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WHO SAVES

THE

An Introduction to the Message of the Old Testament

GLENN PEMBERTON

THE GOD WHO SAVES An Introduction to the Message of the Old Testament

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Scripture quotations marked ESV are from the ESV® Bible (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®), copyright © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved.”

Scripture quotations noted LB are taken from The Living Bible copyright © 1971 by Tyndale House Foundation. Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers Inc., Carol Stream, IL 60188. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked NASB are taken from the New American Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. (www.Lockman.org)

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Scripture quotations marked NIrV are taken from the Holy Bible, New International Reader’s Version®, NIrV® Copyright © 1995, 1996, 1998 by Biblica, Inc.™ Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www. zondervan.com The “NIrV” and “New International Reader’s Version” are trademarks registered in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.™

Scripture quotations marked NJPS are taken from The TANAKH: The New JPS Translation According to the Traditional Hebrew Text Copyright © 1985 by the Jewish Publication Society. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations noted NLT are taken from the New Living Translation, Copyright ©1996, 2004, 2007 by Tyndale House Foundation. Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., Carol Stream, IL 60188. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations noted NRSV are taken from the New Revised Standard Version Bible, copyright © 1989, the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Image of “An Ancient Near Eastern Model of the Cosmos” and “An Artist’s Rendering of the Tabernacle” from Transforming Word, Abilene Christian University Press (2009). Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Images listed are public domain: “Creación de Adám” (cover); “Dead Sea Scrolls before Unraveled” (cover); “Tiamat and Marduk in Battle”; relief of Gilgamesh mastering a lion; the Flood Tablet from the “Epic of Gilgamesh”; An Egyptian Palanquin; “A Restored Ziggurat”; Bronze figure of Confucius; Poor Richard’s Almanack; “Portrait of Pablo Picasso (Juan Gris)”; The Bay Psalm Book; The Aten Disk; Thirteenth Century Hebrew Manuscript; the Aleppo Codex. All rights reserved.

Cover design by Greg Jackson, Thinkpen Design, LLC Interior text design by Sandy Armstrong, Strong Design Proofread by Christian Editing Services

For information contact: Abilene Christian University Press, ACU Box 29138, Abilene, Texas 79699 1-877-816-4455 | www.acupressbooks.com

15 16 17 18 19 20 / 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

For Our Parents

Cotton and Peggy Pemberton

and

Ken and Retha Kennamer

Table of Contents

Abbreviations General Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i The Books of the Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i The Books of the New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i Translations of the Bible or Hebrew Scriptures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii For the Study of the Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

To the Instructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 To the Student . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Chapter One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 In the Beginning: Creation in the Ancient Near East and the Bible Chapter Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 A Good Creation Gone Wrong: Humans Take Control Chapter Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 A Plan Begins: Promise and Threat in the Stories of the Ancestors Chapter Four . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Leaving Egypt: Trusting the God Who Saved You Chapter Five . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 A Wedding Invitation: The Marriage of the LORD and Israel Chapter Six . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Leaving Sinai: Round and Round We Go Chapter Seven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Finally Comes the Land: Conquest—Success or Failure? Chapter Eight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 The God Who Saves: United We Stand Chapter Nine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 David, Solomon, and Rehoboam: War, Women, and a Lack of Wisdom Chapter Ten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 The Story of Northern Israel: Kings, Prophets, and God’s Mercy Chapter Eleven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 The Story of Southern Judah: Kings, Prophets, and God’s Mercy Chapter Twelve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 The Fall of Southern Judah: All the LORD’s Prophets and All the LORD’s Men

Chapter Thirteen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Reconstructing Life after Captivity: Temple, Walls, and God’s People Chapter Fourteen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Sages and Singers: Israel’s Wisdom and Lyrical Literature Chapter Fifteen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Psalms and the God Who Saves: A Song That Never Ends

Appendices I. The Books of the Hebrew Scriptures and the Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 II. Translation and Translations of the Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 III. The Millennials: Genesis 1–11 and

Would You Like to Be a Thousand and Three? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 IV. The LORD and Pharaoh’s Heart Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 V. The Incredible, Amazing, Growing Israelites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 VI. Beginning Old Testament Research: Methods and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Glossary of Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

Abbreviations

General Abbreviations c.—century etc.—et cetera, and so forth, and the rest ca.—circa ibid.—ibidem, in the same place cf.—confer, compare i.e.—id est, that is e.g.—exempli gratia, for example lit.—literally et al.—et alii, and others n.b.—nota bene, note carefully

The Books of the Old Testament Genesis Gen Exodus Exod Leviticus Lev Numbers Num Deuteronomy Deut Joshua Josh Judges Judg Ruth Ruth 1–2 Samuel 1–2 Sam 1–2 Kings 1–2 Kgs 1–2 Chronicles 1–2 Chr Ezra Ezra Nehemiah Neh Esther Esth Job Job Psalms Ps or Pss Proverbs Prov Ecclesiastes Eccl

Song of Songs Song Isaiah Isa Jeremiah Jer Lamentations Lam Ezekiel Ezek Daniel Dan Hosea Hos Joel Joel Amos Amos Obadiah Obad Jonah Jonah Micah Mic Nahum Nah Habakkuk Hab Zephaniah Zeph Haggai Hag Zechariah Zech Malachi Mal

The Books of the New Testament Matthew Matt Mark Mark Luke Luke John John Acts Acts Romans Rom 1–2 Corinthians 1–2 Cor Galatians Gal Ephesians Eph Philippians Phil Colossians Col

1–2 !essalonians 1–2 !ess 1–2 Timothy 1–2 Tim Titus Titus Philemon Phlm Hebrews Heb James James 1–2 Peter 1–2 Pet 1–2–3 John 1–2–3 John Jude Jude Revelation Rev

Translations of the Bible or Hebrew Scriptures

ASV—American Standard Version CEB—Common English Bible CEV—Common English Version ERV—Easy-to-Read Version ESV—English Standard Version HCSB—Holman Christian Standard Bible JB—Jerusalem Bible KJV—King James Version LB—!e Living Bible MSG—!e Message MLB—Modern Language Bible NAB—New American Bible NABR—New American Bible,

Revised Edition NASB—New American Standard Bible NAV—New American Version

NCV—New Century Version NEB—New English Bible NIV—New International Version NIVI—NIV, Inclusive Language Edition NJB—New Jerusalem Bible NJPS—New Jewish Publication Society

Translation NKJV—New King James Version NLT—New Living Translation NRSV—New Revised Standard Version REB—Revised English Bible RSV—Revised Standard Version TEV—Today’s English Version

(= Good News Bible) TNIV—Today’s New International Version

For the Study of the Old Testament ANE—Ancient Near East BCE—Before Common Era CE—Common Era ch(s).—chapter(s) Dtn—Deuteronomic (History; writer of

Deuteronomy-2 Kings) Dtr—Deuteronomistic (History; writer of

Deuteronomy-2 Kings); also called the Deuteronomist

Ham.—Hammurabi HB—Hebrew Bible Heb.—Hebrew JBL—Journal of Biblical Literature JSOT—Journal for the Study of the Old

Testament

JSOTSup—Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series

LXX—Septuagint (Greek Version of Hebrew Bible)

MT—Masoretic Text NT—New Testament OT—Old Testament SBL—Society of Biblical Literature SBLDS—Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series TANAK—Torah, Nebi’im, Ketubim

(Jewish Bible) v(v).—verse(s)

iii

List of Figures

1.1 Tiamat and Marduk in Battle 1.2 An Ancient Near Eastern Model of the

Cosmos 1.3 Portrait of Pablo Picasson (Juan Gris) 2.1 Relief of Gilgamesh Mastering a Lion 2.2 !e Flood Tablet from “!e Epic

of Gilgamesh” 2.3 A Restored Ziggurat 2.4 Life on the Margins of Society 3.1 Sarai and Abram’s Migration to

Canaan 3.2 Jacob’s Travel to Paddan-Aram and

Back 3.3 “!e Journey” 3.4 “Jacob’s Dream” 4.1 !e Land of Midian 4.2 !e Sphinx and Pyramid 5.1 !e Ten Commandments as a

Perimeter Ethic 5.2 !e Ten Commandments as Centering

Principles 5.3 Diagram of the Tabernacle 5.4 An Artist’s Rendering of the

Tabernacle 5.5 An Egyptian Palanquin 6.1 A Tried and Not-So-True Formula 6.2 !e Concept of Sin and Impurity in

the Ancient Near East 6.3 Levites, Priests, and the High Priest 6.4 !e Pattern in Numbers 11–21 6.5 Israel’s Crises in the Wilderness a"er

Sinai 6.6 A Possible Route of the Wilderness

Wandering 7.1 !e Memorial to Moses at the Top of

Mount Nebo 7.2 !e Twelve Tribes 7.3 Map of the Judges in Israel 8.1 !e Land of the Philistines 8.2 Nations Surrounding Israel and Judah 9.1 !e Eras of David’s Life 9.2 Solomon’s Taxation Districts 9.3 !e Division of Judah and Israel

10.1 Mapping the Tangled Narrative of 1–2 Kings

10.2 !e Assyrian Empire 10.3 !e Introductory Formula for Israelite

Kings 10.4 !e Introductory Formula for King

Nadab 10.5 !e Introductory Formula for King

Pekah 10.6 Northern Israel 11.1 “Two Assyrian Soldiers Attacking

a City” 11.2 Map of Judah a"er the Fall of

Northern Israel 11.3 Kings of Judah and Israel: Athaliah

and Joash/Jehoash 11.4 !e Introductory Formula for Judean

Kings 11.5 !e Introductory Formula for

Rehoboam 11.6 !e Introductory Formula for

Jehoiakim 12.1 !e Babylonian Empire 13.1 Map of the Persian Empire 13.2 Haggai’s Oracles 14.1 Bronze Figure of Confucius 14.2 Poor Richard’s Almanack 15.1 !e Bay Psalm Book 15.2 Percentage of Psalms according to

Type 15.3 !e Aten Disk AI.1 !e Canon of the Jewish Scriptures AI.2 !e Catholic Old Testament AI.3 !e Protestant Old Testament AII.1 !irteenth Century Hebrew

Manuscript AII.2 !e Aleppo Codex AII.3 Comparison of !ree Translations of

Psalm 2 AII.4 Translation !eory and Translations of

the Old Testament AV.1 Census of the Army in Numbers 1

List of Tables 1.1 Creation in Genesis 1:1–2:3 1.2 !e Order of Creation in Genesis

1:1–2:3 (Blank) 1.3 Creation in Genesis 2:4–25 2.1 !e Growing Problem of Sin in

Genesis 3–11 2.2 !e Post-Flood Covenant 3.1 Jacob’s Return Home 3.2 Joseph’s Travels 4.1 Plagues and the Gods of Egypt 5.1 !e Covenant Code and the Code of

Hammurabi 6.1 Hold !at Line! An Exercise in

Interpretation and !eology 7.1 !e Recurring Pattern in the Book of

Judges 8.1 Saul’s Rise to the !rone 8.2 Saul’s Demise 8.3 David’s Rise 9.1 David: !e Man A"er God’s Own

Heart (Sample) 9.2 David: !e Man A"er God’s Own

Heart (Blank) 9.3 David: !e Man A"er God’s Own

Heart: What Can It Mean?

9.4 Solomon: Life at the Extremes (Sample)

9.5 Solomon: Life at the Extremes (Blank) 10.1 Key Dates for Northern Israel 10.2 !e Many Dynasties of Israel 10.3 Elisha: !e Mighty Miracle Worker 11.1 Assyrian Kings in the 8th–7th

Centuries bce 11.2 !e Kings of Southern Judah 11.3 Prophets Linked to Judah 12.1 !e Book of Jeremiah 12.2 !e Book of Ezekiel 13.1 Kings of the Persian Empire 13.2 Opposition to Building the Walls 13.3 Ezra’s Prayer 14.1 “Amenemope” and Proverbs

22:17–24:22 15.1 !e Hymn of Praise 15.2 !e Song of !anksgiving 15.3 !e Psalm of Lament (Sample) 15.4 A Psalm of Lament (Blank) 15.5 “Great Hymn to the Aten” and Psalm

104

Acknowledgments

resisted this project for over &"een years, each year skimming the pages of excellent intro- ductions designed for graduate students or for exceptional undergraduates, both with extraordi- nary motivation to learn and far more than a beginner’s knowledge of the text. Not the world in which I or many of my colleagues live: a life in colleges or universities that require a course on the Old Testament (OT), usually in the student’s Freshman or Sophomore year. Here the teacher o"en gets only one semester to transform attitudes toward this three-fourths of the Christian Bible and the God to whom this text testi&es; and here the student is as likely to be uninterested as they are interested. Finally, the encouragement of my department chair, Dr. Rodney Ashlock, and even more so, my spouse, Dr. Dana Pemberton, won the day. At &rst it appeared that the project would be like any other book, and then (I’m not sure exactly when) I began to realize that I had agreed to a project like none other in my experience.

A project designed speci&cally for the classroom changes everything for the writer. Consequently, I have sought the help of many colleagues in this project—scholars and writers who have provided enriching ideas, caught me when I stumbled, and graciously given of their time to make this book far better than if I had walked alone. Several colleagues took a dra" of this book out for a test 'ight with their students in the Fall of 2014: Dr. Charles Stephenson (Chair of the Department of Biblical Studies, Lubbock Christian University), Dr. Rodney Ashlock (Chair of the Department of Bible, Missions, and Ministry, Abilene Christian University [ACU]), Dr. Kilnam Cha (Assistant Professor of Bible, ACU), and Noemi Palomares-Kern (Instructor of Bible, ACU). A second team participated in a round-table discussion of the manuscript at the annual meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature and American Academy of Religion in San Diego (2014): Dr. Marty Michelson (Professor of Old Testament, Southern Nazarene University), Dr. Charles Rix (Associate Professor of Bible, Oklahoma Christian University), Dr. Kevin Youngblood (Professor of Old Testament, Harding University), and Dr. Chris Heard (Associate Professor

THE GOD WHO SAVES

of Religion, Pepperdine University), along with some of the test pilots already mentioned. In addition to these, others visited with me privately: Dr. John Jackson (Associate Professor of Bible and Humanities, Milligan College), Dr. Melinda !ompson (Assistant Professor of Old Testament, ACU, Graduate School of !eology), Dr. Curt Niccum (Professor of New Testament, ACU), and Dr. Tim Sensing (Associate Dean, ACU, Graduate School of !eology). Finally, a third group of colleagues from ACU in disciplines other than !eology read the manuscript and engaged in lively conversation each month during the Fall semester of 2014: Dr. Jennifer Shewmaker (Associate Professor of Psychology), Dr. Jim Nichols (Professor of Biology), Dr. Monty Lynn (Professor of Management), Dr. Stephanie Hamm (Assistant Professor of Social Work), Dr. Jonathan Camp (Assistant Professor of Communication), Dr. Lesa Breeding (Former Director of the Adams Center and former Dean of the College of Education and Human Services), Dr. Jessica Smith (Associate Professor of Journalism and Mass Communication), and Dr. Greg Powell (Professor of Chemistry). My thanks to David Christianson and the Adams Center for Teaching and Learning for hosting these conversations. To all of these colleagues (and their students) I express my gratitude for every observation, question, correction, and challenge that helped turn the manuscript into a better textbook.

!ose who may have read Hurting with God (ACU Press, 2012) or A!er Lament (ACU Press, 2014) are aware of my personal journey through chronic pain with Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS; RSD). Because of my health challenges, I am also grateful for the wisdom and dedication of the medical team in my corner. !ese professionals keep me in the &ght and, when needed, they do not hesitate to step into the ring and &ght on my behalf: Robbie Cooksey, DO; B. Corey Brown, DPM; Gary L. Heath, MD; Shona S. Preston, FNP, BC; Daniel Vaughan, MD; Steven Brown, MD; and Larry Norsworthy, PhD, LCP, BCPM. May God bless you.

Two capable graduate students have assisted me over the past two years. First, Joe Ross, a graduate of Oklahoma State University, read early dra"s with an attentive eye to both detail and the broader picture of what works for students. To thank Joe I am obliged to say—ride ‘em Cowboys, go orange and black! Second, Kipp Swinney, a graduate of ACU, kept me a'oat during the Fall of 2014 and the period of &nal editing in the Spring of 2015. Kipp has worked on sec- ondary materials for teachers, in addition to checking references, compiling bibliographies, and numerous other details. So, to thank Kipp, I am obliged to say—Go purple and white!

!is is my third book with ACU Press and its skilled sta(. Dr. Leonard Allen, director of the Press, was a strong early supporter of this project until his departure to Lipscomb University (as Dean of the College of Bible and Ministry). Interim director, Duane Anderson, seamlessly continued the Press’s support, along with his own personal belief in me and in the project. His leadership enabled us to move the manuscript through pilot testing and peer review, investing necessary resources to gain the feedback we needed to make the &nal product better. I also have special appreciation for Mary Hardegree, along with Lettie Morrow and her sta(, who turned the manuscript into a presentable form and brought together all the moving parts to produce the hundreds of pre-publication “books” for the pilot study and peer reviews. I have also been fortunate to work once again with Robyn Burwell, my editor and project manager, who was

Acknowledgments

vii

responsible for bringing this project to its conclusion. For all the answers to all the questions, and all the ways you push me to be a better writer, thank you.

Every page I write has a &rst reader who tells me the truth, even when I may not want to hear it. !is woman creates physical space for me to write and adapts her world to the rhythm of my putting words on paper and then typing them onto the big white screen. Without her I would not have found new life in words and sentences. Neither of us foresaw the number of hours, the days and nights this project would consume. So for her patience during all those days and nights when I was lost in a world of my own, for her un'inching support, and her belief in this book—thank you, Dana. You are the great surprise and love of my life.

Together we dedicate this book to our parents: Dana’s father and mother, Dr. Ken and Retha Kennamer, and my father and mother, Cotton and Peggy Pemberton. For the faith you passed to us, and all you have done to form us into Christ-followers, we thank you. It is our honor to dedicate to you this book about a God of unfailing love. I grieve that my mother died suddenly in September 2014. She had, thankfully, seen the pre-publication dra" with its dedication page. I love you and I miss you, Mom.

To the Instructor

uring the process of peer review and pilot testing, I learned one absolute truth, perhaps two: (1) every instructor has his or her own way of teaching this course, and (2) we are all looking for something a little di(erent in the ideal textbook. So, I have done my best to provide an approach that has worked well in my classes, and tried to listen carefully to other instructors here at ACU and elsewhere so that I provide material that will be helpful to many classes and styles, not just my own. Before you begin, or as you consider course adoption, in all fairness I want to make you aware of what this text does and does not attempt to do:

• I write for undergraduate students, though I hope older students also &nd bene&t in the text. My primary audience is the 18- to 20-year-old student who comes to a university-wide required course on the Old Testament. Some are eager to learn, others less so, and more than a few resent the requirement. So I do not assume the student is interested in what you and I &nd fascinating. As you know, here we must earn our right to speak and be heard.

• !is is not a survey of the Old Testament. From the beginning of the project it was never my intention to o(er an introduction to the Old Testament that included every book. !e plan is to build a basic framework and provide enough instruction in reading the biblical texts that a student will be able to return alone and con&dently read the books we le" aside.

THE GOD WHO SAVES

• Although I follow the narrative order of the Hebrew Bible and try with all my might to help students make the journey in time and space to read these texts from the perspective of ancient Israel, I cannot escape my own religious commitment to the Christian tradition. I do not, however, write an introduction to the message of the Old Testament with every chapter pointing toward the Messiah. !e message is so much more complex and richer than any one theme, even the coming Messiah.

With these assumptions, objectives, and perspective in mind, allow me to share just a little more about the chapters and materials available to you upon request:

• !e maps, &gures, and tables, as well as other supporting materials (sample syllabi, course schedules, quizzes, and exams), are available to you at no additional cost. We do, however, try our best to keep the student on the fourth row, seat eleven from &nancing college by tapping into an extra source of income. So if you adopt the textbook, please contact ACU Press via email, and we will conduct our due-diligence before directing you to the secret place inside the ACU Press vault. If it has been some time since you adopted the book and are re-adopting, you will need to contact ACU Press again for authorization.

• !e book provides &"een chapters so that you may ideally cover one chapter a week or a little more (the length of many academic semesters). !e chapters are short so that students have time to read from the primary source: Scripture.

• !e beginning of each chapter provides: (1) Two or more biblical reading assignments so that you may decide which to assign for the next class session. (2) !e de&nition of key terms that are used in the chapter (then denoted by bold grey type the &rst time they appear in the chapter). !ese terms may also appear later but are not repeated in the key terms for those chapters. All key terms are gathered in the glossary for easy reference.

• In each chapter, among the tables and &gures, are sections entitled “Texts in Conversation” and “!e Message of the Old Testament.” In “Texts in Conversation,” I bring together di(erent voices on an important topic, e.g., (1) the Deuteronomistic !eology in conversa- tion with the death of Josiah, and the Books of Job and Ecclesiastes; or (2) the ban against marriage to non-Israelites in conversation with the Books of Ruth and Esther—along with Nehemiah’s revival. In these sections, I want the student to hear the plurality and inner conversation of the Old Testament. In the “!e Message of the Old Testament,” I draw attention to many di(erent ideas about God and faith to which the Old Testament testi&es, e.g., (1) the two perspectives on God from Genesis 1 and 2; or (2) the Lord’s two-sided revelation in Exodus 34. Much like the “Texts in Conversation,” these sections show the student the many “Messages” of the Old Testament.

• !e end of each chapter includes: (1) “To Discuss”—discussion questions based on the content of the chapter and the assigned biblical texts. (2) “To Know”—a list of key persons, places, and events. It poses questions for you to review and select from for the students to learn. If you assign additional “To Know” items, I would appreciate your sharing these with me for possible inclusion in future editions. (3) “Dig Deeper”—a list of topics for

To the Instructor

further research, most of which are interdisciplinary in nature. Any of these topics could work for an individual or group term project. (4) “For Further Reading”—a list of books, articles, and other resources for students who may be interested in issues or topics the chapter raises.

• Material in the appendices is for optional use. In my classes, I choose to open with Appendix I before beginning Chapter One. !e design allows you to use or not use this material at your discretion. I recognize that many other topics could have been added. At least for now, I have le" these topics for you to present as you see &t.

• You may also want to say a few words about Chapter One before assigning it for reading (e.g., that it begins with ancient Near Eastern materials, not the Bible), or you might choose to say nothing and let the students be surprised by an Old Testament text book that begins with ancient mythology—especially those who have heard Genesis 1–2 all their lives, but probably not “!e Epic of Creation.” Reading common material, unfamiliar to students who have grown up at church and unfamiliar to students who have never gone to church, may provide an experience that sends both groups tumbling back into the ancient Near East together, suddenly united in their trek.

I hope these brief points help orient you toward what is in this textbook. I also hope that you will not hesitate to contact me and share your experience with the book, including suggestions for future editions (if we are blessed to produce a textbook that teachers &nd genuinely helpful).

Glenn Pemberton Abilene, Texas

July 2015

To the Student

ake a deep breath and prepare to immerse yourself in the wonder and power of the Old Testament. In the pages that follow, we will read of scandals, intrigue, comedy (yes, even good jokes), dysfunctional families, and a people struggling to be faithful to God. In other words, prepare to read about people much like us. But to understand these people and their God, we must travel back in time to a place far away and long ago. On our journey, we will meet a God who wants to bless these people—people who just don’t understand a God who transcends both ethnic and national boundaries (and this is just the beginning of what will surprise them). We will follow their story from beginning to end, along the way meeting some who will enter and encourage their lives for a time (e.g., prophets), and meeting others who will challenge their con&dence and hopes in God (my thanks to Dr. Kathy Armistead for these words to describe what is to come).

Each chapter in this book begins with a glossary of key terms and ends with discussion questions (“To Discuss”), a study guide (“To Know”), potential research topics (“To Dig Deeper”), and suggestions

“For Further Reading.” As a textbook on the Old Testament, one pur- pose of "e God Who Saves is to supplement your reading of the Bible with information that will help you make the leap back in time so that you may read and better understand this ancient text. A second purpose is to challenge you to think deeply about the biblical texts by presenting readings you may not have heard before and with which you may disagree. Consequently, if at the end of reading several pages

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you say to yourself, “I’ve never heard of this before,” or even, “I disagree with these claims,” then this textbook will have achieved its goal. My hope is that you will rise to the challenge and think critically about why you disagree before you dismiss the idea as wrong or crazy.

My hope is that as you read, you will discover that understanding the Old Testament is not as di)cult as so many people claim. My hope is that as you read, you will begin to fall in love with this half of the Christian Bible and its testimony to the life of faith. And my hope, most of all, is that through the testimony of these ancient books, you will begin a lifelong love a(air with the God to whom they testify.

Glenn Pemberton Abilene, Texas

July 2015

1 In the Beginning Creation in the Ancient Near East and the Bible

n the beginning, before the skies above or the earth below existed, Father Apsu (fresh water) and Mother Tiamat (salt water) gave birth to children, who became the parents of Anshar (the older sky god) and Kishar (the earth goddess). Anshar’s &rstborn son was Anu (the sky god); Anu also fathered a son in his likeness, who was superior to his ancestors in wisdom and strength. Among the gods there was none who rivaled Anu’s son.

At that time, the younger gods would gather together at the home of the gods and make a lot of noise. Father Apsu tried to get them to settle down and be quiet, but it was of no use. And even though neither Apsu nor Tiamat were able to sleep or get any rest because of these young gods, Tiamat refused to do anything to them. But Apsu, on the other hand, called upon his advisor, and together they went to discuss this terrible situation with Tiamat. Apsu stated his position loud and clear, “!eir ways are intolerable to me. I cannot rest during the day and I cannot sleep at night. So I will destroy them and be rid of them, so we can sleep.”

When Tiamat heard this, she was furious and shouted at her lover, “How could we destroy what we ourselves created? Even though their ways are so grievous, we should be patient with them.” Apsu’s advisor, however, sided with his plan to destroy the gods, his own children and grandchildren. But everything they plotted was reported to the younger gods, who listened carefully, and ironically, fell silent.

One day, Ea (the god of wisdom and magic) took action. He made a clever spell and poured it on Apsu as he was sleeping so that he went

I Reading AssignmentsJob 38 Psalm 33, 74, 104 Proverbs 8 Genesis 1–2

Key Terms Ancient Near East: the land area roughly equivalent to nations from modern Egypt on the West to Iran in the East Cosmogony: a story of the origins of the world and/or the universe Enuma Elish: the opening words of the Babylonian creation myth “The Epic of Creation,” often used as title of this story Etiology: a story of how something began, e.g., how did the practice of marriage begin? Genre: the type or category of a written work, e.g., poem, novel, myth, or history Israel: a family chosen by God to become a mighty nation and to bless the world Leviathan: a mythological sea serpent, often represents chaotic forces that stand against life Mace: a club for combat that has one larger end, often laced with metal spikes Tablet of Destinies: a tablet upon which the future is written; the god who holds this tablet has the authority to set laws and decree what will happen in the future

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into a deep sleep; he also put Apsu’s advisor into a daze. !en Ea held Apsu down, killed him, removed his crown, and took his counselor captive by a nose rope. Ea built a triumphal city over the body of Apsu; he established his private quarters there so that he and his lover coud live in splendor. Ea then fathered Marduk—a powerful god, superior in every way. He had four eyes to perceive everything, four enormous ears, and when he spoke, &re blazed from his mouth. His father created the four winds and put them in Marduk’s hand, saying, “My son, let them play!” Marduk was the majesty of the gods.

Meanwhile, although Tiamat was enraged over the murder of her lover, she sat mute. Finally, the older gods rallied to her side and complained that because she had done nothing to avenge Apsu’s murder, Ea had created four winds—winds that make so much noise, now they cannot rest. !ey begged her:

Are you not a mother? You heave restlessly But what about us, who cannot rest? Don’t you love us? Our grip is slack, and our eyes are sunken. Remove the yoke of us restless ones, and let us sleep! Set up a battle cry and avenge them!

Tiamat listened and was stirred into action by their words. So with these gods crowding around her, she prepared for war against those responsible for Apsu’s death and all those in open rebellion against her, making so much noise that neither she nor the older gods could rest. She created ferocious beasts and merciless and powerful weapons; and she promoted Kingu to lead her army, giving him the Tablet of Destinies.

Ea heard the report about Tiamat’s actions and was dumbfounded; he went to his father, Anshar, and told him everything that Tiamat was planning:

Father, Tiamat who bore us is rejecting us! She has convened an assembly and is raging out of control. !e gods have turned to her, all of them. Even those whom you begot have gone over to her side . . .

Ea described the creatures Tiamat had prepared for battle and Kingu’s promotion to lead the army and carry the Tablet of Destinies. His father listened carefully and spoke with a weak voice:

“You killed Apsu, so you must be the one to declare war and face Tiamat. Where else will we &nd someone to face Tiamat?” So Ea went, only to retreat in fear. !en his brother Anu went to calm Tiamat, only to retreat in fear. Tiamat would not be paci&ed.

So the assembly of gods came together again. !ey all sat silently, and then spoke as one: “Will no other god come forward? Is our fate &xed? Will no one go out to face Tiamat?” !en Ea called out from his dwelling place, “Anshar, father of the great gods, what about your grandson, the one who rushes into battle: Marduk the Hero?”

In the Beginning

Anshar sent for Marduk and was glad to see his grandson now grown to maturity, but hes- itant to send him to face Tiamat. “Don’t you realize that it will be Tiamat, a woman, who will advance against you?”

Marduk answered, “Anshar, my creator, rejoice and be glad! You will soon set your foot upon the neck of Tiamat in victory!”

So Anshar said, “!en go, son, knowing all wisdom. Defeat Tiamat with your spell.” Marduk was glad and spoke to the gods,

If indeed I am to be your champion, If I am to defeat Tiamat and save your lives, Convene the council, and name a special reward, Let my word establish fates instead of you! Whatever I create shall never be altered! !e decree of my lips will never be revoked, never changed!

Quickly, the gods accepted what Marduk proposed. !ey decreed a reward for Marduk, their champion, and built a princely shrine for him (Babylon), where he took up residence. !ey declared that from that day forward, Marduk’s command would never be altered. His word would be law: “We hereby give you sovereignty over the whole universe.” !ey proclaimed, “Marduk is King!”

So Marduk prepared his weapons for battle against Tiamat. He made a bow with a feathered arrow and slung them over his shoulder, took a mace in his right hand, and made a net to capture Tiamat. Marduk then marshaled the whirlwind and the four winds: South, North, East, and West. He created the evil wind, the tempest, and the whirlwind. !en he

. . . released the winds which he had created, seven of them. !ey advanced behind him to make turmoil inside Tiamat. !e Lord raised the 'ood-weapon, his great weapon, And mounted the frightful, unfaceable storm-chariot.

Meanwhile, Tiamat, in the form of a sea serpent, was raging out of control. As Marduk came near he sent a message detailing her o(enses and the wrongs she had done against the gods: her decision to kill the gods just because they made so much noise; the appointment of Kingu, giving him the Tablet of Destinies that is not rightfully his, and charging her as the true rebel against the gods. So Marduk said, “Let you and I do single combat.”

When Tiamat heard all this, she went wild, lost her temper, and screamed in passion. !ey came face to face (see Figure 1.1). Marduk spread his net to encircle Tiamat, while she tried to cast a spell. He sent the evil wind into her face and she opened her mouth to swallow it, but she was unable. Marduk kept sending powerful winds so that her mouth opened wide and her belly in'ated. He then shot the arrow into her belly so that she exploded, popping open and dying. Marduk threw down her corpse and stood on top of her. All the gods marching behind

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her turned to run, but they were surrounded by Marduk’s army, unable to escape.

Marduk trampled on Tiamat’s body and smashed her skull with his mace. He rested, inspecting her corpse, and then split her body in half. One half he put up to form the sky, putting a bolt in place to hold it. !e other half of Tiamat’s body Marduk laid down as the earth. He made the Tigris and Euphrates come out of her eyes and piled up mountains from her udder.

!e gods were elated and proclaimed Marduk king. He decided to make himself a luxurious dwelling on earth, a place

for the assembly of gods and for his own resting place. Marduk spoke, “I hereby name it Babylon, the home of the great gods, the center of religion.”

A"er some time, when the gods were weary of the tiresome work of digging and clearing the canals of the Tigris and Euphrates, Marduk decided to work a miracle:

Let me put blood together, and make bones too. Let me set up primeval man: Man shall be his name. Let me create a primeval man. !e work of the gods shall be imposed on him, and so they shall be at leisure. Let me change the ways of the gods miraculously, so they are gathered as one, yet divided in two.

!e gods loved the idea and proposed that Kingu should die and his blood used, since he incited Tiamat into war. So Marduk “created mankind from his blood, imposed the work of the gods on man and released the gods from it.” 1

Creation in the Bible With awareness of “!e Epic of Creation” (or “Enuma Elish”), one of the most well-known stories of creation in the ancient Near East, we are better prepared to read the biblical texts about creation alongside those for whom they were originally written. Our task is to travel back in time, insofar as that as possible, and read the text on its own terms—instead of dragging the Old Testament into the twenty-&rst century—and reading it as a modern publication. Such time travel is not easy, but critical if we are to be competent readers and interpreters of the biblical text. A"er all, Israel’s claim is that the Lord entered her culture, with all her disturbing practices and attitudes, in order to make himself known. So if we are going to understand what the Lord did and who he is, then we too need to enter Israel’s world.

1 This story of creation, “The Epic of Creation,” is summarized from Stephanie Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 233–262; Victor Matthews and Don Benjamin, Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East. Rev. and exp. 2d ed. (New York: Paulist Press, 1997), 9–18; and Michael Coogan, A Reader of Ancient Near Eastern Texts: Sources for the Old Testament (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 9–14.

Figure 1.1. Tiamat and Marduk in Battle

In the Beginning

Now that we, with Israel, are aware of the “Epic of Creation” and its claims about King Marduk’s conquest over the serpent Tiamat, we are in a better position to read biblical texts such as Psalm 74.

Yet God has been my king from ancient days— God, who makes salvation happen in the heart of the earth! You split the sea with your power. You shattered the heads of the sea monsters on the water. You crushed Leviathan’s heads. You gave it to the desert dwellers for food! You split open springs and streams; you made strong-'owing rivers dry right up. !e day belongs to you! !e night too! You established both the moon and the sun. You set all the boundaries of the earth in place. Summer and winter? You made them! (Ps 74:12–17, emphasis mine)2

For those with some familiarity with the Bible, Psalm 74 may sound like the story of the great 'ood, or even the exodus from Egypt. !ese ideas are, in fact, present in the text. Nonetheless, creation is the focal point of Psalm 74, as verses 16–17 make clear (see the italics above). With the ancient readers, we may also detect strong echoes from “!e Epic of Creation” in verses 12–15. Like Marduk, the Creator God “split the sea . . . shattered the heads of the sea monsters . . . crushed Leviathan’s heads . . . [and] split open springs.” But the poet asserts that without question it was Israel’s God who defeated the sea monster Leviathan (a sea serpent like Tiamat). Israel’s God is the true Creator and King (74:12), not Marduk.

Job 38:4–11 also uses imagery in common with “!e Epic of Creation” to describe God’s work. God speaks to Job:

Where were you when I laid the earth’s foundations? Tell me if you know. Who set its measurements? Surely you know. Who stretched a measuring tape on it? On what were its footings sunk; who laid its cornerstone, while the morning stars sang in unison and all the divine beings shouted? Who enclosed the Sea behind doors when it burst forth from the womb, when I made the clouds its garment,

2 Unless otherwise indicated, all biblical quotations are from the Common English Bible (CEB) translation.

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the dense clouds its wrap, when I imposed my limit for it, put on a bar and doors and said, “You may come this far, no farther; here your proud waves stop”?

God describes the birth of the sea as an event that posed no threat to the Lord. Instead, the Lord swaddles the infant sea with the clouds and then set limits for how far the sea may come on dry ground (see also Job 26:12–13). Even more striking—and demeaning of Babylon’s serpent, Tiamat—the writer in Psalm 104 describes the creation of living things in the sea and “Leviathan, which you made, plays in it!” (104:26). !e fearsome serpent of Babylon has become nothing more than a plaything, God’s giant rubber duck in the sea.

Other texts in the Old Testament emphasize a variety of messages about creation and the Creator. To continue with Psalm 104, this poem elaborates the granduer of creation and the Lord’s ongoing support of nature. !e Lord makes springs gush out in the valleys (104:10). !e Lord waters the mountains (104:13), makes the grass grow (104:14), makes darkness come (104:20), and provides food for all living things (104:27–28). In other words, the Lord is responsible for the ongoing welfare of creation; if the Lord were to pull away, creation would collapse.

In Psalm 33, the emphasis is placed on the Lord’s ongoing intervention in human a(airs. A"er a brief description of creation (33:6–9), the writer speaks of the Lord who “overrules what the nations plan; he frustrates what the peoples intend to do” (33:10). !e Lord looks down from heaven, from where he watches all humanity; he sees the human tendency to depend on military power for self-con&dence, stability, and victory (33:13–17). But the Lord watches over those who fear him and delivers them from death in famine (33:18–19). So, the psalmist concludes, “We put our hope in the Lord. He is our help and our shield. Our heart rejoices in God because we trust his holy name. Lord, let your faithful love surround us because we wait for you” (33:20–22; see also Ps 89:9–10; Isa 27:1, 51:9–10).

Finally, Proverbs 8 wins the prize for the most unusual description of creation in the Old Testament. Here, the concept of wisdom is personi&ed as a woman (8:1–21; see also 4:4–9 and 9:1–6). To be more precise, in Proverbs 8, Wisdom is a baby girl—born of God before the cre- ation of the world (8:22–26). Consequently, when “take your daughter to work day” came around, young Wisdom went and watched as her Father made the sky &rm, set the limits of the sea, and marked out the foundations of the earth (8:27–29). And while her Father was at work, young Wisdom was “beside him, as a master of cra"s” (8:30a), or perhaps better translated, “I was like a child by his side” (ncv, see also erv, kjv). !e second translation, which seems to &t the context better, pictures young Wisdom dancing and playing in the new world, with special delight in humans (8:30–31). At least one purpose for this vivid personi&cation is to stress that Woman Wisdom is a reliable guide to life because she saw how the world was created and understands how it works (8:32–36).

In the Beginning

Creation in Genesis 1:1–2:3 !e more famous stories of creation come from the opening chapters of Genesis, the &rst book of the Bible. Here we &nd two stories that stress di(erent ideas about creation and the Creator— stories written with full awareness of the “Epic of Creation” and other competing creation stories from other cultures. It is crucial for us to remember that in the ancient Near East, everyone believed in creation and a Creator God or gods; the question of their day was not between creation and evolution or creation and science. !eir questions were scienti&c to them: Which god created the world, what is this god like, what is the nature of creation, and what is my place in the world? With this in mind, read the magni&cent story of creation from Genesis 1:1–2:3 (author’s translation).

= 1:1–2When God began to create the sky and the earth, the earth was a wasteless nothing, darkness was over the deep sea (tehom), and a mighty wind blew across the water.

Day One 1:3–5!en God said, “Let there be light,” and there was light. God saw that the light was good.

So God divided between the light and the darkness; God called the light, “day,” and called the darkness, “night.”

!ere was evening and morning, one day.

Day Two 1:6–8!en God said, “Let there be a dome in the waters, and let it separate the waters from waters.”

So God made the dome and he divided the waters below the dome, from the waters above the dome. And so it was.

God called the dome, “sky.”

!ere was evening and morning, a second day.

Day ,ree 1:9–13!en God said, “Let the water below the sky gather to one place so dry land will appear.” And so it was.

God called the dry land “earth,” and the gathered waters he called “seas.” God saw that it was good.

!en God said, “Let the earth sprout plants, seed-bearing plants, fruit trees of every kind on earth, bearing fruit with seeds.” And so it was.

So the earth produced plants seed-bearing plants of every kind, and trees of every kind bearing fruit with seeds.” God saw that it was good.

!ere was evening and morning, a third day.

Day Four 1:14–19!en God said, “Let there be light-bearers in the sky-dome to divide between the day and the night. !ey will mark signs and seasons, days, and years. !ey will be lights in the sky-dome to give light on the earth. And so it was.

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God made two lights: the sun to rule the day, and moon and the stars to rule the night. God put them in the sky-dome to give light on the earth, to rule over the day and night, and to divide the light and darkness. God saw that it was good.

!ere was evening and morning, a fourth day.

Day Five 1:20–23!en God said, “Let the seas swarm with life, and let birds 'y above the earth, across the sky-dome.” So God created the great sea monsters (Tannim), and every species of life that swarms in the waters, and every species of 'ying birds. God saw that it was good.

And God blessed them saying, “Be fruitful and multiply and &ll the water in the seas, and may the birds multiply on earth.”

!ere was evening and morning, a &"h day.

Day Six 1:24–31!en God said, “Let the earth produce every species of living creature: domesticated animals, creeping things, and wild animals of every kind.” And so it was.

So God made wild animals of every kind, and domesticated animals of every kind, and every thing that creeps on the land. God saw that it was good.

!en God said, “Let us make a human (adam) in our image and likeness. And they will rule over the &sh of the sea and over the birds of the sky

and over the domesticated animals and over all the earth, and over all the creepings things on the earth.

So God created humanity (adam) in his likeness; in his image God created humanity: male and female, he created them.

And God blessed them and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply, &ll the earth and take charge of it. Rule the &sh of the sea and the birds of the sky, and all wild animals that creep on the earth.”

!en God said, “Look, I have given you every green plant producing seed which is on the face of all the earth, and every tree which produces fruit; they will be your food. And for every wild animal of the earth and for every bird of the sky, and for every creeping thing on the earth. in which there is life-breath— all the green plants for food. And so it was.

God saw all that he made, and look—it was very good.

!ere was evening and morning, a sixth day.

Day Seven 2:1–3!e sky and the earth and everything in them were &nished. So on the seventh day God &nished his work, and he rested on the seventh day from all his work. !en God blessed the seventh day and declared it a holy day, because on it he rested from all his work of creating which God had done.

In the Beginning

!ere is no lack of topics for discussion from Genesis 1:1–2:3. From the translation of the opening lines—“When God began to create the heavens and the earth—the earth was without shape or form, it was dark over the deep sea . . . ” (ceb, see also njps, nrsv) or “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. !e earth was formless and empty, and darkness covered deep waters . . . ” (nlt, see also jb, nasb, niv, tniv)—to where the story concludes—in 2:3 or 2:4. And with only a little exaggeration we may say every line between these points raises one or more questions, some we may answer and others that defy research. !ere is some merit to the observation that when we become frustrated with a text because it refuses to answer our questions, we may need to ask if we have misidenti&ed the text’s genre. Perhaps nothing frustrates a reader more than trying to read one genre as if it were another: to read a novel as if it were non&ction or a cookbook as if it were a poem.

For the sake of our analysis, we raise only &ve questions of this creation story that should help us unpack what the poem is trying to say about God and the world. !ese questions may be best represented by a simple chart (see Table 1.1).

Creation in Genesis 1:1–2:3

What is the…

1. Literary Style? The story has a rhythmic, poetic quality created by an economy of words, parallelism (tight relationship of lines), and repetition. Thus, unlike most English versions, my translation keeps the poetry intact.

2. Scope or Scale? The scope or scale of creation is universal, all-encompassing, from basset hounds to Professors of Old Testament, from an amoeba to a galaxy.

3. Term for God? The term used to refer to the creator is the common Hebrew word for god/God (Elohim).

4. Order of Creation? Creation takes place in an orderly process that gives the impression of intentionality from beginning to end (see further discussion below)

5. Manner of Creation? God is at some distance from creation and so creates by the spoken word, like a king who issues orders that are immediately obeyed and carried out.

!e fourth question, regarding the order of creation, requires more consideration (to assist with this process, complete Table 1.2). Israel’s God begins with three days of bringing the chaotic waters under control. First, God establishes light and &xes a division between light and darkness to form the most fundamental element of human life: time—the basic unit of time, a day (begin- ning with evening and ending as day light fades). Second, God separates the waters above from the waters below, holding the waters above back with a translucent dome or bowl (“sky dome” in my translation, “&rmament” in older translations). By this restraint of water God creates the sky and the seas, with the sky naturally taking a blue color because of the water behind the bowl. !ird, God further pulls back the seas to expose the dry land beneath. By command, God &xes a

Table 1.1. Creation in Genesis 1:1–2:3

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boundary so that dry land is insured from water taking over, as it had at the beginning of creation; then, in addition to dry land, God commands all types of vegetation and trees to sprout. By these actions the Lord establishes three basic environments for other objects and living beings to &ll on corresponding days: (1) time/light, (2) sky and sea, and (3) dry land.

!e next three days parallel the &rst three. On day four, God creates objects to carry or re'ect the light created on day one—sun, moon, and stars—to provide light and to “mark signs and seasons, days, and years” (1:14–19). On day &ve, God makes birds to &ll the sky and &sh to &ll the seas, environments created on day two (1:20–23). !en, on day six, God creates land animals (wild and domesticated) and then humans to live on the dry ground exposed on day three (1:24–31). Finally, on the seventh day, God “rests” from all the work he had done (2:2). Here is a concept that o"en su(ers from the lack of time travel. We are apt to think that “rest” indicates a God weary from work and in need of physical rest. In the ancient Near East, however, in a story like this, “rest” has royal overtones. Just as Genesis 1 has presented God as King, in the ancient Near East kings “rest” over lands they have conquered. In other words, to rest means to reign over. !us, on the seventh day, God takes the throne to reign over all creation.

The Order of Creation in Genesis 1:1–2:3

Environment Filling the Environment

Day 1 “Space”Light/darkness Day 4 Light carriers: sun, moon, stars to mark seasons, days, and years

Day 2 Day 5

Day 3 Day 6

Many modern readers are distressed by the ways in which Genesis 1 fails to measure up to modern science. And indeed, Genesis 1 is not modern scienti&c literature, nor should we ask or demand that it be—dragging an ancient text, kicking and screaming, into the twenty-&rst century. Once again, a better reading strategy is for us to read from the perspective of the ancient reader, insofar as we are able to manage such time travel. Everyone in the ancient Near East believes in creation and holds a view of the cosmos similar to that in Genesis 1 (see Figure 1.2). !us, in Genesis 1:1–2:3, one claim the writer makes is that the Creator is a powerful King who brought the primeval chaotic waters under control with simple commands.

A second example of our struggle with the theological nature of this text in its ancient context comes from day one:

!en God said, “Let there be light,” and there was light. God saw that the light was good.

Table 1.2. !e Order of Creation in Genesis 1:1–2:3 (Blank)

In the Beginning

So God divided between the light and the darkness; God called the light, ‘day’ and called the darkness, ‘night.’

!ere was evening and morning, one day. (1:3–5, my translation)

!e modern question is obvious: How can there be light before the sun or stars are created (on day 4)? Scienti&cally, the hypothesis is impossible. But theologically, consider the countries with whom the ancient Israelites interacted: nations with di(erent claims about creation, the gods, and the sun. Viewed from this theological perspective, the writer appears to recognize and dismiss Egyptian claims for Ra or Atum Ra, the sun god. Some Egyptians worshipped Ra as the creator god who spoke all forms of life into existence by saying their name. But according to Genesis 1, Ra is neither the creator god, nor is Ra or the sun necessary to create light or warmth. !e God of Israel can speak light into existence without the sun or Ra; in fact, the sun is merely one of many created objects. Not a god.

In a pre-scienti&c world where all people believe in creation, the issue is neither creation versus evolution, nor are the writers and readers particularly concerned about a literal scienti&c account of how creation took place (this is our interest, not theirs). In fact, had God tried to teach modern physics to the ancient reader, not only would the reader be totally lost, but the reader would likely dismiss the scienti&c account as crazy talk. So instead, God enters the culture of the ancient Near East in order to introduce himself to Israel and her world. God models what we know to be the best strategy of missionaries: work in and through culture, not above or around culture.

So, based on Genesis 1, what is the God of Israel—this Creator God—like? Let me begin a list for you to continue. !e God of Genesis 1 is:

• a powerful God, able to speak creation into existence. • a Creator without con'ict or challenge from other gods; this God does not create as the

result of a &ght or struggle for power. • a God with a plan from beginning to end; this God knew what he would do on day six

when he began on day one.

Taken together, these observations lead us to at least one conclusion: Israel’s God is a great and powerful King. I hope my observations and conclusion are only the beginning of a vigorous discussion about the God to whom Genesis 1 testi&es.

Creation in Genesis 2:4–25 !e second creation story in Genesis di(ers signi&cantly from the &rst. Many readers may, how- ever, choose to read Genesis 2 as a close-up of the last day or two of the creation story in Genesis 1 and harmonize all apparent con'icts. Such attempts to harmonize the two stories assume the two creation stories in Genesis are, in fact, one story. !us, the stories must agree in every detail,

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with primacy given to the &rst account. Such a reading is supported by many people of faith; here, however, I will read Genesis 2:4–25 as a distinct and di(erent story. We have already seen that the Old Testament describes creation in many di(erent ways, from smashing the heads of a sea serpent (Ps 74:13–14), swaddling newborn seas like a baby (Job 38:4–8), and taking daughter Wisdom along to watch her Father at work (Prov 8:22–31). !e Bible is comfortable with the presence of many di(erent voices speaking from a wide variety of perspectives (see Texts in Conversation below). Consequently, it does not seem necessary to force Genesis 2 into harmony with Genesis 1 as if the Old Testament had only one creation story. More important, such a move may very well cause us to miss the distinct claims about the Creator and creation that Genesis 2 tries to convey.

In Genesis 2, the second story begins with barren ground, no plants growing for two reasons: (1) the Lord God (a new, more personal name; see Chapter Four) has not yet caused rain on the earth, and (2) there was no human to work the ground (2:5). !e di(erences from Genesis 1 are immediately clear: in Genesis 1 when the dry ground appears on day three, vegetation of all sorts begins to grow (1:12). But not in chapter 2. Here, the land is barren, awaiting the appearance of rain and humans.

So in need of a human, like a potter the Lord God forms a human (Heb. adam) from the ground (Heb. adamah). !e word play gives us the name Adam, which means something along the lines of “dirt,” “taken from dirt,” or simply “dirt-clod.” Like a paramedic, with a little CPR the Lord God blows life-giving air into the human so that the dirt-clod “came to life” (2:7), an act

Figure 1.2. An Ancient Near Eastern Model of the Cosmos

Diagram of Ancient Near-Eastern Models of the Cosmos

Waters Under the Earth

Waters Above the Dome

e D om

e o f H

eav en

Springs

Doors for the Sun

In the Beginning

that does not occur until the highpoint of all creation in Genesis 1. But now in Genesis 2, with an irrigation system in place to remedy the lack of rain (2:6, similar to the irrigation systems of the Egyptians and Babylonians) and a human ready to work, like a gardener the Lord God plants an incredible garden with every beautiful tree and every plant that produces food—along with the tree of life and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil (see discussion in Chapter Two).

!e Lord puts the human in the garden with the vocation of tending and keeping the garden (2:15). But no sooner is the human in the garden than a problem emerges. !e Lord God realizes Adam is lonely and that it is not good for him to be alone. So the Lord God determines to resolve Adam’s problem by making something or someone who will be a suitable partner-helper, “that is perfect for him” (2:18). !ese terms do not suggest that the Lord is going to make someone Adam can boss around or that Adam will be higher on some hierarchical scale. God is described as “our help” (Ps 33:20 et al.), and “my help” (Ps 70:5 et al.); we would never think that, as a result, we are in a position over or above God. Instead, the idea is to make someone who will be a companion, working alongside and ful&lling Adam’s need for relationship. And so the Lord God begins to make animals and bring them to the man for evaluation and for a name (ceb, nrsv, njps, jb, nlt; cf. niv, kjv).

Texts in Conversation The distinct stories in Genesis 1:1–2:3 and Genesis 2:4–25 are the !rst of many texts read best when kept in dialogue with one another. They are not the !rst skirmish between irrec- oncilible positions over how creation occurred, or the mark of a terrible editor who cannot see the di"erences. Quite the opposite. Genesis 1 and 2 bear the marks of a master writer who brings divergent stories about creation into conversation with one another. An opening bell that foreshadows what is to come—not a narrative with clean-cut edges, rough spots sanded smooth, and contradictory viewpoints harmonized. No, instead, one way the Old Testament achieves depth is by including diverse voices and polyphonic perspectives that rise together into a symphony of witnesses to Israel’s God and what it means to live by faith in this God. The message of the Old Testament cannot be limited to a single idea any more than Israel’s God can be described from one perspective. Israel’s God is both the Supreme King of the universe, who tolerates no rival, and close friend who is emotionally aware that Adam is lonely (God alone is not enough for him, Adam also needs a companion of #esh and blood). Israel’s God possesses all power, only needing to speak the word and it is done. The LORD God is also personally involved, forming like a potter, planting like a gardener, and cleaning the dirt from beneath his nails at the end of the day. This feature of the text is no accident, but the result of allowing the two perspectives to stand side by side, with all the dissonance and harmony they create. With Genesis 1 and 2 introducing the Old Testament, we can be sure we are in for an amazing rollercoaster ride.

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!e human, however, is picky and does not identify any animal suitable as a partner-helper (Gen 2:20). !e Lord God also recognizes the failure of the experiment and the human’s con- tinued loneliness. So, like a surgeon, the Lord God puts Adam into a deep sleep to remove a rib (2:21) from which the Lord builds a woman, and then brings her to the man (2:22). At this point, at the moment he lays eyes on the woman, it is love at &rst sight. !e man speaks in ecstasy:

!is one &nally is bone from my bones and 'esh from my 'esh. She will be called a woman (Heb. ishshah) because from a man (Heb. ish) she was taken. (Gen 2:23)

Or, as translated by Peterson:

Finally! Bone of my bone, 'esh of my 'esh! Name her Woman for she was made from Man. (2:23 msg)

!e Lord God not only provided the right partner-helper, the Lord God knocked the ball out of the garden! Consequently, the text turns to an etiology for marriage. !is story explains why a man leaves his parents to “cling” to his wife and how they become one 'esh—reuniting the missing rib in their common life. And their relationship is such that they have no shame in their nakedness (2:25). !is original marriage was the ideal: no shame, no hierarchy, or patriarchy. But a couple who are in every way one #esh.

Many features of this creation story merit our attention, especially in contrast to what we see from the questions put to Genesis 1:

Creation in Genesis 2:4–25

What is the . . .

1. Literary Style? This story is, in fact, a story—a narrative with dialogue, characters, and a plot—unlike the poetry of Genesis 1.

2. Scope or Scale? The scope or scale of creation is limited to the land.

3. Term for God? The name of the deity is LORD God; “LORD” with all capital letters represents the personal name of God, which will be revealed to Moses at the burning bush (Exod 3).

4. Order of Creation? The LORD creates as needs arise. The LORD is especially aware of and attentive to human need.

5. Manner of Creation? The LORD gets his hands dirty: planting a garden, forming a human (like a potter), making animals, and performing surgery to make a woman.

Table 1.3. Creation in Genesis 2:4–25

In the Beginning

In ways impossible for Genesis 1 to express, Genesis 2 tells the reader of a personal God, with a personal name, personally forming humans from the humus, and establishing an intimate relationship. !e Lord is driven by human need, not by a predetermined schedule. Nothing is more important to this God than the human, and the relationship of the human to God.

Relationships are, in fact, especially important in the narrative of Genesis 2. Four relationships are established (created) that are critical for the book of Genesis (and beyond):

1. A God/human relationship that is thriving. Anytime the human is in genuine need (e.g., lonely), the Lord responds with help. !ere is no hint of a con'ict.

2. A human/land or ecosystem relationship is also thriving. !e humans are tending to the garden, and, in response, the garden provides ample food for the humans.

3. A human/animal relationship also comes into existence and from what we can see, the relationship is harmonious. !e humans have named the animals, an act that may suggest authority over the animals. But the humans are not eating animals, nor are the animals attempting to eat the humans; such aggression will not begin until a"er Genesis 9:3–4.

4. A male/female relationship has been established as the climax of the story, and their relationship is wonderful. !e male has exclaimed in ecstasy that the woman is the perfect creation to be his partner-helper. !ey are unashamed of their nakedness, and there is no hint of patriarchy or the male acting in a dominate role. Like all of the rela- tionships established in Genesis 2, their relationship is perfect.

!ese are hardly all the observations to be made about Genesis 2 and its witness to creation and the Creator. But again, I hope it is at least a good place to start a spirited discussion.

Conclusion As I have pointed out, the two stories in Genesis are di(erent from one another in signi&cant ways, a feature that could hardly be accidental or a mistake at the very beginning of Genesis. !e challenge for us is not to &nd a way to force these two stories into harmony at every point, but to understand why an ancient writer or editor would begin a book with two such di(erent stories. What is the writer trying to tell us about God?

A modern analogy from the world of art may be helpful. One feature of Cubism made famous by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque is the use of multiple perspectives in a single work of art (of course, Cubism is much more complex than this one feature). As a consequence, their art o"en looks strange, to state the case mildly. But to some extent, this feature of multiple perspectives is what we &nd in Genesis 1 and 2. It is as if the writer or editor is confessing that no one story can possibly capture the creation or Creator—what Israel’s God is like. On the one hand, Israel’s God is a distant and powerful king; but on the other hand, Israel’s God is also close and attentive to every human need. Or again, on the one hand, Israel’s God operates according to a clear plan from start to &nish; but on yet the other hand, Israel’s God operates in response to human need. !e two pictures of the Creator are di(erent because there is no way that a single story about

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creation could possibly su)ce. Israel’s God is more complex and multidimensional than a single story allows. So, the editor stacks two stories on top of one another to make a claim about Israel’s God and to issue a strong warning to us as we begin to read this text. !e God with whom we will deal in the following chapters cannot be trapped and contained in a box or be understood based on any single story. Israel’s God is too complex.

An old de&nition of heresy is “truth out of bal- ance.” !e challenge of Genesis 1 and 2 is to hold both portraits of God together, to keep all of the di(erent images and claims—here and elsewhere in the Old Testament. !e truth is in the combina- tion, not the separation. !e God of Israel is both cosmic King and personal friend, a God with a plan and a God who attends to human need, a God who rests (reigns) over creation and a God who has empowered humans to be co-regents—to reign with God. Consequently, it takes not one—or even two—stories about creation to describe the Creator God, it takes many di(erent perspectives in the Old

Testament to even begin to describe the God with whom we live and with whom we will deal in the text before us. In fact, it takes more text than we can cover in a semester, more ideas than we can comprehend in a lifetime.

Figure 1.3. Portrait of Pablo Picasso (Juan Gris)

In the Beginning

To Discuss

1. Consider further similarities and di(erences between the biblical stories of creation and “!e Epic of Creation”? What signi&cance or conclusions do you draw from these similari- ties and di(erences?

2. Which portrait of the Creator in the Old Testament are you most drawn to? Why are you drawn to this portrait? What challenge(s) do the other stories of creation present for you?

3. Ancient societies developed cosmogonies or creation stories in order to explain their world and their place in the world. Based on Genesis 1 and 2, what is Israel claiming about her world and the role of humans?

4. List the many di(erent roles the Lord God plays in Genesis 1 and 2. What does each role reveal or teach us about God? What do you make of such a large number of descriptors? Do any of these descriptions raise questions for you?

5. For what purposes does God create humans in Genesis 1 and 2? (Be careful to base your answer on what the text actually says or suggests.) What have you o"en heard about the purpose for which God created humans? Do Genesis 1 and 2 or any of the other creation texts support these claims? Why do you think God created people?

6. How does the picture of marriage in Genesis 2 di(er from cultural practices or views in your society? Are the di(erences good or bad? What might Genesis 2 be saying to us about marriage?

7. What is the best way to identify the interhuman relationship established in Genesis 2: male/female, human/human, or some other description? Why? What di(erence may our words potentially make?

8. How has this chapter challenged what you may have previously thought? What new ques- tions does this chapter raise for you?

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To Know

Please Note: "is chapter is di$erent from coming chapters in that it contains most of the required biblical reading in the chapter itself. Even so, here and especially in Chapters Two through Fi!een, you must read the assigned biblical texts in order to know and be prepared to discuss the assigned material. Reading only this chapter will not prepare you for class discussion, quizzes, or exams.

1. !e signi&cance of the following in this chapter: Adam Leviathan Apsu Marduk Babylon Ra Ea Tiamat Eden Woman Wisdom Eye

2. !e order of creation in Genesis 1 and Genesis 2, and what the order teaches about the Creator and the creation. How God is portrayed in each story. Describe what happens to our understanding of God when we permit Genesis 1 and 2 to contain two distinct stories.

3. !e other descriptions of creation in assigned texts and what each claims about the Creator: Psalm 33, Psalm 74, Psalm 104, Proverbs 8.

4. !e basic storyline of “!e Epic of Creation,” creation in Genesis 1, and creation in Genesis 2. !e only names you need to know are listed above. !e student should know these stories well enough to retell each one and to compare and contrast them (not simply repeating what the chapter says about them).

5. !e four relationships established in Genesis 2. Describe whether these relationships are working as well as intended.

6. !e speci&c claims that Genesis 1 or 2 might make against Babylonian or Egyptian beliefs. (Again, the student should be able to say more than what this chapter claims.)

In the Beginning

To Dig Deeper: Research Topics

1. If your own society were to develop a cosmogony or creation story to explain your world and the role of humans, what might that story say? What key issues or ideas would your story address? Write a cosmogony or creation myth for your society.

2. Find another cosmogony from the ancient Near East or elsewhere (e.g., Egyptian or Native American) and analyze the story. What does it teach about creation, the Creator, and humanity? Why?

3. Investigate an artistic depiction of creation. What in'uenced the artist to present creation as he or she did?

4. Many children’s books retell the story of creation, such as James Weldon Johnson’s "e Creation, illustrated by Carla Golembe (Little Brown, 1993). Compare the way three or more of these books retell the story of creation. Investigate why the authors and illustrators move in the directions they have chosen.

5. Many speci&c questions are raised about statements, objects, or other matters in Genesis 1 or 2 (e.g., the meaning of human creation in the “likeness” or “image” of God, or the use of the plural “let us make” in 1:26 and elsewhere). Select one question for a research paper and/or presentation to your class.

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For Further Reading

Coogan, Michael D. A Reader of Ancient Near Eastern Texts: Sources for the Study of the Old Testament. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Dalley, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Matthews, Victor Harold, and Don C. Benjamin. Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East. Rev. and exp. 2d ed. New York: Paulist Press, 1997.

Pritchard, James B., ed. "e Ancient Near East in Pictures Relating to the Old Testament. 2d ed. with suppl. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969.

. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 3d ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969.

Taylor, Barbara Brown. "e Luminous Web: Essays on Science and Religion. Washington, DC: Cowley Publications, 2000.

!e following two lengthy and expensive volumes by Pritchard (above) may also be purchased in smaller versions: Pritchard, James B., ed. "e Ancient Near East, Volume 1: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures.

Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973. . "e Ancient Near East, Volume 2: A New Anthology of Texts and Pictures. Princeton:

Princeton University Press, 1976.

2 A Good Creation Gone Wrong Humans Take Control

he “Epic of Gilgamesh” is a better known story to many than the “Epic of Creation,” and is equally important for our e(ort to get back to ancient Israel’s world. Picking up in the middle of the story, our hero Gilgamesh has turned away the advances of the goddess Ishtar, pointing out to her that every lover who has ever fallen for her has come to a grisly end. Furious, Ishtar goes to heaven and weeps before her father, complaining of Gilgamesh’s actions: “Father, Gilgamesh has shamed me again and again! Gilgamesh spelled out to me my dishonor and my disgrace.”

Ishtar requests that the Bull of Heaven go strike down Gilgamesh for shaming her. Her father is reluctant, but eventually Ishtar talks him into giving her what she wants—thus we’re introduced to the &rst spoiled goddess. Under her direction the Bull of Heaven charges for Enkidu (Gilgamesh’s best friend) and Gilgamesh, and a"er a moment of self-re'ection on their prideful actions, Enkidu kills the Bull of Heaven. !ey pull the Bull’s intestines out and set them before the sun god, and worship him.

Ishtar goes ballistic with rage, hurling curses at the two friends. Enkidu listens and, when he has heard enough, pulls out the Bull of Heaven’s shoulder and slaps Ishtar in the face. He then says, “If it were possible, I would hang the intestines on your arms.” A terri&c insult, but probably not Enkidu’s wisest choice of words, especially considering Ishtar’s father is a powerful god.

T Reading AssignmentsGenesis 3 Genesis 4–11 Deuteronomy 15, 21, 24

Key Terms Covenant: an agreement between two parties, whether they are nations (e.g., a treaty), or individuals (e.g., marriage), that sets expectations, promises for obedience, and curses for disobedience Glean: to pick up leftover crops after the harvest or pick fruit left on the vine Grace: a gift, or kind and loving treatment instead of punishment Patriarchy/Patriarchal: a family system in which the father controls and leads the family Pentateuch: the !rst !ve books in the Old Testament, also called the Torah or Law Theology: literally “words or talk about God,” thus, our speech about God or life with God

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!at night, Enkidu had a vision of the heavenly council of gods decid- ing what to do about the killing of the Bull of Heaven. !eir decision is clear: Enkidu must die. !e next day, Enkidu tells his friend Gilgamesh about his fate, and immediately Enkidu falls ill. He lays in bed growing weaker and weaker until &nally, he dies.

Gilgamesh does not take Enkidu’s death well. He refuses to accept that Enkidu is dead for days, until &nally a worm falls out of his decom- posing body. Our hero, faced with his friend’s death, develops a patho- logical fear of his own mortality and begins a quest to &nd eternal life. In his search, Gilgamesh learns of the existence of a couple, mere humans, upon whom the gods have lavished eternal life. Unfortunately, this couple now lives on the other side of the sea—a perilous journey no human has ever taken.

It is no easy task, but Gilgamesh convinces a sailor to take him across the sea. He quickly builds a boat according to the sailor’s expert instructions and they set sail. A"er a month and a half, they come to lethal waters, which require the use of one log push pole a"er another. Just as they use their &nal log pole, they reach the man Utnapishtam (Ut-na-pish-tam) and his wife.

Gilgamesh tells his whole story to Utnapishtam, about his friend Enkidu and his death, his refusal to bury Enkidu until the worm fell out of his nose, and his quest to &nd eternal life. Utnapishtam responds, but it is not what Gigamesh wants to hear: death is inevitable for mortals.

“But if that is the case,” Gilgamesh asks, “how have you come to have eternal life?”

Utnapishtam, hesitantly, begins to tell Gilgamesh his story.

Long ago, the gods decided that there should be a great 'ood, and they made each god take an oath so that no human might know and escape. Ea, a wise and far-sighted god who recognized the consequences of killing all humans, took the oath but then spoke to the reed hut in which I, his devoted follower, lived. He said,

“Reed hut, Reed hut . . . dismantle your house, build a boat. Leave possessions, search out living things. . . . Put aboard the seed of all living things. !e boat that you are to build shall have dimensions in proportion, her width and length shall be in harmony; 120 cubits by 120 cubits.”

I was obedient, explaining to neighbors that the god of the city was angry with me, so I must move to be with my master, Ea. Many workers came to help in the boat’s massive construction. !e boat was ten poles high, with between six and nine decks. I launched her and loaded everything I needed to reestablish

Figure 2.1. Relief of Gilgamesh Mastering a Lion. From the throne room of the palace of Sargon II, 713–706 

A Good Creation Gone Wrong

civilization: silver, gold, seeds, all my kin, cattle, wild animals, and all kinds of cra"smen.

A tremendous storm came, destroying everything. Even the gods were afraid of the storm and withdrew to heaven, where they cowered like dogs. Ishtar screamed in regret, “How could I have spoken such evil in the god’s assembly?” !e gods sat weeping.

For six days and seven nights, the storm raged; on the seventh day, the sea became calm. I opened a porthole and light fell on my face. I bent down and wept. I looked out and saw land emerging everywhere; the boat landed on Mount Nimush. I waited six days and on the seventh day I sent out a dove, but it came back. I released a swallow, but it came back. I released a raven; it did not return. !en I opened up the boat and made a sacri&ce. !e gods smelled the sacri&ce, and, starving, gathered like hungry 'ies to consume the food I o(ered.

But when Ellil (or Illil, the head of the younger generation of gods) saw the boat, he was furious, “No human should have lived through the destruction. Who other than Ea would have done such a thing?”

Ea spoke, “You are supposed to be the wisest of the gods. How could you impose the 'ood? Punish the sinner for his sin; punish the criminal for his crime. But not this! Instead of a 'ood, reduce human population with a lion, a wolf, a famine, or such. I did not break the vow and disclose the secret of the great gods. I just showed his hut a dream.”

So Ellil came down and took me and my wife, touched our foreheads, and blessed us. He said, “Until now, Utnapishtam and his wife were mortal, but from now on they shall be like gods and dwell far away at the mouth of the rivers.”

“So, Gilgamesh, who can gather the gods on your behalf so that you may &nd eternal life? To do this, &rst you must not sleep for six days and seven nights.”

At this, Gilgamesh immediately fell asleep and slept for six days; so much for that option. So Utnapishtam and his wife prepared the sailor and his boat to go home. But when Gilgamesh awoke and was about to leave, Utnapishtam told Gilgamesh of a secret plant at the bottom of the sea that gives eternal life. Gilgamesh immediately tied heavy stones to his feet and dove to the bottom of the sea, got the life-giving plant, and set sail for home.

Figure 2.2. !e Flood Tablet from the “Epic of Gilgamesh.” Photograph by Mike Peel (www.mikepeel.net).

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On their way, they came to a pool of calm, cool water in which Gilgamesh went to wash. But as he washed, a snake smelled the fragrance of the plant. It came up silently and carried o( the plant. As it went, the snake shed its scaly skin, renewing its life. When Gilgamesh discovered his loss, he sat down and wept. 1

Genesis 3–11 Just as Israel was well acquainted with the “Epic of Creation,” so was Israel aware of the “Epic of Gilgamesh,” a tale far older than any of Israel’s literature. In fact, a fragment from the Gilgamesh epic has been recovered from Megiddo, a town sixteen miles inland from the Mediterranean Sea and &"y-&ve miles north of Jerusalem.

Adam and Eve Genesis 3 continues the story begun in chapter 2, playing upon key features of its account of creation. First, in Genesis 2, God made two special trees and put them in the middle of the garden: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil and the tree of life (2:9). God says nothing about the tree of life, but as for the tree of knowledge of good and evil the Lord gives speci&c instructions: “don’t eat from the tree . . . because on the day you eat from it, you will die!” (2:17). Genesis 3 records their failure to obey and their exile from Eden. Like Gilgamesh, the couple loses their chance to eat fruit and live forever. Second, Genesis 3 chronicles the demise of the four harmonious relationships established in Genesis 2:

1. God and humans 2. Humans and the ecosystem 3. Humans and animals 4. Male and female

Believers who read Genesis 3 o"en come away with radi- cally di(erent conclusions as to the chapter’s theme. Most Judeo- Christian interpreters regard the story as the beginning of sin and the “Fall” of humanity from relationship with God. Other readers, however, point out that the word “sin” does not occur until chap- ter 4. So they read chapter 3 as the story of human maturation or coming of age. In other words, what the couple does is not sinful

or against God. Instead, they grow up—making decisions for themselves, for which there are natural consequences—just as God and every parent expect for their children. If you pull the cat’s

1 “The Epic of Gilgamesh” is summarized with citations from Stephanie Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 77–120.

The Tree of Knowledge Many want to know more about the tree of knowledge of good and evil. What did this tree o"er? What did Eve and Adam gain by eating from the tree? And why did God put the tree in the garden in the !rst place?

The most important thing about the tree, however, is not what it did for Eve or Adam, but what it does in the story—and what it means for creation. The presence of the tree tells us that human choice is built into the fabric of creation. So whether it be a tree with knowledge, a forbid- den stone, or millions of dollars, the LORD’s world gives humans a choice—to trust the Creator or trust themselves.

A Good Creation Gone Wrong

ears, you are going to get scratched. So it is possible to read Genesis 3 in the same way. However, God’s direct command (2:17), the couple’s violation of that command (3:6), and God’s response (3:8–19) are strong evidence that Genesis 3 is the story of sin entering the world—a story that occurs not only in Genesis 3, but that has been repeated over and over again throughout human history. Genesis 3 is our story. So, because of its importance for Eve and Adam, ancient Israel, and our lives, we will work carefully through this text.

!e snake subtly tempts the woman, &rst with an outlandish question, “Did God really say that you shouldn’t eat from any tree in the garden?” (3:1). Between the lines, the snake implies other ideas and questions: What kind of God would put you in such a beautiful place with so much great food to eat and then tell you that you could not eat any of it? A claim the woman corrects:

“We may eat the fruit of the garden’s trees but not the fruit of the tree in the middle of the garden. God said, ‘Don’t eat from it, and don’t touch it, or you will die’” (3:2b–3).

!e snake’s &rst question, however, has introduced a subtle skepticism: What kind of God would make such an irrational demand? !ough the woman answers correctly, the snake has already planted a seed of doubt about the Lord God’s goodness. So now the snake goes for the kill with a direct accusation: “You won’t die! God knows that on the day you eat from it, you will see clearly and you will be like God, knowing good and evil” (3:4–5). Again, between the lines but with far less subtlty, the snake asserts: "e Lord God is lying to you! God knows that if you eat of the fruit, you will become like God—like him. God is holding you back; he cannot be trusted with your life. So if you really want to live your life to the fullest, then you have to take it into your own hands—trust yourself. God is only looking out for God; you had better start looking out for yourself, or no one will.

!is temptation is the essence of every temptation and the allure of every sin: You cannot trust God to do or say what is in your best interest so you must decide; you must act. Trust yourself, not God. So the woman goes to the tree and considers the snake’s claim: she saw that it looked good for eating . . . she saw it was beautiful . . . she considered that the tree could make a person wise . . . so she took some of its fruit . . . and she ate it . . . then she gave some to Adam who was with her . . . and he ate (3:6). All of the verbs, stacked one on the other, suggest a process over an inde&nite period of time.

In response to their decision and action, two types of consequences occur: immediate con- sequences and secondary, spoken consequences. !e immediate consequences seem to occur as ‘natural outcomes’ of the couple’s action. For example, the couple immediately recognizes their nakedness and realizes a sense of shame, without anyone telling them they are naked or that they should be ashamed—it just happens. Next, when the Lord comes to take an a"ernoon walk in the garden, the humans hide from God (suggestive that they normally walked along with him). !e Lord begins to ask questions: Where are you? Have you eaten from the forbidden tree? At this point, the male responds with an excuse: “the woman you gave me, she gave me some fruit” (3:12, emphasis mine). !e woman, for her part, continues the blame game: “the snake tricked me” (3:13; implying, the snake that you made), it made me do it. !e good relationships established in Genesis 2 are crashing faster than a twenty car wreck at the Indianapolis 500; car parts are 'ying

THE GOD WHO SAVES

everywhere. And all of these consequences are occurring without God speaking to impose any punishment. !e decision to take control of life has tragically caused life to spin out of control.

Secondary consequences, spoken by God, come next. First, God curses the snake to crawl on its belly and eat dust, which may be an etiology for why snakes slither on the ground instead of walk. Or, the curse may be &gurative; crawling on one’s belly and eating dust are images of shame. So it may be a way of saying the snake will now live a life of constant humiliation. Next, the Lord explains that there will be hostility and an ongoing &ght between the descendants of the serpent and those of the woman (3:15). Again, this may be an etiology for why people don’t like snakes and snakes don’t like humans; humans kick at snakes while snakes strike out at people. In the long history of interpretation, however, many Christian writers have concluded that Genesis 3:15 is the &rst prediction of the coming of Jesus to defeat the serpent (the devil). While possible, there are at least two problems with such a reading: (1) !e action verbs are the same (“strike”); the text does not suggest a defeat of the serpent, but rather an ongoing and unresolved &ght between humans and snakes. (2) !is Christian interpretation of Genesis 3:15 did not appear until the second century, in the writings of the Church Father Irenaus; the New Testament does not mention Genesis 3:15 as a prediction of Jesus.

!e second spoken consequence is directed toward the woman and raises tremendous ques- tions that directly in'uence our lives today (3:16). First, note carefully that the Lord does not curse the woman. In fact, it is questionable whether the Lord declares punishments or describes what the woman has brought on herself. !e di(erence between these two readings may seem slight, but is in fact enormous. If it is a declaration of punishment, the punishment is decided by God and humans have no business lessening it or taking it away (e.g., through drugs during labor to deliver a child). If it is a description of a problem, the problem is to be solved and over- come with the Lord’s help. With these two possibilities in mind, consider the Lord’s statements. First, the woman will have “increased pains in childbirth” (so it is in the niv, nrsv, and most other English translations). Phyllis Trible, however, has convincingly argued that the Hebrew text may also be read as, “I will greatly multiply your pain and your childbearing, in pain you will bring forth children.”2 In other words, the increase is in the number of pregnancies and painful childbirths. Her pain increases, but only because “the more she gives birth, the more her pain increases.”3 God mentions this consequence because God knows that outside the garden, for the human race to survive, women must face multiple pregnancies and painful childbirths, and this is dangerous—a leading cause of death for young women in the ancient Near East. In the context of Genesis 3 and Israel’s culture, Trible’s reading is strong. God’s words address the realities of life the woman has brought on herself because she trusted herself rather than God. Infant mortality rates were high, and few babies would reach adulthood. Consistent with this reading, and despite the dangers of pregnancy, the woman will desire sexual intercourse with her husband; and even if a woman does not desire intercourse, “your husband . . . he will rule over

2 Phyllis Trible, God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality: Overtures to Biblical Theology (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1978), 127. 3 Ibid.

A Good Creation Gone Wrong

you” (3:16). !e male’s sex drive will insure that the woman faces the painful danger of multiple childbirths. !us, in its context, the statement “he will rule over you” does not give husbands or men authority over women in every area of life; this statement describes sexual life of ancient Near Eastern couples and the pain women will face in giving birth so o"en and in watching so many of their children die. Life outside of the idyllic garden will be harsh.

!e third spoken consequence is directed toward the man. Here, God describes what life is going to be like for the man outside the garden. (!is supports reading the statement to the woman in the same way, as a description of what is to come rather than a pronouncement of God’s punishment.) Instead of the vocation of tending to a garden (2:15), the ground will be cursed—not the man (3:17). Consequently, the man’s task of producing food will come through hard work “by the sweat of your face” (3:19), until the human (Heb. adam) dies and returns to the humus (Heb. adamah).

Finally, concerned that the humans will eat from the tree of life and live forever, the Lord sets a heavenly guard across the entrance to the garden so the humans are unable to return to Eden. Some things are worse than death, especially an eternal life separated from God. We can never go back to Eden—a time of innocence and intimacy with God. Yet, out of concern for the di)cult conditions of their new life, the Lord makes sturdy clothes for them out of animal skins (3:21). Despite the problems they have created for themselves because they rejected God, God acts in Grace: God provides for their needs, even though they generated these needs by their own actions.

Genesis 4–11 Genesis 4–11 chronicles the growth of sin from a single couple (Eve and Adam) to all humanity through three major stories (and other minor stories) stitched together by geneaologies:4 (1) Cain and Abel (4:1–16), (2) the Generation of Noah (and the 'ood; 6:1–9:29), and (3) the Great Migration East (and the Tower of Babel; 11:1–9). Although a mixture of both simple and com- plex narratives, one way to uncover the major themes shared and developed by these stories is to ask the same three questions of each story: (1) What is the sin(s)—the heart problem that led to an external action? (2) What are the consequences of the sin? (3) In what ways does God help those caught up by sin? !e chart below will bring this information together for further analysis, including the story of Eve and Adam (for review):

Cain and Abel !e &rst story involves three characters: Cain (a farmer), Abel (a herdsman), and the Lord (4:1–16). A problem arises when God accepts Abel’s o(ering of an animal sacri&ce, but does not like Cain’s o(ering of his crops. Our question is the same as Cain’s: Why does the Lord accept Abel’s o(ering but not Cain’s? Cain wants to know, because from where he stands it looks like

4 On the fantastic ages of the people in these genealogies, see Appendix III: “The Millenials: Genesis 1–11” and “Would You Like to Be a Thousand and Three?”

THE GOD WHO SAVES

the Lord is playing favorites—accepting Abel’s gi", while rejecting his own. We want to know if the Lord is fair. Cain doesn’t understand, nor do we. Despite many e(orts to explain and justify the Lord’s actions, the text itself is silent on the issue, indi(erent except to say Abel gave “his 'ock’s oldest o(spring” (4:4). But what is Cain to do? He’s a farmer, not a herdsman. For Cain, the rejection is personal and eats on him; he is angry at the Lord and his brother, an internal heart problem that leads him to the premeditated murder of his brother (4:8).

The Growing Problem of Sin Genesis 3–11

Story Sin

Consequences God’s GraceHeart Problem

External Action

Eve & Adam

Cain & Abel

Noah’s Generation

The Great Migration East

Like the story of Eve and Adam, God enters the narrative through questions, not because God is unaware, but because God wants Cain to face his actions and recognize what he has done—a &rst step toward healing. Cain, however, is like his parents and refuses to confess. Instead, he chooses a sarcastic reply, “Am I my brother’s guardian?” to which God responds with the worst news a farmer could hear—the blood-stained ground will no longer produce food for him (4:11–12). So his way of life must change from that of a settled farmer to a wanderer who gathers food wherever it may be found, a wanderer who must leave the protection of his family—the only security a person has in the ancient Near East. Cain’s next statement reveals how much we don’t know about creation and the ancient world, further evidence that the purpose of Genesis 1–3 is not to provide scienti&c or comprehensive history. Cain expresses fear for his life, “Anyone who &nds me will kill me” (4:14). Many other people live in Cain’s world—people whose origins the writer of Genesis has no interest in explaining. Instead, Cain knows that without family pro- tection, someone will kill him. So in another act of grace, God gives Cain a protective mark so that everyone who sees Cain will be too afraid to hurt him (yet another detail the writer has no interest in explaining).

Table 2.1. !e Growing Problem of Sin in Genesis 3–11 (Blank)

A Good Creation Gone Wrong

Noah’s Generation !e next major story I leave primarily to your reading of the biblical text. Here, I only draw atten- tion to a few key ideas, beginning with the double introduction to the story. First, Genesis 6:1–4 describes a strange situation in which the “sons of God” are marrying the “daughters of humans” (nrsv); a practice the writer (and God) &nd deplorable. Precisely what is happening, however, is far from clear (a good project for "Digging Deeper"). Of the many possibilities, it seems most likely that the “sons of God” are some type of divine beings (angels?) taking/sleeping with human women and producing a race of demi-gods, the Nephilim. !us, the problem of sin has grown beyond merely a human problem, a serious development in the history of sin.

!e second introduction to the story is equally grave, completing the picture of sin growing from one family to everyone, everywhere, and the depth of sin growing from one act to a con- stant state of the heart.

!e Lord saw that humanity had become thoroughly evil on the earth, and that every idea their minds thought up was always completely evil. . . . God saw that the earth was corrupt, because all creatures behaved corruptly on the earth. God said to Noah,

“!e end has come for all creatures, since they have &lled the earth with violence . . . ” (Gen 6:5, 12–13a)

Only four chapters away, we are far from the world of Genesis 1–2, where God looked at creation and proclaimed it to be “very good” (1:31). Now, God looks and sees that the human heart is totally corrupt and the earth is &lled with violence (6:11). And, in a shocking revelation, we see inside God’s heart:

!e Lord regretted making human beings on the earth, and he was heartbroken. . . . “I regret I ever made them.” (6:6, 7b)

What is a heartbroken God to do with a good creation gone so terribly wrong? !e expulsion and correction of Eve and Adam and the exile of Cain have not solved the problem. So God makes a radical decision—to reverse creation, to undo what had been done to bring order to the chaotic waters and start over again. Maybe a reboot of creation will get rid of sin and solve the problem. So God opens the windows in the sky-dome holding back the water above and opens the 'oodgates holding back the water below dry land (7:11; see Figure 1.2 in Chapter One)—and the water pours in.

God’s plan, however, is not to create as was done the &rst time. Instead, similar to the “Epic of Gilgamesh,” God chooses a righteous man, Noah, to build a ship to carry life in order to replen- ish the earth once the chaotic waters have done their work and destroyed all life. Once God is satis&ed with the destruction, God starts over. A mighty wind blows across the water just as the &rst time (8:1; cf. 1:2), the beginning of pushing the waters back into their place. In time, Noah is able to open the ark and let out the animals. He o(ers a sacri&ce to God, a “pleasing scent” to the Lord (8:21), but not an aroma that causes God to act like a starved insect.

THE GOD WHO SAVES

Most important, the biblical text describes a realization and promise on God’s part:

I will not curse the fertile land anymore because of human beings since the ideas of the human mind are evil from their youth. I will never again destroy every living thing as I have done. (8:21)

God recognizes that 'oods—or any other form of destroying the world to start over again—don’t work because the problem is the human heart—human attitudes, thoughts, and desires. So the Lord establishes the &rst of several covenants we will see in the Old Testament.

!e Lord makes a covenant with all creation: “with you [Noah], with your descendants, and with every living being with you” (9:8–10). !e form of ancient covenants can be quite complex, but the covenant in Genesis 9 is reduced to its most essential form and is easy to lay out in chart form.

Elements of the Covenant The Two Sides and Variables

Persons or Participants Entering the Covenant God

Noah, his descendants, and every living being (9:9–10)

Promises, Conditions, Expectations, or Stipulations

Not destroy all life by "ood again, not destroy the earth (9:11)

The Sign or Reminder of the Covenant God hangs his “bow” in the sky (9:12–16)

Duration of the Covenant Agreement God promises for all time: “never again” (9:11)

!is covenant is entirely one-sided: God makes the promises, God sets the sign by which he will remember his promises (hanging his hunting bow in the sky, what we see as a rainbow, for a reminder that he will not attack the earth in the future), and God sets the duration, all while humans do nothing. In fact, humans are no more responsible for keeping any promise or uphold- ing any expectation than a lion is expected not to eat the weakest member of a herd. Unilateral and one-sided, God pledges himself to the world with no requirement from the other side. Why? No requirement from the animals is understandable, but humans? !e answer or reason lays only a few verses back in the story. Do you remember? Humans, God has “learned,” are incapable of keeping any covenant at any time with God or anyone else. !e human heart is broken (8:21). So if God should put any requirement on the human side of the ledger, the covenant would be a joke. !e Lord would hit the reboot switch over and over again, but the problem would never be &xed—because the human heart remains the same. So if there is to be any movement toward a real solution, God is going to have to hang up his bow and cease hostilities while something else is worked out. A conclusion veri&ed by the last scene of Noah’s story in which one of his sons, Ham, “saw his father naked” (9:22) while Noah is passed out drunk. Ham’s o(ense is unclear;

Table 2.2. !e Post-Flood Covenant

A Good Creation Gone Wrong

suggestions include breaking a cultural taboo by seeing his father naked and inappropriately boasting about it to his brothers, or that “to see the nakedness of ” (nrsv) is a technical phrase to denote sexual intercourse (see Lev 18). An interpretation that makes sense of the phrase, “When Noah awoke from his wine, he discovered what his youngest son had done to him” (Gen 9:24, emphasis mine). Whatever happened, it is obvious that wiping out humans to start over again has not and will not solve the sin problem; even the best of families is plagued by sin.

The Great Migration East !e last major story of Genesis 4–11 further con&rms the failure of the 'ood. A large group of people migrate to “a valley in the land of Shinar” (11:2)—the land of Babylon in the ancient world. Here they are anxious about being scattered across the face of the earth (9:1). Instead, they want to “make a name for ourselves;” in other words, they want to “become famous” by using available technology to build a tower (a Ziggurat, see Figure 2.3) to the heavens (11:4). !eir ambition parallels the (rst story of humans; Eve and Adam wanted to become like gods. A tower—the Tower of Babel—with its top in the heavens would provide humans access into the realm of the divine, giving them a place from which they could access the heavens and the gods. Genesis 11 has brought us back full circle to the beginning in Genesis 3.

In response, and with irony, the text explains that God has to come down to see this tower; the tower is hardly a threat to God. And yet God is con- cerned about what the common language of these people might enable them to do. So God mixes up their language. !ey do make a name for themselves, but it is “Babel”—a theological and political com- mentary on Babylon with its many ziggurats that ascend into the sky. !ese are the temples where they believe the gods come down to do their work on earth (see Gen 28:11–17).

Sin in the Old Testament

Listening to a Second Voice Before we continue our trek into Genesis 12 to discover what Israel’s God will do about the problem of sin, we need to step away from Genesis for a moment and take a more complete case history of sin, from a di(erent perspective and another voice in the conversation. From Genesis 1–11, we have learned that sin is like a disease—a deadly malfunction of the human heart running rampant throughout the world, infecting every generation. We have also learned this heart disease (our trust of God replaced by a self-centered trust) eventually shows its presence

Figure 2.3. A Restored Ziggurat

THE GOD WHO SAVES

through external symptoms; and, le" untreated, self-centered trust will sooner or later lead to our death—a metaphorical living death.

Now we turn to the Book of Deuteronomy—the &nal book in the Pentateuch—its special concern for sin within a community, and what happens to the poor and marginalized when a community is infected by self-centered trust.

First Finding: Self-Centeredness and Disregard for Others Our &rst &nding in Deuteronomy is that sin moves beyond simple self-centeredness to a dan- gerous disregard of others, especially those who live on the margins of society. To explain, if we were to represent society with a circle, at the center would be wealth, power, legal rights, and other desirable bene&ts that give a person security and social standing. !e further away a person moves from these advantages—and the center—the more they become marginalized, living on the edges of society (see Figure 2.4). And the more marginalized a person becomes, the easier it becomes for others with social standing to mistreat and take advantage of them because they have no power, no rights, and no one who will stand up for them.

In Deuteronomy, those most o"en caught on the margins of ancient Israel (and other societies, both ancient and modern) are the poor, widows and women in general, orphans, indentured servants, and foreigners or outsiders. Deuteronomy insists that instead of mistreating others— which grows out of a self-centered heart—God’s people should develop a heart that loves and

therefore tries to help those at risk on the margins. So, to take a few examples, God’s people should love the poor, which on a practi-

cal level means not to be tight-&sted with loans to help them (Deut 15:7–11). Collateral for loans is appropriate, but it is

unthinkable to take a person’s working tools as collateral (24:6), or to take and keep their only cloak in which they may sleep (24:12–13). In addition, when collecting collateral the wealthy should not storm into a poor person’s house to collect the goods, thereby also taking their dignity and honor; instead, they should wait at

the door for the collateral to be brought out to them (24:10–11). !e poor should be paid at the end of every

workday—it may be the only way they have to purchase food for their family for that day (24:14–15). And during

the harvest, some of the grain or grapes should be intentionally le" behind for the poor to glean or pick up behind the workers (24:19–22).

If a person falls into such debt that he or she must sell himself or herself or another family member to the debtor, the term of indentured service may last no longer than seven years (15:1–2). And when the debt-slave completes his or her service, the master must set them free and provide enough goods for a strong fresh start (15:12–18). In other words, it would be very easy for the

PoorForeigners

Orphans Widows

Wealth Health Power

Citizenship

Figure 2.4. Life on the Margins of Society

A Good Creation Gone Wrong

wealthy to keep the poor in a state of perpetual indentured service; sending a servant away with nothing guarantees that they will end up in debt service again. So, Deuteronomy makes it clear that God’s people must not take advantage of the poor who live on the margins of society. Instead, God’s people should act in ways to help break the cycle of poverty: to love and act as God loves. To do otherwise demonstrates a heart infected with sel&shness.

A second example from Deuteronomy about those living on the margins has to do with women, and especially widows. Because of Israel’s patriarchal society, women generally depended on a relationship to a man, typically her husband and/or sons, for their well-being. Regretfully, sometimes women found themselves in less than this “ideal” circumstance. So Deuteronomy gives legislation to provide some protection or dignity to women far out on the margins, e.g., women taken in battle (21:10–14), women involved in polygamy (21:15–17), and women whose husbands die without leaving a male heir (25:5–10). !e situation for women in all of these circumstances was di)cult, and it may be argued that Deuteronomy doesn’t do enough to help them. It does, however, at least begin to take steps in the right direction for these women.

The Message of the Old Testament Israel had a unique way of doing theology, i.e., thinking and talking about God, God’s ways, and living with God. They would do so with, Let me tell you a story . . . or what researchers call Narrative Theology. Want to know what the LORD is like? Let me tell you a story . . . Want to know more? Let me tell you another story . . . What does it mean to live by faith in the LORD? Let me tell you a story . . . Stories can be fun to tell, easy to remember (even for an exam), stir our imaginations, and include odd details that fascinate us, though apparently not the storyteller, who doesn’t pause to explain. And stories can carry profound insights about the LORD: a powerful wise King who speaks and light appears, speaks again and chaotic waters are brought under control (Gen 1); or a God who is closer than your best friend—passionately seeking relationship with the humans he made, tuned in to every need, and resolved to !x what is not good (Gen 2).

Genesis 1–11 is powerful Narrative Theology, introducing us to the way God intended for human life to work and explaining why our world does not look like the Garden of Eden. Through these stories, we have learned about the nature of sin and about God’s commitment to pursue relationship with us, even when we decide God is not trustworthy and we trust ourselves. God will do whatever it takes to win back our hearts, but God will not force us—the decision for relationship is ours. All these “Messages” and so many more, all from stories we may read and reread, then read again—re#ecting and thinking. So take a moment before you get to class and reconsider these stories you may have known from childhood. Now, as an adult, what do you see? What do you learn about God? About your life with God? What new questions do you have about God? For God?

THE GOD WHO SAVES

!e same is true for the laws pertaining to divorce, in which Deuteronomy’s primary concern is the welfare of the woman (Deut 24:1–4). If a man has married and &nds something objec- tionable about his wife—whatever this might be (arguments have ranged from burning his toast to sleeping with another man)—and he divorces her, then the man must write a certi&cate of divorce and put it in her hand. He may then send her out. He is not permitted to throw her out without divorce papers: the papers allow her to remarry. Otherwise, without the possibility of remarriage, her future is bleak, with prostitution her most likely means of survival. Again, from our perspective, the law may not be perfect or the most helpful thing for women, but the law does start the work toward helping those who are most threatened by living on the margins of society.

Second Finding: Love the Lord and Obey for Your Well-being It is one-sided and maybe misleading to only listen to and talk about the ways the human heart becomes corrupt, and what God dislikes and consequently forbids, without talking about what God wants us to become. By leaving out this half of the picture we are apt to support the myopic view that either the God of the Old Testament is a legalistic God who makes unreasonable demands just so he can condemn people, or that the Old Testament is just about a bunch of laws and rules. So let’s close this chapter by acknowledging another voice from Deuteronomy, a voice that insists that the Lord is nothing like such a caricature. What does the Lord want us to become? What is best for us? !e answer is simple. !e Lord asks for love, trust, and devotion.

Israel, listen! Our God is the Lord! Only the Lord! Love the Lord your God with all your heart, all your being, and all your strength. !ese words that I am commanding you today must always be on your minds. (Deut 6:4–6)

In another similar text, the writer asks,

Now in light of all that, Israel, what does the Lord your God ask of you? Only this: to revere the Lord your God by walking in all his ways, by loving him, by serving the Lord your God with all your heart and being, and by keeping the Lord’s commandments and his regulations I’m commanding you right now. It’s for your own good! . . . He enacts justice for orphans and widows, and he loves immigrants, giving them food and clothing. !at means you must also love immigrants because you were immigrants in Egypt. Revere the Lord your God, serve him, cling to him, swear by his name alone! (Deut 10:12–13, 18–20)

What the Lord wants more than anything is for people to be like him, to love those on the margins because he loves those on the margins. Sin is a prevalent problem throughout the Old Testament. But sin is nothing more than a failure to love other people—especially those with no one to love them—and a failure to love the Lord, trusting that the Lord loves us and would only give instructions or laws that are for our best interest or the best interest of those we are to love.

A Good Creation Gone Wrong

Conclusions To be sure, sin is a prevalent and dangerous problem throughout the Old Testament and today. Sin is a matter of a sick heart: a heart that has turned inward, from trust in God to trust in self, and a heart that cares only about self (sel&shness), without concern for the harm or even violence done to those with no way to &ght back. Viewed in this way, it is much more di)cult to cast judgment on ancient Israel for her failures while we excuse ourselves for practices that hurt others. Or worse, proclaim judgment against a legalistic God of the Old Testament, without considering the things we do that hurt people on the margins of our societies. Without a cure, the illness that a(ects our heart will advance, take control of our lives, and kill us. What God can, or will, do to help us is an open question as we look toward Genesis 12 and the rest of the Old Testament.

THE GOD WHO SAVES

To Discuss

Note: In no case is the material in the textbook su)cient for full engagement with the discussion ques- tions. You must read the biblical text. Answers parroted (copied) from the chapter are insu)cient.

1. Compare the story of Utnapishtam in the “Epic of Gilgamesh” to the story of the great 'ood in Genesis. In what ways are the stories similar or di(erent? Analyze what you &nd. What do the di(erences or similarities indicate about the societies from whom these texts come? What about the depiction of God or the gods in each story?

2. Reread Genesis 3:6–7. At what point do you think the woman (and/or man) sinned? Why? Support your answer with good evidence and/or arguments. What’s the problem with this discussion question?

3. God’s initial response to Eve and Adam is to ask what appear to be dumb questions: Where are you? Who told you that you were naked? Have you eaten of the fruit? What is this you have done? Why is God asking these questions? Does God not know? Or if God knows, then why the questions? What does this teach you about God’s &rst response to sin?

4. Students o"en ask me whether God knows everything in Genesis 1–11, or he is learning on the job. What features of the text make it sound as if God is learning as time progresses? Consider the necessity of using human language to describe God; what is bound to happen in our descriptions?

5. Do you think Genesis 3 is a story of human maturation (growing up) or of sin and the Fall? What evidence supports your position? Since the term “sin” is used in Genesis 4, does your position on Genesis 3 make a di(erence? If so, what is the signi&cance of the position you take on Genesis 3?

6. In your experience, how have we applied God’s statement to the woman (3:16)? Have we viewed it as a punishment that must be enforced? Have we viewed it as a description of consequences or problems to &x or overcome with God’s help? How have we applied God’s statement to the man (3:17–19)? Have we been consistent in our interpretation of these two statements? Why or why not?

7. What groups of people are most o"en on the margins of your society? Why? What goods or accomplishments are at the center of your society? Who are the people most likely to have access to these goods? What are the most common ways in which marginalized people are taken advantage of or harmed?

8. Given the discussion of the Flood Story and other narratives in Genesis 3–11, how many common questions about these events would you say are essentially irrelevant questions? Why? What new relevant questions has the text raised for you?

A Good Creation Gone Wrong

To Know

"e student should know or be able to do the following tasks:

1. Know the signi&cance of the following in the assigned chapters: Abel Ham Adam Ishtar Babel Japheth Cain Noah Covenant (concept and de&nition) Seth Ea Shem Eve Snake Enkidu Tree of knowledge (purpose) Gilgamesh Utnapishtam

2. Retell the story of Gilgamesh (from the information given in the chapter). What is Gilgamesh’s mission? Why? What does he discover?

3. Retell each of the major stories of sin (with fair detail) from Genesis 3–11. 4. Identify and explain the immediate and secondary consequences for sin in Genesis 3. 5. Describe the guidelines given to Israel regarding the treatment of the poor in Ancient

Israel. What principles undergird or support these guidelines? 6. Complete the chart on page 34, “!e Growing Problem of Sin in Genesis 3–11.”

THE GOD WHO SAVES

To Dig Deeper: Research Topics

1. Find out what people or institutions in your community work to break the cycle of pov- erty. Interview them using these and other questions: What do they do? What are their greatest frustrations? What do they identify as the factors or practices that tend to keep the cycle of poverty in place? What can a college student do (now) to side with the poor and disadvantaged?

2. Research the stories of great 'oods in the literature of diverse cultures. Analyze the pur- poses of these tales. How do the narratives and their purposes compare to that of the Bible?

3. !e con'ict between Cain (the farmer) and Abel (the herdsman/rancher) is common in the history of many cultures (including that of the American West). Explore this theme in history and/or literature. How do your &ndings interact with or provide insight into the story of Cain and Abel?

4. Select a text or topic of particular interest to you for a research paper or report to the class. A"er your research, do you &nd that the questions that drew you to the topic or text answerable; are you able to reach some resolution? If not, why do think this is so? Topics might include one of the following common texts/issues: a. Who are the “sons of God” and the “daughters of men” and what are they doing

(Gen 6:1–4)? b. What is the “tree of knowledge of good and evil”? What does it give? (Gen 2:9, 3:1–7)? c. What is the meaning of Genesis 3:15? Is this text a prediction of the coming of Jesus? d. What is the meaning of the Lord’s words to Eve (Gen 3:16)? e. What does Ham do to make Noah furious? Why does Noah curse Ham’s son

(Gen 9:20–27)? 5. One or more of the Discussion Questions for this chapter might be an appropriate research

topic (consult your instructor). 6. View the &lm Noah (Paramount, 2014) starring Russell Crowe as Noah. Analyze the &lm

in view of the reasons for and purpose(s) of the 'ood in Genesis. Do not compare how closely the script follows the biblical story in its details. What do you &nd?

A Good Creation Gone Wrong

For Further Reading

Baker, David L. Tight Fists or Open Hands? Wealth and Poverty in Old Testament Law. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009.

Coogan, Michael D. A Reader of Ancient Near Eastern Texts: Sources for the Study of the Old Testament. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013. For a complete text of Gilgamesh.

Krugel, James L. "e Bible as It Was. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1997. A fascinating review of ancient Jewish interpretation of the Pentateuch.

Trible, Phyllis. God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality. Overtures to Biblical !eology. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1978.

3 A Plan Begins Promise and Threat in the Stories of the Ancestors

he end of Genesis 11 is like the end of "e Hunger Games1 or "e Bourne Identity.2 !ese books or movies (or biblical chapters) have begun a story and set up fundamental issues that await resolution in future installments. "e Hunger Games begins Katniss Everdeen’s quest, continued in Catching Fire, and concluded in Mockingjay. "e Bourne Identity begins Jason Bourne’s e(orts to recover his true identity (and stay alive in the process), continued in "e Bourne Supremacy, and "e Bourne Ultimatum. We know matters must certainly turn out well for our heroes; a"er all, we know that neither Hollywood nor Scholastic Press are about to kill o( our heroes and walk away from the money to be made in sequels. Nonetheless, at the end of the &rst installments of "e Hunger Games and "e Bourne Identity, we are unsure how matters will turn out.

In the same way, by the end of Genesis 11, we know the fundamen- tal issues that need resolution—and we know things must generally turn out well because we have over a thousand pages still to read in our Old Testament. What we don’t know is how God will respond to a good creation that has stabbed its creator in the back. Genesis 1–11 has demonstrated that sin is fundamentally a problem within the human heart, the choice to take life into our own hands and trust ourselves

1 Suzanne Collins, Hunger Games (New York: Scholastic, 2008); Film, Lions Gate Entertainment, 2012).

2 Robert Ludlum, The Bourne Identity (New York: Richard Marek Publishers, 1980); Film, Universal Pictures, 2002).

T Reading AssignmentsGenesis 12–13, 15–18, 20–22 Genesis 26–35 Genesis 37–46, 49:29–50:26

Key Terms Birthright: the inheritance typically given to the !rstborn son, twice the amount given to other sons Chaldeans: southern land area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, often associated with Babylon Circumcision: the removal of the foreskin from a man’s penis Mesopotamia: the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers Motif: a recurring idea or theme in a literary work

THE GOD WHO SAVES

rather than trust God. And this problem, we have learned, cannot be remedied by correction and expulsion (Eve and Adam), exile (Cain), wiping out creation and starting over again (Noah), or confusing and scattering humans (the Tower of Babel). But we have also learned our hero (God) is not about to walk away from the problems humans created when they turned their backs on him; Israel’s God is determined to do whatever he can do (within a world created to include free choice), to bring creation and his people—all people—back to himself. How the Lord will do this is the underlying motif in the stories about Israel’s ancestors. For the sake of simplicity, these stories may be viewed as six stages (in Genesis) in which God develops the plan to reach the world through this one family. In the &rst stage, the Lord will introduce the plan through six episodes of promise-making.

The Promises

Stage One: Abram and Sarai No one could ever have guessed what the Lord would choose to do next. Instead of a power play or some highly visible move, the Lord chooses two people who live in southern Mesopotamia and worship other gods: Sarai and Abram (Josh 24:2). To this otherwise unknown couple, the Lord makes a series of promises, starting with the opening words of Genesis 12:

!e Lord said to Abram, “Leave your land, your family, and your father’s household for the land that I will show you. I will make of you a great nation and will bless you. I will make your name respected, and you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, those who curse you I will curse; all the families of the earth will be blessed because of you.” (12:1–3)

Perhaps more surprising than God’s decision to work through one family is Abram and Sarai’s decision to play along. !ey leave their homeland, and when they arrive in the land of Canaan (see Figure 3.1), the Lord makes another promise: “I give this land to your descendants” (12:7). So we go to the &rst episode.

Episode One. Within this initial episode, the Lord has made four fundamental and essential promises (12:1–9):

• I will make you into a great nation (a promise of many descendants). • I will give you the land of Canaan (land necessary for a great nation). • I will be your God (implicit at this time, soon to be explicit). • I will bless the world through you.

A Plan Begins

In the stories about Abram and Sarai that follow, God reiterates, elaborates, and clari&es these four promises in no less than &ve additional promise episodes (for a total of six episodes) in this &rst stage of Genesis.

Episode Two. In the second episode of promises, Abram and Sarai have returned from a memorable trip to Egypt (12:10–20) and have become so wealthy in cattle (among other things) that it has become necessary for the uncle (Abram) and nephew (Lot) to separate (13:1–13). So Abram gives Lot his choice of where to live (13:8–9), a"er which the Lord a)rms that it will be Sarai and Abram’s family who will inherit all the land around them:

A"er Lot separated from him, the Lord said to Abram, “From the place where you are standing, look up and gaze to the north, south, east, and west, because all the land that you see I give you and your descendants forever. I will make your descendants like the dust of the earth. If someone could count the bits of dust on the earth, then they could also count your descendants. Stand up and walk around through the length and breadth of the land because I am giving it to you.” (13:13–17)

In addition to con&rming the land promise, new to God’s commitments in this encounter is the metaphor of dust to capture the size that Sarai and Abram’s family will eventually become: more numerous than the dust in all the deserts of the world (or, even more, the dust behind the books on my bookshelves).

Episode ,ree. !e third episode begins with a simple a)rmation from the Lord: “Don’t be afraid, Abram, I am your protector; your reward will be very great” (15:1). !is commitment

Haran

E

Paddan-Aram

Great Sea

Mari

Babylon

Nineveh

C an

aa n

DamascusSidon

Hazor

Shechem Bethel

Jerusalem

Hebron

Beersheba

Euphrates Ri ver

T igris River

Figure 3.1. Sarai and Abram’s Migration to Canaan

THE GOD WHO SAVES

spurs Abram to raise some rather obvious questions about the Lord’s plan. So a pattern emerges: the Lord makes an assertion, Abram raises an objection, the Lord con&rms his promise, and then the two reach a resolution. !us:3

3 Information summarized from Elisabeth Meier Tetlow, Women, Crime, and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society, Volume 1: The Ancient Near East (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, Continuum, 2005).

Laws Pertaining to Women in the Ancient Near East Discoveries and advances in translating texts from the ancient Near East provide us with new insights that scholars one hundred years ago would have died to know (well, I suppose they are dead now and know). Survivng records now give us insight into what had been a lost world. Perhaps the most important insight learned is that social and legal practices regard- ing women were not the same, but varied to extremes across the time and geographical expanse of the ancient Near East. For example, if a woman could veto living in any one time period and place, without doubt it would be the Middle (ca. 1360–1050 BCE) and Late Assyria kingdoms (ca. 934–612 BCE; as a reference point, the united state of Israel will begin in ca. 1040 BCE). Most Assyrian women were reduced to the status of property or sex objects in a male-dominated world. Women married in a transaction that looked like the sale of goods and were treated as such: a woman became their husband’s legal property, with her primary task being to have children.

In ancient Sumer (ca. 3000–1750 BCE) and Old Assyria I (ca. 2000–1800 BCE), women enjoyed a much higher standing. For example, in Sumer, cities were ruled by assemblies of men and women, women had legal rights and could go to court to defend their rights, and considerable evidence demonstrates that women worked outside the household as weav- ers, spinners, and potters—though men earned two to three times as much as women in the same or similar job (I suppose some practices started long ago and have yet to change). Though we do not know when Abram and Sarai migrated (historical estimates range from ca. 2100–1800 BCE, if the historicity of the narratives is accepted; a question beyond our work), Ur, the city that was their home before they left, was one of the principal city-states in Sumer. In Old Assyria, a strong middle class developed, in which a minority of women were literate professionals who ran international trading companies. Women could hold religious o$ces, be a party to a lawsuit (through a representative), and could be entitled to a share of her father’s property. In marriage, women had almost equal rights as men, though the need to bear children was still great. In fact, if a primary wife did not bear a child within the !rst two years of marriage, she would purchase a slave woman to be a surrogate and bear children for her husband. Written records about women, of course, come primarily from the urban upper classes, not from the lives of women out in the !elds and agrarian villages.3

A Plan Begins

• Assertion: “Your reward will be very great.” (15:1) • Objection: Without a child of our own, the head servant of my household will become

my heir. (15:2–3) • Con&rmation: “He brought Abram outside and said, ‘Look up at the sky and count the

stars if you think you can count them.’ He continued, ‘!is is how many children you will have.’” (15:5)

• Resolution: “And he believed the Lord; and the Lord reckoned it to him as righteousness.” (15:6 niv)

While this &rst part of the encounter focuses on descendants, the second half of the episode concerns the land.

• Assertion: “I am the Lord, who brought you out of Ur of the Chaldeans to give you this land as your possession.” (15:7)

• Objection: How can I know that I will possess it? (15:8) • A)rmation: !e Lord invites Abram into an ancient form of a solemn oath (another

type of covenant). Abram brings selected animals, cuts them in half, and arranges them in such a way that each party to the agreement could walk between the pieces; a somber way to swear that if I do not keep my word, may I become like these animals. Except, in this case, only God passes between the animals (15:17), because God alone is making a legally binding commitment to Abram:

!en the Lord said to Abram, “Have no doubt that your descendants will live as immigrants in a land that isn’t their own, where they will be oppressed slaves for four hundred years. But a"er I punish the nation they serve, they will leave it with great wealth. . . . !at day the Lord cut a covenant with Abram: “To your descendants I give this land, from Egypt’s river to the great Euphrates . . .” (15:13–14, 18)

!e legal agreement a)rms and resolves the matter for Abram. A"er his death, his descendants will one day take possession of the land (and be a mighty nation). It’s as if in a legal court, God raises his hand and swears, “So help me, God,” or “So help me, Me.”

Fourth Episode. A"er a bungled attempt to take matters into their own hands by using Hagar as a surrogate mother (16:1–3), causing unexpected problems (16:4–16), the fourth episode of promise-making comes from the Lord in another form of legal contract—a covenant—with both Abram and Sarai. !e Lord challenges Abram, “Walk with me and be trustworthy” (17:1b) and reassures him in response, “I will make a covenant between us and I will give you many, many descendants” (17:2). In humility, Abram bows to the ground as the Lord continues—this is my covenant with you:

THE GOD WHO SAVES

1. I will make you exceptionally fruitful, so that many nations and kings come from you. Your name will no longer be Abram, but Abraham.4

2. I will establish my covenant between me and you and all your o(spring to always be your God.

3. I will give you, and your o(spring a"er you, the land where you are now an alien— all the land of Canaan. (17:4–8)

"e Lord explains that from this point forward, every male in Abraham’s family will be circumcised as a memorable sign of the covenant (17:9–14). !en the Lord continues, turning his attention to Abraham’s wife:

God said to Abraham, “As for your wife Sarai, you will no longer call her Sarai. Her name will now be Sarah. I will bless her and even give you a son from her. I will bless her so that she will become nations, and kings of peoples will come from her.” (17:15–16)

By this time the enterprise has become more than a little crazy to Abraham, and he falls down, not in worship, but laughing: “Can a 100-year-old man become a father, or Sarah, a 90-year-old woman, have a child?” (17:17). !e whole thing is ridiculous, bizarre—crazier than . . . well, what could be crazier than two people from the local nursing home nursing a baby? So the newly named Abraham laughs, rolling around on the 'oor, and the Lord just steps over him to con&rm his word. God tells Abraham his wife will give birth to a son who will be named “laughter” (Isaac), and that God will continue the covenant with him and all who follow (17:19, 21).

Episode Five. !e &"h episode of promise occurs in conjunction with the story of the downfall of Sodom and Gommorah (Gen 18–19). What initially appears to be three men going to Sodom are actually two angels with the Lord. While Sarah and Abraham extend hospitality to them, during the meal one of the “men” declares, “I will return to you next year, and your wife Sarah shall have a son!” (18:10 njps). Sarah listens from around the corner and laughs to herself thinking, “Now that I am withered, am I to have enjoyment—with my husband so old?” (18:12 njps). Her inner dialogue identi&es the absurdity of the promise: she is too old, beyond meno- pause—and—Abraham is too old (and without medicine for getting up to the task). Nothing is happening between this couple—nothing. If you were Sarah, you would laugh too.

!e “man” asks Abraham why Sarah is laughing—a charge she denies—and then asks the question that stands at the center for all these stories and for God’s plan:

“Is anything too di)cult for the Lord?” (18:14a ceb) or, “Is anything too wonderful for the Lord?” (18:14a njps)

4 The name changes from Abram to Abraham (“ancestor of a multitude”) and Sarai to Sarah (“princess”), denoting the greater roles this couple will play in the formation of the nation.

A Plan Begins

Our heroes understandably have trouble believing that this God, who called them away from home so many years ago, is capable of making good on his promises. So they face a question similar to the one Eve and Adam faced: Will they trust the God who called them, or, lacking trust, take matters into their own hands?

And then, just when the idea could not be more absurd, the Lord takes note of Sarah and she becomes pregnant (21:1–12). Little wonder that the child is named “Isaac,” meaning “laughter” or “he laughs” or perhaps even “laughing boy,” because everyone in this story is laughing—not just smiling or chuckling, but fall down, roll around, can’t-catch-your-breath laughing—more than you can ever remember. Who would have thought it possible? And that is the point (18:14a; 21:7). No one, then or now, would ever imagine such a thing; only God could and only God did.

Episode Six. !e sixth and &nal episode of promise to Abraham is the only event that could possibly be crazier than the birth of “Laughter” and the only story of the six that has its own name: the Akedah (“the Binding,” taken from the Hebrew verb aqd or akd — “to bind” Isaac). !e Lord tells Abraham to take Isaac and sacri&ce him back to God, which Abraham immediately sets out to do (22:1–19). Stunning. What kind of God is this—a God who plays fast and loose with ethics, as long as it suits him? What kind of God asks a father to kill his son? And what kind of father is ready to kill his son because “God told me to”? (Most, if not all, of them are locked safely away in their mental institutions.) What kind of man is Abraham—willing to sell out (or kill) anyone in the family, as long as he is safe? Every indicator in the narrative suggests—con&rms—Abraham is going to go through with it. He is going to slit his son’s throat on a sacri&cial altar. “Stop!” At the last second, God stops the absurdity. Isaac walks (runs?) away, while the Lord makes his &nal commitment to Abraham:

I give my word as the Lord that because you did this and didn’t hold back your son, your only son, I will bless you richly and I will give you countless descendants, as many as the stars in the sky and as the grains of sand on the seashore. !ey will conquer their enemies’ cities. All the nations of the earth will be blessed because of your descendants, because you obeyed me. (22:16–18)

!e Lord will work through this one son to do everything he has promised Sarah and Abraham, which leads to the second stage of the promises.

Stage Two: Isaac and Rebekah By necessity, the narrative escorts old players o( the stage while introducing new faces. Sarah and Abraham die (23:1–20; 25:1–11), &nding rest in the only piece of land that now belongs to the family—a tomb in the &eld of Ephron in Machpelah. Oddly, however, despite all the build-up leading to his birth, once Isaac is on stage, he plays only a brief supporting role to either his father or his twin sons.

Most importantly, Isaac and his wife Rebekah receive the same promises that God had made to Abraham and Sarah (26:2–5):

THE GOD WHO SAVES

• I will make your o(spring numerous as the stars of heaven. • I will give your descendants all these lands. • I will be with you (implied: I will be your God). • I will bless the world through your o(spring.

!e promises do not die with Abraham and Sarah; instead, the Lord’s commitment and prom- ises to the family continue to the next generation, and will continue to do so until God lives up to his word.

As for Isaac, his story turns to the question of which of his and Rebekah’s twin sons will be the carrier of God’s promises: Esau (the &rstborn) or Jacob. And, in another move that no one could have predicted, the winner is a man who is a self-centered liar, cheat, and &rst-class manipulator: Jacob.

Stage Three: Jacob—Getting the Promises !ough he is the youngest, Jacob is twice blessed as the &rstborn by his father, Isaac (a"er taking advantage of his older brother to get his birthright, 25:27–34). In the &rst scene, Jacob dupes his father, with an assist from his mother (who loves him most). Isaac is suspicious, but Jacob, the son standing before him, assures his blind father that he is his &rstborn, Esau (who is Isaac’s favorite; this family, with its favoritism and win-at-all-costs attitude could have made a therapist rich). Consequently, Isaac inadvertently grants Jacob the blessing of the &rstborn:

May God give you showers from the sky, olive oil from the earth, plenty of grain and new wine. May the nations serve you, may peoples bow down to you. Be the most powerful man among your brothers, and may your mother’s sons bow down to you. !ose who curse you will be cursed, and those who bless you will be blessed. (27:28–29, emphasis mine)

In the second scene, Isaac is aware of his son’s identity and how Jacob has mistreated him and his brother. Nonetheless, he has given his word, and in his world, your word is irrevocable. !e destiny of the family with its God is most important. So before sending Jacob away to get a wife from the family in Haran (and for Jacob to save his life from Esau’s plan to kill him), Isaac speaks to Jacob again:

God Almighty will bless you, make you fertile, and give you many descendants so that you will become a large group of peoples. He will give you and your descendants

A Plan Begins

Abraham’s blessing so that you will own the land in which you are now immigrants, the land God gave to Abraham. (28:3–4).

Inexplicably, God also accepts Jacob—the liar, cheat, and swindler—as the man who will lead this family into the next crucial phase of its development. Headed back to his mother’s family in Paddan Aram, and on the run from his brother, Jacob stops for the night at Bethel, unaware that he has stumbled onto a gateway into the heavens—a genuine portal (what the people were trying to build at Babel, 11:1–9). In a dream, Jacob sees angels coming and going from heaven and the Lord con&rms what Isaac has told Jacob:

Suddenly the Lord was standing on it and saying, “I am the Lord, the God of your father Abraham and the God of Isaac. I will give you and your descendants the land on which you are lying. Your descendants will become like the dust of the earth; you will spread out to the west, east, north, and south. Every family of earth will be blessed because of you and your descendants. I am with you now, I will protect you everywhere you go, and I will bring you back to this land. I will not leave you until I have done everything that I have promised you.” (28:13–15)

Together, the Lord and Isaac have assured Jacob of the same four fundamental commitments the Lord has made to the family:

• I will give you many o(spring (“like the dust of the earth”). • I will give you the land (you will spread out in every direction). • I will be your God (“I will not leave you until I have done everything I have promised”). • I will bless the world through you (“Every family of earth will be blessed because of you

and your descendants”).

We have good reason to wonder how the Lord will bless other families through Jacob when he has been anything but a blessing to his own family. And while anyone else would be honored to accept the Lord’s gi"s and commitments, especially someone with Jacob’s track record, Jacob sees another opportunity to get what he wants and stamps a giant “if ” over everything God has said. If, and only if, the Lord will do what he promises and brings Jacob back home to his father’s house safely, then, and only then, will Jacob let the Lord be his God. But the Lord has to pay up &rst (28:20–22).

Stage Four: Jacob—Life away from Home For the twenty years or so that he is away from home, Jacob lives with his uncle Laban (his mother Rebekah’s brother) in Haran, on the Euphrates River (see Figure 3.2). During this time, two notable developments occur in Jacob’s life and in God’s promises to the family. First, Jacob comes to have a large family before leaving Laban: eleven sons, along with one named daughter (Dinah), among

THE GOD WHO SAVES

many other daughters—unnamed and unmentioned in a man’s world.5 How Jacob comes to have all these children is the &rst special interest of the writer (29:1–30:24). !e question, “Where do babies come from?” is trumped by a di(erent question: How does Jacob come to have two wives and their two maid servants doing all they can to give Jacob sons?

First, our deceptive trickster, Jacob, is himself deceived and tricked by Laban, his new father-in-law. A"er working seven years to pay the bride’s price for the woman who stole his heart (Rachel), on Jacob’s wedding night Laban slips his oldest daughter Leah between the sheets. !e next

morning, Jacob wakes up and, with a magni&cent understatement, the writer speaks from Jacob’s perspective and says, “"ere she was—Leah!” (29:25a) How did he not know? How could he not know? Jacob protests, but it is too late. Laban provides an excuse, whether true or not, and o(ers Jacob a deal: Finish the bridal week for Leah, then marry Rachel and work seven more years to pay the debt for her (29:27). Bested by Laban, Jacob takes the deal—in love with Rachel, but stuck with Leah.

What happens next is better—or perhaps worse—than any reality television series. !e two sisters begin a baby-bearing contest for Jacob’s a(ection. Leah, the unloved wife, only wants her husbands’ love, as evidenced by the names she gives her &rst four sons:

• Reuben—“!e Lord saw my harsh treatment, and now my husband will love me.” (29:32) • Simeon—“!e Lord heard that I was unloved, so he gave me this son too.” (29:33) • Levi—“Now this time my husband will embrace me, since I have given birth to three sons

for him.” (29:34) • Judah—“!is time I will praise the Lord” (29:35)

Meanwhile, Rachel becomes alarmed by how many sons Leah is producing and how far behind she is falling, unable to get pregnant. So, feeling desperate, Rachel takes her servant Bilhah and

5 During his time with Laban, Jacob has eleven sons. Benjamin ( the twelfth son) is born after he leaves Laban and is back in the land promised to his family (Gen 35:16–20). Much later, Jacob also adopts Joseph’s two sons, Ephraim (the thirteenth son) and Manasseh (the fourteenth son, Gen 48:5). So, in time, Jacob comes to have a total of fourteen sons.



Beersheba Hebron

Sidon

Hazor

Shechem Bethel

Jerusalem

Damascus

Haran

Mari Euphrates River

E

Paddan-Aram

Ca na

Great Sea

Figure 3.2. Jacob’s Travel to Paddan-Aram and Back

A Plan Begins

puts her in Jacob’s bed, in order to get surrogate children through her (recall Sarah and Hagar?). So Rachel begins to give sons to Jacob through Bilhah:

• Dan—“God has judged in my favor, heard my voice, and given me a son.” (30:6) • Naphtali—“I competed &ercely with my sister, and now I’ve won.” (30:8)

When Leah realizes she is no longer getting pregnant, she copies her sister and puts her maid Zilpah in bed with Jacob (Jacob, of course, makes no objection to all these arrangements). So, Zilpah begins to produce sons:

• Gad—“What good luck!” (30:11) • Asher—“I’m happy now because women call me happy.” (30:13)

!en, with a night of sex purchased by an aphrodisiac (mandrakes), Rachel allows Leah to sleep with Jacob (we take note of who is in charge of where and with whom Jacob sleeps). Leah bears a &"h and later a sixth son, at this point &nally accepting that Jacob will never love her.

• Issachar—“God gave me what I paid for, what I deserved for giving my servant to my husband.” (30:18)

• Zebulun—“God has given me a wonderful gi". Now my husband will honor me since I’ve borne him six sons.” (30:20)

God &nally enables Rachel to get pregnant, presenting Jacob with his eleventh son, but her &rst. She gives the child a name that makes it clear she is not satis&ed with one son. In essence Joseph’s name means something like, “Give me another.”

• Joseph—“May the Lord give me another son.” (30:24)

So, through a totally dysfunctional marriage to two sisters (his cousins, no less), Jacob becomes the ancestor who starts the family down the road to becoming a great people.

!e second notable development in Jacob’s life is the enormous wealth he acquires, all at the expense of his father-in-law, Laban. Having paid for both wives, Jacob is eager to go back home to his own family, but Laban doesn’t want him to leave. Aware of the Lord’s blessing through Jacob, Laban strikes another deal with Jacob, and cheats Jacob at the outset (30:27–36)—a trick that Jacob trumps with his own (30:37–42). And however it worked—through selective breeding, black magic, or the Lord’s blessing—it worked; Jacob “became very, very rich: he owned large 'ocks, female and male servants, camels, and donkeys” (30:43).

Jacob has become a success that Laban’s sons cannot overlook; he is taking everything that would otherwise become their inheritance (31:1). And, anything but a fool, Jacob is aware that the time has come to leave Laban; but he also knows that Laban will never let him go with all his wealth, wives, and grandchildren. So our trickster executes one more plan: get at least a three-day head start and hope his father-in-law doesn’t catch-up.

THE GOD WHO SAVES

Stage Five: Jacob—Coming Home Again So far, Jacob’s strategy for dealing with his problems has been to run. But as Jacob leaves for home, he must face the people and the con'icts from which he ran away. One simple way to capture these con'icts and their resolutions is by constructing another simple chart. !e &rst column identi&es the people with whom Jacob has a con'ict, the second describes the con'ict, and the third explains how the con'ict is resolved:

Jacob’s Return Home

Jacob’s Con!icts The Con!ict The Resolution

1. Laban

2. Esau

3. God

Table 3.1. Jacob’s Return Home

1. Laban. Jacob ran from Laban, but a"er ten days, Laban caught up to him. Jacob’s trouble with Laban has to do with several issues: his wealth, Laban’s daughters, the grandchildren, and—to Jacob’s surprise—small family gods that Rachel stole (but cra"ily hid, 31:32–35). A"er Laban is

The night before Jacob faces his brother—and before he comes back to the homeland prom- ised to his father and grandfather (and to him)—Jacob is alone when a man attacks him and

“wrestled with him until dawn broke” (Gen 32:24). In one of the most mysterious texts in the Old Testament, Jacob wrestles with this “man” all night long, and whoever this “man” is—an angel, God, Esau, just a man—though he in#icts a serious injury, he is unable to defeat Jacob. The episode is the pinnacle or epitome of Jacob’s life-story: all his life he has been a man who struggles with everyone (Esau, Isaac, God, Laban, Laban’s sons). And no matter what it may cost him or how long it may take, Jacob never gives up until he gets what he wants. Based on the name Jacob gives the place, it is clear he believes that his struggle has been with God (Peniel, face of God). He has seen the face of God and lived (32:30).

Even with this terrifying night and Esau’s forgiveness the next day, it is di$cult to tell if Jacob is a changed man. Our decision on this matter depends on how we read Jacob’s prayer from the day before (32:9–12; is Jacob still trying to manipulate God to get what he wants or is he sincere?) and how we read Jacob’s words and actions to Esau (33:12–17; is he still a liar?). Readers disagree. It would be great to say that Jacob is a changed man when he comes home, but is he really?

A Plan Begins

unable to &nd his gods, he and Jacob resolve their di(erences through a covenant. !e covenant is a bi-parti- san, non-aggression treaty that sets a boundary between the two men and sets conditions on Jacob’s treatment of his wives, Laban’s daughters. Laban gives the speech commonly recited by fathers who are about to see their daughter marry a young fellow: you better treat her well or else (31:43–54).

2. Esau. Jacob also ran from his brother, who was ready to kill Jacob some twenty years ago (27:41). As Jacob travels home, he sends messengers ahead to Esau, and the messengers return with a report—there are four hundred men coming with Esau to meet you (32:3–6). Jacob is terri&ed, deducing the only meaning he or we can imagine: Esau is coming with a small army to kill him (32:7). So the deceptive trickster sets to work again, dividing the women and children, setting them in order of importance, and sending one gi" a"er another to Esau (32:8–21; 33:1–2). !e next day, a"er a strange night of wrestling (32:22–32), Jacob faces his brother and walks ahead of the women and children. Jacob bows to the ground when Esau comes running toward Jacob (33:3). And a"er a dramatic pause, Esau “threw his arms around his neck, kissed him, and they wept” (33:4). Esau forgives his brother. !e brothers talk, with Jacob still not entirely truthful (33:13–14, 17). Nonetheless, another con'ict is resolved in Jacob’s life, leaving the most important struggle for last.

3. God. When Jacob was on the run all those years ago, he had a remarkable vision and an even more remarkable conversation with God (28:12–22). True to his character, Jacob was not willing to buy into the Lord’s plan so quickly, so he cut a deal with God. He promised that if God would do everything he promised—and blessed his journey and brought him home safely—then Jacob would let the Lord be his God.

!e Lord has lived up to the agreement, a point Jacob has noticed (31:5, 42). But on his &rst arrival in the land, Jacob’s response to his promise is ambiguous and depends on the sincerity we grant his prayer before he meets Esau (32:9–12), what we make of the strange night of wrestling (32:22–32), and his initial actions a"er his return (33:18–20). Perhaps it is all this ambiguity that causes God to call Jacob’s blu( and summon him back to Bethel (35:1); and, to his credit, Jacob recognizes what God intends for him to do. Jacob calls for the family to hand over all the other gods they are carrying and Jacob hides them under an oak tree, rather than burning them (35:2–4; perhaps there was a drought and a burn-ban in e(ect? Or maybe you can never be sure if you might need those gods again?). !en, he goes back to Bethel to resume a conversation and a commitment he cut short years ago (35:5–15). But this time, there are no deals to be made; only worship follows God’s promises.

Figure 3.3. “!e Journey.” Gouache on paper by Jack Maxwell. Jacob as he walks away, limping for the rest of his life.

THE GOD WHO SAVES

Stage Six: Joseph—The Move to Egypt With Jacob’s homecoming, the story takes a decisive turn—in direction and in type. In direction, the story turns toward Egypt and to how the family comes to live in Egypt. In type, the story takes on a di(erent quality, shi"ing away from stacking short stories about the ancestors, one upon another, to a more com- plex literary style. !e narrative becomes more interconnected with foreshadowing (e.g., the dreams), character development (e.g., watch for Judah and Joseph), and consistent motifs (e.g., watch for Joseph losing and gaining articles of clothing). Finally, the story—in literary terms, much more of a novella—may be mapped through the motif of the houses in which Joseph enters, why he rises to prominence, and the cause for his collapse into another house.

House One. Joseph begins, obviously, in his father Jacob’s (Israel’s) house as the eleventh son. And yet Joseph rises in Jacob’s house because he is the &rstborn of Jacob’s favorite wife (recently deceased, 35:16–21). Jacob’s family dysfunction, however, refuses to die; he still plays favorites despite the troubles his actions bring,

especially to his favored choices. For his part, Joseph demonstrates all the qualities of a spoiled brat. True or false, he brings bad reports about his brothers. He is delighted to tell them about dreams that have obvious meanings of his future grandeur and their bowing to him, especially when he knows that his dreams will infuriate them. A"er he does this for the second time, even his father scolds him, though he also takes careful note of what Joseph says (37:10). Joseph’s only mistake was thinking his dad’s protection would keep him safe when he was far away and alone with his brothers. !is miscalculation almost cost Joseph his life; instead, he loses his &rst cloak and his standing in House One.

House Two. Joseph soon &nds himself in Egypt as a servant to Potiphar, a high o)cial in Pharaoh’s government (39:1). Once again, Joseph rises to a position of prominence in the house, though for di(erent reasons than favoritism. Potiphar recognizes the Lord’s blessing on his house, on account of Joseph (39:2–3, 5). His fall from Potiphar’s house also comes for di(erent reasons: Joseph’s integrity and commitment to his God (and Potiphar) keep him from going to bed with his master’s wife (39:9). But again, he loses his cloak and his house on the basis of trumped up charges of attempted rape (39:11–20). We see little to nothing about Joseph and the Lord in these chapters. If Joseph held faith, he must have wondered if God was really with him or not? Or if the dreams (taken seriously in his culture) God gave him were just a bad joke.

House ,ree. Joseph hits rock bottom in “!e Big House”—a jail for political prisoners (39:21). And yet, once again Joseph rises to prominence—not necessarily for his character, but because the Lord was with him and blessed whatever he did (39:21–23). At &rst, it appears that

Figure 3.4. “Jacob’s Dream.” Bronze sculpture by Jack Maxwell on the campus of Abilene Christian University

A Plan Begins

Joseph’s stay in jail will be short, until he is used and then conveniently forgotten by Pharaoh’s chief cupbearer (40:1–23). Not until a national crisis erupts two years later and Pharaoh is disturbed by his dreams does the cupbearer confess his failure and call for Joseph (41:1–13). Joseph emerges from jail with another new set of clothes (41:14–15) and comes into Pharaoh’s house—and has a meteoric rise to power (41:16–49).

House Four. Only thirty years old when he enters Pharaoh’s service (41:46), Joseph has spent some thirteen years in Egypt (39:2). Before he turns 37, we gain an insight into his character through the birth and naming of his two sons: Manasseh, because “God has helped me forget all of my troubles and everyone in my father’s household” (41:51), and Ephraim, “God has given me children in the land where I’ve been treated harshly” (41:52). Only now, &nally, he has been able to forget his family back in Canaan and come to terms with all that has happened in his life. Now the story has set Joseph and the reader up for his brother’s sudden reappearance in his life, bowing before Joseph and asking for life—for food (42:1–9). Joseph’s response to his brothers on this occasion and on their second trip is cause for discussion: Why does he treat his brothers so roughly? Does he have some plan in mind or is he simply getting revenge for the way they

House Three

Rise:

Fall:

House Four

Rise:

Fall:

House Two

Rise:

Fall:

House One

Rise:

Fall:

Table 3.2. Joseph’s Travels

THE GOD WHO SAVES

treated him? Or if he has a plan, what is it? A"er all, if all he wants is to bring his father and brother Benjamin to Egypt, Joseph could do that with a snap of his powerful &ngers, so why all the posturing (42:1–28; 43:1–34)?

Whether or not Joseph has a plan, the climactic scenes in the drama demonstrate signi&cant personal growth by two of Israel’s most important ancestors: Joseph (whose family will become the largest group/tribe in the future nation of northern Israel) and Judah (whose family will become the future nation of southern Judah). At the beginning of Joseph’s story, it was Judah who proposed making some pro&t o( Joseph by selling him (37:26–28). But now, it is Judah who puts himself and his family on the line to take Benjamin back to Egypt, as Joseph demanded (43:1–10). And when Joseph sets the brothers up so that they have the opportunity to be rid of Benjamin, their dad’s next favorite son, rather than walking away, Judah steps up and o(ers his life in exchange for Benjamin (44:18–34). Whatever Joseph may have planned, the writer shows us Judah’s tremendous growth into a family leader.

But Judah is not the only person who demonstrates growth in this story; Joseph, the brat who loved to rub his brother’s faces into his favored position, now sees himself in a new light. He now understands that his life is not all about himself, but a part of God’s plan to save the family and the surrounding countries. Now Joseph can say to his brothers:

. . . don’t be upset and don’t be angry with yourselves that you sold me here. Actually, God sent me before you to save lives. . . . You didn’t send me here; it was God who made me a father to Pharaoh, master of his entire household, and ruler of the whole land of Egypt. (45:5, 8)

He has also grown, even if old family dysfunctions are still alive and well (see 45:22, 24). Return to House One. Finally, as Joseph re-enters his father’s house, there are two other ways

in which the Joseph novella and the end of Genesis di(er from the ancestor stories in Genesis 12–36: (1) the emphasis on promises virtually disappears, along with (2) God. I emphasize vir- tually, because God and the promises are present in the Joseph novella, just in a di(erent fashion than before.

Conclusion God is present, although not appearing as a human or speaking in so many visions as in Genesis 12–36. Instead, we learn that God is working behind the scenes in such ways that the reader (and Joseph) must discern the Lord’s work. !us, the writer recognizes that God is working in Joseph’s life when he is with Potiphar (39:2–3, 5), during his time in jail (38:21–23), and implicitly in Joseph’s work with Pharaoh. And Joseph is able to see God’s work without a vision or direct revelation from the Lord, though only in retrospect (45:5–8; 50:19–21, 24–25). God is at work in the world, but perhaps more like we experience God’s involvement—with a need to discern God’s hand in events, o"en times well a"er the event itself is past.

A Plan Begins

!e promises are also still alive and well, though we must pay closer attention to see them. For example, before Jacob leaves Canaan—the land of promise—to go to Egypt, God appears to him in a vision and reassures him that the land promise still stands, even if he leaves the land:

God said to Israel in a vision at night, “Jacob! Jacob!” and he said, “I’m here.” He said, “I am El, your father’s God. Don’t be afraid to go down to Egypt because I will make a great nation of you there. I will go down to Egypt with you, and I promise to bring you out again. Joseph will close your eyes when you die.” (46:2–4)

So, while the family may come to live in the land of Goshen, Jacob insists that the family bury him back in Canaan (47:29–31), which they do (49:29–50:14). What’s more, Joseph also insists that his body (bones) be taken back to Canaan (50:24–25). Why? Because no matter where you may move, people want to be buried back home. Egypt is not home, no matter how long they may live there; the land God promised is their real home.

Along with the promise of land, the promises of a mighty nation with numerous descen- dants still holds. In fact, of all the promises, this one appears to be gaining the most traction at the end of Genesis. In total, the members of Israel’s house who made the trip to Egypt was seventy—not counting daughters-in-law (46:26–27). Goshen, however, was like a greenhouse for reproducing. Notice the writer’s language: “!us Israel settled in the land of Egypt, in the region of Goshen; and they gained possessions in it, and were fruitful and multiplied exceedingly” (47:27 nrsv, emphasis mine). !e family is hardly a great nation yet, but they seem to be doing all they can to increase in size.

!e &nal two promises are more obscure and debatable. To what extent is God blessing the world through Israel’s family? Arguments can be made in favor of Joseph (feeding all who came), but also against him. He takes everything from those who are starving, even their land, into the possession of Pharaoh and the government (47:13–26). Jacob may formally bless Pharaoh or not (47:7–10). But as o"en as the family blesses those around them, they also seem to bring trouble. Regardless, God’s intended blessing is not yet complete at the end of Genesis.

To what extent the Lord is the God of Israel may also be argued. Joseph acknowledges that dream interpretations belong to God or perhaps the gods (40:8; 41:16, 25, 28, 32), and he is also unclear about which god is his master; he marries the daughter of an Egyptian priest (41:50). So we need to exercise caution with all the God talk; everyone in Egypt and Israel believes in the gods, but which god/God they hold to be their god/God is not so clear.

So the &rst book of the Old Testament comes to a conclusion—with a beautiful but broken creation, a loving and determined Creator, the choice of one wildly dysfunctional family, and promises to reclaim creation and the people the Lord loves—all people. But as we pause for a station break before we turn the page to the next book, it is fair to say, we’ve not seen anything yet!

THE GOD WHO SAVES

To Discuss

1. Why do you think the promises are so frequently repeated to Abraham and Sarah in the text? What challenges did they face in believing the promises?

2. Compile a list of the occasions when Abraham and Sarah most trusted the Lord, and a separate list of the occasions when they lacked trust. What behavior followed when they trusted? What behavior followed when they failed to trust? When is their trust or doubt ambiguous? What consequences follow when they either trust or doubt?

3. Genesis 22, the Akedah (binding of Isaac), stirs the imagination in many ways. Consider the following questions: Do you think God is serious in his request for Abraham to sac- ri&ce Isaac? Do you think Abraham is serious in his resolve to follow through with the sacri&ce? How do you think the event changes Isaac’s relationship to his father? With God? What other questions come to your mind?

4. Considering all the di)culties posed by Abram and Sarai’s family over the years, why do you think the Lord selected their family? Later texts claim that their family was not espe- cially large (Deut 7:7–8), good (Deut 9:4–5), or powerful (Deut 8:12–14). So why do you think God chose them?

5. Why do you think God accepts Jacob’s bargain and puts up with the way he treats the people in his life? What does this teach you about God? What questions about God does this raise for you?

6. Genesis 32:22–32, Jacob’s nighttime wrestling also stirs the imagination. Who do you think Jacob is wrestling? What does Jacob think? Why are they wrestling? How does this episode epitomize Jacob’s life? What other questions does the story raise for you?

7. What do you think about Joseph? Was he really a brat when he was young? What kind of relationship does Joseph have with the Lord? (You must be able to back up your ideas with solid evidence from the text.) In what ways does Joseph grow?

A Plan Begins

To Know

1. !e signi&cance of the following in this chapter:

2. !e four fundamental promises the Lord made to Abraham and Sarah and their family. 3. !e most common threats to the promises God makes to the family(s). 4. !e status of each promise at the end of the Book of Genesis. 5. How Jacob gets the birthright from his brother, Esau. How he gets the blessing from

his father. 6. What happens to Jacob at Bethel when he is running away from home? What two signi&-

cant things happen in his life while he is away from home? How? 7. Be able to complete the chart on page 61 and identify the houses through which

Joseph moves. 8. Locate the following on a map (see Figures 3.1 and 3.2): Ur, Paddan-Aram, Haran,

Euphrates River, Tigris River, Canaan, Great Sea, Egypt, and Bethel.

Abimelech Abraham Benjamin Bethel Bilhah Dinah Ephraim Esau Goshen Hagar Isaac

Ishmael Jacob Joseph Judah Laban Leah Lot Manasseh Pharaoh’s dreams (and their meaning) Potipher

Rachel Rebekah Reuben Sarah Sign of the Covenant (Gen 17) Sodom !e Baker !e Cupbearer !e silver cup Zilpah

THE GOD WHO SAVES

To Dig Deeper: Research Topics

1. Genesis 12–39 frequently deals with the problem of infertility and the personal and socie- tal pressure on women to bear children, especially sons. Consider the same issues from a modern perspective. What pressures exist? Where do these pressures come from?

2. Read, compare, and contrast two stories from the ancient Near East to the story of Joseph: “Aqhat” (see Coogan, 52–56) and “!e Tale of Two Brothers” (see Coogan, 58–63). What insights does this comparative literature provide? What questions does the literature raise?

3. Identify the recurring family dysfunctions about the ancestors in the stories. Use insights from modern family studies to analyze what is happening in the family and why.

4. Consider further the cause for the Lord’s alarm over Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen 19). Why is Lot so concerned that the visitors not spend the night in the town center? What threats do the men of the town make? Consider Lot’s actions carefully; analyze his behav- ior. Does this seem fair? Now read Ezekiel 16:49. How does this text reshape your under- standing of the story in Genesis?

5. !e binding of Isaac (Gen 22, !e Akedah) raises numerous questions about God. Do you think God was serious in his request? Do you think Abraham believed God intended for him to carry out this command? Do you think it was ethical for God to ask Abraham to sacri&ce his son? Read Leviticus 20:1–4. What questions does the Leviticus text raise?

6. Is God fair to Cain? Why or why not? (Your instructor will determine to what degree you may appeal to texts beyond Genesis 4, or if you must decide only on the basis of what you have read to this point.) How does God respond to Cain’s actions (i.e., what are God’s &rst words)? Why?

A Plan Begins

For Further Reading

Coogan, Michael D. A Reader of Ancient Near Eastern Texts: Sources for the Study of the Old Testament. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Dalley, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Matthews, Victor Harold, and Don C. Benjamin. Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East. Rev. and exp. 2d ed. New York: Paulist Press, 1997.

Pritchard, James, ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3d ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969.

4 Leaving Egypt Trusting the God Who Saved You

Beautifully you appear from the horizon of heaven, O living Aten who initiates life. For you are risen from the eastern horizon and have &lled every land with your beauty. For you are fair, great, dazzling, and high over every land, and your rays enclose the lands to the limit of all you have made. For you are Re [the sun god], having reached their limit and subdued them for your beloved son [the Pharaoh]; for although you are far away, your rays are upon the earth and you are perceived. —opening lines from “Great Hymn to the Aten”1

elcome to Egypt. Local time is somewhere around three thou- sand or more years ago, during an in-between time. Not yet this, but soon no longer that, either. !e Lord had promised Abraham that his descendants would take possession of the land of Canaan, but the Lord also warned Abraham that before this settlement took place, his heirs

1 William Murnane, trans., “Great Hymn to the Aten,” in A Reader of Ancient Near Eastern Texts: Sources for the Study of the Old Testament (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 125.

Reading Assignments Exodus 1–4 Exodus 5–12 Exodus 13–19, Psalm 105

Key Terms Israelites: members of the family or nation of Israel (descended from Jacob/Israel) Hebrews: members of the nation of Israel whose native language is Hebrew Midwives: women trained to deliver babies Pogrom: an organized massacre of helpless people (often Israelites or Jews)

THE GOD WHO SAVES

would be victimized as slaves in a foreign land (Gen 15:13). Only a"er a long passage of time would God make good on the land promise; we have come just in time to see God at work again.

Quite a long passage of time occurs between the &nal chapter of Genesis and the &rst chapter of Exodus. At the end of Genesis, the family, now collectively known as “Israel” or “Israelites,” had moved to Egypt and was beginning to grow (47:27). At the beginning of Exodus, Israel is still in Egypt—experiencing astronomical growth (Exod. 1:7). What God had promised Abraham and Sarah is happening. !e small family is on its way to becoming a mighty nation—with one signi&cant problem: Israel is in Egypt, not the land of promise. And growing too large in the wrong place spells trouble.

While Israel has been growing, a new king has risen in Egypt (1:8), probably meaning the rise of a new dynasty. And the pharaoh of this new dynasty knows nothing about how Joseph saved Egypt. Instead, this pharaoh sees the growing presence of Israel in Egypt as a potential threat to the throne and native rule (1:10). So he initiates a planned series of attempts to bring, and keep, Israel under control.

First Plan: Pharaoh begins a secretive operation to work the Israelites so hard that they would stop multiplying. We might call it the “Honey, I’m too tired tonight” strategy (1:11); and as reasonable as it seems, it back&res. As the writer puts it, “the more they were oppressed, the more they grew and spread” (1:12). In this case, harder work = more sex. And when Pharaoh realizes that his &rst strategy is not working, he imposes ruthless brutality on the workers and turns to another plan (1:12–14).

Second Plan: Pharaoh summons the midwives to the Hebrew (Israelite) women and tells them to kill every male baby before he reaches his mother’s arms (1:15–16). For the plan to work, the midwives must fear Pharaoh, the plan has to be kept top secret, and the midwives must invent causes for why the baby boy dies at birth. But this strategy also fails: the midwives fear the Lord more than they fear Pharaoh (1:17) and they invent a story when Pharaoh calls them to account for their failure. Finally, Pharaoh is done with secretive plans and turns to a Final Solution.

,ird Plan: Pharaoh orders all of his people to kill every Israelite baby boy they discover, throwing the infant into the Nile. Pharaoh’s pogrom is all too familiar to us in a post-Holocaust world. !ank God, it is women who once again spoil his plans.

So, within the &rst paragraphs of the Book of Exodus, we &nd the people God has chosen— and through whom God plans to bless the rest of the world—in desperate need of God’s saving power, or they will die.

!e &rst half of Exodus (1–18), then, is about the rescue of God’s chosen people from slavery in Egypt and moving them a safe distance from Egypt, where they will make their own com- mitment to be God’s people. It is not possible for us to cover every chapter and verse in the text; instead, depending on the student to read assigned material, we will focus on key issues or themes: I. Preparing a Leader: Moses (Exod 2) II. Calling a Leader into Service (Exod 3–4) III. Initial Failure (Exod 5–6) IV. !e Purpose of the Ten Plagues

Leaving Egypt

V. !e Fight with Pharaoh (Exod 7–13) VI. Learning to Trust the Lord (Exod 14–18)

1. Preparing a Leader: Moses (Exodus 2) Moses comes on stage in no special way, but once on stage he becomes the co-star (along with God) of the Pentateuch. And yet our reading should exercise caution not to read what we have seen from Hollywood or Disney into the text. Moses is not “!e Prince of Egypt,” nor is he locked in a battle with an older brother to determine who will become the next pharaoh. He is one of an unknown number of Israelite baby boys who slips through Pharaoh’s net, saved by wise women: (1) his mother literally obeys Pharaoh’s directive and puts Moses in the river, but 'oating in a basket near where one of Pharaoh’s daughters bathes; (2) Pharaoh’s daughter discovers Moses and appears to understand the situation, especially when Moses’ sister steps forward and o(ers to &nd a woman who would be glad take the baby home and nurse him. It is di)cult to believe that Pharaoh’s daughter doesn’t know what Moses’ mother and sister are up to. So, once again, for all his fanatical rules—weak, powerless women in his kingdom upset Pharaoh’s plans.

So Moses survives Pharaoh’s pogrom and grows up at home, at least past the age of weaning (2:10; 4–5 years or longer). When he does &nally come to the royal house, the writer exhibits no interest in what privileges, if any, come to Moses. Instead, the object of concern is Moses’ heart— as it is revealed by his actions. !ree stories combine to tell us what we most need to know about Israel’s future leader:

• Story One. Moses steps in to stop an Egyptian from beating a Hebrew and secretly kills the Egyptian (2:12).

• Story Two. Moses attempts to break up a &ght between two Hebrews by appealing to the man in the wrong (2:13). In so doing, he discovers the word is out about his murder of the Egyptian and that his e(orts to help his people are not appreciated (foreshadowing the rocky relationship he will have with the Israelites all his life, 2:14).

• Story !ree. Even on the run in Midian (see Figure 4.1), Moses steps in to defend women from mistreatment by male herdsmen (2:16– 17), and in the process gains a wife (2:18–22).

So, while we might infer many bene&ts to Moses because of his adoption and want to know about his life so near the seat of Egyptian power, for the writer, only one thing really matters: Moses has a heart of compassion for people who are oppressed and is willing to risk taking action to

Great Sea

Ezion-Geber E

Petra

Beersheba

Lachish

Red Sea

M

Sinai

Hormah

Elath

Kadesh-Barnea

Jericho

Hebron

Bozrah

Migdol

Heshbon Jerusalem

Figure 4.1. !e Land of Midian

THE GOD WHO SAVES

help the mistreated. !e only question that remains is whether the God who made a covenant with Abraham and Sarah is like Moses. And is he going to do something to help his people and keep his promises. !e answer is an unequivocal yes (2:23–25).

II. Calling a Leader to Service (Exodus 3–4) We know from the movies that Moses will become the great leader of the Israelites; though, at the moment, he is far away from Egypt with no intention of ever going back. Just how uninter- ested he is in returning and how determined he is to live a settled life a safe distance from Egypt becomes clear with a close reading of Exodus 3–4. Before the Lord can get the Israelites out of Egypt, he must &rst get Moses back in Egypt.

!e &rst task is to get Moses’ attention so that a conversation and commission are possible; so, the Lord sets a bush on &re and keeps it burning until (and beyond) Moses decides to check out the bush. As Moses gets close, God speaks to him from the burning bush, starting with his name: “Moses, Moses,” and then telling Moses to get his &lthy sandals o( God’s holy ground before o(ering a formal introduction: “I am the God of your father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob” (3:6 niv). Now, our hero, who was so anxious to see the bush, is barefoot on holy ground, face down, and afraid that he might catch a glimpse of this God and die on the spot.

!e Lord has Moses just where he wants him and begins a speech that will rock Moses’ world. !e Lord explains that he knows all about what is happening back in Egypt. He has heard the outcry of despair, he knows about his people’s su(ering, and he has come down to rescue them from the Egyptians and take them to the land of promise (3:7–9). Personally, if I were Moses, I would wonder at least two things: First, where has this God been the past forty years? Moses knew about these problems years ago and tried to help; where was this God-in-a-bush then? And second, everything this God is saying is wonderful news, but why are you telling me? If you know all about this trouble and have come down to keep your promises, then go to it! You don’t need to tell me or ask my permission.

!en the Lord drops the big news:

So get going. I’m sending you to Pharaoh to bring my people, the Israelites, out of Egypt. (3:10, emphasis mine)

Now, suddenly, everything makes sense—the burning bush, the holy ground, God-in-a-bush. It was all a set up! But Moses is not about to sign on for this mission—this death-trap; going back to Egypt is a bad idea for more reasons than even a God-in-a-bush can imagine. So, the &rst of many arguments between Moses and God begins—the &rst time they meet:

1. Moses asks: “Who am I” to carry out such an assignment (3:11)? To which the Lord says, “I’ll be with you” (3:12); in other words, roughly stated, God says it doesn’t matter who Moses is, what experience he may have, or what training he might have for leading people through the wilderness. !e only thing that matters is that the Lord will be with Moses (3:12).

Leaving Egypt

2. Moses asks: Who are you? If the issue is not who Moses is or what he is able to do, but that this God will be with him, then Moses needs to know who this God is; more speci&cally, What is your name (3:13)?

!e answer that comes back is di)cult to understand in Hebrew, and even more di)cult to translate into English. Eventually, God tells Moses to say that “the Lord” has sent me to you:

“!is is my name forever” (3:15). !ree observations about God’s name must su)ce for now: (1) Most scholars agree that the name of God (YHWH) is somehow related to the verb “to be” (Heb. hyh), though precisely how it relates and what it means is beyond agreement. (2) In Hebrew, the name of God consists of four consonants: yhwh. !e vowels are less certain, due to a long history of not pronouncing the name of God so as not to show any possible disrespect to God’s name. Instead, the practice arose of substituting another Hebrew term (“lord” or “master”) when reading the Hebrew text. Consequently, we can only give our best educated guess as to the full name given to Moses: Yahweh (with the German “w” pronounced as a “v”). (3) In English Bibles, the tradition of not pronouncing the name of God continues by translating the name of God as

“the Lord”—notice all the small capital letters. !us, any time we read the word “Lord” in the Old Testament, we are actually reading the name of God, Yahweh.

3. Moses raises a third concern: What if the Israelites don’t believe me? A"er all, what would you think of a man who came to tell you about a God-in-a-bush who spoke to him in the desert, claiming to be the God of their ancestors, and announcing that he was there to lead you to the promised land? So, the Lord provides three signs to prove his identity and mission: (a) his sta( turns to a snake and then back into a sta(, (b) his hand turns diseased (leprous) and then turns back clean, and (c) when he pours water on the ground it turns to blood. Armed with these signs, the Lord expects Moses to leave for Egypt.

4. But Moses still refuses to go. It doesn’t matter that God will be with him, that he knows the name of Israel’s God, or that he has signs to prove that the Lord has sent him. Moses doesn’t want to go back to Egypt. So he claims: “I’ve never been able to speak well, not yesterday, not the day before, and certainly not now since you’ve been talking to your servant. I have a slow mouth and a thick tongue” (4:10). He is not eloquent, or perhaps has some speech impediment that makes him a poor choice for the kind of political rhetoric necessary to deal with Pharaoh and his royal court. A good excuse, except for one small detail: the Lord made Moses and his mouth and knows how well he can speak (4:11). Moses is missing the point, and the Lord is getting frustrated. It doesn’t matter what Moses can or cannot do, the Lord will be with him. Perhaps we should cut Moses a break; what this God-in-a-bush is asking him to do is crazy. Go tell the ruler of a superpower to let a bunch of slaves go free? If Moses agreed without an argument, we would question his sanity. But at this point, if Moses argues with Pharaoh as well as he does with the Lord, the Israelites should start packing their bags. He is great at arguing for what he wants, or doesn’t want.

5. Finally, Moses lays his cards on the table: “Please my Lord, just send someone else” (4:13). Moses has no intention of going back to Egypt. !e Lord can send someone else. Now the Lord has reached the end of his patience with Moses; his anger 'ares and his tone undoubtedly changes. No more give and take; no more dialogue. !e Lord knows Aaron is on his way to see

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Moses, and Aaron can speak 'uently; so Moses can take Aaron back to Egypt to help negotiate for Israel’s release. No matter what Moses may say, God is &nished with Moses’s objections: “Take this shepherd’s rod with you too so that you can do the signs” (4:17) and go!

With no other choice than to go back to Egypt, and at the same time warned that Pharaoh will not cooperate, Moses, his wife Zipporah, and their sons begin the journey (4:18–23).

A"er the Lord tries to kill Moses one night on his way to Egypt (4:24–26)—I warned you, this is a wild and crazy text—the Lord sends Aaron to meet Moses. Moses briefs his brother about God’s commission and the signs he can now do, and the next thing we know, our small troop is back in Egypt where they gather the Israelite leaders (“elders”), tell them God’s plans, and show them the signs (4:29–31). !e people believe, even bowing in worship when they hear that God has noticed their condition and plans to help (4:31).

III. Initial Failure (Exodus 5–6) At their &rst meeting, Pharaoh is unimpressed with Moses and Aaron; his opening words set the tone and direction for all that is about to unfold: “Who is this Lord whom I’m supposed to obey by letting Israel go? I don’t know this Lord, and I certainly won’t let Israel go” (5:2). Pharaoh does not know Yahweh, so why should he listen to Moses?

What follows may be described in various ways: a ten-lesson correspondence course on who the Lord is; a television mini-series on how the Lord is greater than the gods of Egypt; or—my favorite—a ten-round super-heavyweight championship &ght, the winner takes all of Israel. On one side are the gods of Egypt, represented by Pharaoh and the Egyptian magicians; on the other side is the Lord, represented by Moses and Aaron. !e pre-&ght battle of words does not go well for the Israelites. Pharaoh decides that the reason Moses and Aaron have been able to rally the people around the Lord is because they have too much leisure time on their hands (5:8). So Pharaoh issues a command that a critical ingredient for brick-making, straw, will no longer be provided to the Israelite workers. !ey will have to go into the &elds and get the straw themselves. But the quota of bricks for each day will not change; and when Israelite supervisors fail to meet their quota, they are beaten and asked why they failed to produce (5:14). It takes little time for the people to turn on Moses and Aaron: “Let the Lord see and judge what you’ve done! You’ve made us stink in the opinion of Pharaoh and his servants. You’ve given them a reason to kill us” (5:21). In turn, Moses turns on the Lord, “My Lord, why have you abused this people? Why did you send me for this? Ever since I &rst came to Pharaoh to speak in your name, he has abused this people. And you’ve done absolutely nothing to rescue your people” (5:22–23, emphasis mine).

!e Lord patiently calms Moses and reiterates the key points of his mission (6:6–8):

• I am the Lord • I will free Israel from the burdens of the Egyptians • I will take you as my people, and I will be your God • I will bring you into the land that I swore to give to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob

Leaving Egypt

Moses tells the people, but they won’t listen “because of their discouragement and their cruel bondage” (6:9 niv). !e “exodus” of Israel from Egypt is going nowhere, fast. If the people are going anywhere, the Lord must step into the ring—now—and &ght for them.

IV. The Purpose of Ten Plagues !e Lord knew, before he ever called Moses, that Pharaoh would never let the people go without a &ght (4:21–23). Even so, the assortment of plagues the Lord is about to bring on Egypt raises questions about what the Lord is doing and why? Clues are scattered throughout the text, and even though we are jumping ahead in the story for a moment, consider the following statements:

• Spoken to Pharaoh: A"er the frogs: “As you say! So that you may know that there is no one like the Lord

our God.” (8:10 niv) Before the 'ies: “But on that day I will deal di(erently with land of Goshen . . . no

swarms of 'ies will be there, so that you will know that I, the Lord, am in this land.” (8:22 niv)

Before hail: “ . . . or this time I will send the full force of my plagues against you and against your o)cials and your people, so you may know that there is no one like me in all the earth.” (9:14 niv, see also 9:29)

• Spoken about Egypt: Before the plagues: “!e Egyptians will come to know that I am the Lord, when I act

against Egypt and bring the Israelites out from among them.” (7:5) Before the Red Sea: “I’ll make Pharaoh stubborn, and he’ll chase them. I’ll gain honor

at the expense of Pharaoh and all his army, and the Egyptians will know that I am the Lord.” (14:4, see also 14:18)

• Spoken about Israel: Before the locusts: “Go to Pharaoh; for I have hardened his heart . . . in order that I

may show these signs of mine among them, and that you may tell your children and grandchildren how I have made fools of the Egyptians . . . so that you may know that I am the Lord.” (10:1–2 nrsv)

• Spoken about the world Before the hail: “By now I could have used my power to strike you and your people

with a deadly disease so that you would have disappeared from the earth. But I’ve le" you standing for this reason: in order to show you my power and in order to make my name known in the whole world.” (9:15–16)

!e Lord is not hitting Egypt with random plagues, but with blows that appear to be directed against the gods of Egypt, so that Pharaoh, Egypt, Israel, and the world will have the opportu- nity to come to know the Lord. In fact, prior to the &nal plague, the Lord explains, “I will pass

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through the land of Egypt that night, and I will strike down every oldest child in the land of Egypt . . . I’ll impose judgments on all the gods of Egypt. I am the Lord” (12:12, emphasis mine). !is &nal statement suggests that the Lord has been making calculated strikes against Egyptian gods all along. So, following this lead, a number of researchers have made suggestions as to what god of Egypt each plague may have been hitting (see Table 4.1 below and “For Further Reading”).

Plague Possible God against Whom the Plague Was Directed

1. Nile to Blood Hapi (god of the Nile), Isis (goddess of the Nile and powerful magician)

2. Frogs Heqet (frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness)

3. Gnats Uncertain

4. Flies Uncertain

5. Death of Livestock Hathor (cow-headed goddess), Apis (bull sacred to Osiris, symbol of fertility), and others

6. Boils Sekhmet (goddess with power over disease), and others

7. Hail Nut (sky goddess), Osiris (god of crops)

8. Locusts Serapia (protector from locusts)

9. Darkness Re (sun god of Heliopolis), Horus (sun god)

10. Death of Firstborn Pharaoh’s !rstborn son, considered a god, and others

Table 4.1. Plagues and the Gods of Egypt

V. The Fight with Pharaoh (Exodus 7–13) With better awareness of why the Lord is hitting Egypt with these particular punches, we can go back to the pre-&ght press conference. Aaron throws down the gauntlet, issuing a challenge with his Amazing Two-in-One “Snake-in-a-Stick,” to show o( just a little of the power and pizzazz they and the Lord will bring to the upcoming &ght (7:10). !e Egyptian magicians, however, are quick to match Aaron’s move with their own (7:11), though they are bested when Aaron’s snake swallows all of theirs and they are forced to leave the meeting disgraced and without their sta(s.

Round One. !e &rst round opens early in the morning at the Nile as Moses and Aaron wait to meet Pharaoh as he comes to the river. Moses makes the &rst move by speaking on behalf of the Lord, demanding that Pharaoh release the Hebrews; then, to show the Lord’s power, he reaches out with the sta( turned snake, turned back to a sta(, and strikes the Nile, turning the water to blood (7:15–21). !en Aaron continues to jab away at Pharaoh, as he apparently goes around Egypt striking more and more water, turning it into blood. His blows, however, are soon countered by the Egyptian magicians as they use their secret arts to turn water to blood (7:22)—just what Egypt needs, less water and even more blood. Nonetheless, Round One must be scored as a draw; Pharaoh is unimpressed (7:23).

Leaving Egypt

Round Two. !e second round comes about a week later in Pharaoh’s palace (7:25). Speaking for the Lord, Moses demands the immediate release of the Lord’s people and warns that any- thing less will result in a 'ood of frogs every possible place you can imagine, and where you can’t imagine (8:1–4). So, without further warning, Aaron summons the frogs from the waters of Egypt (8:6). And without hesitation, the Egyptian magicians do the same, bringing even more frogs (8:7). Pharaoh brie'y shows signs of throwing in the towel; but no sooner does he promise to let the people go than he changes his mind. Round Two also ends in a draw.

Round ,ree. !e third round begins without conversation, just action. Instructed by God through Moses, Aaron reaches out with his sta( and strikes the dust, turning it into an invasion of gnats (8:16–17, or “lice,” njps). And, for the &rst time, the Egyptian magicians are unable to match Aaron, incapable of producing their own gnats (8:18). Back in their corner, the magicians come to Pharaoh with their assessment: “!is is the &nger of God!” (8:19 nrsv). Round !ree goes to Moses and the Lord, though like any good &ghter, Pharaoh refuses to admit his loss (8:19b).

Round Four. In the fourth round, the magicians neither leave their corner nor enter the picture. !e Lord sends Moses and Aaron to the river to meet Pharaoh and demand the release of the Lord’s people, namely, to worship the God to whom they belong (9:20–21). If Pharaoh refuses, the Lord threatens to send a plague of 'ies upon Egypt, except for the land of Goshen where the Lord’s people live, so that “you will know that I, the Lord, am in this land” (8:22b). So, the next morning, swarms of 'ies are everywhere in Egypt, but not in Goshen (8:24). Pharaoh has lost Round Four; all he can do is maneuver so that he can stay on his feet to come out &ghting in the next round. He summons Moses and Aaron for peace terms—anything to get rid of all these 'ies. Moses works in good faith, assuring Pharaoh that the 'ies will 'y away in return for Israel leaving to worship her God. Pharaoh agrees to the terms up until the last 'y leaves and then changes his position; no one is going anywhere (8:28–32). Round Four may go to the Lord, but Pharaoh has shown that he has no intention of throwing in the towel.

Round Five. !e &"h round begins with Moses and Aaron warning Pharaoh not to continue holding people who belong to a di(erent God. If he does, there will be an outbreak of a deadly disease among Egyptian livestock, with Israel’s livestock safely immune in Goshen. Pharaoh appears unconvinced until the next day when the Egyptian herds are decimated by disease, while not a single head of Israelite stock dies. Round Five clearly goes into the books as the Lord’s; but with the damage already done, Pharaoh sees no reason to give up.

Round Six. Without warning, the Lord strikes &rst in the pivotal sixth round. With Pharaoh watching, Moses throws handfuls of soot into the air. !e &ne dust causes an eruption of fester- ing boils on humans and animals alike—but only on Egyptians; Israel and her animals su(er no harm (9:8–10). !e magicians who had begun the &ght for Pharaoh, standing toe to toe with Moses for the &rst two rounds, reappear in Round Six. Or, to be more precise, they reappear because of their inability to stand before Moses due to the boils. In prize &ght terms, we have our (rst knockdown. From the mat the magicians beg Pharaoh not to continue, but Pharaoh will not listen because what was once within his control is now out of his control. God is now hard- ening Pharaoh’s heart (9:11–12). Previous texts have described Pharaoh’s heart problem as either

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“Pharaoh hardened his heart” (e.g., 8:32 nrsv), or “the heart of Pharaoh was hardened” (e.g., 9:7 nrsv). And, although the Lord predicted this moment would come before Moses le" for Egypt (4:21), this is the &rst time the text states that the Lord has taken over. Hope for Pharaoh is lost; from this point forward, the Lord is in control of Pharaoh’s heart. Consequently, this &ght will not end with anything less than a complete knockout (see Appendix IV).

!e &nal four rounds begin with a dire warning from the Lord that he could take Egypt down anytime he wanted (9:13–16, see above).

Round Seven. And so, in the seventh round, the Lord sends a hail storm unlike any Egypt has ever seen. !e hail further destroys Egypt’s agriculture and proves deadly for humans or animals caught out in the storm. Pharaoh buckles against the ropes, telling Moses he has had enough—take away the hail and Israel may leave. And despite the fact that Moses knows Pharaoh does not yet fear the Lord, he agrees to stop the hail (9:27–29).

Round Eight. O( the ropes in round seven, the Lord hardens Pharaoh’s heart so that he immediately changes his mind once the hail stops. So the eighth round begins with another trip to see Pharaoh (10:1–2) and another warning—of locusts (10:3–6). Even Pharaoh’s o)cials urge him to relent on the simple premise, “Do you not yet understand that Egypt is ruined?” (10:7b). So Pharaoh tries to negotiate. But when he sees, as he has suspected all along, that once Israel goes to worship her God she will never come back to serve him, he drives Moses and Aaron out of his presence. So locusts come on Egypt (10:12–15). Pharaoh begs for mercy (10:16–18), but as soon as the locusts are gone, the Lord hardens Pharaoh’s heart again so that he does not let Israel go (10:19–20). God will not let Pharaoh stop; the &ght will not end until the Lord is &nished.

Round Nine. In the ninth round, Moses brings a dense darkness over the land of Egypt, so dark that for three days people could not see and could not move; yet, all the Israelites had light where they lived (10:21–23). Against the ropes, Pharaoh again buckles to his knees and tells Israel to leave without its herds. When Moses refuses the deal, the Lord hardens Pharaoh’s heart so that he changes his mind, yet again, and will not let Israel leave (10:24–27).

Beaten up and bloody at the end of round nine, Pharaoh is furious with Moses and Aaron, threat- ening their lives if he should see them again. At this point, or perhaps later, Moses warns Pharaoh that the Lord will bring this &ght to an end in the next round by putting to death the &rstborn of every person and beast in Egypt—from Pharaoh to the slaves (11:4–7). !en, Moses says, your o)cials will beg for me and all Israel to leave, and we will. !en

“Moses, furious, le" Pharaoh” (11:8b). Round Ten. !e events of the tenth and &nal

round are a bit harder to trace in Exodus 12–13. !e text not only conveys the events in Egypt, but interweaves instructions for the annual celebration Figure 4.2. !e Sphinx and Pyramid. Photo by David Anderson.

Leaving Egypt

of these events in the Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread. !e day of the &nal round, the Israelites are brought into the action. In preparation, they are to select an unblemished lamb or goat and hold it until the fourteenth day of the month. On that day, they are to (1) slaughter the animal at twilight; (2) use the blood as paint for their doorposts and top lintel; (3) roast and eat the lamb or goat with unleavened bread and bitter herbs; (4) burn any le"overs; (5) dress in traveling clothes, ready to leave Egypt at a moment’s notice; and, &nally, (6) not go outside their houses for any purpose that night, because the Lord and/or destroying angel will be going through the land killing the &rstborn of anyone outside the protection of the blood (12:1–11). !is day will become a day to remember, celebrate, and share with every subsequent generation who will not only remember, but relive the night of the Passover (12:14). !ey will obey the same instructions, participate in the same meal, and so become one with the generation that le" Egypt—whether one year or a thousand years later (12:14–20).

!is &nal punch of the tenth round brings with it the knockout blow—at midnight, all Egypt realizes they have lost their &rstborn children, including Pharaoh. Without waiting until morning, Pharaoh summons Moses and Aaron and demands that Israel leave the land (12:31–32). !e &ght has come to a decisive conclusion, the &nal right hook executing judgment on all the gods of Egypt (12:12).

VI: Learning to Trust the LORD (EXODUS 14–18) Up to this point in the story, the Lord has required little of Israel other than to follow the instruc- tions given on the night of Passover to be ready to leave Egypt. More con&dence in Moses and Aaron at the beginning would have been nice, but was not ultimately necessary. Once Israel leaves Goshen, however, far more is required. It is easy to stand back and let God (or Moses) punch his way to your salvation; it is far more di)cult to trust this God who has saved you. !us, the journey across the wilderness from Goshen to Mount Sinai becomes a school for learning to live with, and most of all trust, the God who has saved Israel from oppression. It is easy to be saved, but the six episodes recorded in Exodus 14–18 demonstrate the challenge of living by faith.

1. $e Crisis at the Sea of Reeds. Once Pharaoh had some time to recover from the techni- cal knockout in his &ght with the Lord and has some time to think about what he has done in releasing Israel (14:5), God hardens his heart one last time (14:4). Pharaoh rallies his military to chase and bring Israel back to work. !e Lord lures Pharaoh by leading Israel in such a way that it gives the impression they are lost and have no idea what they are doing, even to the point of allowing themselves to be trapped between the Sea of Reeds (Hebrews, “Red Sea” in the Old Greek translation) and the Egyptian army (14:1–9).

When the Israelites look back and see Pharaoh’s army and their situation, they cry out to Moses with great fear—the &rst of many complaints to come:

Was it because there were no graves in Egypt that you have taken us away to die in the wilderness? What have you done to us, bringing us out of Egypt? Is this not the very thing we told you in Egypt, “Let us alone and let us serve the Egyptians”?

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For it would have been better for us to serve the Egyptians than to die in the wil- derness. (14:11–12 nrsv)

Despite their ingratitude, Moses tries to help the people rely on the Lord:

Do not be afraid, stand &rm, and see the deliverance that the Lord will accom- plish for you today; for the Egyptians whom you see today you shall never see again. !e Lord will &ght for you, and you have only to keep still. (14:13–14 nrsv, emphasis mine)

!eir task is to relax, stop panicking, and watch the Lord deal with the problem—to replace their fear with faith that the Lord can—and will—take care of them.

!e angel in the cloud moves to a defensive position, keeping Pharaoh’s troops from attacking the Israelites. Meanwhile, the Lord kicks up a strong east wind to push the sea back. By morning, the sea was far enough back and the seabed dry enough for Israel to have a clear path (14:23). !e Egyptian army pursues but is soon thrown into a panic by the Lord. !ey realize they have

The Message of the Old Testament Exodus 1–19 reinforces a number of insights we have been taking in about God—how God chooses to work in the world, God’s ultimate hopes, and God’s desire for those who live in relationship with him. As in Genesis, God continues to work in the world through people, selecting #awed individuals and families to do what needs to be done and promising his presence or full support (Exod 3:12). Also, just as in Genesis, God’s hope remains with one family as a means of reaching the world, a family that has grown into thirteen tribal groups, known collectively as “the Israelites”—a family that God has now called to be priests who reach out to the world (Exod 19:6).

The most prominent feature of Exodus 5–12, the ten plagues, as strange as it sounds, continue to witness to God’s hope for the world. In this narrative, we read over and again that the plagues come so that Pharaoh, Egypt, Israel, and the world will know that the LORD is God, not the gods of Egypt. In fact, after the sixth plague, the LORD tells Pharaoh that the only reason he has left him alive is to show him what a true God can do and so the whole world will hear about the LORD (9:16). The LORD still has con!dence in his plan and is committed to the promises he made to Israel’s ancestors long ago.

Finally, as with the family stories of Genesis, the narrative of Israel’s journey from Egypt to Sinai demonstrates God’s faithful care and tremendous patience. The LORD’s desire is for his people to trust him, to know that he has their back no matter what happens. And even though the LORD’s people most often respond with doubt and an occasional full-blown panic attack, the LORD is patient as he tries to teach his people—to reach his people with a faithful love that transcends any love they have ever known.

Leaving Egypt

been drawn into a trap, the wheels of their heavy chariots clogging in the mud of the seabed (14:23–25). !ey abandon their chariots and begin a desperate run for the shoreline, but it is too late. On the other shore, the Lord instructs Moses to close the sea, and he does (14:26–27). Pharaoh’s troops drown in the rushing water (14:28).

Most important, that day, “Israel saw the amazing power of the Lord against the Egyptians. !e people were in awe of the Lord, and they believed in the Lord and in his servant Moses” (14:31). !ey realize, even if brie'y, that they can entrust their lives to the Lord.

2. $e Crisis at Marah. Traveling a few days into the wilderness, water supplies soon give out and the only water they &nd is bitter (Heb. marah)—undrinkable. So the people turn on Moses, asking, “What will we drink?” Moses turns to the Lord, who provides a strange solution: throw a tree branch into the water (15:25). !e issue, however, is bigger than a drink of water. Israel must learn to obey and trust her God. Faith is the only way to avoid what happened to the Egyptians (15:26).

3. $e Crisis in the Wilderness of Sin. As Israel moves even further into the wilderness, an inevitable food shortage develops. All Israel complains, “Oh, how we wish that the Lord had just put us to death while we were still in the land of Egypt. !ere we could sit by the pots cooking meat and eat our &ll of bread. Instead, you’ve brought us out into this desert to starve this whole assembly to death.” (16:3). Again, the real problem is a matter of faith or trust.

On this occasion the Lord provides a solution that not only teaches Israel to trust God today, but to trust God every day. !e Lord begins to rain down a layer of heavy dew; when the dew li"ed, it le" behind a thin edible residue the people could collect and eat. !e catch (or test), however, was in collecting just enough for one day and no more, relying on the Lord to make the manna (Heb. man hu, “What is it?”) available every day, including special provisions for the Sabbath. In a unique way, the manna raises two questions—“What is it?” followed by “Who is it?”—through which Israel will make the decision to trust themselves, other gods, or the Lord.

4. $e Crisis at Massah and Meribah. For the second time, the people complain about water—this time, the lack of water. And for the third time, the people accuse Moses: “But the people were very thirsty for water there, and they complained to Moses, ‘Why did you bring us out of Egypt to kill us, our children, and our livestock with thirst?’ So Moses cried out to the Lord, ‘What should I do with this people? !ey are getting ready to stone me.’” (17:3–4). !e Lord provides instructions for how to provide water by striking a rock, which erupts into a spring of water (17:5–6). But again, the real issue, the writer reminds us, is trust. Moses calls the place Massah (Heb. testing) and Meribah (Heb. quarreling) because the Israelites quarreled over the question, “Is the Lord among us or not?” (17:7).

5. $e Crisis at Rephidim. Without apparent provocation, the Amalekites attack Israel, drawing an odd response from Moses. He appoints a young military commander to lead the army down into the valley, Joshua—our &rst introduction to Israel’s future leader (17:8–10). Meanwhile, Moses treks up to the top of the hill where he does what looks like an early version of “the wave.” Whenever he li"s his hands, Israel wins; whenever he lowers his hands, Amalek

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wins. Strange. How Moses’ actions relate to the battle in the valley seems bizarre, at least until we explore possible meanings associated with the li"ing of one’s hands. !e book of Psalms is most instructive:

Listen to my request for mercy when I cry out to you, when I li! up my hands to your holy inner sanctuary. (Ps 28:2, emphasis mine)

So I will bless you as long as I’m alive; I will li! up my hands in your name. (63:4, emphasis mine)

Moses’s action on the hill most likely represents calling upon or praying to the Lord for help in the battle. !us, whenever Moses li"s his hands in reliance on God for victory, Israel wins; but when he drops his hands, symbolizing a lack of trust or reliance, they lose. Once again, the issue for Israel (and the reader) is learning to trust the God who has saved them from Egyptian slavery.

6. Moses’s Crisis at Sinai. !e &nal crisis occurs at Israel’s &rst destination on their journey: the mountain of God (18:5), Mount Sinai (or Mount Hor). Jethro, Moses’s father-in-law, comes to meet Moses, bringing along his family that had been sent back home at some point, presum- ably for safety (18:2–5). !e next day, Jethro observes Moses sitting as judge for the people from morning until evening, and he expresses grave concern over Moses’s practice. When Jethro asks Moses why he is doing this, Moses replies innocently enough, but notice all the &rst person pronouns in his reply:

Because the people come to me to inquire of God. When they have a dispute, they come to me and I decide between one person and another, and I make known to them the statutes and instructions of God. (18:15–16 nrsv, emphasis mine)

Jethro’s diagnosis is on target: “What you are doing isn’t good. You will end up totally wear- ing yourself out” (18:17–18a). !e problem with Moses’s practice, and his explanation, is his assumption that the only person capable of the work is himself; it’s the philosophy the only way to get something done right is to do it yourself. And the philosophy comes from the same heart problem the people have struggled with since leaving Egypt: Moses is trusting himself, not the Lord. !e more seductive issue for Moses (and many who have followed) is that Moses’s work is religious; he is serving God, a"er all. Jethro advises Moses to teach and empower others, and by this action trust the Lord to work through others who will come alongside him (18:17–23).

Conclusion !e major movements in Exodus 1–18 take us from (1) the astronomical growth of God’s chosen people in Egypt and the crisis this creates for them and for Egypt (Exod 1); (2) to the selection of a reluctant leader, who, despite his excuses, is obedient to God’s call (Exod 2–4); (3) to the battle of the gods/God and their representatives through the ten plagues (Exod 5–13); to (4) Israel’s journey across the wilderness to their arrival at Mt. Sinai, the mountain of God (Exod 14–18).

Leaving Egypt

!rough these chapters we have observed the Lord to be a God who (1) hears the cries of his people (2:23–25); (2) selects and works through humans (3:10); (3) &ghts for his people, whatever it takes to free them (Exod 5–12); and (4) patiently teaches his people that they must and can trust the Lord to provide for them (Exod 13–18). !e Lord’s life with his people has only just begun, but the primary themes they need to learn and remember are already becoming quite clear. !e Lord is a merciful and compassionate God, who raises up leaders and &ghts for his people, only asking in return that his people trust him to be their God.

THE GOD WHO SAVES

To Discuss

1. What do you think about the midwives’ response to Pharaoh? Do you think their lie is acceptable or unethical given the circumstances? Can you think of similar circumstances in history that you would argue are ethical, despite breaking a commandment? How does God’s response to the midwives in'uence your answer?

2. Consider again the story of Moses at the burning bush. How odd does it seem to Moses that a voice is coming out of a burning bush? !at the God-in-a-bush knows his name? Analyze each of Moses’s arguments. Which seem reasonable, which unreasonable? Why? What arguments does Moses fail to make (that you would have made)?

3. Read Appendix IV: !e Lord and Pharaoh’s Heart Disease. Establish the issue—what is the problem with Pharaoh’s heart? Consider the data and common explanations. What other explanations should be considered? In view of the data available to you in the Appendix, what is the best explanation? Defend your response.

4. !e author suggests that the ten plagues may have been strikes against the various gods in Egypt (see Table 4.1). Does the correlation between the plagues and Egyptian gods appear strong to you? What else can you think of that might explain the use of these spe- ci&c plagues?

5. To what extent do you think the Israelites in Egypt knew the stories of Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah, Jacob and his wives? How do you think the knowledge of these stories, or lack of knowledge, may have impacted their response to Moses? (What about Moses? Did he know the stories?)

6. Why do you think it was so di)cult for the Israelites to trust the Lord in the wilderness, a"er the Lord had just rescued them from Egypt and performed so many miracles?

7. Do you agree or disagree with the author’s analysis of the story from Exodus 18 (Jethro’s advice to Moses)? Explain your position. Does Moses also struggle with trusting the Lord? If so, why?

8. How do you think the magicians were able to duplicate the sta(-to-snake miracle, as well as the &rst two plagues?

Leaving Egypt

To Know

1. !e signi&cance of the following in this chapter: Aaron Moses Joshua Mount Sinai Jethro Passover Lord YHWH Manna Zipporah Miriam

2. !e changes for Israel since the end of Genesis, documented in the &rst chapter of Exodus. Israel’s situation at the beginning of Exodus.

3. Pharaoh’s three strategies to control Israel’s growth and the outcome of each strategy. 4. !ree stories the biblical writer tells about Moses to introduce him into the story (Exod 2).

What these stories emphasize about Moses. 5. !e &ve excuses Moses made at the burning bush and the Lord’s response to each excuse.

!e key idea in the Lord’s responses. 6. !e ten plagues and the four purposes for the plagues. 7. Israel’s six crises on the way from Egypt to Mount Sinai and the underlying theme. 8. !e name of God given to Moses at the burning bush and why most English translations

replace this name with “the Lord.” 9. Locate the following on a map (see Figure 4.1): Egypt, Great Sea, Sinai (region), and the

land of Midian.

THE GOD WHO SAVES

To Dig Deeper: Research Topics

1. A"er Moses starts back for Egypt, one night in camp the Lord attacks Moses and tries to kill him (see Exod 4:24–26). Somehow Zipporah knows what to do and acts quickly to cir- cumcise one of their sons and touch Moses’ genitals (“feet”) with the bloody skin. !en the Lord le" him alone. Investigate common explanations. What conclusion(s) are you able to reach?

2. Scientists have o"en tried to explain how the ten plagues may have occurred. To the best of your ability, discuss whether the theory(s) seem logical or convincing? Does an explana- tion of the plagues as natural events change the way you read the plagues narrative and/or the claims made in the text for or about the Lord? Explain.

3. Investigate further the correlation between the gods of Egypt and the plagues. Is there a strong correlation?

4. Consider the ethical issues raised by the Lord hardening Pharaoh’s heart. Begin with the data provided in Appendix IV: !e Lord and Pharaoh’s Heart Disease as a starting place for further research and for developing your own explanation.

5. Read Exodus 9:20–21 and 18:8–12, and Joshua 2:8–11. To what extent was the Lord’s strat- egy for the plagues initially successful? What was necessary in order for the Lord’s strategy to work (a"er Israel le" Egypt)?

6. Many other potential topics or texts may raise your interest in Exodus 1–18. Select one of these areas of interest for a research paper or report to the class.

Leaving Egypt

For Further Reading

Davis, John J. Moses and the Gods of Egypt: Studies in Exodus. 2d ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House 1986.

El Mahdy, Christine. Mummies, Myth, and Magic in Ancient Egypt. London: !ames & Hudson, 1989.

Hamilton, Victor P. Handbook on the Pentateuch. 2d ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005. Schnittjer, Gary Edward. "e Torah Story: An Apprenticeship on the Pentateuch. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 2006.