THE HUMAN NATURAL WORLD RELATIONSHIP

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4.6 CONCLUSION

An important aspect of the human-environment relationship is place attachment, the

connection that people have with places. This chapter has looked at a selection of the place

attachment literature and its purpose and use in park management. Omitted from the review

are the psychology literature behind place attachment development, and the health sciences

literature. This work draws heavily on the concept put forward by Williams et al. (1992),

who use the dimensions of place attachment, place dependence and place identity.

Place attachment reflects the basis of a person’s life, through a complex process of beliefs,

attitudes and emotions, which inform an individual’s view of the world. When place

attachment is strong, then activism and community involvement is probable. Changes to

landscape can affect place attachment, because people project their lives into a place. Place

interference, refers to a deliberate reversal of place attachment, while displacement describes

moving away from a place when a person’s place attachment is disrupted. Place attachment

is an important concept in addressing planning issues for tourism, local culture and heritage

to avoid conflict between local communities and visitors. Place attachment studies have been

used to inform public land management, ecosystem management and interpretation.

Place dependence explains the dependence on a place for a specific activity, such as

employment, sport or recreation. Through place dependence studies, management can

identify community groups suitable for public involvement in conservation and management

processes. The outcomes of current studies suggest that those who are dependant on the

resource have a higher level of place attachment than do others. Place attachment shapes

activities and preferences for specific settings for sport and recreation users. People with a

strong place dependence, also have a strong place identity and this attachment can influence

their environmental behaviour.

Place identity refers to the emotional or symbolic attachment to a place. Understanding this

attachment allows park managers to make informed decisions that consider community

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attachment to avoid conflicts. Studies have shown that a person’s past experience is

considered an important influence on their place identity. Repeated exposure to a place,

either through written or visual media, can encourage place attachment. Repeat visitation can

play a significant role in strengthening place attachment, while motivation to visit a place

does not necessarily lead to the development of place attachment. A person’s identity is

closely linked to their community identity and shifts in social and community attachments

can also result in displacing communities and likewise desegregating communities can

dislocate personal or community identity.

A review of the literature has shown that place attachment can inform management and

influence views about conservation. The role of place attachment in the management of

protected areas is summarised as a process of re-evaluating decision-making practices to

include place meaning for various groups in interpretation, planning, and zoning decisions.

The value of places and how these are integrated into management decisions, about who

decides boundaries and how places are interpreted, are also matters for consideration, as well

as trust and community involvement in decisions in natural resource management agencies.

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C h a p t e r 5

CONCEPTUAL MODEL

"It is our collective and individual responsibility to protect and nurture the global family, to

support its weaker members and to preserve and tend to the environment in which we all live."

. Dali Lama

Figure 9: Chapter 5

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The Human Natural World Relationship (HNWR) has been described and the place

attachment and environmental ethics literature discussed in the previous chapters. These

chapters have examined the human-environment literature relevant to this study. This

chapter will restate the background to the study, the research gap and research contribution

that underlies the concepts and conceptual model described in this chapter as shown in Figure

9. The study uses the concepts of human-environment research, environmental ethics and

Chapter 5 Conceptual Model

5.1 Introduction 5.2 HNWR Concepts

5.3 Conceptual Model 5.4 Conclusion

Part 1 Ecosystem Framework Part 2 HNWR Concept

Background

Research Gap Research Contribution

Human-Environment

Place Attachment

Community and Conservation

Environment Ethics

Part 3 Community Study Part 4 Hypothesised Model

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place attachment, placed within an ecosystem framework. The conceptual model consists of

four parts. Part 1 and Part 2 of the model sets out the ecosystem framework and the HNWR

concept within the framework. Part 3 of the model sets out the concept for the community

study, which encompassed Part 4, the hypothesised model.

Background

The dilemma of managing human use while protecting ecologically significant areas has

continued to pose challenges for park agencies. One solution is to involve community in

conservation and management. However, for this to be effective, park agencies require a

clear understanding of community interaction and relationship with the natural area, to

implement strategies that support the park agency and foster sustainable conservation

outcomes. A shift in thought from a short-term industrialised economic focus to a long-term

environmental focus is essential in order to preserve natural areas that support life and

provide the potential for economic benefits into the future (Purser, Park & Montuori, 1995).

The Research Gap

According to Holden (2003) and Macbeth (2005), the lack of research on values and

environmental ethics has been identified within the tourism literature and needs to be

addressed. This study will assist in bridging the gap between the natural and social sciences,

identified as important by Fennel and Butler (2003). Hargroves and Smith (2003, p. 15) have

stated that over the last decade an important lesson can be learnt from natural science experts

in “the significance of understanding values and ethics, which underlie assumptions about

conservation.”

Research Contribution

This study contributes to a largely untested area in the tourism and park management

literature by combining theories of place attachment and environmental ethics within a

national park setting. Previous protected area studies have measured park users’ perceptions,

motivation and satisfaction levels and were largely undertaken to gain financial support,

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improve services, and inform marketing and management strategies (Griffin, Wearing &

Archer, 2004). However, these studies did not address conservation management, nor focus

on the Human Natural World Relationship, or explore a community’s potential to contribute

to conservation management.

This study sits within a framework that recognises human values, alongside non-human

values, as important elements in ecosystem management. Furthermore, human values can

influence behaviour towards the environment (Blamey & Braithwaite, 1997; Stern, 2000),

which is examined through place attachment and environmental ethics in this study.

Other contributions include:

• Understanding community conservation efforts through an appreciation of the link

between human views and values and environmental activities.

• Understanding the relationship between human behaviour and environmental

problems by use of multidisciplinary research that combines environment,

psychology, geography, recreation and tourism research.

Community and Conservation

Figgis (1999) suggests that in the future management of parks in Australia will take a

bioregional approach that will extend park boundaries to link protected areas with buffer

zones under regional and local land stewardship arrangements. This will involve “diverse

ownership over broad landscapes, under overarching management principles” (Figgis,

1999, p. 5). An example of this model is the Bookmark Biosphere Reserve in South

Australia, which includes protected areas; private lands and land owned by private

conservation organisations for biodiversity conservation. Selman (2004) believes that it is

unlikely that communities will formally manage extensive areas; rather their involvement

would be restricted to managing specific locations. Researchers agree that community

involvement is important in addressing conservation issues. For instance, Hornback and

Eagles (1999) and Roberts and Bacon (1997) held the view that protected area managers

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require a clear understanding of community beliefs and attitudes towards the environment if

they are to maintain support for conservation (Griffin, Wearing & Archer, 2004). Human-

environment concepts have been utilised, and the model designed for this study is based on

these concepts.

5.2 CONCEPTS

The concepts of the Human Natural World Relationship, environmental ethics and place

attachment have been detailed in the literature review and a summary is included in this

section for continuity. The research instruments used in the study to examine place

attachment and environmental ethics will also be summarised.

Human-Environment Concept

A human-environment research approach has been used to examine the community’s

relationship to the national park. Humans have always affected their environment due to

their reliance on the earth’s resources to sustain life, and in the 1980’s the seed of

contemporary environmentalism emerged to examine the human-environment interaction

and its role in conservation management (Mebratu, 1998). Metzner (2006, p. 89) deemed

that the global environmental crisis has resulted in a world position that calls for “the

examination of basic values and assumptions in every area of knowledge and enquiry”.

Stern, Young and Druckman (1991) proposed that a multidisciplinary approach to human-

environment research could link an individual’s values and attitudes to environmental

concern. Furthermore, by developing new ways of thinking about the relationship of

humans to the environment, management will be equipped to implement conservation and

management strategies with community support and assistance. Worboys, Lockwood and

De Lacy (2001) deem that strategic management decisions are best formed from a clear

understanding of the relationship people have with the natural environment, by considering

ethics, beliefs and attitudes.

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Environmental values within environmental ethics, according to Schultz et al. (2004, p. 32)

“refers to values that specifically relate to nature or that correlate with specific

environmental attitude or concern”. Additionally, the interchangeable terms of ‘place

attachment’ in environmental psychology, and ‘sense of place’ in human geography

involved the study of human-environment interactions (Williams, Patterson, Roggenbuck &

Watson, 1992). Williams and Patterson (1999, p. 142) considered that environmental

psychology “is most likely to situate the individual in an ecological context” and has the

capacity to examine tangible, subjective and symbolic meanings that can shape and

influence human behaviour. This study combines both place attachment and environmental

ethics in the community study.

Place Attachment Concept

Place attachment can establish an emotional, symbolic or functional attachment to a place

and is used in the study to establish community attachment to the national park. The

importance of place attachment to ecosystem management may lie in identifying

“…symbolic, cultural and expressive meanings that develop through social relationships

and are embedded in social practices and institutions” (Williams & Patterson, 1999, p.

142). This study draws on the work of Williams and colleagues (Williams & Roggenbuck,

1989; Williams & Patterson, 1995; Williams et al., 1995; Williams et al., 1992) and will be

discussed in Chapter Six, Research Methods.

Environmental Ethics Concept

Environmental ethics studies usually refer to an environmental worldview such as an

ecocentric or an anthropocentric stance. An anthropocentric stance is traditionally held by

western cultures and is defined as a state where human justice and equity dominate over

nature (Luck, 2003). A biocentric or ecocentric stance proposes that nature has intrinsic

value and the protection of nature is the central focus (Thompson & Barton, 1994).

Establishing these views involves measuring environmental attitude, intentions, and beliefs,

which according to Bagozzi (1992) and Fishbein and Ajzen (1974) can be a predictor of

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behaviour. However, influencing environmental behaviour is more difficult as it requires a

change in attitude, which in turn requires altering salient beliefs (Bright, Manfredo, Fishbein

& Bath, 1993). Two instruments were used in this current study to establish environmental

ethics; they were the New Ecological Paradigm (Dunlap & Van Liere, 1978) and the Natural

Area Value Scale (Winter & Lockwood, 2004). The New Ecological Paradigm Scale

examined general environmental orientation, which referred to a pro ecological or anti

ecological view. The Natural Area Value Scale measured values attributed to nature by

humans, such as intrinsic, instrumental and non-use values. By combining environmental

orientation and nature values, a community’s environmental worldview can be established.

The research instruments are discussed in detail in Chapter Six, Research Methods.

The full ecosystem framework has the capacity to measure human value, environment value,

and economic value; however, the focus for this study is restricted to measuring human

values.

5.3 THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL

The prevailing purpose of the research is to examine the way that park management can

involve community in conservation management. This may be achieved through a better

understanding of the human-environment interaction, which in turn can inform conservation

and management strategies.

The conceptual model is explained in four parts.

Part 1 HNWR Ecosystem Framework. The framework consists of eight steps. Between

steps, three and four of the framework is the Human Natural World Relationship

(HNWR) concept.

Part 2 Human Natural World Relationship (HNWR) Concept. The HNWR concept was

designed as part of the framework to include humans in ecosystem management,

and to establish human values.

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123

Part 3 HNWR Community Study Concept. The study was developed in response to the

research question, “What is the extent of the Human Natural World Relationship

within a community and how this can understanding enhance protected area

conservation and management strategies” and placed within the HNWR concept in

the framework.

Part 4 Hypothesised Model. The model is placed within the community study and explains a

series of hypotheses that were tested in the study.

The four stages of the conceptual model are shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10: The four stages of the conceptual model

1. HNWR ECOSYSTEM FRAMEWORK

Step 4

2. HNWR CONCEPT

3. HNWR COMMUNITY STUDY CONCEPT

4. HYPOTHESISED MODEL

Step 3

ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT 1. HNWR Ecosystem framework steps 1 to 8 2. HNWR concept steps 1 to 3 of framework

COMMUNITY STUDY 3. HNWR Community Study 4. Hypothesised Model

Part 1: HNWR Ecosystem Framework

Ecosystem Management

Ecosystem management in modern societies must not only manage human systems but also

recognise that human-environment interactions guide environmental research and

management (Williams & Patterson, 1999). Additionally, Williams and Patterson (1999)

deem that ecosystems are socially constructed places and are at “the intersection of natural

forces, social relations and meanings” (p. 154). While environmental and natural scientists

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have measured interactions between ecosystems and sentient and non-sentient beings,

determining the relationship of humans to the ecosystem, particularly intangible relationships,

has been more difficult to assess. For instance, economic value is used to measure tangible

values, although it is recognised that intangible values also exist (Hein, van Koppen, de Groot

& van Ierland, 2006).

Developing the HNWR Ecosystem Framework

The ecosystem framework formed the broad concept for this study and drew on guidelines

developed by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and Shepherd (2004, p. 3) as shown in

Box 2.

Box 2: IUCN and Shepherd’s Five Step Process

• Determine the main communities, defining the ecosystem area, and developing the

relationship between them • Characterising the structure and function of the ecosystem, and setting in place

mechanisms to manage and monitor it • Identifying the important economic issues that will affect the ecosystem and its

inhabitants • Determining the likely impact of the ecosystem on adjacent ecosystems • Deciding on long-term goals, and flexible ways of reaching them

Source: IUCN and Shepherd (2004, p. 3)

Additionally, the ecosystem valuation framework of Hein and colleagues (2006) shown in

Figure 11 was used as a basis for the new Human Natural World Relationship (HNWR)

framework.

Hein and colleagues developed their valuation framework from procedures set out by the

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2003). This study combined the guidelines shown in

Box 2 with the framework shown in Figure 11; additional steps were added to form the new

HNWR Ecosystem Framework, which is shown in Figure 12.

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Figure 11: Hein and colleagues Ecosystem Valuation Framework

Step 1. Specification of the boundaries of the system to be valued

Step 2. Assessment of ecosystem services in bio-physical terms

Step 3. Valuation using monetary, or other, indicators

Step 4. Aggregation or comparison of the different valuesTotal value

Non use valuesOption valuesIndirect use valuesDirect use values

Production Services Regulation services Cultural services

Ecosystem

Source: Hein, Van Koppe, de Groot and van Ierland (2006)

Figure 12: Part 1: HNWR Ecosystem Framework

DEFINE ECOSYSTEM AREA STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

DEFINE HUMAN INHABITANTS

DETERMINE THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM

DETERMINE RELATIONSHIP TO ECOSYSTEM

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 5

DETERMINE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

Step 6

PRIORITISE GOALS FOR ECOSYSTEM HEALTH environment, economic, social

DEFINE NON HUMAN INHABITANTS

COMPARISON OF VALUES

Step 7

Step 8

ECOSYSTEM

TOTAL OF VALUES

Step 4

Part 2 HNWR Concept

Source: Adapted and further developed from Hein et al. (2006), Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2003) and IUCN and Shepherd (2004)

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Steps in the HNWR Ecosystem Framework

The HNWR framework examines the Human Natural World Relationship concept, in step

three of the process however, for continuity of the ecosystem management process; an outline

of the full framework has been included. As the following steps form part of standard

planning, management and decision making processes, they will not be discussed in detail in

this thesis.

Step 1 Defining the Ecosystem

The framework begins by defining the ecosystem, where boundaries are often defined by

climate, species and other interrelated factors, more so than by geographic borders

(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2003).

Step 2 Defining the Inhabitants

Step Two defines the human and non-human inhabitants of the ecosystem. The IUCN and

Shepherd (2004) and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2003) all consider humans to

be part of whole ecosystems. The non-human inhabitants are defined by environmental

scientists, whilst the human inhabitants may be defined by social scientists.

Step 3 Defining Relationship to Ecosystem

Step Three considers the relationship these inhabitants have to the ecosystem, which in the

past has been assessed in environmental and economic terms. The framework allows the

Human Natural World Relationship to be examined in order to establish the importance of

the national park to the human community. Williams and Patterson (1999, p. 143) consider

that “focusing on intangible and symbolic meanings, will help managers understand broader

social processes…and that many important meanings and values [cannot be] identified

through exchange or market transactions alone”.

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While the relationship to the ecosystem of non-human inhabitants is vital to ecosystem

health, equally important is the Human Natural World Relationship. While environmental

science can establish the relationship of non-humans to the ecosystem, social science has

much to offer ecosystem management in understanding the relationship between humans and

their environment (Williams & Patterson, 1999). Step Three of the framework has been

expanded to include the HNWR concept, which focuses solely on determining human

relationships to the ecosystem. To provide continuity for the reader, Part 2 of the conceptual

model, the HNWR concept will be explained, and Steps Four to Eight of the framework will

be addressed in the latter section following the HNWR concept.

5.3.2 Part 2: The HNWR Concept

The HNWR concept is a process that examines the Human Natural World Relationship. It is

widely recognised in human-environment research that individuals bring with them feelings

and values about the environment that may influence their decision-making processes and

behaviour towards natural areas. The HNWR concept is based on the premise that values can

be indicators of environmental behaviour (Blamey & Braithwaite, 1997; Stern, 2000), and

understanding community values is central to conservation management and enlisting support

for conservation initiatives (Presley, 2003).

Values placed on ecosystem services such as production, regulation and cultural services are

examined through the community study to establish the value of ecosystem services to human

communities. The HNWR Concept is shown in Figure 13.

Ecosystem Services

Three ecosystem services are recognised in the HNWR concept. These services are

production services, regulation services and cultural services. An explanation of these

services is described by Hein et al. (2006, p. 4) as follows.

• Production services are “goods and services produced in the ecosystem” such as food, fuel and timber.

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Figure 13: The HNWR Ecosystem Concept

HNWRConcept A Human Natural World Relationship Approach

DETERMINE RELATIONSHIP TO ECOSYSTEM (human inhabitants)Step 3 non human

inhabitants

Monetary and other values

COMPARISON OF VALUESStep 4

Total value

Direct use values Indirect use values Option values Non use values

Community Study and Hypotheses Model Environmental Ethics and Attachment

Production Services Goods

Services Produce

Regulation Services Regulations

Cultural Services Recreation Relaxation

Spiritual

Source: Adapted and further developed from Hein et al. (2006), Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2003) and IUCN and Shepherd (2004)

• Regulatory services refer to the “capacity of ecosystems to regulate climate…earth surface processes, and a variety of biological processes”, such as rainwater flows, temperature and habitat.

• Cultural services refer to the “benefits people obtain from ecosystems through recreation, cognitive development, relaxation and spiritual development”.

Human decisions can inform the direction of production, regulation and cultural services

made by decision makers. Within the HNWR concept, community views and values are also

considered, and used to inform management decisions. The production, regulatory and

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cultural services are examined through the Human Natural World Relationship approach

using place attachment and environmental ethics.

Provisional and regulatory services can be assessed through monetary or environmental

value, however most cultural services with the exception of recreation and ecotourism

(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2003) cannot be assessed solely in economic terms.

Evaluating a cultural service when it is not linked to a production service has proved to be

difficult and ways to address this are constantly being explored (Millennium Ecosystem

Assessment, 2003, p. 65). Assessing non-economic values through the Human Natural

World Relationship seeks to address this issue. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

Framework referred to the three systems as provisioning (Hein and colleagues refer to this

as production), regulating and cultural as shown in Table 18. Applying the HNWR concept

allows values and attachments to be assigned to these services as shown in the lower part of

Table 18.

By examining place attachment and environmental ethics, the type of views, values and

attachments can be established. The HNWR concept goes some way to “measuring the range

of meanings humans assign to places” (Williams & Patterson, 1999, p. 142) by examining

services that ecosystems offer as well as by investigating the use and non-use values placed

on these services (Hein et al., 2006).

Ecosystem Values

The HNWR Concept shown previously in Figure 13 uses four ecosystem values; direct use,

indirect use, option values and non-use values. The majority of ecosystem values are

viewed from an anthropocentric stance, that is they provide products or services for human

use either directly (direct-use value) or indirectly (indirect-use value) or they are preserved

for future use (option /non-use values) (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2003). When

intrinsic value is attributed to sentient and non-sentient beings then the ecosystem values

are viewed from an ecocentric stance. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment framework