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ABSTRACT The concept of emotional intelligence has gained popularity in organizations today. Emotional intelligence focuses on individuals’ recognition of, and response to, emotion. To help individuals better use their emotional intelligence capabili- ties, this paper offers a framework for interpret- ing emotional triggers in the environment. The Four C’s of Emotion help individuals identify whether issues associated with context, chal- lenges, communication, or community are the underlying causes of their emotional reactions so that they can better deal with their feelings.

Eighty to ninety percent of [leadership] competencies are not cognitive. For any top executive…, there are never more than two competencies that come out in the cognitive

areas as distinguishing outstanding performance. ... All the rest are what we call

emotional intelligence. Interview with Richard Boyatzis (Wheeler & Hall, 2003, p. 66)

It is no wonder that emotions and emotional intelligence are gaining a foothold in organiza- tions today! The ability to effectively manage our emotions may very well be the key to success in our ever-changing 21st century environment. Emotional intelligence addresses competencies for recognizing and managing our own and oth- ers’ emotions. These competencies are vital for leaders; they are also important for anyone who is engaged in social activities because emotions serve as the “social lubricant” (Callahan & McCollum, 2002) for interactions between indi- viduals. Despite the importance of these emo- tional intelligence competencies, emotional intel- ligence does not place emotion within the broad-

33Volume 26 �Number 2 �Summer 2008

The Four C’s of Emotion: A Framework for Managing Emotions in Organizations

Jamie L. Callahan

JAMIE L. CALLAHA� is an Associate Professor in the Educational Human Resource Development Program at Texas A&M University. She has held multiple positions in the Academy of Human Resource Development, including being a member of the Board of Directors. Her primary research interests focus on emotion management and its relationship to organizational learning, leadership, and culture. Her work has appeared in journals such as Human Resource Development Quarterly, Human Resource Development International, Human Relations, and Organization Studies; she has also co-edited a book entitled Critical Issues in HRD: A New Agenda for the Twenty-First Century. Recently, she guest-edited a vol- ume of Advances in Developing Human Resources that focused on using movies, television, and books to facili- tate leadership development. A former United States Air Force officer specializing in human resources and organi- zation development consulting, she continues to actively consult with public, private, and nonprofit institutions.

Contact Information JAMIE L. CALLAHAN Texas A&M University Human Resource Development 551 Harrington Tower 4226 TAMU College Station, TX 77843-4226 Tel: 979-458-3584 Fax: 979-862-4347 e-mail: [email protected]

er context of the organizational environment. This article presents a framework for interpreting events in the organizational environment that will allow individuals to better manage their own and others’ emotions.

When dealing with organization development interventions, it is easy to recognize the emotions that swirl around issues of change. We hear of disappointment, fear, and skepticism (Loup & Koller, 2005); we hear of excitement and anticipa- tion (Kiefer, 2002). There are other triggers within the organizational environment, however, that may cause emotional reactions that could derail organization development efforts. Understanding the nature of the emotion triggers within the organizational environment makes dealing with feelings more tangible and more effective for organization development interventions.

Emotions in the workplace

Much of the current interest in emotions in the workplace is based on the popular concept of emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence gained popularity as a counterpart to “cognitive” intelligence. The majority of work regarding emotional intelligence can be found in the popu- lar literature, largely spurred on by Goleman’s (1995) book, Emotional Intelligence. Emotional intelligence is grounded in Thorndike’s early 20th century concept of social intelligence. Salovey and Mayer (1989), the researchers that coined the term “emotional intelligence,” began publishing in the area in the late 1980s. They define emotion- al intelligence as “a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and oth- ers’ emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Salovey & Mayer, 1993, p. 433).

According to Goleman (1995), emotional intelli- gence has five basic categories of ability: knowing one’s emotions, managing emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions, and handling rela- tionships. These domains represent abilities—an individual may have the ability, yet fail to act on that ability. In this sense, both the definition and the categories lend themselves to the traditional conception of intelligence as a type or types of ability (Merriam & Caffarella, 1991). Goleman (1995) suggests a series of action steps that can help us engage emotional intelligence in the workplace:

• Reflect on and recognize your own, and others’, emotions.

• Accept responsibility for your emotions. • Reframe negative situations to

challenges. • Learn your own triggers for both

positive and negative emotions. • Ask, “What can I change?” whenever

confronted with an emotionally-laden situation.

While these action steps provide insight for applying emotional intelligence, they focus only on the individual and, to a certain extent, inter- personal relationships. These steps do not help us narrow down the vast array of environmental stimuli that act as emotional triggers. What we need is a framework that helps us make sense of these emotional triggers so that we can more effectively apply our emotional intelligence capa- bilities.

Environmental Triggers: The Four C’s of Emotion

Boyatzis claims that we must begin to look at the organization of the future as a social system (Wheeler & Hall, 2003), filled with emotion, rea- son, and action. Social systems models help us

34 Organization Development Journal

better understand our organizational environ- ments so that we can make sense of the emotional triggers that either support or derail our organiza- tion development efforts. The Four C’s of Emotion is a social systems approach to categorizing potential causes of emotional responses in organi- zations. It is based on a classic social systems approach that categorizes general organizational actions into four primary clusters (Schwandt & Marquardt, 2000). When mapped to emotion in the Four C’s of Emotion, these four clusters include context, challenges, communication, and community.

These four categories of actions represent those areas in which emotion is likely to be triggered, making it easier for us to identify the source of our emotions. Once we can identify the cause of an emotional trigger, we can make better choices about how to address the resulting emotions.

Context All social systems must pay attention to the con- text in which they are situated. In other words, they need to be able to take actions that help the organization adjust to its changing environment by obtaining information and resources from the external environment. For example, benchmark- ing is the quintessential activity focused on scan- ning the external environment for information to improve processes within an organization, to watch what others are doing in order to make adjustments to achieve success. Any types of information searching, from surfing the Internet to chatting at social gatherings, would constitute a context-oriented activity. Socially-responsible community outreach is an example of taking steps to better understand and work with the external environment (Bierema & D'Abundo, 2003). Another example would be networking with indi- viduals from a variety of fields, disciplines, organ- izations, and countries to expand the knowledge

and resource base within the organization.

These activities are filled with emotional implica- tions. Bringing in best practices of competitors may be seen as threatening to those who have a stake in existing organizational processes. Activating social networks for information requires that individuals establish rapport, and even friendship, with a potentially wider pool of colleagues. Proposing changes based on new information gathered may be met with resistance and fear or anticipation and excitement.

Challenges The classic definition of an “organization,” dating back to late 19th and early 20th century explo- rations of the concept, is that it is “a goal-directed collective” (Banner & Gagne, 1995). All organiza- tions must, therefore, identify a set a goals, or challenges, that serve as a unifying force. As organ- izations create an action map for how to achieve these challenges, they might focus on activities associated with training, leadership, and strategic planning.

For example, mindful attention to ensuring that learning outcomes from training programs are actually transferred to the workplace is an activity designed to help organizations meet their goals. Activities associated with developing new leaders for the organization—including targeted develop- ment programs, coaching, and mentoring—is another set of goal-oriented initiatives. Leadership development is what provides the organization with skilled leaders who can help the organiza- tion better mobilize its resources to achieve goals. Planning activities would also be considered appropriate as achievement activities. Scenario planning is one method to engage organizational resources toward achieving future goals; strategic planning sets the stage for overarching organiza- tional goals. An overlooked type of activity asso-

35Volume 26 �Number 2 �Summer 2008

ciated with finding and tackling challenges is reflection in and on action (Schon, 1983). Reflection is what fuels decisions about choices for taking action.

Frustration is a common emotion tied to transfer- ring learning to the workplace; it can be hard to try something new in a climate that has long- standing habits, and it can be equally frustrating to have untested new ideas threatening to disrupt existing processes. Being selected for leadership development training can be met with pride and excitement; not being selected might result in resentment or disappointment. Jockeying for posi- tion in strategic planning efforts can lead to anger, confidence, frustration, hope, and a host of other emotions. Taking time for reflection may be seen with skepticism in a fast-paced environment.

Communication In order to function effectively, all social systems must establish formal and informal means of com- munication. Communication is the key to bringing everyone together in an organization. The formal and informal sharing of information creates a feel- ing of being part of something bigger by creating links between people and processes in an organi- zation.

There are a wide variety of activities that foster communication. For example, learning networks help employees engage in lifelong learning that is structured in relation to work activities and, thus, allows multiple organizational stakeholders to share in knowledge development and manage- ment (Poell, Chivers, Van der Krogt, & Wildemeersch, 2000). Another way to foster com- munication among parts of an organization might be through team-building workshops and activi- ties. Even cross-training and job rotation are examples of communication fostering activities, because they help ensure that employees gain

information about different tasks beyond their own job responsibilities. Perhaps the best example of communication activities are all of those things that directly influence sharing information: estab- lishing employee break areas that are comfortable retreats for informally sharing information, hang- ing creative informative bulletin boards, or creat- ing and maintaining listservs and intranets.

But, communication activities are among the most emotional in organizations (Callahan, 2000)! Communication can trigger jealousies among co- workers, fear of saying the wrong thing to the wrong person, burnout from receiving too many memos and e-mails, excitement about collaborat- ing with a colleague, anticipation about learning new tasks that may further individual employee goals, and more. These are but a few of the poten- tial emotional responses to a wide range of com- munication activities within an organization.

Community Finally, all organizations have a sense of communi- ty or some set of beliefs and norms that bind members together with a collective history. We might think of this as the culture of an organiza- tion—including all the rituals within the organi- zation, common practices, unofficial or official dress codes and all of the other assumptions that guide how we are “supposed” to interact in an organization.

Some more explicit activities associated with cre- ating community might include offering orienta- tion sessions for new employees to socialize them into the organization (Reio, 2000). Another way to foster a collective sense of identity is through development, sponsorship, and display of corpo- rate art (Nissley, 1999) to suggest to both mem- bers and outsiders what the organization believes is an important indicator of their collective values. Corporate museums, a component of organiza-

36 Organization Development Journal

tional memory, are fast gaining a reputation for serving as a strategic mechanism to transmit a desired image to members and clients (Nissley & Casey, 2002).

The emotions fostered by activities associated with community may include fear, hope, alien- ation, belongingness, and guilt, among other emo- tions. Fear and hope might occur as individuals anticipate getting involved in community activi- ties. Will I be accepted? If orientations fail to socialize an individual into the community or if the individual cannot find ways to assimilate into the culture, feelings of alienation from co-workers may result. A strongly socialized individual who resonates with messages of community is more likely to feel a sense of belonging in the organiza- tion. Those who break the implicit or explicit rules of the community might feel guilt or shame.

Emotion Problem Solving Guidelines

A strong sense of emotional intelligence and an understanding of the Four C’s of emotion provide the foundation for effectively managing emotions in organizations. Once the foundation is solidi- fied, we can then enact an action plan for solving dilemmas associated with emotional reactions.

• Identify the feelings. Use your emotional intelligence to not only understand and name your own emotions, but also to understand and name the emotions that others might be feeling in the same situation.

• Identify the cause. Consider the Four C’s of emotion—context, challenge, communica- tion, or community—and identify which might contain the emotional trigger for the situation at hand.

• Identify the potential futures. Take the time to consider the consequences of either expressing or not expressing the emotions

that you might be feeling. For example, what might happen if you decided to suppress your anger? How might your health suffer? Are there ways to express your anger in such a way that your concerns are heard in a positive light?

• Identify the best option. After identifying the potential futures of various options of expressing or not expressing your emotions, select the option that will yield the best outcome for you.

• Act on that option. Once you know what to do, do it!

CONCLUSION Emotional intelligence helps people better devel- op their own capabilities for dealing with feelings in the workplace. The Four C’s of Emotion help place those emotion-related capabilities within the context of the workplace. This framework helps people read the environment to identify the potential triggers that could derail their ability to effectively work with their emotions in their best interest. The combined power of the competencies of emotional intelligence with a framework to make sense of the emotional triggers in the envi- ronment prepares individuals to effectively man- age their emotions in the workplace.

REFERENCES Banner, D. K. & Gagne, T. E. (1995). Designing

effective organizations: Traditional and transformational views. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Bierema, L. A., & D'Abundo, M. (2003). Socially

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conscious HRD. In A. M. Gilley, J. L. Callahan, & L. A. Bierema (Eds.), Critical issues in HRD: A new agenda for the twenty- first century (pp. 215-234). Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishers.

Callahan, J. L. (2000). Emotion management and organizational functions: A case study of patterns in a not-for-profit organizations. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 11(3), 245-268.

Callahan, J. L. & McCollum, E. E. (2002) Obscured variability: The distinction between emotion work and emotional labor. In N. Ashkanasy, W. Zerbe, and C. Hartel (Eds.), Managing emotions in the Workplace (p. 219-231). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe Publications.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York: Bantam Books.

Kiefer, T. (2002). Understanding the emotional experience of organizational change: Evidence from a merger. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 4(1), 39-61.

Loup, R. & Koller, R. (2005). The road to commitment: Capturing the head, hearts, and hands of people to effect change. Organization Development Journal, 23(3), 73- 81.

Merriam, S. B., & Caffarella, R. S. (1991). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Nissley, N. (1999). Viewing corporate art through the paradigmatic lens of organizational symbolism: An exploratory study. Unpublished dissertation, The George Washington University, Washington, DC.

Nissley, N., & Casey, A. (2002). The politics of the

exhibition: Viewing corporate museums through the paradigmatic lens of organizational memory. British Journal of Management, 13(2), 35-46.

Poell, R. F., Chivers, G. E., Van der Krogt, F. J., & Wildemeersch, D. A. (2000). Learning- network theory: Organizing the dynamic relationships between learning and work. Management Learning, 31(1), 25-49.

Reio, T. (2000). Field investigation of the relationship among adult curiosity, workplace learning, and job performance. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 11(1), 5-30.

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1989). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9(3), 185-211.

Salovey, P. & Mayer, J. D. (1993). The intelligence of emotional intelligence. Intelligence, 17, 433-442.

Schon, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.

Schwandt, D. R., & Marquardt, M. J. (2000). Organizational learning: From world-class theories to global best practices. Boca Raton, FL: St. Lucie Press.

Wheeler, J. V. & Hall, R. (2003). Understanding emotional intelligence: A conversation with Richard Boyatzis. Organization Development Journal, 21(4), 65-72.

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