THE HUMAN NATURAL WORLD RELATIONSHIP

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130

Table 18: Ecosystem Services

PROVISIONING SERVICES

REGULATING SERVICES

CULTURAL SERVICES

Products obtained from ecosystems

Benefits obtained from regulation of ecosystem processes

Non material benefits obtained from ecosystems

Food Water Fuel Fiber Biochemical Genetic Resources

Climate regulation Disease regulation Water regulation Water purification Pollination

Spiritual and religious Recreation and ecotourism Aesthetic Inspirational Educational Social relations Sense of place Cultural heritage

Values and Attachment Nature Values: Use (direct, indirect) Instrumental or Intrinsic Non-Use (option) instrumental or intrinsic Attachment: Dependent, Identity, Community Identity, Place Commitment Use Value (direct) Non-Use Value (option) Instrumental Value Dependent Attachment Community Identity Place Commitment

Use Value (indirect) Non-Use Value (option) Instrumental Value

Use Value (direct/indirect) Non-Use Value Intrinsic Value Identity Attachment Dependent Attachment Community Identity Place Commitment

Source of Services: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2003, p. 57)

recognises this aspect under its cultural services, which includes religious, spiritual and

other values derived from this service.

The four use values put forward by Hein et al. (2006) and the Millennium Ecosystem

Assessment (2003) and included in the HNWR concept establish community use values

(direct, indirect and option), and non-use values. Valuing through the Human Natural

World Relationship approach is a non-economic valuing system that will assist in

explaining the relationship that communities have to ecosystems.

Use-Values

Use-values are defined by Hein et al. (2006, p. 5) as

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131

• Direct use values are those for “sale or consumption”, these are mainly “through production or some cultural services”.

• Indirect use values are benefits derived from regulation such as cleaner air and river and ground water flows.

• Option values according to Turner and colleagues (in Hein et al., 2006, p. 5) “are very difficult to assess”, as they relate to keeping an option open for future use.

Non-Use Values

Non-use values are defined by Hein et al. (2006, p. 5) as

• Non- use values are values placed on the ecosystem and “depend on the moral, aesthetic and other cultural perspectives of the communities involved”.

In this study, non-use values and option values are combined and referred to as non-use

values. This concludes the HNWR concept and the focus returns to the HNWR ecosystem

framework discussion now.

Continuation of the HNWR Ecosystem Framework

Step four through to step eight have been included for completion of the discussion of the

ecosystem management process.

Step 4 and 5 Comparisons of Values, Total Values

When total human values have been established, they can be compared alongside monetary,

environmental or other values in step four. The total value of the ecosystem is established in

step five. In comparing economic and non economic values, Pearce and Turner (in Hein et

al., 2006) advise that the total value of an ecosystem is the sum of the use (direct, indirect and

option) and non-use values. They suggest that non-monetary values can be expressed

alongside monetary values for the reader to compare the two value types. This study will

provide the non-economic values that will allow protected area management to compare non-

economic values of the community alongside economic and environmental values to arrive at

a total ecosystem value.

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132

Step 6, 7, 8 Determine Threats, set goals and determine management strategies

The total ecosystem value will allow managers to determine threats (step 6), prioritise goals

(step 7) and determine management strategies (step 8) necessary for ecosystem health that

includes the Human Natural World Relationship within ecosystem management.

Ecosystem Framework and HNWR Concept Summary

The eight steps of the ecosystem framework have been explained. Set within step three and

step four of the framework is the HNWR Concept, which examines production, regulatory

and cultural services and values through the Human Natural World Relationship to explain

how humans value the ecosystem. Environmental ethics and place attachment are used to

examine the Human Natural World Relationship through the community study, which is Part

3 of the conceptual model.

5.3.3 Part 3: The Community Study Concept

The community study explains the concept of examining environmental ethics and place

attachment to inform strategies and allow management to include humans in ecosystem

management. Establishing community views, values and attachments to the national park

and identifying community potential for involvement in conservation and management all

form part of the concept as shown in Figure 14.

The community study explores place attachment and environmental ethics. The dimensions

of place attachment used in this study are identity and dependent attachment, community

identity, place commitment and no attachment. Environmental ethics consists of ecological

orientation, which is referred to as pro ecological or anti ecological views in the study; and

nature values, which can be intrinsic, instrumental, or non-use values. The outcome of the

study will allow the non-monetary values to be assigned to the Human Natural World

Relationship, so that these can be assessed alongside economic and environmental values,

ensuring a holistic approach that includes humans in ecosystem management. Additionally,

the study will ensure a better understanding of the community’s conservation behaviour and

Conceptual Model

133

Figure 14: HNWR Community Study Concept

COMMUNITY STUDY CONCEPT

Environmental Ethics Place Attachment

Environmental Orientation Nature Values Place

Dependence Place Identity

Pro Ecological

Anti Ecological

Instrument al Value

Intrinsic Value

Non use Value

emotional, symbolic

work, sport, recreation

ESTABLISH ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS AND ATTACHMENT

DESIRED OUTCOME Greater understanding of community and conservation outcomes

APPLICATION Identify and manage human-environment interaction

Inform conservation management

INFORM

policy and management

strategies for park classification and

use, visitor management, park governance, asset

management

INFORM

communication strategies, marketing, visitor management, community support

and conflict resolution

IDENTIFY

community for support and

involvement in conservation

management and alternative source for

funding.

MANAGE

for balance between the environment and

community needs with support and involvement of

community

Ecocentric, Anthropocentric Worldview

No Attachment

Community Identity

Establish Place Attachment

Place Commitment

their ability to contribute to conservation and management of the national park. The

environmental ethics and attachment of the community will be established in the study

through a series of hypotheses tests, which is explained in the hypothesised model in Part 4.

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134

5.3.4 Part 4: Hypothesised Model

The final stage of the conceptual model is the hypothesised model shown in Figure 15, which

demonstrates the associations that were tested through a series of alternative hypotheses tests.

The community was segmented by their environmental ethics and national park attachment,

and a series of hypotheses, which are shown in Box 3 were tested on the emerging clusters.

Box 3: Hypotheses

Demographics Hypothesis 1a There are differences between the groups’ environmental ethics and park

attachment due to their age. Hypothesis 1b There are differences between the groups’ environmental ethics and park

attachment due to their education. Hypothesis 1c There are differences between the groups’ environmental ethics and park

attachment due to gender distribution. Hypothesis 1d There are differences between the groups’ ethics and park attachments due

to their location. Use Sites and Activities

Hypothesis 2a There are differences between the groups’ environmental ethics and park attachment due to the sites they use in the region.

Hypothesis 2b There are differences between the groups’ environmental ethics and park attachment due to the use of other sites not listed in the survey.

Hypothesis 2c There are differences between the groups’ environmental ethics and park attachment due to the type of activities they are involved in.

Attachment

Hypothesis 3a There are differences between the groups’ environmental ethics and park attachment due to the attachment they have to their community.

Hypothesis 3b There are differences between the groups’ environmental ethics and park attachments due to the attachment they have to Mallacoota Inlet.

Hypothesis 3c There are differences between the groups’ environmental ethics and park attachments due to the attachment they have to sites within the park.

Hypothesis 3d There are differences between the groups’ environmental ethics and park attachment due to the attachment they have to other local sites not specified in the survey.

Conservation Activities Hypothesis 4a There are differences between the groups’ environmental ethics and park

attachments due to their membership with volunteer organizations’. Hypothesis 4b There are differences between the groups’ environmental ethics and park

attachment due to their national park volunteer status. Hypothesis 4c There are differences between the groups’ environmental ethics and park

attachment due to their inclination to donate to the national park. Hypothesis 4d There are differences between the groups’ environmental ethics and park

attachment due to their willingness to volunteer for the national park. Hypothesis 4e There are differences between the groups’ environmental ethics and park

attachment due to their willingness to adapt their lifestyle for the environment.

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135

Figure 15: Hypothesised Model

Environmental Ethics and National Park Attachment

Environmental Ethics Place Attachment

Ecological Orientation Nature Values Dependent Identity

Pro Ecological

Anti Ecological Intrinsic Instrumental Non use Community Identity

No Attachment

Place Commitment

Conservation: Understanding of the role of place attachment and environment ethics in conservation behavior; identify community potential for involvement in conservation and management. Community: Greater understanding of community decision making process;community views and values towards the environment; Inform communication strategies for community support and conflict resolution. Ecosystem Management: Inform ecosysyem management strategies; park classification and use; governance; marketing; visitor intepretation; assett management; source of potential funding; conservation.

Management Outcomes

E stablish the H

um an N

atural W orld

R elationship of the com

m unity

Use sites, Activities

h1a - 1d

h3a - 3d

h4a - 4e Demographics

C onservation A

ctivities

Attachment sites

h2a - 2c

Conceptual Model

136

Referring to Figure 15 and Box 3, the community’s demographics were tested in hypotheses

1a to 1d, sites used and activities undertaken in hypotheses 2a to 2c, place attachment sites in

hypotheses 3a to 3d and conservation activities in hypotheses 4a to 4e.

Application

Establishing the Human Natural World Relationship of the community may allow managers a

greater insight into influences on community decision-making processes. Its application in

protected area management is numerous; however identifying community participants for

involvement in conservation and management initiatives is the purpose of the study. Other

application may be to inform communication, policy and planning initiatives, community

conflict resolution, governance, funding and asset management.

5.4 CONCLUSION

This chapter has described the conceptual model and the concepts that contribute to the

development of the model. The model is divided into four parts. Part 1 and Part 2 explain

the ecosystem framework, while Part 3 and Part 4 explain the study undertaken for this

research. The study examines the community’s Human Natural World Relationship and their

potential for involvement in conservation and management of the national park. The

following chapter will set out the methodology and methods used in the study.

Research Method

137

Chapter 6 Research Method

6.1 Introduction 6.2 Methodology

6.3 Research Method

6.4 Research Instruments

6.5 Research Design

6.6 Conclusion

Methods, Logic Epistemology

Axiology Ontology

Causal Links

Research Approach

Research Site Research Sample

Environmental Ethics

Place Attachment

Question Purpose

Methods

Experience Interviews

Pilot Survey

Focus Groups Interviews

Survey Support Questions

Data Analysis

C h a p t e r 6

RESEARCH METHOD

“Study what interests and is of value to you, study it in the different ways that you deem

appropriate, and use the results in ways that can bring about positive consequences within your

value system” Tashakkori and Teddlie on Pragmatism (2003, p. 30)

Figure 16: Chapter 6

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The conceptual model was outlined in the previous chapter and its four parts were described.

The community study is embedded within the HNWR concept and placed within an

ecosystem framework. The study allows human views and values to be assessed alongside

economic and environmental values. This chapter will describe the methodology and

methods used in this study to establish the environmental ethics and place attachment of the

community as shown in Figure 16.

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138

6.2 METHODOLOGY

This study has mostly utilised a pragmatic, inductive, mixed methodological approach. An

explanation of the pragmatism paradigm by Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003) is shown in

Table 19.

Table 19: Pragmatism

PRAGMATISM

Methods Quantitative & Qualitative

Logic Deductive & Inductive

Epistemology Both Objective & Subjective points of view

Axiology Values play a large role in interpreting results

Ontology Accept external reality. Choose explanations that best produce desired outcomes

Causal Linkages There may be causal relationships but we will never be able to pin them down

Source: Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003, p. 23)

Methods

Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003, p. 101) describe pragmatism as the “essential criteria for

making design decisions that are practical, contextually responsive and consequential”.

Inductive studies describe when the researcher is working in discovery mode (p. 196), and a

qualitative driven project is supported with quantitative methods. The research approach,

adopted for this study, has been driven by the research question and purpose as suggested

by Tashakkori and Teddlie, and has used both quantitative and qualitative methods to

discover the views and values of the community.

Logic

The research cycle is shown in Figure 17 and demonstrates the use of inductive and

deductive reasoning. Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003), explain that researchers will travel

through this process at least once during the course of research development. Inductive

reasoning has been used in this research as it has built the conceptual framework on

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139

previous findings. The conceptual framework has then been used “as a basis for planning

the course of the research” (p. 25).

Figure 17: Research Cycle

Generalisation Abstraction

Theory

Prediction Expectation Hypothesis

Observations Facts

Evidence

Observations Facts

Evidence

Inductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning

Source: Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003)

Epistemology and Axiology (Values)

The orientation of the researcher has been both subjective and objective during the course

of inquiry into the research question. Given that the study focuses on attachment, views

and values, it is to be anticipated that the researcher’s views will at times be “interactive

while at other times stand apart from what is being studied” (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003,

p. 26).

Axiology refers to the values held by the researcher and how these can “control or

influence results and interpretations” (p. 26) in the research. Personal values have guided

the choice of the research topic as is common in pragmatists and generally in the social and

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140

behavioural sciences, especially when the research has important social consequences” (p.

26). Furthermore, methods were chosen that would find answers to the research question.

Ontology (the nature of reality) and Causality

Pragmatists and post positivists agree to “an external reality and that we should explore

causal relationships” (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003, p. 29). Another similarity is the view that

“there are multiple explanations to the results of any research study”, however how these are

explained is the point of difference. While a post positivist will choose the “better

explanation”, the pragmatist will choose an explanation closer to the researcher’s values.

Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003, p. 29) believe that the results will be the same as they are both

based on the researcher’s design and operational definitions for the study. Optimism

regarding the truth is therefore the basic difference between the two viewpoints and a

pragmatist view is referred to as “cautiously optimistic pragmatism” (p. 29).

6.3 RESEARCH METHODS

Research Approach

A case study strategy was used in the approach to the research. Yin (2004, p. 13) explains

that this strategy is useful when multiple sources of evidence are used, for the exploration

of intercepting ideas that are essential to an understanding of the specific topic”. The

strategy is useful for studies that focus on behavioural events and contemporary issues.

Research into humans and the environment demands a multidisciplinary approach to link an

individual’s values and attitudes to environmental concern (Stern, Young & Druckman,

1991). Furthermore, by developing new ways of thinking about the relationship of humans

to the planet, management would be equipped to implement conservation and management

strategies with community support and assistance (Stern, Young & Druckman, 1991). It is

important that strategic management decisions be formed from a clear understanding of the

relationship people have with the natural environment, through considering their ethics,

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141

beliefs and attitudes (Worboys, Lockwood & De Lacy, 2001). As most studies that

involved environment and humans are in environmental psychology, human geography and

environmental education, these disciplines were the main source of the literature and

methods.

Research Site

Croajingolong National Park and Biosphere Reserve in South East Victoria is the site chosen

for this research as shown in Map 1.

Map 1: Research Site

The park was declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1977 and covers 87,500ha of hinterland and

coastal plains (Meredith, 1994). It has a rich diverse ecosystem and its remoteness attracts

many visitors throughout the year. On the outskirts of the park are the communities of

Mallacoota, Genoa, Gipsy Point, Bemm River and Cann River. Both Mallacoota and Cann

River are entry points to the park. Cann River is situated on the highway at the junction to

Muller and Tamboon Inlets, which are favourite camping spots in the park. Mallacoota is

surrounded by Croajingolong National Park and Gippsland lakes, which makes it a popular

VIC/NSW

Genoa

Cann River

Bemm River

Gipsy Point

Mallacoota

CROAJINGOLONG NATIONAL PARK &

BIOSPHERE RESERVE

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142

holiday destination. Residents consider their town to be a park town and apparently value the

park for the remoteness it offers.

Croajingolong National Park is one of 13 Biosphere Reserves in Australia. These reserves

form part of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation’s

(UNESCO), Global Man and the Biosphere Program. Biosphere reserves combine

conservation and sustainable use within its charter to include the participation of communities

within management strategies.

The Australian Government (2006) explains the purpose of Biosphere Reserves as: “A place where government decision makers, scientists, managers and local people cooperate in developing a model program for managing land and water to meet human needs while conserving natural processes and biological resources. …use of resources for the wellbeing of people… and support sustainable relationships between people and their environment”.

According to the Australian Government (2006), the main approaches taken by UNESCO in

Man and the Biosphere Reserves are to:

• Minimise biodiversity loss through research and ecosystem management

• Promote environmental sustainability

• Enhance linkages between cultural and biological diversity

Considering its location, proximate communities, the approach set out by UNESCO, and

the Man and the Biosphere concept, it would seem that Croajingolong National Park is a

fitting location for human- environment research. Biosphere reserves are recognised as

being inclusive of humans in conservation efforts; however, Pujadas (2007) questions

whether conservation goals and limitations set by institutions are consistent with

community involvement. Understanding the community’s capacity for involvement may

require an adaptive and reflective approach to a framework that includes all community

members (Mendis-Millard & Reed, 2007).

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143

Sampling Frame

This study examined the community located on the boundary of Croajingolong National

Park. This area includes the main towns of Mallacoota and Cann River and the smaller

localities of Bemm River, Gipsy Point and Genoa. Initial contact with the community was

through relevant business, industry and community associations in the region. The sample

frame involved the whole community over the age of 18 years, approximately 800 persons.

A pilot survey was tested on 30 participants, which included staff from Parks Victoria,

fellow academics and members of the public. Experience interviews were held with 12 key

community members to confirm attachment sites, data collection processes and establish

community contact. There were 38 participants who took part in a series of focus groups

and semi structured interviews and 189 participants who completed a self-administered

survey.

6.4 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

Environmental ethics examines both ecological orientation and nature values to determine

environmental worldview, which is often expressed as an ecocentric or an anthropocentric

worldview. Nature value is expressed as intrinsic, instrumental or non-use values. Place

attachment establishes an emotional, symbolic or functional attachment to a place. The

examination of environmental orientation, nature values and place attachment required three

different instruments. A range of instruments were examined that studied the human-

environment interaction such as Pro Environmental Behaviour (Seguin, Pelletier & Hunsley,

1998; Stern, Dietz & Kolof, 1993), Ecocentric and Anthropocentric Attitudes Toward the

Environment (Thompson & Barton, 1994), Connectiveness To Nature Scale (Mayer &

Frantz, 2004), Inclusion of Nature In Self (Schwartz, 2001), Forest values (Rolston, 1989;

Brown et al., 2002) and others. Most of instruments were found to be unsuitable for this

research as either they did not suit the purpose of the study, or the language was considered

unsuitable for the respondents. The study does not seek to examine the psychology of

environmental behaviour, but rather the ethics and attachment of the community and the

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association between environmental ethics, place attachment and conservation activities. The

instruments that were chosen for the study are shown in Table 20.

Table 20: Research Instruments

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

CONTRIBUTION

New Ecological Paradigm (Dunlap & Van Liere, 1978) Environmental Orientation

Natural Area Value Scale

(Winter & Lockwood , 2004) Nature Values

Recreational Attachment. (Williams & Roggenbuck, 1989; Williams & Patterson, 1995; Williams et al., 1995; Williams et al., 1992)

Place Attachment

The New Ecological Paradigm (Dunlap & Van Liere, 1978) examined environmental

orientation, the Natural Area Value Scale (Winter & Lockwood, 2004) examined nature

values while place attachment was examined using the Recreational Attachment Scale

developed by Williams and colleagues (Williams & Roggenbuck, 1989; Williams &

Patterson, 1995; Williams et al., 1995; Williams et al., 1992).

Environmental Ethics

In the context of this study, two opposing paradigms sit at the core of environmental ethics,

which incorporate environmental orientation and nature values. These paradigms are referred

to as anthropocentrism and biocentrism. The term ecocentric is used in this study and

encompasses biocentric views. Anthropocentrism “posits that nature can only be conceived

from the perspective of human values”, while biocentrism “considers that all things in the

biosphere have the right to exist equally” (Fennell, 2006, p. 190). These paradigms represent

a person’s orientation towards the natural world, their worldview (Winter, 2006), and

embedded within their environmental worldview, are values attributed to nature, which are

primarily referred to as intrinsic or instrumental values (Kirschenmann, 2001). Intrinsic

value, according to Winter, Lockwood and Morrison (2003), is nature valued for itself, while

instrumental value is nature valued for what it can provide for humans. Based on a review of

the environmental ethics literature, intrinsic value is mostly associated with ecocentrism, and

instrumental value with anthropocentrism.