str ic te d to

m en in an u n s u c c e s s fu l a ttem p t to b re a k the in flu e n c e o f the w o m e n . W ith

no c o n se n su s e m e rg in g , p o w e r b e g a n to sh ift aw ay fro m the a llian ce c h ie fs -

S a s te re tsy , the titu lar h e a d o f the n atio n , an d T a y a tc h a t in , the h e a d o f the

T u r t le p h ra try - an d to w a rd tw o le s s e r c h ie fs , A n g o u rio t an d O ro n to n y .13

F r o m the b e g in n in g o f the c r is is , e ve n w h e n th e H u r o n -P e tu n s a p p e a re d

19 4 The middle ground

13 For example of negotiations over removal, see Farolles des Hurons, 1738, AN, C i 1 A, v. 74, f. 72-76 . For French recognition of significance, see Canada, Sauvages, 1739, AN, C n A , v. 72, f. 289. For French intervention, see Paroles de . . . Beauharnois aux hurons & Outa8as du Detroit, 1738, AN, C n A , v .69; Canada, Sauvages, jan. 1739, AN, C n A , v .72, f. 29 1-9 3 . For requests for removal, see Noyelle to Beauharnois, 1 Feb. 1739, M P H C 34:163; Memorandum of what occurred in the Affair of the I lurons of Detroit. . . from the 12 Aug. 1738 to 12 of June 1741, W H C 17 :28 1-84 . Beauharnois agreed in 1740 to grant the Huron-Petuns lands near Montreal, and the next year sent his nephew to negotiate their removal and mission Indians to perform the necessary ceremonies and to escort them to Montreal. He thought by 1741 that the matter had been arranged. Beauhamois to Minister, Oct. 1, 1740, M P H C 34:184; Canada, Sauvages, 1740 AN, C n A , v.74, f.234 -35 . For invitation, see Secret Council. . . Message to the Hurons of Detroit, June 12, 1741, W HC 17:340-44. For Huron-Petun refusal, see Beauhamois to Minister, Oct. 1, 1740, W HC 17 :329-35 . For exclusion of women, see Conseil particulier aux huronnes, 2 août 1741, AN, C i i A, v.54, f.99.

Governor de Beauharnois eventually blamed Father de la Richardie, who had begun to urge a settlement at Grosse Isle at the mouth of the Detroit River, and de Noyan, who did nothing to reconcile the nations, for their failure; Richardie, in turn, blamed Beauhamois. Beauhamois to Richardie, June 14, 1741, W HC 17:349-50; Beauhamois to Minister, Oct. 8, 174 1, W HC 17:369-70; Beauharnois à Richardie, 30 août 174 1, AN, C i iA, v. 75, f. 105; Richardie toFr. dejaunay, Dec. 1741, W HC 17 :3 7 0 -7 1; Beauharnois to Minister Sept. 15, 1742, W HC 17 :4 12 - 15 ; Chev. de Beauhanrois to M. de Beauharnois, Aug. 2, 1741, W H C 17:354. For division of young men and elders, see Richarie (sic) to St. Pé, June 10, 1741, W H C 17:339- The chiefs became unwilling to act without first consulting the mass of the young men even when pressured by de Beauharnois at Montreal, Beauharnois to Minister, Oct. 8, 1741, M P H C 33:209-10 . And it was apparently the young men who in 1742 made

to b e actin g w ith n e a r u n an im ity , s ig n s o f d iv is io n b e tw e e n the le a d in g

c h ie fs an d m in o r H u ro n le a d e rs w e re v is ib le . In e arly n e g o tia tio n s w ith

G o v e rn o r d e B e a u h a rn o is , O ro n to n y acted as the e m issa ry fo r S a s ta re tsy

an d T a y a tc h a tin . Y e t n e ith e r o f th ese p ro m in e n t c h ie fs tru ste d h im . T h e y

se c re tly in fo rm e d B e a u h a rn o is th at i f O ro n to n y a g re e d to a n y th in g b u t a n ew

v illa g e at M o n tre a l, th ey w o u ld d isav o w h im .14

O ro n to n y h im s e lf e v e n tu a lly b ro k e o p e n ly w ith the le a d in g c h ie fs o v e r the

b e st c o u rse to p u rsu e , an d in d o in g so h e jo in e d A n g o u rio t , a m an h e had

e a r lie r o p p o se d . A n g o u rio t w a s o n e o f the th re e e ld e rs w h o h ad o b je c te d to

re m o v in g to M o n tre a l fro m the b e g in n in g . H e w a s both a c lan c h ie f an d a

le a d e r o f th e n o n -C h r is t ia n H u ro n -P e tu n s . F a th e r de la R ic h a r d ie , the

in flu e n tia l m iss io n ary at D e tro it , h ated h im an d re fe rre d to h im as the

“ D ru n k a rd A n g o u r io t .” O th e r F r e n c h m e n , h o w e v e r , re g a rd e d h im as a m an

w h o c o u ld co n tro l h is d r in k in g w h e n the o c c a s io n d e m a n d e d . T h e y th o u g h t

he jo in e d to “ a cu n n in g an d su b tle m in d , th e ab ility o f an a c c o m p lish e d

p o lit ic ia n .” A n g o u rio t g a in e d su p p o rt as the se n io r c h ie fs p ro v e d u n a b le to

fo rg e a c o n se n su s on re lo ca tio n . B y the late su m m e r o f 1 7 4 0 , h a lf th e v illage

fo llo w e d h im . W h ile o th er H u ro n -P e tu n s p la n n e d a n ew v illa g e at G r o s s e

Is le at th e m o u th o f the D e tr o it R iv e r , A n g o u rio t and h is “ b ro th e rs ” h ad

b egu n to c le a r fie ld s at S a n d u s k y n e a r the so u th w e ste rn sh o re o f L a k e E r ie

w h e re the H u ro n -P e tu n s h ad w in te re d fo llo w in g the in itia l c o n flic t o v e r the

C a ta w b a s .15

A n g o u r io t ’s m ove to S a n d u s k y s ig n a le d a fu n d a m e n ta l fra c tu re in H u ro n -

P e tu n so c ie ty . T w o m in o r c h ie fs , A n g o u rio t and O ro n to n y (w ho la te r jo in e d

A n g o u rio t at S a n d u sk y ) , h ad b ro k e n w ith the H u ro n -P e tu n h ie ra rc h y an d

led an e x o d u s to w ard the m a rg in s o f the O h io co u n try . T h e O h io co u n try

w as n o t u n k n o w n to the H u ro n -P e tu n s . T h e y h ad h u n ted th ere an d w a rre d

th e re , an d so m e , like the fo rty H u ro n s w h o a lre a d y liv e d a m o n g the

S h a w n e e s , h ad e ve n se ttled th ere . B u t n o n e o f the e sta b lish e d le a d e rsh ip o f

Republicans and rebels 195

the decision to settle at Grosse Isle and not to remove to Montreal, Beauharnois to 3 Huron chiefs of Detroit, June 28, 1742, W H C 17:377-80.

14 James Clifton, in his article “ The Re-emergent Wyandot: A Study in Ethnogenesis on the Detroit River Borderland, 1747” in Papers from the W estern D istrict Conference, ed. K. Ci. Pryke and L. L. Kulisek (Essex County Historical Society and Western District Council, 1983), 10 - 15 , makes this division an ethnic split, but Lucien Campeau, L a M ission des

jfesuites chez Les H urons, 16 3 9 -5 0 (Montreal: Editions Bellarmin, 1987), 362-67, calls this into question. On this point, I have followed Campeau. For negotiations, see Memorandum . . . the Affair of the Hurons of Detroit. . . 12 of August 1738 to 12 of June 174 1, W H C 17:280, 283-85; Secret Council, Message. . . to the Hurons of Detroit, June 12, 1741, W H C 17:340.

15 For Angouriot, see Richardie to St. Pé, Aug. 26, 1740, W H C 17:328-29 ; Memorandum, W H C 17:286-87; Chevalier de Beauharnois to Marquis de Beauharnois, Aug. 2, 1741, W H C 17:3 S3 — 54- For controls half a village, see Beauharnois to Richardie, June 14, 1741, W H C 17:349-

the H u ro n -P e tu n s jo in e d the d iss id e n ts in th e ir sh ift so u th . N e ith e r the

p h ra try le a d e rs n o r any o f the hondatorinke (o r S ta y -a t -H o m e s ) , th e m o st

se n io r m ale c o u n c il c h ie fs , le ft D e tro it . T h o s e w h o d id fo llo w A n g o u rio t and

O ro n to n y b e g a n to d e s ig n a te th e m se lv e s as W yan d o ts , an o ld e r n am e fo r the

H u ro n s that h ad g o n e la rg e ly u n u se d fo r g e n e ra tio n s . T h is w a s a p o litica l

re b e llio n ag a in st the v illa g e h ie ra rc h y , b u t it w a s a lso a re je c tio n o f the

a llia n c e . B r it ish trad e rs a p p a re n tly e n c o u ra g e d th e W y a n d o ts fro m the

o u tse t, an d O ro n to n y w o u ld in the 1 7 4 0 s c o n firm h is b re a k w ith the F r e n c h

b y s e e k in g B r it is h a id . W h e n ask e d b y the B r it ish th e ir re a so n fo r d e se rtin g

the F r e n c h , th e W y a n d o ts d e n o u n c e d th e F r e n c h fo r the e n d le ss w a rs th ey

d e m a n d e d o f th e ir a llie s an d th e h ig h p r ic e o f th e ir tra d in g g o o d s . In e ffe c t ,

O ro n to n y an d h is fo llo w e rs c h a lle n g e d O n o n tio ’s p a tr ia rc h a l c re d e n tia ls .

O n o n tio b ro u g h t p e a c e to th e pays d'en haut o n ly at the p r ic e o f w a r o u ts id e

it, an d he fa ile d to p ro v id e the bon marché that a go o d fa th e r sh o u ld g u aran tee

a m o n g h is c h ild r e n .16

W h e re C h a r t ie r h ad in d ica te d p o ss ib ilit ie s , O ro n to n y an d A n g o u rio t

in d ic a te d d ire c tio n s . O ro n to n y , w h o e m e rg e d as the le a d e r at S a n d u sk y ,

se rv e d a s a p a rtic u la r ly im p o rtan t tran sitio n a l fig u re . H e ste p p e d fre e o f both

the a llian ce an d the o ld trib a l h ie ra rc h y an d e n te re d the la n d s so u th o f L a k e

E r ie ju st as the firs t im p e ria l s to rm s in a g e n e ra tio n w e re a b o u t to b re a k o ver

the re g io n .

196 The middle ground

Ill

W ith o u t a n y c le a r p la n , m e n lik e C h a r t ie r an d O ro n to n y b e g a n a p o litica l

re o rg a n iz a tio n o f the pays dén haut. T h e i r im m e d ia te g o a ls c e n te re d o n th e ir

v illa g e s , b u t a t le a s t h azily th ey b e g a n to en v is io n a p e a c e b e tw e e n v illa g e s

that e x te n d e d to a ll In d ia n s , n o rth an d so u th . T h e tro u b le s o f the H u ro n -

P e tu n s h ad b e g u n , a fte r a ll, in an attem p t to e n d th e c h ro n ic fig h tin g

b e tw e e n n o rth e rn an d so u th e rn In d ia n s . In the O h io V a lle y the S h a w n e e s

a lso m ad e a ttem p ts to se c u re p e a c e . T h e im p lica tio n s o f a p e a c e ach ie v e d

w ith o u t O n o n tio ’ s m ed ia tio n w o rrie d th e F r e n c h , fo r it th re a te n e d the

16 Clifton, “ Re-emergent Wyandot,” 7 -8 , 14 - 15 ; Beauhamois to Minister, Sept. 15, 1742, W HC, 17 :4 14 - 15 . For reference to Hurons among English, see Beauhamois to Fr. de la Richardie, W7 /C 17:350. The other Huron-Petuns remained in a state of turmoil. They had supposedly decided to settle near Detroit at the Isle de Bois Blanc (Beauhamois au Ministre, 2 nov, 1742, AN, C 11A , v. 75) and then at la Grande Terre on the mainland near Detroit (Beauhamois to Ministre, Nov. 12, 1742, W H C 17:431). More settled at Sandusky in the Ohio country, Beauhamois au Ministre, 17 sept. 1743, AN, C 11A , v. 108. Paroles de Kinonsaki aux Hurons établis à Sandoské . . . 5 mai 1743, AN, C i 1 A, v. 79, f. 95. Some of those at Sandusky returned, at least temporarily, to La Grande Terre in 1744, Beauhamois to Minister, Oct. 9, 1744, W H C 17:440. For among Shawnees, see Réponse au mémoire du Roy, 13 oct. 1735, AN, C i i.A, v. 63; Canada, Sauvages, dec. 1735, AN, C i iA, v.63, f. 218. For denouncing French, see Journal of Conrad Weiser, Sept. 8, 1748, P C R 5:350.

Republicans and rebels 1 9 7

(Courtesy Mackinac State Historic Parks)

a llian ce itse lf. In 1 7 4 7 C h a r le s d e s C h a m p s d e B o ish é b e rt n o ted re p o rts that

“ the R e d sk in s m a d e a treaty so m e y e a rs ago not to kill o n e an o th er, an d to

let the w h ite s act aga in st each o th e r .” R e fu s in g to fig h t o th e r In d ia n s,

F r e n c h a llie s “ fa v o re d the p artie s o f o u r e n e m ie s w h o a ttack e d u s , w ith o u t

p u ttin g th e m se lv e s to the tro u b le o f d e fe n d in g u s .” 17

17 For Shawnee efforts, see Heauharnois au Ministre, 3 nov. 1746, AN, C i tA, v .85, f. 230. For Shawnee-Cherokee peace, see Beauchamp's Journal, (1746), M P A 4:289. For inter-

B o is h é b e r t w ro te as a n e w ro u n d o f im p e r ia l w a rs e x p lo d e d in N o rth

A m e r ic a . K in g G e o r g e ’ s W a r an d the S e v e n Y e a r s ’ W a r g av e u rg e n c y

to B r it is h an d F r e n c h a ttem p ts to w in In d ia n a llie s w h ile su b m e rg in g the

v illa g e s tru g g le b e n e a th th e stru g g le fo r e m p ire . D is c o v e r in g th e n a tu re o f

the n e w “ re p u b lic a n ” p o lit ica l an d so c ia l o rd e r that B o is h é b e r t an d o th e r

o ff ic ia ls fe a re d an d that O ro n to n y so u g h t th e re fo re re q u ire s re a d in g b e tw e e n

the lin e s o f a c c o u n ts o f th e im p eria l w a rs o f the p e r io d .

W ith the e ru p tio n o f K in g G e o r g e ’ s W a r in 1 7 4 4 , th e F r e n c h m o ved

q u ic k ly to attach the p e o p le s o f th e O h io c o u n try to th e a llia n ce . A t firs t they

se e m e d to s u c c e e d . T h e la rg e ly Iro q u o is m ig ran ts liv in g b y th e C u y a h o g a

R iv e r (W h ite R iv e r) d e c la re d fo r the F r e n c h an d p ro m ise d to p lu n d e r B r it ish

tra d e rs , a n d u n d e r the le a d e rsh ip o f C h a r t ie r , th e S h a w n e e s d id p lu n d e r the

B r it ish . T h e M ia m is d e c la re d fo r th e F r e n c h , a s d id th e W e a s . E v e n so m e

W y a n d o ts at S a n d u s k y re tu rn e d to D e tro it , b e c o m in g o n ce aga in H u ro n -

P e tu n s . T h e S ix N a tio n s p ro p e r at th e ir c o u n c il fire at O n o n d a g a a n n o u n ce d

th e ir n e u tra lity . M a n y w e ste rn v illa g e rs - the O ttaw as, M e n o m in e e s , W in n e -

b a g o s , S a u lte u rs , M is s is s a u g a s , I llin o is , H u r o n -P e tu n s , Potaw^atom is, an d

o th e rs - se n t w a rr io rs to M o n tre a l to jo in th e F r e n c h in a ttack s o n the

B r it is h . O n ly th e M o h a w k s , b re a k in g aw ay fro m the n e u tra lity o f the

Iro q u o is c o n fe d e ra t io n a s a w h o le , d e c la re d w a r a g a in st the F r e n c h . T h e

F r e n c h e n v is io n e d th e O h io c o u n try sw e p t fre e o f th e B r it ish trad e rs w h o

h ad fo llo w e d th e S h a w n e e s , Iro q u o is , an d D e la w a re s w e s t . 18

B u t a fte r th e ir in itia l s u c c e ss in m o b iliz in g th e ir a llie s , th in gs w e n t aw ry

fo r the F r e n c h . B y 1 7 4 7 the a llia n ce w a s in d isa rra y an d so m an y v illa g e s

w e re in o p e n re b e llio n that B o is h é b e r t w ro te , so m e w h a t o v e rd ram a tic a lly ,

o f a “ g e n e ra l c o n sp ira c y o f th e re d sk in s ag a in st the w h ite .” O tta w as an d

C h ip p e w a s m u rd e re d F r e n c h tra d e rs o n L a k e S u p e r io r . T h e M ia m is sa ck e d

the F r e n c h p o st lo ca te d a m o n g th em . T h e W yan d o ts o f S a n d u s k y , so m e

O ttaw ra s , an d th e W h ite R iv e r In d ia n s o f the C u y a h o g a attack ed a F r e n c h

198 The middle ground

tribal peace, see Vaudreuil to Maurepas, Apr. 1, 1746, MPA 4:266-67; Vaudreuil to Maurepas, Nov. 20, 1746, Loudoun Papers, Extracts from Letterbooks, LO 9 vol. 1 (2), Huntington. Governor de Vaudreuil and his agents in Louisiana hoped the Shawnee attempts at peace would halt Choctaw attacks on the French, Beauchamp’s Journal, (1746), MPA 4:289. Boishébert to Minister, Nov. 1747, NYCD 9:87. Boishébert says they made a concordat, Enterprises de guerre . . . , 1747, AN, C i 1 A, v. 87, f. 20. There is, in addition, a mention as early as 1737 of a broad anti-French conspiracy, Bienville au Ministre, 21 juin I 7 3 7 > AN- C 13A , v.22.

18 For Indians accepting war belts, see Beauhamois to Maurepas, Oct. 8, 1744, NYCD 9 :1105; ibid,, 7 Nov. 1744, NYCD 9 : 1 1 1 1 - 1 2 . For White River, see Conference between M. de Longueuil. . . and the Indians, 1700, (sic) NYCD 9:704-07. For movement of Shawnees, see Beauhamois to Minister, Oct. 28, 1745, WHC 17:448. For Wyandots’ return, see Beauhamois to Minister, Oct 9, 1744, WHC 17:440. For joining war parties and accepting hatchet against Mohawks, see Etrait des differens mouvements . . . de la guerre, Dec. 1745 - Aug. 1746, AN, C 11A , v. 87.

199

p arty , k illin g five trad e rs . T h e su c c e ss o f th is a ttack , in tu rn , led the O ttaw as

w h o had p artic ip a te d to p ro m ise to attack D e tro it , b u t an in fo rm an t b e traye d

the p lan an d the D e tro it attack n e v e r to ok p la c e . T h e Illin o is c e a se d all

activ ity in fa v o r o f the F r e n c h , an d ru m o rs h ad th em c o n sp ir in g to d e stro y

the p o sts in Illin o is co u n try . O n ly the P o ta w a to m is se e m e d lo y a l.19 20

T h e F r e n c h b la m e d th e ir p ro b le m s o n B r it ish m a ch in a tio n s, an d the

B r it ish c le a r ly e n c o u ra g e d the re b e ls in the O h io re g io n an d b e yo n d . B u t the

c a u se s o f d isru p tio n w en t m u ch d e e p e r . T h e F r e n c h th e m se lv e s had p lan ted

the se e d s o f w id e sp re a d revo lt w ith the C r o w n ’ s d rive fo r e c o n o m y in the

y e a rs p re c e d in g the w ar. In 1 7 4 4 , a fte r se v e ra l y e a rs o f in c re a s in g e x p e n ­

d itu re s , the m in iste r o f the m a rin e , the C o m te de M a u r e p a s , n o ted w ith

p le a su re that th e in ten d an t an d the g o v e rn o r h ad m a n a g e d to cu t b ack

sig n ifica n tly on the p re se n ts g iven to In d ia n s in C a n a d a . A t the sam e tim e , in

an a ttem p t to re d u c e the e xp e n se o f m a in ta in in g the p o sts , the k in g h ad

fa rm e d ou t m an y o f th em , in c lu d in g N ia g a ra , M ia m i, O u ia te n o n , an d G r e e n

B a y , to le s se e s . T o re c o v e r the c o st o f the le ase an d cap ita lize o n th eir

m o n o p o lies , th ese le s se e s h ad ra ise d p r ic e s fo r g o o d s an d cu t b a c k on the

p re se n ts th ey b e sto w e d . O n e re su lt o f th ese m e a su re s w a s In d ia n d isco n te n t,

w h ic h w a s fu rth e r e xa c e rb a te d as the in ev itab le B r it ish w a rtim e b lo ck ad e

cu rta iled the su p p ly o f F r e n c h trad e g o o d s.

B y 1 7 4 5 th e re w e re se r io u s sh o rta g e s o f trad e g o o d s in the W e st. T h e

B r it ish to ld In d ia n s v is it in g th em at O sw e g o that the F r e n c h w o u ld no lo n g e r

b e ab le to su p p ly th e ir a llie s . G o v e r n o r de B e a u h a rn o is , fo r h is p art, r ig h d y

R ep u b lican s and rebels

19 For French fears and countermeasures, La Galissonière to Maurepas, Oct. 2 2 , 1747, IH C 29:38-39. For murders at Sandusky, planned attack on Detroit, and attacks of Chippewas and Ottawas of Michilimackinac, see Raymond to Maurepas, Nov. 2, 1747, W H C 17: 474-77; Galissonière to Minister, 23 Oct. 1748, N Y C D 10 :18 1-8 2 . For Ottawa and Chippewa attacks, see Continuation du journal, 9 oct. 1747, AN, C 11A , v,8y; Hanna, W ilderness T ra il 1:323-32 . For Wyandot belts seeking allies and aid, see Weiser to Peters, Oct. 15, 1747, P C R 5 :136 -37 . For crediting Wyandots as well as Iroquois with spreading rebellion to Illinois and Wabash, Vaudreuil to Maurepas, Sept. 19, 1747, IH C 29:32-34. For blaming English, see Raymond to Maurepas, Nov. 2, 1747, W H C 17:474-77. For Potawatomis loyal, sec Journal of Whatever Occurred of Interest at Quebec. . . since the sailing of the Ships in November 1747, N Y C D 10 :137 -38 , hereafter, Journal. For quotation and account of rebellion, see Report of M. Boisherbert, Nov. 1747, N Y C D 10:83-88. For Miami post pillaged, see Bigot to Maurepas, Oct. 19, 1748, IH C 29:75.

20 For cut back in presents, see Maurepas to Beauharnois, Mar. 24, 1744, W H C 18:5. For previous increase and complaints, see Beauharnois to Maurepas, Oct. 13, 1743, N Y C D 9:1098-99. For leases, see Postes des pays d’en haut, Beauharnois & Hocquart, 8 oct. 1742, AN, C i 1 A, v.78, f. 378—85; Beauharnois au Ministre, 6 juin 1743, AN, C i 1 A, v.79, f.97; Beauharnois to Minister, Oct. 9, 1744, W H C 17:442-43; Beauharnois to Minister, Oct. 25, 1744, W H C 17:445-46; Galissonière to Minister, Oct. 23, 1748, W H C 17:503. For Wea complaints about lessees and high prices, see Speeches of Ouyatanons, etc., July 8, 1742, W H C 17:381. For failure of supplies, high prices, and scarcity, see Beauharnois au Minister, 19 juin 1745, AN, C riA , v. 83; La Galissonière & Hocquart to Minister, Oct. 7, 1747, W H C 17:470-72.

200

fe a re d a “ g re a t c h a n g e ” in the u p p e r co u n try . In 1 7 4 6 the F r e n c h so m e w h a t

d e sp e ra te ly g ran te d congés g ra tis in an a ttem p t to get g o o d s an d su p p lie s to

the p o sts . S o m e g o o d s re a c h e d the u p p e r co u n try , b u t tra d e rs d e m a n d e d fa r

m o re th an the cu sto m a ry p r ic e s fo r th em . F r e n c h attem p ts to e xp la in m ark e t

fo rc e s an d to b lam e th e ir lack o f su p p lie s o n the w a r fe ll o n d e a f e a rs , a s w e ll

th ey m ig h t s in ce A lg o n q u ia n s h ad a lre a d y se e n p r ic e s rise w ith th e le a s in g o f

the p o s ts .21

S o m e In d ia n s re a c te d to the c h a n g e s in e x c h a n g e ra te s b y re fu s in g to p ay

fo r g o o d s a d v a n c e d th em fo r th e ir h u n ts ; o th e rs b e g a n to a ttack an d p lu n d e r

F r e n c h trad e c a n o e s . In an d o f th e m se lv e s , the attacks re p re se n te d le ss an

A lg o n q u ia n re p u d ia tio n o f th e a llia n c e th an an a rm e d an d a n g ry p ro te st

ag a in st F r e n c h v io la tio n s o f the p r in c ip le s o f th e a llia n ce . M o s t w a rr io rs in

the pays d'en haut re se n te d th e sh o rta g e s an d h ig h p r ic e s o f F r e n c h trad e

g o o d s , b u t k illin g F re n c h m e n in stead o f s im p ly ro b b in g th em o r, in d e e d ,

ig n o r in g th em an d trad in g w ith the B r it ish at O sw e g o o r in the O h io co u n try

re fle c te d a d e e p e r a n g e r at w h at th ese h ig h p r ic e s re p re se n te d . B y d e m a n d in g

that th e ir a llie s s h e d b lo o d in an im p e r ia l w a r w h ile g iv in g th em fe w e r an d

fe w e r g o o d s , th e F r e n c h h ad c e a se d to act as fa th e rs . F o r A lg o n q u ia n s e ach

d e c re a se in w h at th e F r e n c h trad e rs o ffe r e d fo r fu rs an d sk in s w a s n o t a

d e m o n stra tio n o f e co n o m ic n e c e ss ity b u t an e xa m p le o f F r e n c h g re e d that

v io la te d the c o n c e p t o f the a llia n c e . T h e F r e n c h , not th ey , h ad b ro k e n the

a llia n c e . T h e a c c o u n t o f G e o r g e C ro g h a n , a S c o t s - I r is h tra d e r , o f a su d d e n

m u rd e r co m m itte d by a W y a n d o t c a p tu re s the b itte rn e ss an d a n g e r o f

in d iv id u a l w a rr io rs . “ A n o th e r F r e n c h T r a d e r h as s in c e b e e n k illed in a

p riv a te q u a rre l w ith o n e o f the Jo n o o n ta t ic h ro a n u [W yan d o ts], b e tw e e n the

R iv e r O h io an d the L a k e E r ie - the F re n c h m a n o ffe r in g b u t o n e c h a rg e o f

p o w d e r an d o n e b u lle t fo r a b e a v e r sk in to the In d ia n ; th e In d ia n to ok u p

h a tch e t an d k n o c k e d h im o n the h e a d .” 22

T h is w ave o f m u rd e rs an d a ttack s a la rm e d the F r e n c h c o n s id e ra b ly , b u t a s

in fo rm atio n filte re d in fro m the W e st, it b e ca m e a p p a re n t th at the a ttack s d id

not, as ye t, co n stitu te a c o n c e rte d a ttem p t b y the In d ia n s to d rive the F r e n c h

o u t o f the pays d ’en haut. T h e r e w e re , h o w e v e r , In d ia n s w h o so u g h t to tu rn

a n g e r a g a in st the F r e n c h in to a re a rra n g e m e n t o f the p o lit ica l m ap o f the

re g io n . T h e m o st p ro m in e n t o f th ese m en w e re O ro n to n y , h is W y a n d o t

21 For lease system, see Beauhamois to Minister, Oct. 28,1745, WTIC 17:449; T.a Galissonière to Minister, Oct. 23, 1748, W H C 17 :503-4 . For early warning of problems from cost of trade, see Bienville au Ministre, 21 juin 1737, AN, C 13A , v. 22, f. 10 1. For congés, gratis, see Beauharnois and Hocquart to Minister, Sept. 22, 1746 W HC 17 :4 50 -5 1. For English claim to have cut off French supplies, see T.ongueuil to Beauhamois, July 28, 1745, W HC 17:446-47. For French lack supplies for posts, see Beauhamois au ministre, 3 nov. 1746, AN, C 11A , v. 85, f. 230; Vaudreuil to Maurepas, March 22, 1747, 1H C 29:15; Bigot to Minister, Oct. 22, 1748, W HC 17:509.

1 1 Hanna, Wilderness Trail, 32 4 -33 ; for quotation, see 325.

The middle ground

201

fo llo w e rs at S a n d u s k y , an d th e ir M in g o and W h ite R iv e r a llie s . O ro n to n y

and the W yan d o ts a ttack ed the a llia n c e it s e lf as e xp lo ita tiv e . T h e F r e n c h

“ w o u ld a lw ays get th e ir y o u n g m en to g o to w a r a g a in st th e ir e n e m ie s , and

w o u ld u se th em as th e ir o w n p e o p le ; that is like s la v e s ; an d th e ir g o o d s w ere

so d e a r that th ey , the In d ia n s , c o u ld not b u y th e m .” 23 24 25

T h e i r b re a k w ith the F r e n c h w as o n ly the first fra c tu re that O ro n to n y an d

h is M in g o an d W h ite R iv e r a llie s m a d e in the p o litica l n e tw o rk s o f the pays d'en haut. O ro n to n y u se d the W y a n d o ts ’ attack on the F r e n c h to u n d e rlin e

h is o w n in d e p e n d e n c e fro m th e H u ro n -P e tu n s , w h ile the M in g o s an d W h ite

R iv e r In d ia n s d e c la re d th e ir in d e p e n d e n c e o f th e Iro q u o is co u n c il at

O n o n d a g a . C a n a c h q u a s y , a sp e a k e r fo r the M in g o s on the O h io , righ tly

a ttrib u ted M in g o a ttack s n o t to d e c is io n s at O n o n d a g a - w h ic h re m ain e d

n eu tra l - b u t to the y o u n g w a rr io rs o f th e w e ste rn v i lla g e s .24

T o su sta in th e m se lv e s aga in st th e F r e n c h , O ro n to n y an d h is a llie s n e e d e d

a id , an d in se e k in g it, they c o m p lic a te d the p o lit ic s o f th e O h io V a lle y still

fu rth e r. T h e y a p p ea le d to P e n n sy lv a n ia fo r h e lp , an d in d o in g so they

a ttach ed th e ir re b e llio n aga in st the F r e n c h to the im p e ria l w a r b e tw e e n

G r e a t B r ita in an d F r a n c e . P e n n sy lv a n ia ’ s in tere st in the pays d'en haut h ad

until the late 17 4 0 s b e e n re p re se n te d la rg e ly b y the S c o t s - I r is h trad e rs w h o

had fo llo w e d the S h a w n e e s an d D e la w a re s w est. In S e p te m b e r o f 1 7 4 7 , the

m o st p ro m in e n t o f th ese trad e rs , G e o r g e C ro g h a n , se n t a d e sp e ra te m e ssa g e

to P e n n sy lv an ia o ffic ia ls w a rn in g th em that u n le ss p re se n ts a rr iv e d q u ick ly ,

the re b e llin g In d ian s w o u ld re tu rn to th e F r e n c h . O n ly a fte r so m e d e lay d id

C ro g h a n re c e iv e an y g o o d s . W ith h is b e la te d a id , th e g o v e rn m e n t o f

P e n n sy lv an ia p artia lly a b a n d o n e d its o w n lo n g -h e ld fic tio n that th e w e ste rn

m ig ran ts w e re d e p e n d e n ts o f O n o n d a g a , co n tro lle d by the Iro q u o is co u n c il

at O n o n d a g a .2"1

O ro n to n y so u g h t to e x ten d h is a llia n ce w ith the P e n n sy lv a n ia n s th ro u g h ­

o u t the pays d'en haut. B r it ish b e lts an d O ro n to n y ’ s ap p e a ls fo r revo lt

fo llo w in g th e W y a n d o t a ttack s a p p a re n tly c o n v in ce d m an y C h ip p e w a s an d

O ttaw as that m e re ly p lu n d e r in g an d m u rd e r in g F re n c h m e n w o u ld b r in g

23 For quotation, see Journal of Conrad Weiser in Thwaites (cd.), E a rly W estern Travels, 1:24-25 (presents), 29 (Wyandot discontent); for Shawnees and Miamis, see Wallace, W eiser, 259. For attacks, see Galissonière to Minister, 23 Oct. 1748, N Y C D 10:183. For Green Bay, see La Jonquiére to Minister, Aug. 18, 1750, W H C 18:63-64. For Miamis and Shawnees to Pennsylvania, see A Treaty . . . Lancaster, July 19, 1748, P C R 5:307-19 .

24 For Wyandot belts, see Weiser to Peters, Oct. 15, 1747, P C R 5:136—37. The White River Indians claimed they had accepted the English hatchet offered the Six Nations at Albany in 1746. But, in fact, the Iroquois had rejected the hatchet; only the Mohawks had accepted it. The confederacy as a whole maintained its neutrality.

25 Hanna, W ilderness T ra il, 324-33 , summarizes material on the conflict. For Pennsylvania, see Wallace, W eiser, 260. For goods to Croghan, see Weiser Journal in Thwaites (ed.), E a rly W estern Travels, 1:39. For solicitation of goods, see Penn. Council, 25 Sept. 1747, P C R 5:119 . For warriors on Ohio, sec Penn. Council, 13 Nov. 1747, P C R 5:145-47 .

Republicans and rebels

202

B r it ish tra d e rs a m o n g th em . O th e r b e lts c a rr ie d b y the M is s is s a u g a s , n ow

a llie s o f the B r it ish in N e w Y o r k , co n ta in e d p lan s fo r a g e n e ra l s la u g h te r o f

the “ w h ite d o g s .” B u t the re su lt o f th e se m e ssa g e s w a s o n ly m o re sc a tte re d

a ttack s on F r e n c h trad e rs . D isc o n te n t o v e r trad e g o o d s h ad sp a w n e d attacks

on the F r e n c h an d h o p e s fo r B r it ish trad e , b u t on ly in the lo w e r O h io V a lle y

an d a m o n g the M is s is s a u g a s h ad it p ro d u c e d an a c tu a l a llia n c e w ith the

B r it is h .26

T h e e n d o f K in g G e o r g e ’ s W a r in 1 7 4 8 gave the F r e n c h a c h a n c e to

re p a ir th e d a m a g e , but in stead th ey a c c e le ra te d the d e te r io ra tio n o f the

a llia n c e . In th e la n g u a g e o f the c o u n c ils , y o u n g w a rr io rs w e re étourdi, th o u g h tle ss an d h e e d le s s ; in ev itab ly th ey w o u ld in tro u b le d tim es b lo c k the

p ath s an d d ark en th e sky. T h e g re a t a c h ie v e m e n t o f th e a llia n ce w a s that

O n o n tio an d h is c h ie fs - b o th F r e n c h an d A lg o n q u ia n - h ad c re a te d the

m e a n s to re p a ir d am age an d re sto re tran q u illity . B u t in the m id st o f this

c r is is , the F r e n c h se e m e d d e te rm in e d to u n d e rc u t th e a llia n c e c h ie fs an d to

a b an d o n the w e ll- tr ie d c u sto m s o f c o v e r in g an d ra is in g th e d e a d . O n o n tio

n e g le c te d th e r itu a ls o f s u rre n d e r an d fo rg iv e n e ss ; in stead , he h u m ilia te d h is

ow7n c h ie fs an d d e m a n d e d the d e a th o f h is e rran t c h ild re n . T h e F r e n c h

g o v e rn o rs s e e m e d in the la te 1 7 4 0 s an d e ar ly 1 7 5 0 s re a d y to ab a n d o n all the

co m p ro m ise s a c h ie v e d o n th e m id d le g ro u n d d u rin g the la st c e n tu ry . T h e y

se e m e d d e te rm in e d , as O ro n to n y c o n te n d e d , to trea t th e A lg o n q u ia n s as

su b je c ts o r, in A lg o n q u ia n te rm s, a s s lave s .

It is d o u b tfu l that the o ffic ia ls w h o attem p ted to su b stitu te fo rc e fo r

m ed ia tio n k n e w the s ig n ific a n c e o f the c h a n g e s th ey w e re d e m a n d in g .

E x p e r ie n c e a lo n e tau gh t F r e n c h g o v e rn o rs the lim its o f th e ir p o w e r an d the

n e c e ss ity o f th e m id d le g ro u n d . T h e lo n g te rm s o f G o v e r n o r d e V a u d re u il

an d G o v e r n o r d e B e a u h a rn o is h ad e d u c a te d th em , b u t w ith the re tire m e n t

o f G o v e r n o r d e B e a u h a rn o is in 1 7 4 7 , no g o v e rn o r h ad tim e to b e e d u ca te d

u n til G o v e r n o r d e V a u d r e u il ’s so n , P ie r re R ig a u d , M a r q u is d e V a u d r e u il-

C a v a g n a l, a ssu m e d o ffic e in 1 7 5 5 . T h e a p p o in te d s u c c e s s o r to B e a u h a rn o is ,

P ie r r e - Ja c q u e s d e T a fa n e l , M a r q u is d e L a Jo n q u iè r e , w a s c a p tu re d on the

h ig h se as b y the B r it ish . In h is a b se n c e fro m S e p te m b e r 1 7 4 7 u n til 1 7 4 9 , the

M a r q u is d e L a G a lis s o n iè r e se rv e d as g o v ern o r. L a Jo n q u iè r e a rr iv e d in

1 7 4 9 , a fte r th e c lo se o f the w a r , b u t he d ied in 1 7 5 2 . C h a r le s L e M o y n e ,

B a r o n d e L o n g u e u il , se rv e d b rie fly as an in terim g o v e rn o r u n til th e M a rq u is

D u q u e s n e d e M e n n e v ille to ok o ffic e in J u ly 1 7 5 2 . D u q u e s n e se rv e d fo r only

th re e y e a rs . M e a n w h ile , in F r a n c e , the lo n g te n u re o f the C o m te de

M a u r e p a s as m in iste r o f the m arin e an d the c o lo n ie s h ad e n d e d in 1 7 4 9 , and

26 For message carried by Mississaugas, see Parolles. . . Missisague du village du fond du lac Ontario, AN, C 11A , v.91, f. 107. La Jonquière later dated this message as 1747, La Jonquière to Minister, Oct. 5, 175 1, W HC 18 :10 0 -0 1.

The middle ground

A n to in e L o u is R o u ille h ad s u c c e e d e d h im in o ffic e . N e ith e r co n tin u ity n o r

e x p e r ie n c e in the fo rm u la tio n o f F r e n c h p o licy e x is te d d u r in g the p erio d o f

revo lts in the pays d ’en haut. T h r e a t s o f fo rce re p la c e d m e d ia t io n .27

U n d e r the n ew g o v e rn o rs , the fo rm al ritu al lan g u a g e o f O n o n tio to h is

c h ild re n re m a in e d , b u t the lo g ic o f h is ac tio n s in c re a s in g ly b e lie d h is w o rd s.

T h e n e w g o v e rn o rs e xp e cte d o b e d ie n c e , an d th ey m isto o k th e A lg o n q u ia n s ’

ritu al d e m an d s fo r p ity fo r a d m iss io n s o f d e p e n d e n c e . F r e n c h o ffic e rs in the

W e st kn ew b e tter , b u t the g o v e rn o rs su b v e rte d th e ir e ffo r ts to e n d the c ris is .

T h e co m m a n d e rs at M ic h ilim a c k in a c and D e tro it , w o rk in g th ro u g h loyal

c h ie fs , u sed th e co n vo ys and re in fo rc e m e n ts that re a c h e d the pays d'en haut in 1 7 4 7 an d 1 7 4 8 to b e g in the re sto ra tio n o f the a llia n c e . In Ja n u a r y 1 7 4 8 ,

P au l Jo s e p h L e M o y n e , C h e v a lie r d c L o n g u c u il , c o m m a n d in g at D e tro it ,

a ttem pted to re c o n c ile the In d ia n s at h is p o st b y p a rd o n in g the re b e ls an d

re le a s in g the p r iso n e rs w h o h ad a ttack e d the F r e n c h . T h is m o d e ra te c o u rse

b ro u g h t h im a re p rim a n d fro m h is o w n fa th er, C h a r le s L e M o y n e , B a ro n de

L o n g u e u il , so on to b e the g o v e rn o r o f M o n tre a l, w h o a rticu la te d the n ew

p o lic y o f c o e rc io n . G o v e rn o r d e L a G a lis s o n iè r e o rd e re d th e co m m a n d e rs to

e xa c t th e s u rre n d e r o f a ll “ In d ia n m u rd e re rs an d m a le fa c to rs ” an d sen d

th em d o w n to Q u e b e c . In ad d itio n , e ac h tr ib e w a s to p ro d u c e tw o B r it ish

p r iso n e rs fo r e v e ry F r e n c h m a n th ey h ad k ille d .28

S u rr e n d e r in g k ille rs w a s b y the 1 7 4 0 s cu sto m a ry in the pays d ’en haut, b u t

so w a s p a rd o n in g th em . W h e n th e O ttaw as an d S a u ltc u rs o f M ic h ilim a c k in a c

and S a g in a w b e g an to s u rre n d e r the k ille rs , th ey w e re a sto n ish e d to find that

the F r e n c h n o t o n ly p u t th em in p r iso n , w ith n o p ro m ise o f m ercy , b u t

re fu se d the ca lu m e t u n til a ll m u rd e re rs w e re su rre n d e re d . T h e F r e n c h at

M ic h ilim a c k in a c d e c la re d that th ere w o u ld b e no m o re p a rd o n s sin ce th ese

o n ly o cc a s io n e d n e w cr im e s . W h e n the In d ia n s d e m a n d e d m e rcy , the

F r e n c h re p lie d that it w as m e rc y to d e ta in the p r iso n e rs an d th u s h alt th e ir

c r im e s . R e q u e s ts fo r m e rc y fo r the m u rd e re rs , m ad e in c o u n c il to L a

G a lis s o n iè re h im se lf, o n ly b ro u g h t h is re n e w e d d e m an d fo r the s u r r e n d e r o f

all the m u rd e re rs an d s tre n g th e n e d h is d e te rm in atio n to p u n ish the gu ilty .

T h e g o v e rn o r re le a se d a h o sta g e w h o h ad p re v io u s ly b e e n g iv en fo r the

m u r d e re rs ’ s u rre n d e r , b u t h e w a rn e d the In d ia n s : “ T h e w o rd p a rd o n fo r an y

Republicans and rebels 20^

27 Gustave Lanctot,/f History o f Canada, 4 vols, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965k 370-89.

28 For arrival of convoy in 1747, see journal, Nov. 23, 1747, N Y C D 10:140. For actions of commanders, Saint Pierre at Michilimackinac, see journal, Nov. 10, 1747, N Y C D 10:137. For Longueuil and pardon to Saulteurs, and Ottawas and Chippewas of Saginaw, see journal, Nov. 23, 1747, N Y C D 10 :14 1; his attempts to fortify loyalty of Mikinac and Kinousaki, Ottawa chiefs at Detroit, see Journal, Dec. 3, Dec. 23, 1747, NYCD 10:145, 149. For attack and pardon, see Journal, Nov, 29, 1747, Jan. 12, 1748, N Y C D 10 :150 -52 , 1 56—57; for Longueuil and La Galissonière, see Journal June 2, 1748, N Y C D 10 :16 1-6 2 .

2 0 4

m u rd e re r m u st n ot be p ro n o u n c e d a n y m o r e .” L a G a lis s o n iè r e , w h o b y Ju ly

had th re e m u rd e re rs in c u sto d y , w a s p le a se d w ith th e re su lts o f h is p o lic y

an d the re n e w e d a ttack s b y so m e In d ia n s on the B r it ish . H e in fo rm e d L e

G a r d e u r d e S t . P ie r re , the c o m m a n d e r a t M ic h ilim a c k in a c , an d L o n g u e u il

that the a rr iv a l o f a co n vo y u n d e r the S ie u r d e C é lo ro n in 1 7 4 8 sh o u ld give

th em th e ab ility to act w ith e ve n g re a te r firm n e ss in e x a c t in g the s u r r e n d e r o f

the m u r d e re rs .29 30

T h e A lg o n q u ia n s , fo r th e ir p art, v ie w e d th is n e w F r e n c h re c a lc itra n c e

w ith g ro w in g c o n fu s io n an d a larm . T h a t m u rd e re rs sh o u ld b e s u rre n d e re d

w a s p re d ic ta b le . T h a t the F r e n c h sh o u ld d e m an d p r is o n e rs to ra ise up th eir

d e a d w a s u n d e rsta n d a b le . B u t in re tu rn , the m u rd e re rs sh o u ld b e p a rd o n e d

an d re s to re d to fa v o r, an d th is w a s not b e in g d o n e . T h e A lg o n q u ia n so lu tio n

to th e p ro b le m is a p p a re n t in the sp e e c h o f G r o s S e rp e n t , an O ttaw a m a rrie d

to an Iro q u o is w o m an o f th e v illa g e o f P e tit R a p id e n e a r N ia g a ra . G r o s

S e r p e n t w a s a m e d ia to r so lic ite d b y the w ife o f A g o u a c h im a g a n d , an O ttaw a

m an w h o h a d le d a p arty th at h ad a m b u sh e d an d k ille d so m e F r e n c h

v o y a g e u rs . S h e h ad ask e d h is a id in o b ta in in g p a rd o n fo r h e r h u sb a n d . G r o s

S e rp e n t , a c c o m p a n ie d b y the Iro q u o is o f P e tit R a p id e , sp o k e at N ia g a ra in

1 7 4 8 . H e gave th e F r e n c h a b e a v e r ro b e that w o u ld sy m b o lic a lly h o ld the

b o n e s o f th e m u rd e re d m en , an d h e ra ise d u p th e d e a d w ith a s lave . H e

a sk e d that the p a st be fo rg o tte n an d th at m e rc y b e g ra n te d . T h e F r e n c h

c o m m a n d e r a t N ia g a ra a c c e p te d the g ifts th at G r o s S e r p e n t o ffe r e d , b u t o n ly

O n o n tio , h e sa id , c o u ld g ra n t p a rd o n . I f A g o u a c h im a g a n d an d h is m en w en t

to M o n tre a l an d th rew th e m se lv e s o n the m e rcy o f th e ir fa th e r , th e y w o u ld •JA

o b tain m e rc y .'

B u t m u rd e re rs w e re n o t re c e iv in g the u su a l re c e p tio n at M o n tre a l an d

Q u e b e c . L a G a lis s o n iè r e c o n te n d e d la te r that he in te n d e d to re le a s e o n e o f

the m u rd e re rs h e a lre a d y h a d in c u sto d y to A c h a o u a lin a , a S a g in a w c h ie f

w h o w as the m a n ’s re la tiv e , b u t h e g ave no in d ica tio n o f th is to the d e le g a tio n

o f M ic h ilim a c k in a c c h ie fs w h o v is ite d h im at the tim e. H e d e n ie d the

re q u e s t o f the c h ie fs fo r th e re le a se o f the m u rd e re rs a n d o rd e re d th e k ille rs

co n v e y e d fro m M o n tre a l to Q u e b e c . B u t as the F r e n c h g u a rd e sc o rte d th e ir

p r iso n e rs to w ard Q u e b e c , an u n k n o w n p arty a ttack ed th em , s la u g h te re d the

F r e n c h to a m an , an d fre e d the p r iso n e rs . T h e e s c a p e e s jo in e d the c h ie fs

w h o w e re a lre a d y o n th e ir w a y b a ck to M ic h ilim a c k in a c e an d S a g in a w and

29 For surrender of killers at Michilimackinac, see Journal, June 25, 1748, N Y C D 10:168-69. At Quebec, July 5, 1748, N Y C D 10:170; surrender of murderer from Green Bay, Journal, July 14, 1748, N Y C D 10:172. For greater firmness, see Journal, July 23, 1748, N Y C D 10 :173. For delivery of prisoners from Michilimackinac and Saginaw, Galissonière to Minister Oct. 23, 1748, N Y C D 10:183.

30 Parolles du Gros Serpend . . . dans le conseil tenus a Niagara, le 2 août 1748, AN, C i iA, v. 97, f. 402.

The middle ground

acco m p an ie d th em h o m e . It w a s an o b je c t le sso n in the lim its o f F r e n c h

p o w e r an d p atr ia rch y , b u t it o n ly re n e w e d the F r e n c h d e term in atio n to

re d u c e th e ir a llie s . T h e y w o u ld m e e t w ith little s u c c e ss . T h e S in a g o O ttaw as

an d m an y o f the S a u lte u rs fled M ic h ilim a c k in a c an d re m ain e d se c u re ly at

S a g in a w until th ey re c e iv e d F r e n c h p ard o n in 1 7 5 1 . 31

A lth o u g h the re lian ce on fo rc e w a s fa ilin g to ach ie v e its e n d s, the n ew

m in iste r o f the m a rin e , R o u illé , e n c o u ra g e d h is g o v e rn o rs to re je c t the o ld e r

m eth o d s o f the m id d le g ro u n d . H e e x p re sse d u n d e rsta n d a b le fru stra tio n at

the e sca p e o f the M ic h ilim a c k in a c m u rd e re rs , b u t the le sso n h e d rew

su m m arize d th e c h a n g in g F r e n c h v iew o f the a llia n ce . T h e o ffic e rs at the

p o sts , R o u ille w ro te , w e re too “ d isp o se d to en d d isp u te s w ith the In d ia n s by

m ean s o f c o n c ilia t io n .” O n ly “ w e ll p la c e d e x a m p le s o f se v e rity ” w o u ld ch e ck

the In d ia n s , an d g o v e rn o rs sh o u ld “ n e g le c t n o o cc a s io n s fo r p ro c u r in g ” su ch

e xa m p le s . T h e ch an g e w a s e ch o e d b y th e g o v e rn o rs . L a Jo n q u iè r e p ro ­

c la im e d th at it w as tim e “ to lay d o w n the law to the tr ib es w h ic h h ave

re b e lle d ag a in st u s an d to fo rc e th em even in sp ite o f th e m se lv e s b a c k to

th e ir d u ty .” 32

B r in g in g the tr ib e s b a c k to th e ir d u ty h ad in th e p ast a lw ays in vo lved

w o rk in g th ro u g h the c h ie fs , b u t n o w F r e n c h g o v e rn o rs ad o p te d p o lic ie s that

b o th a lie n ate d an d e n fe e b le d the a llia n ce c h ie fs u p o n w h o m th e ir o w n

su c c e s s d e p e n d e d . In a d isa stro u s se r ie s o f c o n fe re n c e s at Q u e b e c in 17 4 9 ,

G o v e rn o r d e L a G a lis s o n ic r c in su lte d m an y o f the v is it in g d e le g a tio n s b y

g iv in g th em e ith e r no p re se n ts o r o n ly to ken p re se n ts . A lth o u g h he gave

su b stan tia l p re se n ts to th ose tr ib e s w h o su rre n d e re d m en w h o had k illed the

F r e n c h d u r in g the w a r, th is h ad m in im al e ffe c t s in c e h e s im u lta n e o u sly

d e n ie d m e rc y to the m u rd e re rs . O n o n tio h ad h u m ilia ted h is c h ie fs , an d he

p aid a p ric e fo r it. T h e im m e d ia te re su lt o f the c o n fe re n c e w a s in c re a s in g

d isco n te n t a m o n g th e M ia m i c o n fe d e ra tio n . L e s O n g le s , the le a d in g W e a

c h ie f at O u ia te n o n , h ad to b e g a little b a rre l o f b ra n d y fro m the C o m te dc

R a y m o n d at the M ia m i p o st so that “ he m ig h t n ot a rr iv e in sh a m e at m y

v illa g e .” B u t L e s O n g le s ’s sm all b a rre l o f b ra n d y d id n o t save h im fro m the

sco rn o f o th e r W e as . L e C o m te , a n o th e r W e a le a d e r , m o ck ed L e s O n g le s

fo r h a v in g re tu rn e d fro m M o n tre a l w ith n o th in g .33

31 For murderers, see Galissonière to Minister, Oct. 23, 1748, N Y C D 10:184; Canada, Sauvages, 15 avril 1749, AN, C i i A, v. 94, f. 73. For pardon, see Parolles, 0 8 t8 ois Sinagos du Saginaw, 13 juillet, 17 5 1, AN, C 11A , v.97, La Jonquière to Minister, Sept. 17, 175 1, W HC 18:83. The figure “ 8” in “ O8t8ois” is pronounced “ dh.”

32 For first quotation, see Rouillé to La Jonquière, May 4, 1749, IH C 29:87-88; for second quotation, see La Jonquière to Rouillé, Nov. 12, 1749, IH C 24:124-25.

33 For lack of presents, see Report of Sieur Roy, Apr. 1, 1750, IH C 29 :170,173; Report of Pore Epic, Apr. 5, 1750, ibid., 176; Report of Raymond, Feb. 15, 1750, IH C 29 :177-78; Report of Le Pian, May 1750, ibid., 198; Raymond to La Jonquière, May 22, 1750, ibid.,

Republicans and rebels 205

20 Ô

L e s O n g le s w as n o t a lo n e in h is h u m ilia tio n , b u t he a c c e p te d it w ith m o re

fo rb e a ra n c e th an o th e r, le sse r c h ie fs . L a G r a in e , a su b o rd in a te W e a c h ie f,

an d L ’ E n fa n t , a P ia n k a sh a w c h ie f at V e rm ilio n , a lso re tu rn e d fro m M o n tre a l

e m p ty -h a n d e d , an d th ey fe ll in to a ra g e w h e n th ey d isc o v e re d that in th e ir

a b se n c e th e ir v illa g e s h ad b e e n ra v a g e d b y d ise a se . T h e y b la m e d the

e p id e m ic on F r e n c h w itc h c ra ft . L a G r a in e , L ’E n fa n t , L e C o m te , an d L a

M o u c h e N o ir e , a n o th e r P ia n k a sh a w c h ie f, all jo in e d re b e l M ia m is w h o h ad

a lre a d y a c c e p te d b e lts fro m O ro n to n y . A t the Illin o is se ttlem e n ts M a c tig u e

d e M a c a rty , a v o lu b le se lf- im p o rta n t d ru n k a rd , b e c a m e c o m m a n d e r in 1 7 5 1 .

U n lik e e a r lie r c o m m a n d e rs , M a c a r ty d id n o t im m e d ia te ly u n d e rsta n d the

n e c e ss ity o f g iv in g “ the c h ie fs th e w h e re w ith a l to m a in ta in th e ir p re stig e in

the v i lla g e .” 34

U n d e rc u tt in g the c h ie fs h u rt th e F r e n c h fo r it re n d e re d the w a rr io rs

in c re a s in g ly in d e p e n d e n t. D u r in g the b e st o f tim es, as th e F r e n c h n o ted ,

“ th ere is o n ly v o lu n ta ry su b o rd in a tio n ” a m o n g the w e ste rn In d ia n s . “ E a c h

p e rso n is fre e to d o as he p le a se s . T h e v illa g e c h ie fs an d w a r c h ie fs can h ave

in flu e n c e , b u t th ey d o n o t h ave au th o rity , still th e ir in flu e n c e o ve r th e y o u n g

m e n d e p e n d s u p o n h o w m u ch th ey e x e rt it, an d u p o n th e ir a tte n tio n to

k e e p in g th e ir k e ttles fu ll, so to s a y .” L e s O n g le s re m a in e d loyal, b u t the c h ie f

h im s e lf ad m itted that h e co u ld n o t h o ld h is y o u n g m e n w h e n th e F r e n c h

re fu se d to o f fe r a bon marché. Q u o tin g F r e n c h p r ic e s that re q u ire d a m an to

sp e n d h is e n tire y e a r ’s h u n t m e re ly to c lo th e h im se lf, h e to ld the C o m te de

R a y m o n d that th is “ re b u ffs all o u r y o u n g m e n , an d w e a re n o lo n g e r ab le to

h o ld th em b a c k .” W ith o u t a bon marché - w h ic h it w a s th e d u ty o f th e ir fa th e r

to p ro v id e - the w a rr io rs co u ld n o t b e h e ld to th e a llia n c e .35

T h e c a p sto n e o n th e e d ific e o f fa ilu re e re c te d b y th e F r e n c h re so rt to

d ic tatio n an d su b o rd in a tio n cam e w ith the C é lo ro n e xp e d itio n o f 1 7 4 9 .

G o v e r n o r d e L a G a lis s o n iè r e d e c id e d to d isp a tch an e xp e d itio n u n d e r

C a p ta in d e C é lo ro n to e xp e l the B r it ish , to fo rc e O ro n to n y e ith e r to re tu rn to

D e tro it o r to d rive h im o ff , an d to d isp e rse o th e r In d ia n re b e ls w h o h ad

The middle ground

205-6. For disease, see Report of the Nephew of M. the Commandant at Ouiatonon, Apr. 2, 1750, ib id .y 174. For Les Grands Ongles, see Raymond to La Jonquière, May 22, 1750, ib id ., 201, 207; for words of Les Grands Ongles, see May 17, 1750, IH C 29:214-25.

,4 For other chiefs, see Report of Sieur Roy, Apr. 1, 1750, IH C 29:170, 173; Report of Pore Epic, Apr. 5, 1750, ib id ., 176; Report of Raymond, Feb. 15, 1750, IH C 29:177-78. These were almost certainly the chiefs who entered the covenant chain of the Iroquois and English at la Demoiselle’s town in Feb. 1750; see Treaty with Wawiagtas and Piankashas, Mulkeam (ed.), G eorge M ercer Papers, 128-39. For Illinois visit and gifts, see De Guyenne to Vaudreuil, Sept. 10, 1752, IH C 29:719-20. For Macarty, see Duquesne to Rouille, Oct. 3 1, 17 5 3 1^ 2 9 :8 4 6 -4 7 . For chiefs, quotation, see Edward P. Hamilton (trans. and ed ) , A dventu re in the W ilderness: The A m erican Jo u rn a ls o f Lou is A ntoin e de B ou gainville, 17 5 6 -6 0 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1964), 134. Raymond to La Jonquière, May 22, 1750, IH C 29:201, 207; Words of Les Grands Ongles, May 17, 1750, IH C 2 9 :2 14 -15 .

207

c o n g re g a te d at S o n n o n tio on the S c io to R iv e r . In stead o f re s to r in g F r e n c h

h e g e m o n y at a stro k e , C é lo r o n ’ s e xp e d itio n d e m o n stra te d the w e a k n e ss o f

the F r e n c h .36

C e lo r o n ’s p ro g re ss fro m the G r e a t L a k e s to th e O h io w ith tw o h u n d re d

F r e n c h , th irty m iss io n In d ia n s , an d a lo ad o f le ad p la te s , w h ich h e b u rie d to

m ark the O h io b o u n d a ry o f N e w F r a n c e , p ro v id e d the F r e n c h cap ta in w ith

d a ily d o se s o f h u m ilia tio n . A n y c h an c e o f su c c e s s fo r the e xp e d itio n v a n ish e d

w h e n the D e tro it In d ia n s , a fte r g re a t p ro m ise s , re fu se d to jo in C é lo ro n .

W illiam Jo h n s o n , n ow e m e rg in g as the c e n tra l f ig u re in N e w Y o r k ’s In d ian

p o licy , sen t m e s se n g e rs w e st to w a rn o f C e lo r o n ’s a p p ro a ch , an d a fte r so m e

in itia l p a n ic , the O h io In d ia n s g re w in c re a s in g ly d e fian t w h e n th ey re a liz e d

h ow few m en a c c o m p an ie d C é lo ro n . T h e y co u ld , a fte r a ll, m u ste r n e a rly

e ig h t h u n d re d w a rr io rs on the u p p e r O h io a lo n e .37 38

In the en d , C é lo ro n co u ld o n ly re q u e st the o b e d ie n ce that h e w a s o rd e re d

to d e m a n d . In h is v a r io u s c o u n c ils C é lo ro n w a rn e d the In d ia n s that the

B r it ish n ow cam e fo r trad e b u t e ve n tu a lly w o u ld se ize the In d ia n s ’ lan d s.

C é lo ro n d id n o t h im s e lf d are e x e c u te h is o rd e rs to p illa g e an d e v ic t the

B r it ish tra d e rs w h o had flo c k e d to the O h io . In ste a d , he c o u ld d o no m o re

than tell the tra d e rs h e e n c o u n te re d to le av e an d n o t re tu rn . H e re a liz e d that

th e ir a b se n c e w o u ld n o t e x c e e d h is o w n sta y in the v illa g e s . In d ia n p ro m ise s

to b a n ish th ese E n g lish m e n g re w e v e r v a g u e r as h e p ro c e e d e d w est. B y the

tim e he re a c h e d the to w n s o f C h in in g u é (L o g sto w n ) an d S o n n o n tio h e,

h im se lf, fe a re d attack . '8

S im ila r d e fia n c e w as a p p a re n t all a c ro ss the pays d ’en haut. In 1 7 4 9 and

1 7 5 0 , la rg e n u m b e rs o f O ttaw as an d C h ip p e w a s from L a k e s S u p e r io r an d

H u ro n co n tin u e d to ca rry fu rs to O sw e g o . H e r e th ey re c e iv e d w a m p u m

b e lts , m e d a ls , an d flags fro m the B r it ish to c a rry b ack to the pays d ’en haut. N o u k 8 a ta , a M ic h ilim a c k in a c O ttaw a , b e c a m e a B r it ish c h ie f, an d m an y

w a rr io rs e a g e rly so u g h t to fo llo w h im . O ttaw as an d C h ip p e w a s ca rr ie d

B r it ish b ra n d y w e st to G r e e n B a y , a ro u s in g fe a r o f B r it ish in flu e n c e th ere .

Republicans and rebels

36 For Céloron expedition, see Galissonière to Rouillé, June 26, 1749, IH C 29:97. 37 Ib id . A complete text of Celoron’s journal is in Margry, Découvertes 6:666-726. There is

an abbreviated translation in W H C 18 :36-59, which is valuable largely for the footnotes that give place locations. For expedition, see Journal de la Campagne, Margry, Découvertes 6:666. For initial terror, see ib id ., 671, 675, 680, 685. For refusal of Indians of Detroit, see ib id ., 714. For warrior strength, see Weiser, Journal, in Thwaites (ed.), E a rly W estern Travels (Weiser counted members of all the Six Nations plus Shawnees, Wyandots, “ Tisagechroanus,” Mohicans, and Delawares). For Johnson’s warning, see Hendricks Speech to Johnson, Feb. 2, 1749-50, N Y C D 6:548.

38 For fears of attack, see Journal, Margry, D écouvertes 6:691-92, 70 3-5 ; for warnings about Knglish, see ib id ., 6:681 , 694-95; for signs of traders, see ib id ., 6:678, 683-84, 686, 688, 689. For promises, see ib id ., 6:678-80. By Sonnontio the Indians made no specific promises, they only said they would work for bonnes affaires, ibid, 6:713. For English in every village, see J R 69:185.

2 o8

F a r t h e r east, n e a r L a k e E r ie , n in e v illa g e s o f M is s is s a u g a s , h a v in g e n tire ly

fo rsa k e n the F r e n c h a llia n c e , m o ved c lo s e r to the I r o q u o is / 9

C é lo r o n ’ s e xp e d itio n w a s su p p o se d to re so lv e F r e n c h p o lic y d iffic u lt ie s ;

in ste a d , it u n d e rlin e d th e co n tin u in g d e te r io ra tio n o f the a llia n c e an d le d to

fu rth e r d rift. C é lo ro n h im s e lf c o n c lu d e d that the In d ia n s w e re “ v e ry b ad ly

d isp o se d to w ard th e F r e n c h an d e n tire ly d e v o te d to the E n g lis h .” F o rc e

w o u ld o n ly d riv e th em into the a rm s o f the B r it ish an d a lly th em to the T ê t e s

P la tte s . F r e n c h tra d e rs , C é lo ro n th o u g h t, c o u ld n o t m e e t B r it ish p r ic e s , and

e ve n i f th ey c o u ld , th is w o u ld o n ly e n c o u ra g e the co n tin u in g m ig ratio n south

to la n d s “ c o n v e n ie n t to the E n g lis h g o v e rn m e n ts .” L a Jo n q u iè r e , w h o

s u c c e e d e d L a G a lis s o n iè r e , in itia lly p la n n e d a m u c h la rg e r e xp e d itio n to

fo llo w C c lo r o n ’ s , b u t w h e n he fo u n d C é lo r o n h ad n o t a c tu a lly b e e n a ttack e d ,

h e d e c id e d tra d e rs an d a fe w o ffic e rs w o u ld su ffic e . F o r the n e x t se v e ra l

y e a rs h e o sc illa te d b e tw e e n th reats o f fo rc e an d attem p ts at c o n c ilia t io n .40

W h a te v e r its d e fic ie n c ie s , su ch d r ift h ad a d v a n tag e s o ve r th e ste a d fast

p u rsu it o f the d isa s tro u s p o lic ie s o f the p re c e d in g fe w y e a rs . T h e ap p ea l o f

fo rce an d su b o rd in a tio n re m a in e d stro n g fo r L a Jo n q u iè r e , b u t h e c h a n n e le d

it in to a c tio n s a g a in st the B r it ish . L a G a lis s o n iè r e h ad a lre a d y su g g e ste d to

the co u rt the n e c e ss ity o f n ew p o sts a lo n g the O h io , b u t fo r the m o m e n t, L a

Jo n q u iè r e co n ten ted h im s e lf w ith a ttack s on B r it ish tra d e rs . T h e F r e n c h and

th e ir p a rtisa n s se iz e d B r it is h trad e rs w h e n e v e r th ey fo u n d th em u n p ro te c te d

in th e O h io co u n try . T h e a c tio n s th re a te n e d the r e b e ls ’ in te re sts w ith o u t

th re a te n in g th e ir liv e s , b u t the B r it ish u se d the attack s to a rg u e that the

F r e n c h so u g h t b o th to d e n y the A lg o n q u ia n s lib e rty to trad e an d to e n sla v e

th e m .41

J<J The “ 8” in ‘Nouk8ata” is pronounced “ dh.” I.a Jonquière to Minister, Sept. 20, 1750, W H C 18:67-68; La Jonquière to Minister, Sept. 17, 175 1, W H C 18 :80 -8 1; Parolics dc Pemant8euns [Pennahouel], 5 juillet 175 1, AN, C 11A , v.97. For Green Bay, see La Jonquière to Minister, Sept. 16, 175 1, W H C 18:78-79; Returns of Western Tribes Who Traded at Oswego, 1749, N Y C D 6:538. Example of English message, Speech of English at Oswego to the Huron named Tahoké, n.d., IH C 29:127-28 . Mississaugas were trading at Oswego, and the French in 1749 sought to provide both a regulated trade and to restrict their access to the English, Les journaux de M. de Léry . . . 1749, R A P Q , 1926-27, 339. For movement of Mississaugas, Clinton to Lords of Trade, July 17, 1751, N Y C D 6 :7 13 - 14 ; Lindesay to Johnson, July 10, 175 1, N Y C D 6:729-30. Colden credited this move to French inspired attacks by the Ottawas, but 1 have found no evidence of such attacks in the French records, Colden to Clinton, Aug. 8, 17 5 1, N Y C D 6:742.

40 For quotation on attitude of tribes and French dilemma, see Margry, Découvertes 6:725-26. Céloron added that in any case French traders would only trade beaver to the English in exchange for menues pelleteries that brought a high price in France and a low price in England, La Jonquière au Ministre, 27 fév. 1750, AN, C 11A , v. 95, f. 129.

41 For La Galissonière’s suggestion, see Memoir on the French Colonies, Dec. 1750, N Y C D 10:230. For protests to English over traders’ presence, see Jonquière to Phips, Mar. 7 ,1750 , N Y C D 6:565-66. For attacks on traders, see Trent to Peters, July 22, 1750, P A , series 1, 2:50; Lindsay to Johnson, Sept. 7, 1750\ J P 1:297; Johnson 10 Clinton, Sept. 25, 1750, N Y C D 6:590-91; Deposition ofjohn Patton, Mar. 8, 1752, IH C 29:490-99; Deposition of

The middle ground

E x c e p t fo r th ese a ttack s, F r e n c h p o licy g re w in c re a s in g ly co n c ilia to ry . In

1 7 5 0 , L a Jo n q u iè r e b e g an to act as a fa th e r an d to re sto re th e a llian ce . B y

d e c la r in g a g e n e ra l am n e sty , h e e n d e d the fia sc o e s that h ad re su lte d fro m

F r e n c h attem pts to p u n ish the k ille rs o f F re n c h m e n d u r in g the w a r . H e th en

m o ved to stre n g th e n the a llia n ce c h ie fs . In d e a lin g w ith v irtu a lly e v e ry b an d

that a p p e a re d in M o n tre a l that y e a r , h e a w a rd e d m e d a ls to th o se m en

d e sig n a te d as a llia n ce c h ie fs by e ith e r v illa g e rs o r p re v io u s m e d a l c h ie fs . H e

gave sizab le p re se n ts to the c h ie fs to re d istr ib u te in th e ir v illa g e s , an d he

m ed ia te d o u tsta n d in g q u a rre ls b e tw e e n th e v illa g e s . N o t sa tis fie d w ith the

ra p p ro c h e m e n t he h ad a rra n g e d at M o n tre a l, L a Jo n q u iè r e , w h o h ad

re p lace d the c o m m a n d e rs at D e tro it an d at th e M ia m i p o st, u rg e d on the

n e w o ffic e rs a p o lic y o f co n c ilia tio n in the O h io V a lle y . C c lo ro n a rra n g e d fo r

a la rg e d e leg a tio n o f c h ie fs fro m D e tro it an d S a in t Jo s e p h to v is it the re b e l

M ia m is in o rd e r to p e rsu a d e th em to re tu rn to F o r t M ia m i. S im u lta n e o u s ly ,

he re cru ited F a th e r de la R ic h a r d ic to v isit the W yan d o ts an d co n v in ce th em

to re tu rn to D e tro it . G o v e r n o r d e V a u d rc u il o f L o u is ia n a ad v o ca te d a s im ila r

p o licy o f c o n c ilia tio n .42

L a Jo n q u ic r e ’s p o lic y o f re c o n c ilia t io n p ro v e d m o re su c c e s s fu l than

th e e a r lie r th re a ts o f p u n ish m e n t and d e m a n d s o f su b o rd in a tio n . S o m e

W yan d o ts d e se rte d O ro n to n y , w h o h ad m o ved so u th to w ard the B r it ish an d

the O h io ; th e O ttaw as at S a g in a w a c c e p te d L a Jo n q u iè r e ’ s a m n e sty an d

re tu rn e d to M ic h ilim a c k in a c . N o u k S a ta , the O ttaw a c h ie f at M ic h ilim a c k in a c

w h o h ad trad ed an d n e g o tia ted w ith the B r it ish at O sw e g o , b e g g e d fo rg iv e ­

n e ss . B y the tim e he h e ld c o u n c il w ith the tr ib e s o f the G r e a t L a k e s in

1 7 5 1 , L a Jo n q u iè r e h ad b e g u n to u n d e rsta n d the re a lit ie s an d rh e to ric

Republicans and rebels 209

Thomas Bourke, Mar. 8, 1752, ibid., 503-05. For justification and rival imperial positions, see Jonquière to Clinton, Aug. 10, 175 1, and Clinton’s notes, N Y C D 6 :731-36 . The Mohawks and English in 1750 interpreted French actions as preparation for an attack on both the Ohio Indians and the Iroquois, Johnson to Clinton, May 4, 1750 , J P 1:276-77.

42 For presents, see Jonquière au Ministre, 3 nov. 175 1, AN, C n A , v. 97, f. 193. For medal chiefs, see Parolles des Sakis, Réponse, 29 juin, 1 juillet, 1750, AN, C i iA, f. 251; Parolles des P8tet8atames, 29 juin 1750, AN, C n A , v.95, f.249; Parolles des Kiskakons. . . de Michilimackinac et réponse, 4, 6 Juillet 1750, AN, C i iA, v.95, £ 2 4 1. For mediation, also see Parolles des Sakis, Réponse, 29 juin, 1 juillet, 1750, AN, C n A , f. 251; Parolles des Saulteurs de Chouagamegon, et réponse, 2 -3 juillet 1750, AN, C n A , v.95. For pardon, see Parolles des Kiskakons . . . de Michilimackinac, et réponse, 4, 6 juillet 1750, AN, C i iA, v. 95, f. 241; Parolles de 8ta8ois de la bande de la fourche, Réponse, 1 juillet, 6 juillet, 1750, AN, C 11A , v.95, £244; Puants de la Bay, (1750), AN, C n A , v.95, £ 195. For actual mediation and another killing of a Frenchman, seejonquière to Rouillé, Sept. 17 ,17 5 1 , I I I C 29:347-55. For instructions for De Villiers, see July 10, 1750, IH C 29 :2 17-25. Raymond later claimed that he was on the verge of restoring many of the rebel Miamis when he was replaced, but this is doubtful. Raymond to Rouillé, Oct. 1, 175 1, IH C 29:393-98.

The death of Frenchmen could still spawn initial demands for execution, La Jonquière to Ministre, Sept. 17, 175 1, W HC 18 :8 1-8 3 . Vaudreuil was clearly contemplating more forceful actions against the rebels, Vaudreuil à Jonquière, 24 mars 175 1, Cavagnal Letter- books, LO9, v. 4, Huntington Library.

2 10

o f a llia n ce p o lit ic s . H is p re se n ts , u n lik e L a G a lis s o n iè r e ’ s, w e re la rg e ,

an d he h o n o re d an d w e lc o m e d the c h ie fs . H e w as re a d y to fo rg iv e th o se w h o

h ad h ad d e a lin g s w ith the B r it ish . H e p ra ise d the c h ie fs an d sp e a k e rs in

c o u n c il. H e a c te d q u ic k ly to m e d ia te q u a rre ls b e tw e e n h is loyal c h ild re n . H e

h ad le a rn e d to th re a ten o n ly as a p re lu d e to fo rg iv e n e ss . H e re c e iv e d the

S in a g o O tta w as , w h o h ad fled to S a g in a w a fte r the m u rd e rs o f F r e n c h m e n ,

an d “ fo rg o t e n tire ly all that yo u h ave d o n e to the F r e n c h . I no lo n g e r th in k o f

it .” A t th e sa m e tim e, he m ad e it c le a r to the c h ie fs that he h ad eyes an d e ars

o f h is o w n in th e W e st. In co u n c il he re p e a te d m e s sa g e s fro m the B r it ish that

the c h ie fs a ssu m e d to b e u n k n o w n to the F r e n c h . H e attem p ted to u se the

c h ie fs to fo rc e th e O ttaw as to ra ise w a rr io rs ag a in st th e re b e ls o f the O h io

an d W a b a sh in o rd e r to d e m o n stra te th e ir o w n loyalty . In d e e d he o ffe re d ,

an d m an y o f the O tta w as an d C h ip p e w a s a c c e p te d , the B r it is h as a sc a p e g o a t

on w h o se h e a d a ll the p re v io u s p ro b le m s o f the a llia n ce c o u ld b e la id .

L a Jo n q u iè r e h ad b e g u n to re in v ig o ra te the a llian ce .

B o th L a G a lis s o n iè r e an d L a Jo n q u iè r e re a liz e d that an y re sto ra tio n o f the

a llia n ce d e p e n d e d on a re fo rm o f th e fu r trad e . T h e y id e n tifie d the p o lic y o f

le a s in g the p o sts as a cen tra l p ro b le m , an d th ey m o v e d to e n d the p o lic y at

each p o st w h e re d isg ru n tle d In d ia n s h ad the o p tio n o f s e e k in g ou t the

B r it ish . L a G a lis s o n iè r e w e n t fa rth e r an d u rg e d that the C o m p a g n ie d e s

In d e s m a in ta in the h ig h e r p rice it h ad o ffe re d fo r b e a v e r d u rin g the w a r in

o rd e r to m e e t B r it ish co m p etitio n . In th is he p artia lly su c c e e d e d . A t the sam e

tim e he u rg e d the tra d e rs at F ro n te n a c , N ia g a ra , an d D e tro it to fu rn ish

g o o d s at the sa m e rate as the B r it ish fo r tw o o r th re e y e a rs to c o m e . L a

Jo n q u iè r e a lso p ro m ise d to in terve n e w h e n trad e rs c h e a te d In d ia n s . A n d fo r

th o se In d ia n s w h o in siste d on jo u rn e y in g to O sw e g o , the F r e n c h a d d e d p o sts

at T o r o n to an d S a u lt S a in te M a r ie an d , e ve n tu a lly , a tra d in g h o u se at the

P e tit R a p id e o f th e N ia g a ra , to in te rc e p t th em an d o ffe r th em g o o d s at

co m p etitive p r ic e s . A b o v e all, the F r e n c h w e re re a d y to o ffe r the In d ia n s

b ra n d y ; fo r as P e n n a h o u e l, the sp e a k e r fo r the M ic h ilim a c k in a c O ttaw a p u t

it, th e y o u n g m e n “ love th e ir d r in k .” 43

The middle ground

43 There was substantial trade with the English at Oswego in 1750, La Jonquière to Minister, Sept. 20, 1750, W HC 18:67; Abstract of Despatches, 1749, N Y C D 10 :199-202. For end leases, see La Galissonière to Minister, Oct. 23, 1748, W HC 17:503; Jonquière au Ministre, 20 sept. 1749, AN, C i iA, v. 93, f. 10 1; Jonquière and Bigot to Minister, Oct. 9, 1749, W HC 18:33; Jonquière to Minister, Aug. 18, 1750, W H C 18:63. Complaints that leases were alienating the western villagers had appeared as early as 1737, Bienville au Ministre, 21 juin 1 7 3 7 » AN> C 13A , v.22.

For brandy, see Farolles des P8tet8atames, 29 juin 1750, AN, C i 1 A, v.95, f. 249; 8ta8ois de Missilmakinack, 1 juillet 1750, AN, C i 1 A, f. 248; Parolles de Pennant8euns, 7 juin 1751, AN, C i i A, v.97. Brandy was a central element in English trade gains, see Weiser, Journal, in Thwattes (ed.), Early Western Travels, 1:4 1. Trade, Parolles de 8ta8ois de la bande de la fourche, Réponse, 1 juillet, 6 juillet, 1750, AN, C n A , v.95, 24 4 - For Toronto, see La Jonquière and Bigot to Minister, Oct. 9, 1749, W HC 18:34. For Sault Sainte Marie, see La

2 1 I

R e fo rm p re se n te d o p p o rtu n itie s fo r L a Jo n q u iè r e th at w e n t b e yo n d

re sto rin g the a llian ce . A ll F r e n c h g o v e rn o rs so u g h t to e n ric h th e m se lv e s , b u t

L a Jo n q u iè r e w a s a ru le r o f e x c e p tio n a l g re e d even b y C a n a d ia n sta n d a rd s .

H e saw in the congés th e m e a n s o f d e liv e r in g the w e ste rn fu r trad e to h is

fa v o rites an d , th ro u g h th em , o f se c u r in g h is o w n fo rtu n e . L a Jo n q u iè r e ’s

d e s ire fo r w ea lth se e m e d , h o w e v e r, b u t a p a s s in g an d flic k e r in g fa n ta sy

a lo n g sid e the p ass io n o f h is in ten d an t, F r a n ç o is B ig o t. B ig o t a rr iv e d in 1 7 4 8

to re p la c e H o c q u a r t an d se rv e d u n til the en d o f the F r e n c h p e r io d . F o r h im

the s u ffe r in g o f C a n a d a w a s b u t a path o f fo rtu n e . D e sp ite the c o rru p tio n ,

the en d o f le a s in g in c re a se d F r e n c h su p p lie s at the p o sts an d the p r ic e s

fe ll.44

A lth o u g h L a Jo n q u iè r e ’s p o lic y o f re c o n c ilia tio n an d the re sto ra tio n o f the

fu r trad e g ra d u a lly e n d e d the revo lt a lo n g the G r e a t L a k e s , re b e llio n

c o n tin u e d a lo n g th e O h io an d the W a b a sh . H e re the b re a k d o w n o f o ld e r

h ie ra rc h ie s and the actu a l p re se n c e o f the B r it ish h ad c re a te d to o m an y n ew

le a d e rs an d too m an y n e w o p p o rtu n itie s fo r the a llia n c e to b e e n tire ly

re sto re d . T h e W yan d o ts at th e ir n e w v illa g e o f C o n c h a k e on the M u sk in g u m ,

a lo n g w ith the re p u b lica n s o f the O h io and the re b e l M ia m is , co n tin u e d to

d e fy the F re n c h .

F r e n c h re fo rm s in th e fu r trad e h ad little im m e d ia te e ffe c t a m o n g the

re b e ls so u th o f the G r e a t L a k e s , b e c a u se the O h io V a lle y trad e d iffe re d in

fu n d am en ta l w ays fro m the trad e a lo n g the G r e a t L a k e s . O n the G r e a t

L a k e s th e F r e n c h h ad an e ffe c tiv e an d w e ll-e s ta b lish e d su p p ly n e tw o rk and

h ad c re a te d a m ark e t n o t o n ly fo r b e a v e r an d menues pelleteries b u t a lso fo r

v e n iso n , c a n o e s , fish , c o rn , an d b e a r o il. H e re c o n c e ss io n s to th e A lg o n q u ia n s

y ie ld e d re su lts . O n ly the M is s is s a u g a s p e rs is te d in re b e llio n . T h e y in ­

c re a s in g ly w ith d re w to w a rd th e Iro q u o is . In th e so u th , h o w e v e r, d e e rsk in s

p riz e d b y the B r it ish , b u t le s s v a lu e d b y the F r e n c h , re m a in e d the h ea rt o f

the trad e . T h is gave the B r it ish a su b stan tia l ad van tag e , an d th ey g a in e d a

se co n d one fro m th e d iffic u lt ie s o f c a n o e travel in th e re g io n . T h e fre q u e n t

p o rtag e s n e c e ssa ry a lo n g the u p p e r re a c h e s o f th e M a u m e e an d W ab ash

r iv e rs m a d e F r e n c h tra d in g v o y a g e s fa r m o re a rd u o u s an d e xp e n siv e th ere

th an e lse w h e re in the pays d'en haut. B e y o n d th e la k e s , to o , the n o rth e rn

b irch fro m w h ich ca n o e s w e re m a d e d isa p p e a re d , an d th e h e a v ie r and m o re

u n w ie ld y p iro g u e s d o m in a te d th e w aterw ays. F r e n c h re fo rm s had le ss o f an

Republicans and rebels

Jonquière au Ministre, 24 aoust 1750, AN, C i iA, v .95, f. 2 1 1 . For strategic significance of Petit Rapide, see Mémoire sur les postes. . . en 17 5 4 . . . Raymond, R A P Q 1927-28, 330-32. For location of posts, see R. Cole Harris (ed.), H istorical A tlas o f C anada, vol. 1, From the B eginning to tiïa o (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987), plate 39, plate 40.

44 For La Jonquière and Bigot, see Lanctot, A H istory o f C anada 3 :8 0 -8 1; Lawrence Henry Gipson, The B ritish E m p ire B efore the A m erican R evolution, 15 vols. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1958-70), 5:27-29.

2 12

im p act o n p r ic e s h e re , an d in the O h io V a lle y the re b e ls s e e m e d m ore

d e te rm in e d in th e ir re je c tio n o f the F r e n c h .41’

T h e re p u b lic a n le a d e rs o n the O h io an d W a b a sh r iv e rs a lso h ad m o re o f a

stake in the re b e llio n th an the re b e ls o f the G r e a t L a k e s fo r , like O ro n to n y ,

m an y o f th em h ad u se d the re b e llio n to o v e rth ro w n o t ju st O n o n tio b u t an

e x is tin g v illa g e h ie ra rch y . T o a c c e p t O n o n tio ’ s p a rd o n m ean t to a ccep t

re n e w e d in fe r io r ity to th e a llia n c e c h ie fs w h o h ad re m a in e d lo ya l to th eir

fa th er. F r o m C h in in g u é (L o g sto w n ), w h e re the y o u n g m en sa id th ey no

lo n g e r p o s s e s s e d th e ir o ld c h ie fs an d sp o k e d ire c tly to the F r e n c h in co u n c il,

to th e W a b a sh v illa g e s w h e re a llia n c e c h ie fs su ch as P ie d fro id o f the M ia m is

an d L e s O n g le s o f the W e a s fo u n d th e ir in flu e n c e e v a p o ra tin g , th e o ld

p o lit ic a l an d so c ia l o rd e r w a s in the m id st o f c h a n g e .46

T h e p o lit ica l revo lu tio n trav e le d b a c k w a rd a lo n g a n e tw o rk o f in te r­

m a rr ia g e an d k in sh ip that h ad fo r g e n e ra tio n s tied the pays d ’en haut in to a

s in g le so c ia l u n it. It re a c h e d in to v irtu a lly a ll v illa g e s so u th o f th e G r e a t

L a k e s . P a rt ic u la r ly a lo n g th e W a b a sh , th e le a d e rs o f the re b e llio n w e re o ften

m e n w h o h ad m a rr ie d w o m e n w h o w e re n ot m e m b e rs o f th e ir o w n

tr ib e s an d v illa g e s , and in th is th ey re se m b le d m an y o f the lo ya l c h ie fs : L a

D e m o is e lle o f th e M ia m is m ay h ave b e e n a P ian k a sh a w b y b irth . O n e o f h is

c lo se st a llie s , L a M o u c h e N o ir e , w a s a K a s k a s k ia w h o b e c a m e a c h ie f w h o

n u m b e re d fo llo w e rs a m o n g b o th the W e a s and th e P ia n k a sh a w s . L e Ja r r e t ,

the s te p fa th e r o f L a G r u e o f th e M ia m is , w a s a W e a w h o h ad r ise n to the

le a d e rsh ip o f th e M ia m is o f T e p ic o n . L e L o u p w a s a K ic k a p o o w h o b e c a m e

a c h ie f a m o n g the P ia n k a sh a w s .47

45 Trade goods in the Ohio Valley were not abundant. The Shawnees of Sonnontio said the English were their sole resource, Speech of Shawnees, n.d., IH C 29:128. In 1752 Macarty at the Illinois complained of the scarcity and high price of Canadian trade goods and of smuggling to the English, Macarty to Vaudreuil, Mar. 18, 1752, IH C 2 :5 16 - 17 ; Macarty to Vaudreuil, Sept. 2, 1752, IH C 29:666-67. Macarty to Rouillé, June 1, 1752, IH C 29:641. There was always also a question of how many presents found their way into Indian hands; Raymond, who had been dismissed by La Jonquière and who was hardly disinterested, claimed embezzlement was widespread. Mémoire sur les postes du Canada . . . 1754, A Q , 1927-28 , 325, 349-50. He also criticized the domination of the posts by a small group of families; see ibid., 334-37 . Allowing favored officers to sell brandy was, apparently, a lucrative tactic, ibid., 344.

For portages and trade with the English, see Projet pour s’opposer à l’agrandissement du Anglois en C an ad a..., 15 oct. 1729, AN, C n A , v .51, f .467; Memorandum, Feb. 13, 173 1, W HC 1 7 :13 1 - 3 2 . For deerskins, see Chapter 3. The Indians of the Ohio repeatedly complained to Céloron of the inability of the French to supply them, and Céloron thought that the French could never effectively compete in the region. Journal de la campagne ...Céloron, Margry, Découvertes 6:683, 698, 725. By 1749 supplies of trade goods at Michilimackinac were reportedly so abundant that merchants there were selling at a loss, La Jonquière au Ministre, 20 sept. 1749, AN, C i 1 A, v. 93, f. to i. For Mississaugas, see Colden to Clinton, Aug. 8, 175 1, N Y C D 6:742.

46 Chiningué, Margry, Découvertes 6:690, 696-98. 47 For La Mouche Noire, see Reports to Raymond, Mar.-Apr. 1750, IH C 29 :176-77. As a

Wea chief, Jonquière to Rouillé, Sept. 25, 1751 ,///C 29:366-67; as a Piankashaw, Words of

The middle ground

G iv e n stro n g ran k ed p a tr ilin e a g e s , In d ia n m en w ho in te rm a rr ie d fro m the

o u ts id e sh o u ld h ave had little in flu e n c e . T h e o n ly k in sp e o p le th ey h ad w ith in

the v illa g e w e re a ffin a l k in - th e ir w iv e s ’ k in sp e o p le . S in c e su ch ties w e re not

n e a rly as s tro n g as those that b o u n d m e m b e rs o f the sam e p a tr ilin e a g e , th ese

m en sh o u ld have b e e n m in o r fig u re s . T h e i r s im u lta n e o u s rise se e m s a c le a r

sign o f the frag m e n ta tio n o f the o ld e r h ie ra rc h ie s and ra n k e d lin e a g e s o f the

Illin o is an d M ia m i c o n fe d e ra tio n s .

W h y the in flu e n c e o f the o ld e r “ k in g s ” d e c lin e d an d th is p attern o f

in te rm a rrie d le a d e rsh ip e m e rg e d is n o t c le a r , b u t the a n sw e r m a y lie in

d isease . F r o m F r e n c h d e sc r ip tio n s , fo r the e arly M ia m is an d , p re su m a b ly ,

the Illin o is , “ k in g s” w e re ritu al le a d e rs o r s h a m a n -c h ie fs . D is e a s e k illed

su ch le a d e rs a s re a d ily as it k illed th e ir fo llo w e rs . It w o u ld h ave b o th

sh attered b e l ie f in the p o w e r o f sh a m a n -c h ie fs to p ro te c t th e ir p e o p le

an d e n c o u ra g e d the in co rp o ra tio n o f o u ts id e g ro u p s in o rd e r to m ain tain

n u m b ers . I f th is h a p p e n e d , th en the o ld re la tio n sh ip o f c h ie f w ith p e o p le

w o u ld have c o lla p se d . T h is c o u ld e xp la in the rise o f o u ts id e rs to le a d e rsh ip .

W ith the old ra n k in g o f p a tr ilin e a g e s n o w in d isp u te , o u ts id e rs m ay have

b e e n ab le to re c o n c ile q u a rre lin g p a tr ilin e a g e s p re c ise ly b e c a u se they had

b e e n b o rn in to n o n e o f th em . L ik e O n o n tio , th ey co u ld g a in in flu e n c e

b e c a u se they w e re m e d ia tin g o u ts id e rs . O u ts id e rs , too , m ay h ave b e e n

b e tte r ab le to a p p e a l d ire c tly to all w a rr io rs in a v illa g e in a w ay that an o th e r

m an w 'hose so c ia l id en tity w a s m o re firm ly fix e d in a sp e c ific lin e a g e c o u ld

not. S e n io r ity in a stro n g lin ea g e still b ro u g h t p o litica l s ta n d in g , b u t it w a s no

lo n g e r the o n ly ro u te to in flu e n c e .

A t the sam e tim e as the e m e rg e n c e o f in te rm a rrie d o u ts id e rs as c h ie fs

d im in ish e d the p o litica l in flu e n c e o f k in sh ip w ith in the v illa g e , it s tre n g th ­

e n ed k in sh ip ties b e tw e e n v illa g e s . L e J a r r e t an d L a M o u c h e N o ir e , fo r

e xa m p le , re ta in e d ties to th e ir o w n p a tr ilin e a g e s in th e ir n ative v illa g e s . A s

the re b e llio n d e v e lo p e d , su c h tic s g av e re b e l c h ie fs the ab ility to in flu e n ce

p e o p le in d istan t to w n s. L a M o u c h e N o ir e w a s the b ro th e r o f R o u e n s a , a

le a d in g K a s k a s k ia a llian ce c h ie f. L a M o u c h e N o ire p e rsu a d e d o n e o f h is

b ro th ers , p e rh a p s P a p e c h in g o u y a , to v is it the B r it is h at P ick a w illan y , the seat

o f the M ia m i re b e ls , in 1 7 5 1 . R o u e n s a re m a in e d loyal to the F r e n c h , b u t he

a lso re m a in e d tied to h is b ro th e rs . H e w as u n w illin g to c o u n te n a n c e F r e n c h

attacks o n h is k in sp e o p le . L a M o u c h e N o ire th u s u sed h is k in co n n ectio n s

b o th to re c ru it a llie s and to se c u re p ro te c tio n fo r h is e f fo r ts .48

Les Grands Ongles, May 17, 1750, IH C 29:209. La Mouche Noire later joined the Piankashaws, De Guyenne to Vaudreuil, Sept. 10, 1752, IH C 29:719. For Le Jarret, see Words of Les Grands Ongles, a Wea Chief, May 17, 1750, IH C 29:207. That he was a Wea is indicated by the Miamis carrying gifts to the Weas in order to cover his death, Report of Sieur Roy, Apr. 1, 1750, IH C 29:169,

48 Rouensa bore the same name and was head of the same lineage as the father of Aramepinchieue, but the half century separating the two had eroded the power of the

Republicans and rebels 2 13

214

R o u e n s a , in an y c a se , c o u ld n ot h ave s tru c k the re b e ls w ith o u t a lie n a tin g

h is o w n p e o p le . J u s t as L a M o u c h e N o ir e h ad m o v e d to the W a b a sh , so

Illin o is v illa g e s c o n ta in e d m an y M ia m i, W e a , an d P ia n k a sh a w w o m e n an d

c h ild re n . A s O u sa o u ik in to n g a , a K a s k a s k ia h e a d m a n , la te r ask e d the F r e n c h

a fte r th e ir in itia l a ttack o n the M ia m is : “ Wrh y, m y fa th e r , w h y do yo u not

strik e m e m y se lf? W h y d o yo u str ik e a tr ib e a llie d to m e w h e re all m y

re la tiv e s a re ?” G o v e r n o r d e V a u d re u il o f L o u is ia n a re a liz e d that n e ig h b o r in g

tr ib e s w e re u n lik e ly to a ttack the re b e ls b e c a u se th e re b e ls w e re in la rg e p art

th e ir re la t iv e s .49

T h e p o lit ica l b o u n d a r ie s o f v illa g e p o litics had e x te n d e d b e yo n d th e lim its

o f an y o n e v illa g e , b u t w h at co m p lica te d m atte rs even fu rth e r w a s that th ese

b o u n d a r ie s a lso e n c o m p a sse d F r e n c h v illa g e s in the Illin o is c o u n try at

V in c e n n e s , S a in t Jo s e p h , and D e tro it . S e x u a l re la tio n s b e tw e e n F r e n c h m e n

an d In d ian w o m e n c o n tin u e d to c re a te u n e a se a m o n g Je s u it s an d F r e n c h

o ffic ia ls . In th e la te 1 7 3 0 s the F r e n c h c o u rt h ad e ve n attem p ted to b an

fu rth e r in te rm a rr ia g e in L o u is ia n a , b u t the Je s u it s in Illin o is c o u n try had

p ro te ste d . S u c h m a rr ia g e s w e re u n d e s ira b le , th ey ad m itted , b u t the a lte r­

n ative w a s métis bâtards a m o n g a ll the tr ib e s . T h e y e x p la in e d to the c o u rt that

métis legitimes in v a ria b ly b e ca m e F r e n c h in o u tlo o k , c u ltu re , an d loyalty . In

the la s t tw e n ty -o n e y e a rs o n ly o n e , th ey c la im e d , h ad le ft to live a m o n g the

In d ia n s . Métis bâtards, h o w e v e r, w e re in varia b ly In d ia n , re m a in in g a m o n g

th e ir m o th e rs ’ p e o p le .:>0

Métis bâtards m ay h ave b e c o m e In d ia n , an d métis legitimes F r e n c h , bu t

b o th , n o n e th e le ss , re p re se n te d sig n ifica n t ties b e tw e e n the tw o p e o p le s . T h e

Je s u it s ad m itted as m u ch . In d ia n wro m e n m ain ta in e d w o rr iso m e c o n n e c tio n s

Rouensas. Population decline had brought the consolidation of previously separate groups. In 1733 the Tamoras and Rouensa’s Kaskaskias inhabited a single village. This combination eventually resulted in the absorption of the Tamaroas by the Kaskaskias, but the immediate result was the rise of two village factions, one led by Louis Rouensa of the Kaskaskias, the other by Le Chat of the Tamoras. The French recognized no single chief for the village. Neither Rouensa nor Le Chat exerted effective control. They and other Illinois chiefs were, according to the Jesuits, “ chiefs only in name, but without any power or authority.” Where the earlier Rouensa had been a shaman-chief whose conversion had, in turn, made the Kaskaskias Christian, this later Rouensa had to divide power within a reduced village with rivals. Les P. P. Boullenger et Mercier au Ministre, 22 avril 1733, AN, C 13A , v. 17, and ibid., 25 août 1733, AN, C 13A , v. 17. For Papechingouya, etc., see Jonquière to Rouillé, Sept. 25, 175 1, IH C 29:366-67. For earlier trade overtures and journey of son of Louis Rouensa, see Extrait de particuliers. . . pendant les mois d’avril et may 1742, AN, C13A , v. 27, f. 85.

49 Macarty to Vaudreuil, March 18, 1752, IH C 29:518. For intermarriage, see ibid. 714; Vaudreuil to Rouillé, Apr. 8, 1752, IH C 29:578-79; Macarty to Rouillé, June 1, 1752, IH C 29:642. For Illinois visit and gifts, see De Guyenne to Vaudreuil, Sept. 10, 1752, IH C 29:719-20. For Macarty, see Duquesne to Rouillé, Oct. 3 1 , 1753, IH C 29:846-47.

50 Mémoire sur les mariages des sauvagesses avec les françois 1738, AN, C 13À , v. 23, and Mémoire concernant les Ilinois, 1732, AN, F3, v. 24. For discussion of marriages, see Bienville et Salmon au Ministre, 16 may 1735, AN, F3, v. 20, f. 85.

The middle ground

w ith th e ir k in sp e o p le even th o u g h , the p r ie s ts c la im e d , su ch ties d im in ish e d

o v e r tim e. A t an y tim e, a F r e n c h v illa g e w o u ld h o ld in te rm a rr ie d In d ian

w o m e n , th e ir c h ild re n , and an a rra y o f v is it in g re la tiv e s . P r ie s ts an d o ffic ia ls

in F r a n c e fe a re d b e traya l an d c o rru p tio n , b u t lo ca l c o m m a n d e rs re a liz e d that

su ch c o n n e c tio n s c o u ld be u se fu l. M a c a r ty w a s q u ic k to re m in d the Illin o is

o f th e ir k in sh ip ties an d o b lig a tio n s to the F r e n c h w h e n L a M o u c h e N o ire

u rg e d th em to jo in the re b e ls . T o k e ep the v illa g e rs lo yal, F r e n c h c o m ­

m a n d e rs d e p e n d e d , to o , on the métis legitimes an d on th e F re n c h m e n w h o

h a d in te rm a rrie d an d trad e d a m o n g th e In d ia n s . T h e re la tiv e s o f su ch m en

w e re o ften p ro m in e n t. L e P o rc E p ic o f the M ia m is w a s re la te d to the

F r e n c h , an d the s is te r o f L c M a r in g o u in , the c h ie f o f a v illa g e o n the

V e rm ilio n R iv e r , h ad m a rr ie d a F r e n c h m a n .51 52

T h e F r e n c h d e p lo y e d the métis legitimes in th e ir a ttem p ts to re sto re o rd e r

in the pays d ’en haut, b u t in the en d n e ith e r th e e ffo r ts o f the métis n o r the

e co n o m ic re fo rm s a c h ie v e d the F r e n c h g o a ls . In 1 7 5 0 , L a Jo n q u ic r e d is ­

p atch e d the S ie u r C h a b e r t de Jo n c a ir e , a métis w h o se m o th e r w a s Iro q u o is ,

to the O h io . l i e b ro u g h t F r e n c h trad e g o o d s a n d so u g h t to e stab lish F r e n c h

trad in g h o u se s . H is u ltim ate o b je c t w a s to d etach the re p u b lica n v illa g e s o f

the O h io fro m the B r it ish e ith e r b y h a v in g th ese In d ia n s ev ic t the B r it ish

trad e rs o r b y p e rsu a d in g the Iro q u o is to w ith d raw th e v illa g e s , w h o se

in h ab itan ts w e re la rg e ly Iro q u o is o r Iro q u o is d e p e n d e n ts , fro m the O h io

co u n try . H e fa ile d o n b oth co u n ts . T h e C a y u g a s fran k ly to ld h im that the

re p u b lic s w e re n o w a fa c t o f life :

Father, it appears that you wish all the Indians who are on Beautiful river to withdraw; you know that is a Republic composed of all sorts of Nations, and even many of those who lived near you have settled there. It is a country abounding in game, and this it is that attracts them thither.

T h e O h io re p u b lica n s w e re n ot u n iv e rsa lly h o stile to the F r e n c h . T h e y

w o u ld trad e w ith Jo n c a ir e an d h e se c u re d p artisa n s a m o n g th em , b u t th ey c'y

w o u ld n o t ev ict the B r it ish n o r a b a n d o n the a r e a /

Republicans and rebels 2 15

IV

R e b e llio n p e rs is te d on the O h io an d a m o n g the W yan d o ts , b u t it w a s fa rth e r

to the w est, o n the W a b a sh an d its tr ib u ta rie s , that the fin a l stag e o f the