history

The Industrial Revolution Part 2:

Economic and Social Effects

Reading: Textbook, Chapter 23

Effects:

A. Economic:

The major economic effect of industrialization was the creation of an

industrial-capitalist economy based, in theory, on

1. private ownership of capital, machinery, factories, and private

decision-making regarding investments;

2. the profit motive, which “makes the system go”;

3. competition;

4. a self-regulating market mechanism, with prices determined by law

of supply and demand;

5. free wage labor (workers are considered independent, competitive

labor units).

This system favored the owners of factories (and later chief

executive officers [CEOs] of corporations). To gain higher

wages and better working conditions, workers found that their

strength lay in numbers, and they formed labor unions in their

eventual struggle with the factory owners and their minions.

Also, the law of supply and demand doesn’t work if there’s too

much concentration in an industry. A small number of firms

can set prices in defiance of the “law of supply and demand.” A

classic example is the American automobile industry, which in

the 1970s was controlled by the Big Four—General Motors,

Ford, Chrysler, and American Motors. When demand for big

American gas-guzzling cars fell sharply because of high gas

prices and competition provided by smaller, more energy-

efficient Japanese cars, the Big Four increased the prices of

their cars.

In his classic work, The Wealth of Nations, which argued against

excessive governmental interference in economic affairs, Adam

Smith actually warned about businessmen conspiring against the

public (consumers), which necessitated at least some

government regulation.

The Crystal Palace. The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London.

B.Social Effects of industrialization

1.An unprecedented increase in population and corresponding

urbanization, made possible by the industrialization’s revolutionary

capacity to increase commodities of all kinds. Also, more people

migrated from the countryside to cities to work in factories.

Estimated population of Europe (in millions):

1650: 100

1750: 140 (40% increase from 1650)

1800: 188

1850: 266 (80+% from 1750)

1900: 400 (100+% from 1800)

Population of cities:

1800: London: ca. 1,000,000; Paris: ca. 800,000; 22 European

cities with at least 100,000 inhabitants;

1850: London: 2,500,000—2,685,000; Paris: 1,500,000; 47 cities

of 100,000 or more people; Britain had six of them;

London: 4,470,000 in 1880; 7,256,000 by 1910.

2. New social problems, worsening of old ones—but also gradual

efforts to deal with them:

The growth of towns and cities made old urban problems more

severe while adding some new ones. Problems included pollution,

overcrowding (which was rampant because of inadequate housing),

poor sanitation, diseases (for example, typhus, cholera, and

tuberculosis), and crime and prostitution.

These problems were not eliminated, but were to some extent

alleviated by the introduction of remedial programs and planning

(on a more extensive level than ever before); for example, housing

codes, improved sewage and garbage disposal systems, food

inspection, and, to combat crime, street lights and the creation of

modern police forces.

Jack the Ripper's victim

Glasgow (Scotland) slum in 1871

“In 1841 Greater London had a population of 2 million.

According to renowned historian Judity Walkowitz, a

19th century city would commonly have 1 prostitute per

36 inhabitants, or 1 per 12 adult males, which would

yield 55,000 prostitutes. Prostitution was not actually

illegal in England.”

These problems were not eliminated, but were to some

extent alleviated by the introduction of remedial programs

and planning (on a more extensive level than ever before);

for example, housing codes, improved sewage and garbage

disposal systems, food inspection, and, to combat crime,

street lights and the creation of modern police forces.

Also, by the latter part of the 19th century, medical

advances made inoculation against certain diseases as well

as government enforced immunization programs possible.

Throughout the century there was also an increase in philanthropy and

philanthropic organizations, organized by individuals as well as

institutions like churches. Charities, in particular, grew at a rapid rate.

A pertinent example is the St. Vincent de Paul Society, which was

established in France, provided aid to the poor.

Also, a vigorous temperance movement emerged in Great Britain to

combat drunkenness.

These developments suggest a new or heightened sensitivity to social

problems of all kinds.

3. A new system of what sociologists call “social stratification”

(the hierarchical division into groups) came into being. The old

system of estates and ranks, largely based on status ascribed at

birth, gradually gave way to a class system, already noticeable in

pre-industrial times, based, theoretically, on achieved status

and such criteria as education, income, occupation, and life style.

Such terms as class, upper class, upper middle class, lower middle

class, working class (denoting people who worked with their hands

such as craftsmen and factory workers) became common currency

throughout Europe in the early decades of the 19th century.

Part of Charles Booth's poverty map showing the Old Nichol, a slum

in the East End of London. Published 1889 in Life and Labour of the

People in London. The red areas are "middle class, well-to-do", light

blue areas are "poor, 18s to 21s a week for a moderate family", dark

blue areas are "very poor, casual, chronic want", and black areas are

the "lowest class...occasional labourers, street sellers, loafers,

criminals and semi-criminals."

Working class life in Victorian Wetherby, West Yorkshire

Girl pulling a coal tub in mine. From

official report of the parliamentary

commission in the mid-19th century

4. Destroyed traditional family life for many people as not only

fathers, but mothers and children worked in the factories and mines

during the Industrial Revolution.

The Sadler Report (1832), authorized by the British Parliament,

disclosed a litany of abuses suffered by children as young as five in

the new factory system, eventually leading to new laws limiting

the work of children and women.

5. Question of living standards and quality of life; who gained the most

benefits from industrialization?

Answer: the upper middle class (especially factory owners, merchants,

bankers; today, celebrities and professional athletes among others).

Gains came slowly for everyone else and were not automatic but had to

be fought for, especially by the new trade unions that began to emerge

in industrial areas once working people became fed up with the long

hours (14-16 hours per day, 6 days a week), hazardous conditions, and

dismal pay that working in factories entailed.

6. A new concept of time:

Before industrialization, for peasants/farmers and craftsmen, time

was ‘passed,” and work was performed in accordance with the

rhythm of the seasons and human needs. For example, peasants

were particularly busy during planting and harvest seasons but

there were also slack periods, particularly during rainy and cold

weather; and craftsmen were normally very busy during holiday

seasons, but could pace themselves at other times. And since wives

and children were constantly nearby, there was much interaction

with them.

In a sense, there was no sharp distinction between work and life—

the two were intermingled, such as it still might be traditionally for

many, if not most, students.

With industrialization this all changed. Time was now

“spent”—it meant money. And that old “social nexus”

(remember, from early in the semester?) was replaced by a

“cash nexus.”

Moreover, the “rat race” began. People had to get used to a

new industrial tempo of life that led to what I call “future

time,” where part of our consciousness was set on what’s

coming next for us, what we have to do later, and it became

increasingly difficult to concentrate on one’s present being.

How did this happen?

It happened because a new industrial work discipline (with

factory whistles, time clocks, fines for tardiness, preaching

against sports and other leisure activities, and, on occasion,

physical compulsion [i.e., beatings]) was imposed on the

factory workers. Even their bosses eventually became

accustomed to the new, fast-paced tempo of industrial life.

For the workers, the new discipline imposed on them

produced a tremendous psychological shock.

And, for us, the descendants of those workers, the ever

faster tempo of modern life, perhaps, accounts for the

neurosis, alienation, attention deficit disorder, etc. that

people experience and that collectively contribute to what

may be an altered human nature.

Attendance question: What was the purpose of the St.

Vincent de Paul Society?