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RELS 260 Church History II The Formation of the Roman Catholic Church 1

The Formation of the Roman Catholic Church

I. The Roman Bishop -and so the Roman Church- becomes the center of Western Christianity. A. The Roman Bishop becomes the “Primate.”

1. In the third through the fifth centuries, there were 5 Patriarchates or Sees whose Bishop had a higher position of esteem than the others. These were Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch. At the Council of Constantinople (AD 381) and by decree of the Emperor Valentian (AD 445) Rome was given “primacy” over Constantinople as the “first among equals.” 2. By AD 650 only two Patriarchates remain; Rome and Constantinople. 3. Rome’s position was strengthened by the theories of the Primacy of Peter and “Apostolic Succession.” 4. After AD 476 the Bishop of Rome is the only Western leader left who can deal with the Barbarians. The Bishop’s influence saves Rome from sack on occasion.

B The Roman Bishop assumes more powers - and comes to consider himself the “Pope,” the super-Poppa of all Christians. We will trace this primarily by looking at four Popes. Two, Leo I and Gregory I are reviews from earlier discussion. Two more, Gregory VII and Innocent III will be discussed as the greatest Popes of the Middle Ages.

1. Leo I (AD 440) a. Leo writes a definitive book on what is orthodox for the West (his “Tome”). This gives subsequent Popes great theological authority (only Councils had decided what was orthodox prior to Leo). b. Saves Rome from destruction by making treaties with the Goths & the Huns. c. Claims jurisdiction over any disputes between Bishops. d. Calls himself “Papas” - the Daddy of all Christians (with all the authority that Roman society had given to the Paterfamilias.

2. Gregory The Great (AD 590).

a. Claimed to have the oversight of all Christians in the West (Gaul, Spain, Germany, Italy, Africa, and Great Britain). b. Promoted missions to capture the Barbarians for the Church. c. Reordered Church liturgy (the way we do our Worship and other Services) on a more Roman model. Other cultural or traditional ways of worshiping Christ are tossed out. Only the Roman way is valid.

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d. Established the theological framework of Roman Catholic Dogma. 1] He adopts the Semi-Pelagianism of John Cassias. Thus, the Church begins to teach (as the only true dogma).

a] Man does not inherit guilt from Adam, only disease of Sin which weakens the soul. b] Our Will is free - but it tends to choose evil because of

[1] the example of sinning given to us by others [2] weakness coming from the many sins of our ancestors (something like “generational” sin as taught today).

c] Predestination is based on God’s foreknowledge of the merit we will earn during our lifetimes (and is only for the Elect).

2] He also adopts the idea of Purgatory. Purgatory is a kind of backwards grace. Since very few of us merit salvation on our own (only the “Saints”), most of us die with sins that are not “absolved.” Even if they are all forgiven, we still die without getting rid of all the “temporal consequences” of sins. Purgatory then “purges” us or cleans us up by fire. What Purgatory does is:

a] Allows hope for the imperfect that they really will make it to Heavenly Bliss someday. All they have to do is endure a hundred thousand years or so of torment. b] Allows the whole structure of “Church” and “Priesthood” to still be needed, even after you die. For, your loved ones can shorten your time in torment by paying for special Masses and Prayers. c] We trust that Gregory had some different goals in mind than a vast protection-like money-squeezing scheme.

3] Tradition, especially that of the Church Fathers, but increasingly that of previous Popes, becomes a second source of authority alongside the Bible. This is not because these Writers were inspired in the same way as Scripture, but because the Church cannot interpret the Bible correctly without them. 4] The ceremony of the Eucharist is a sacrifice of Christ’s body & blood each time it is performed.

[a] Radbertus, Abbot of Corbie in France, writes On the Body and Blood of the Lord about 831.

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[1] He argues that -by a divine miracle- the bread and wine of the Eucharist are transformed into the actual body and blood of Christ. [2] This is not accepted in most of the Western Church until the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. It is not universal Roman doctrine until the Council of Trent in 1545, when the doctrine is accepted as the dogma of Transubstantiation. Thus, it takes almost a thousand years to become the one Roman Catholic view.

[b] This view greatly increases the power of the Priest and the Sacerdotal view of the Church. Thus, the Roman Popes use their wealth and influence to gain acceptance for this doctrine

5] Good works, the sacraments, and the veneration of the saints bring grace to the believer.

II. The Pope becomes both a Spiritual and Temporal Emperor

A. Gregory VII (AD 1073) + the Supremacy of the Pope 1. Hildebrand, a monk, becomes the power behind the Papal throne

a. Becomes a “Cardinal” - an official in the Roman church’s administration under the Pope (Hildebrand was placed over the Treasury). b. Helps switch the method of electing the Pope from a popular vote by the populace of Rome to election by a “College” of the Cardinals. This eliminated interference in the Papal election from both the lay people of Rome and the (German) Holy Roman Emperor. c. Hildebrand influences 5 Popes before he becomes one himself.

2. In AD 1073 Hildebrand is elected Pope - takes the name Gregory VII.

a. His goal was to make the Roman Catholic Church free from the influence of civil power & make Church control civil power. b. To this end, he opposed and sought to end:

1] *Lay Investiture a] Bishops and Archbishops were considered -in some sense- vassals (and so under the authority) of a “temporal Lord” such as a King, Duke, or other Prince. b] This was expressed in the fact that the Bishop or Archbishop received the symbols of their Church office and

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authority from the hands of the temporal Lord, a “lay person.” c] This did commonly allow the temporal Lords a great deal of influence in selecting & empowering high officers of the Church

2] *Simony - the selling of Church offices for money, often to rich nobles to secure a living for second or third sons.

c. Gregory VII also worked hard to establish and enforce the idea of Clerical celibacy

1] Although it had been legal in the Church for Priests to marry (if they had enough income) it had been frowned on by the monks. Now a monk was Pope. 2] Now all Priests must become monks, taking vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. 3] Note that this is only partly about marriage, and does little to discourage sex among priests (who would commonly keep concubines until 1563, the end of the Council of Trent). 4] This is primarily about preventing Church offices from becoming hereditary, and so lost to the control of the central authority of the Pope.

3. Humbles Emperor Henry IV (Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire). a. Henry appointed an Archbishop for Milan (as was common under Lay Investiture). b. This was opposed by the Pope -Alexander II- who excommunicated Henry’s candidate Godfrey. c. Emperor Henry then called a Council at Worms which rejected Papal authority in the matter. d. In answer, the new Pope -Gregory VII- excommunicates the Emperor Henry IV.

1] By this the Pope absolves Henry’s vassals of allegiance to him. 2] The Saxon nobles seize this and force Henry to cross the Alps in winter to beg the Pope’s forgiveness. 3] The Pope does not want to forgive Henry. But Henry waits outside the Papal stronghold of Carnosa for 3 days - standing barefoot in the snow with his wife and infant child beside him. So, Pope Gregory VII forgives - and Henry wins that round.

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e. This struggle continues until AD 1122 when the Concordant of Worms settles the issue with a partial compromise.

1] All Church officers will be selected by Churchmen, not lay people. 2] The symbols of spiritual authority will be given to Bishops and Archbishops by the Pope, and not any other. 3] The Church officer then gave an oath of loyalty to the temporal Lord who was his sovereign in secular things.

4. In all this Pope Gregory VII was following his firm belief that the Pope had full power over all other Bishops and Archbishops, and every other temporal power on Earth. As the Viceroy (substitute ruler) of God

a. His feet should be kissed by all Princes b. He had the power to depose Emperors and absolve subjects of allegiance to evil temporal rulers.

5. Pope Gregory VII also fought against what he perceived as an assault on his prerogatives when he excommunicated and persecuted the *Waldenses

a. “Poor Men of Lyons” -led by Peter Waldo- were Christians who believed that

1] The NT was the Christian’s only authority for faith & life 2] Everyone should have a Bible in his or her own language (since few people outside the Church spoke Latin at the time). 3] Christians should live in simplicity and focus on doing good, especially to the poor.

b. They formed their own Church with their own Bishop, priests, and deacons. While their beliefs were not Evangelical (as were the ideas of the later Reformers) by our standards, they championed

1] Freedom of conscience under the authority of the Bible, 2] A simple and practical Christianity which did not serve idols of wealth and power.

c. Gregory VII and his successor Popes persecuted the Waldenses fiercely, killing all they could find. In spite of this some 30,000 still exist in isolated valleys in the Piedmont region of Italy and France.

B. Innocent III (AD 1198-1216) The Peak of Papal Power

1. Innocent claimed to be the “Vicar (substitute) of Christ;” above men, below God, reflecting God’s glory as the moon does the sun.

a. Kings & princes derived their authority from the Pope.

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1] This goes beyond the Claims of Gregory VII, who believed that his authority was greater, because it was given by God, and so could overrule the desires of Emperors. 2] Here Innocent (who says church leaders don’t have a sense of humor?) asserts the idea that all power simply belongs to the Pope, who then can give it out, or take it back, as he wills.

b. He could excommunicate or depose any of them at will. c. If a Ruler did not obey the Pope, the Pope could lay an *Interdict on that Ruler’s entire nation

1] No Eucharist, marriages, preaching or other sacraments could be given, save Baptism & Last Rites (i.e. no one could earn any salvation beyond the most basic sort, and no escape made from Purgatory). 2] Using the Interdict, Innocent III

a] forced Philip Augustus -King of France- to take back his wife Ingeborg in AD 1200. b] forced King John of England to humble himself in AD 1208

[1] John had to accept Innocent’s candidate for the position of Archbishop of Canterbury [2] John then had to submit himself as the Vassal of the Pope, supposedly ruling England for the Pope [3] And send 1000 ounces of silver a year to Rome (50 of these a year kept a Baron in luxury).

c] Forced his own candidate’s election as Holy Roman Emperor (Frederick II).

2. Innocent III published an authoritative edition of Roman “Canon Law” c. AD 1140. 3. Innocent III extended the rule of the Pope -through the Roman Church- to its furthest extent.

a. Called the Fourth Crusade - which never crossed swords with the “infidel,” but

1] Took Zara from (the Christian) King Christian of Hungary. 2] Took Constantinople from the Eastern Empire in AD 1204 .

a] Entered the city under truce, then sacked it (perhaps because the Byzantines thought they could pull a fast one on these stupid barbarians>).

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b] set up a Latin Kingdom under Innocent’s control until AD 1261.

b. Called a Crusade against the Albigenses in Provence, southern France.

1] Under Simon de Montfort, a famous warrior and mercenary. 2] The excuse was that the Cathari (“pure ones”) were said to be radical Gnostics

a] Salvation comes by refraining from meat b] They objected to the idea of the transubstantiation of the Eucharist.

3] But all we really know is that the Albigenses opposed the Pope’s authority on basis of NT

a] To make it worse, the Albigenses were not a sect - but appear to have been a regional Church supported by their Lord, Duke Raymond of Toulouse. b] It is possible that the Albigenses were followers of the doctrines of the Waldenses. Their ideas about Scripture seem similar. c] We do not know for sure because the Dominicans destroyed every piece of the Albigenses’ writing, and killed every one of their spiritual leaders.

4] The Pope responded to this challenge with a] a Crusade against the wealthiest duchy in France (Provence) in AD 1209 and b] forbade the Bible to be read in anything but Latin.

5] Under Duke Raymond the Provençal resisted for years and fought many battles versus Simon. But Simon practiced a “total warfare” that was destroying the entire population and the entire infrastructure of Provence. Duke Raymond submitted, and Simon stripped Provence, now the poorest duchy in France. (Show me the money, baby. Follow the cash flow.)

4. Innocent called the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. Though this council did not have universal authority until confirmed by the Council of Trent in 1563, the Fourth Lateran backed Innocent’s claims, and was the first to require

a. *Annual attendance at Mass, as necessary for final salvation. b. *Annual “auricular confession” as necessary for final salvation.

1] this confirms the necessity of the “sacrament” of *Penance, wherein the penitent one confesses his sins to a priest (called a

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“Confessor”), is given certain works to perform as restitution (to God), and -on the basis of faithful completion of the Penance assigned (which could be expensive, difficult, or dangerous at the Confessor’s choice)- receives “absolution,” which is the forgiveness of that sin by the Priest. 2] this also serves to put the Roman priesthood firmly in control of any individual’s salvation. The priest must hear, the priest decides how much it is worth, and the priest must give the absolution, or the individual may wind up in Hell.

c] Transubstantiation accepted as the one, true doctrine of the Eucharist.

5. Oddly enough, Innocent III also weakened the Church in the face of the French King. By destroying the power of the Holy Roman Emperor, Innocent destroyed the balance of power which had kept Rome independent of strong political powers.

C. Boniface VIII. 1. Published the Papal Decree (or “Bull”) Unam Sanctum, which declared that there was no salvation outside the Roman Church or without submission to the Pope. 2. Even so, Boniface was still humbled and forced to submit to the will of Philip the Fair, King of France.

D. Boniface’s successor, Pope Clement V, transferred the Papal court to Avignon, France, in AD 1309 where the Pope was dominated by the French King until AD 1377. This is often known as the “Babylonian Captivity” of the Papacy. E. The result of all this is that the Pope becomes a spiritual Emperor and runs the Church like any other Kingdom.

1. Many Europeans hoped that the Popes would put a stop to growing immorality and corruption in the Church. However, things seem just to get worse. Finally, the “Papal Schism” brought the Papacy into disrepute. The majority of Europe lost any respect for the office of the Pope when two (and at one time three) “supreme Pontiffs” squabbled over the office. This occurred when a Frenchman was elected as Pope, and moved to the Papal headquarters to Avignon, France (rather obviously in favor of French interests). Another Pope set himself up in Rome and began a public relations campaign against the other. Both hurled fire and brimstone at each other. Both earned general contempt.

a. But the "Reform Councils," especially those of Pisa (in 1409) and Constance (in 1414), failed also to adequately address the moral and spiritual problems of the day. The Church Hierarchy, the Cardinals, Archbishops, and Bishops, could not agree on how to solve the problems.

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These Councils, like some modern Church Conventions, were split into factions which could not even agree on how power could be shared within the Church. b. In this, the Bishops lost their bid for an independent spiritual authority within the Church, separate from the office of the Pope. All the Councils of this period were able to agree on (besides burning Jan Hus at the stake) was to restore one Pope. But, without any constitution agreeing on how to order the Church, the Councils could not bring about a "constitutional monarchy." Instead, the Pope was left as the only overall power within the Church. The Popes of the day quickly capitalized on the opportunity. The growing pressure for reformation from within the Church now looks to the Pope as the only real leader.

2. All spiritual power became concentrated in the office of the Pope. The Pope became the spiritual "Prince” and runs the Church like a centralized Kingdom.

a. Now, only the Pope can "invest" an Archbishop or Bishop with the symbols of his office (without which the Bishop was worthless, in Medieval eyes), and the Pope will do so only for a price. The entire Hierarchy become the Pope's vassals, dependant on him for position & power and so completely loyal to him. b. All interpretation of Scripture, and all dispensing of the "treasury of merits" (see below), becomes the sole power of the Pope. By Excommunication or Interdict the Pope can withhold salvation from any person or nation which disobeys. Thus, the Pope becomes a greater power than any King (one Pope will force the Holy Roman Emperor to come begging for forgiveness, barefoot, in the snow).

3. The "Church" becomes a self-perpetuating bureaucracy, less concerned with spiritual matters than with the continuation of all its power and privilege.

a. On the one hand, Bishops are now trained in Financial/Property management, rather than Theology (they couldn't follow Luther's arguments). b. On the other hand, the “Clergy” became imbedded in their own social class. Bishops were usually noblemen (second sons who could not inherit the estates often became “spiritual” princes instead). The regular Parish Priests were most often uneducated peasants who could not read the Bible (in Latin or otherwise), could not preach, and could not lead the liturgical Services. They could only "mumble the Mass". Their mispronunciation of the phrase “This is my body” (Hoc est corpus meum in Latin) becomes the conjuror’s phrase “Hocus Pocus.” c. Thus the vast majority of the leaders of the Church become isolated from the people that they are supposed to serve. These two facts about

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the Hierarchy are two major reasons why Luther expected only an Academic debate on the 95 Theses, not a religious war.

4. The Pope becomes a “temporal” power, gaining an earthly kingdom of money and political / military power.

a. The practice of charging a fee in order to “invest” a Bishop or Archbishop with the symbols of his office (in practical effect, charging him for the office) fostered other abuses. Soon, the fee for investing a Bishop became the entire income of the diocese for the first year that the Bishop held office (called an “annate”). As the Pope is able more and more to be the one who nominates the Bishop in the first place (not just the one who confirms him in his office), the evil of “simony” (selling Episcopal appointments for cash) becomes widespread. b. Another scheme which brought a great deal of wealth to the Papal See was the selling of *Indulgences. An indulgence was the forgiveness of some sin, and/or the shortening of the time one had to spend in Purgatory being cleansed by fire so that one could become fit to enter Heaven. Normally, indulgences were given for some good act, such as feeding pilgrims, making a pilgrimage to some holy place, or practicing extra devotions. In the later middle ages, especially during the late 1400s and early 1500s, indulgences were simply sold for money. Whoever had the money could buy forgiveness for anyone (such as a dead mother, said by the Church to be suffering agony in Purgatory), or for oneself. The thing that finally drove Luther to rebel against the Pope was the buying of indulgences by some of his flock. They blithely told Luther that they did not need to confess their sins to their pastor (Luther), since they had already purchased forgiveness. It is sometimes reported that people bought indulgences for sins that they intended to commit in the future. c. Military and political power had come to the Popes in 756, when Pepin the Short -first Carolingian king of the Franks, conquered the Lombards and gave their lands in northern and central Italy, to the Pope (the “Donation of Pepin”. This was the first of the “Papal States” which shared the Latin peninsula with several kingdoms, republics and Principalities (remember that Italy did not become a centralized state until the 1880s). The Pope's base of power became larger as his "Papal States" made war on rest of Italy (e.g. Duchy of Milan, the Republics of Florence, Genoa, & Venice). The Pope’s influence was vastly increased when Constantinople, the last fortress of Eastern Roman Empire, fell to the Turks in 1453. The Pope now was the natural ally of the Holy Roman Emperor, since the Empire had been expanding into eastern European lands now threatened directly by the Turkish Empire.

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5. All of this now places the Pope in a unique position, able to dictate terms to both the Church and Political leaders. Rome, in the office of the Pope, built what Martin Luther will call the "Three Walls of Babylon" (cf. Luther's Address to the German Nobility). The Pope declared that:

a. *Secular Governments have no jurisdiction over the Church/Pope. Priests & Bishops could not be tried for Crimes except in Church courts. The dictates of the Pope could not be reviewed, much less vetoed, by any political body or Ruler. b.* No one may interpret the Scriptures but the Pope (who holds ultimate authority in the Church's Magisterium, or the authority to teach). When the Pope speaks “ex cathedra” or from his seat as Peter’s spiritual heir, he cannot speak any untruth. His decisions on doctrine of all kinds is now final. This means that the Bible does not say what it says until the Pope says what it says. Roman clerics burned the bones of John Wycliffe for arguing that the Church’s authority comes from the Bible alone, and that the Pope has authority only insofar as he followed the Scriptures. c. *No one may convene a Church Council but the Pope. The only other authority in spiritual matters had been Church Councils. For more than a thousand years controversies about teaching, practices, or morals had been settled by the Church Hierarchy getting together in a convention and working out what was to be done. Now, Councils may never challenge the Pope, since he is the only one who can call a Council together or can call one off. Later Councils, from the fifteenth century and onwards until today, will discuss only what the Pope allows them to discuss, and will never conclude what the Pope does not allow.

IV. The Great Schism: the Latin and Greek churches formally split into the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches (The Orthodox communion will later embrace many allied Orthodox churches, such as the Serbian Orthodox and Russian Orthodox churches.

II. Monastic Reform in the Tenth through Twelfth Centuries strengthens the hand of the Pope. A. Reform movements in the 10th & 11th Centuries.

1. The need for Reform among many Benedictine Monasteries a. Low overhead and tax-free status make for a concentration of great wealth in Monasteries over time (One example would be the Benedictine Monastery of about 300 brothers which Martin Luther visited on his way

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to Rome c 1510. They spent 1/3 of budget - 33 K. gold Ducats- on fine food + wine. This would be roughly 5 million dollars, today). b. Conversion/civilization of barbarians makes an easy life. c. Becoming a Monk now offers guaranteed salvation + a life of luxury.

2. AD 909, a Monastery at Cluny organized under Pope’s control/protection

a. Centralized authority. 1] Were every Benedictine House ruled itself, now each new monastery is ruled directly by the Abbot at Cluny through subordinates called Priors.

2] By the close of the 12th Century more than 1100 Cluniac Monasteries are joined by one Rule and one administration.

b. Worked to reform Clerical life. 1] Both the Benedictine monks and many “secular” priests (those who served ordinary Parish churches) both condemned a number of abuses, such as:

a] *Simony (buying + selling Church offices for money). b] *Nepotism (appointing relatives to important offices).

2] *The Cluniacs also promoted Chastity for all clergy. Though many Priests were legitimately married, the Cluniacs agitated for all Clergy to give up wives as well as concubines.

c. They also promoted the unity of the Roman Catholic Church. 1] *All Christians must come under the authority of the “Pope,” as the Bishop of Rome will begin to call himself. 2] The Church must be free from all secular control. The Cluniacs strongly oppose “Lay Investiture,” and support special courts for clergy, so that no priest or monk is answerable to secular law unless the Pope turns one over to the “Secular arm.” 3] Monastic schools will make Latin -the Language of the Church- the common tongue of Europe.

d. Channeled the energy of Europeans, Noble and Common, into the Crusades & Missions.

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B. 12th Century Reforms. Reforms of Benedictine houses and Orders continue. The most influential new Benedictine Orders were the

1. The Carthusians emphasize self-denial, work, prayer, & more centralized authority.

2. The Cistercians (so called because they were founded at Citeaux, France).

a. Required more simplicity of lifestyle and more ascetic self-denial than the Cluniac Houses. b. Gave more attention to agriculture -establishing Houses where methods were still primitive-, and less attention to study scholarship. c. The greatest Cistercian leader = Bernard of Clairvaux

1] Combined a moderate mysticism with practical holiness. 2] Preached the second Crusade (but was not anti-Semitic. He saved the Jews of Cologne by staying in the Jewish Quarter so the German knights would not start the Crusade to liberate Jerusalem by slaughtering Jews). 3] Supported the theology of Anselm over the teaching of Abelard.

3. Military Orders of Monk - Knights also developed in conjunction with the Crusades.

a. The Knights Hospitallers - or the Knights of the Hospital of St. John- formed to

1] Defend Pilgrims traveling to Jerusalem, and 2] Provide hospice (safe housing) and medical care to Pilgrims.

b. The Knights Templers (Cistercian) formed to defend the Holy Land from the Muslim forces of Baghdad and Egypt. c. The Teutonic Knights formed also to protect Jerusalem. When that city was lost, the Teutonic order moved to the Prussian frontier to oppose and/or convert the Slavic peoples of the Kingdom of Lithuania, a large and self-consciously pagan Kingdom.

4. The Mendicant Orders, or “Friars.”

a. These took vows of Poverty, Chastity, and Obedience to their superiors. b. But the Friars (from L. frater or “brother”) went among the common people (versus living in community) + lived on Alms, by begging & gifts rather than their own industry.

c. The most important Mendicant Orders were the:

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1] Franciscans , who emphasized foreign missions, poverty (beyond most others), and preaching in the vernacular on ethics. The Franciscans will later develop scholars and a theology of note. 2] Dominicans. The Dominicans were born out of the conflict of the Roman Church with the Albigenses (or Cathari) and organized specially to convince heretics to rejoin the one Church. As a result, the Dominicans

a] emphasized scholarship, especially apologetics and theology, with the special purpose of converting heretics. b] ran the Holy Office, which is a nice name for the Inquisition, which became a growth industry throughout most of Western Europe (accusers got to keep a percentage of the money/goods of the condemned).

3. The Caramelites - emphasized extreme poverty & simplicity , and the possibility of a mystical union with God. St. Theresa of Avila and St John of the Cross were and are their chief mystics.

d. The important Orders of the 16th Century, especially the Jesuits, will be discussed in another course.

III. Roman religious formulation triumphs.

A. Monastic Theology

1. Dominican Theology The theology of the Dominican (St.) Thomas Aquinas becomes the dominant (though not the only) interpretation of Salvation in the Church. Aquinas put the reasoning ability of Man on a practical par with faith. Though Man was ruined in the Fall, Man is not totally depraved. Perhaps most important, *Man's Reason is not fallen. Therefore we may think our way to God independently of the “special revelation of the Scripture. Philosophical and speculative theology now becomes a second source of Authority for the Church, alongside Scripture. 2. Franciscan Theology: “Nominalism.” 3. Jesuit Theology 4. Mystical Theology.

B. Merit-Based Religion

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1. In much the same way, fallen Man did not lose the capacity to do something truly Good, independent of God's grace. This idea was introduced by John Cassian in the fifth century but is generally called "Semi-Pelagianism.” In this view, *”Justification” is seen as God giving us a "disposition to good works." Both the Law and the Gospel call men to a godly life, drawing us to admit our need for grace. *Faith then is an assent to this call, an ability inherent in fallen man, and not given to him by God through any work of the Holy Spirit. In response to this faith, God gives *Grace, which works to expand a person’s previous ability to do good and give him the desire to seek God by continuing to do good works. 2. In this system, justification becomes self-reform, not the regenerating work of God, and does not give one any sure hope of heaven. Faith does not bring God’s forgiveness. It gives one only the possibility of seeking forgiveness through good works, especially the *Sacraments -those things done in / by the Church which bring God’s grace to individuals. This establishes the need for Priests between man and God ("Sacerdotalism"). Christianity is then defined as a religion of *Merit, where one "merits" heaven or hell depending on what one earns by one's deeds.

3. The Roman Catholic Church will come to acknowledge three kinds of merits. a. First and best are "Merits of Condignity." These are good works which are truly good enough to earn (merit) salvation. These are earned only by people who are so good / blessed that they are usually ordained Priests, or are “religious,” meaning that they have joined some monastic Order, such as the Franciscans, Cistercians, or Capuchin. b. Second, there are "Merits of Congruity" which are not good enough to earn salvation, but are “parallel” to truly good works, and so are accepted by God's in His grace as though they did earn salvation. This is chiefly where Grace comes in Roman theology for most people. c. Third, there are "Merits of Supererogation" which are good works so above and beyond what is required that they are more than enough to save. These merits are earned only by Christ on the Cross, or by those people who are so very good / blessed that they become “Saints,” able to earn their own salvation and so given a special place in heaven without having to go through Purgatory. In essence they “have God’s ear” and can intercede for normal folks. Since the “Saint” does not need these merits for his /her own salvation, they are added to the "treasury of Merits" which the Pope may dispense to the faithful / penitential as indulgences.

B. The Seven “Sacraments” define the life of the Church.

1. A “sacrament” is something which brings the grace of God to one, especially to believers. Since Luther, many Protestants have believed that there are two sacraments; water baptism and the Lord’s Supper (Eucharist). But, these are for the believer, as an aid to Christian life, and are not necessary for salvation in the Protestant view

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2.. In the Roman system, seven Sacraments are necessary for salvation. This involves one in a “Cradle to the Grave” system of merit religion. We outline the seven Sacraments in the order that they, generally, influence a person.

a. Water Baptism can be done at any age but is usually performed for infants a few days old (Paedobaptism means the practice of baptizing infants). Water baptism is *necessary for the removal of the guilt of Original Sin (otherwise, infants who die are thought to go to Hell due to Original Guilt). But baptism still leaves one with a "disordered nature," subject to coveting. The other sacraments are, then, necessary to remove penalty of sins committed after Baptism. Especially the "7 Deadly Sins" send one to Hell unless they are confessed to a priest and some penance is performed. But even the more minor "Venial Sins" add more time to Purgatory and mean that one needs all the other sacraments. b. Confirmation. After one is baptized, the idea is that a period of instruction in the faith should follow. If one agrees with the teaching, and wishes to continue in the faith, one is then confirmed in the faith at a special ceremony where the Bishop lays his hands on one. There is some thought among High Church theologians which links this laying on of hands to the receiving of the Holy Spirit as it happened in Acts. In the Roman church, as well as other churches which practice paedobaptism, Confirmation is usually performed on children at about the age of accountability (typically around eight years of age). c. The *Eucharist (most Evangelicals call this the “Lord's Supper” or “Communion”), which is necessary for the forgiveness of sins committed after baptism.

1] The Eucharist is the center of every Roman “Mass,” or service, and is considered to be a continuation of the sacrifice of Christ upon the Cross, and so brings the forgiveness of the cross to the worshiper in an immediate manner. 2] The center of this continuation is the act of the priest whereby he changes the Host (the bread) and the wine into the actual body and blood of Jesus. This is called Transubstantiation, and the power to effect this transformation is the heart of what it means to be a Roman priest. 3] It is important to remember that partaking of the Eucharist confers saving grace automatically (ex opere operatum = by the working of the work) on the partaker, unless an "impediment" is raised in the heart.

a] One does not have to worry about being in a “state of grace.” One can know one is a sinner and still partake of communion.

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b] In practice, such liturgical forms (in any church) can become a merely outward ritual with no repentance, faith (trust), or obedience necessary.

d. *Penance. One’s sins must be confessed to a Priest ("Auricular Confession"; Silent confession to God is not effective for forgiveness).

1] The Priest then assigns a "*Penance", some good work to do to show one’s repentance (and which may earn some merit), and absolves one of the sin, contingent upon completion of the penance assigned. 2] Absolution is the same as forgiveness, except that it will not necessarily remove any of the time one must spend in "Purgatory." Also, it must be remembered that this is but part of the whole Salvation process. One can never consider oneself “saved” unless one became a priest or a “religious.” Later, Indulgences will be sold which grant absolution of sins without Confession or Penance.

e. *Holy Orders means becoming ordained as a priest (the “orders” refer to the vows of Poverty, Chastity, and Obedience taken by the ordinand). If one becomes a Priest, one is guaranteed salvation no matter what one might end up doing in this life. f. *Matrimony is for those who are not called into the Priesthood. Until about AD 1150 Priests were able to be married. After that time, all priests were required to be celibate, and marriage became considered as a somewhat second- best alternative for those who were not Priests or "Religious,” (Monks, Nuns, etc.). g. *Prayer for the Sick (formerly “Extreme Unction”) is more commonly called "Last Rites." This is a special ceremony performed on those who are dying. This Sacrament may save the soul even if the other sacraments have been missed. It is important to note that, in such a sacramental system, the Eucharist becomes the chief channel of grace open for one's salvation. The Eucharist depends on the power and action of the priest. The only other channel might be the intercession of the “Saints,” though that is chancy at best, and probably ineffective if one has not received the other Sacraments, which require a priest.

C. The Center of the Church becomes the Cloister (Monastery).

1. From early in the Church’s history, *Monks followed a much stricter, ascetic lifestyle than Clergy (pastors or priests). In the West, most monks followed the Benedictine Rule, which required poverty (they could own no goods themselves), Chastity (they could not have sex, even if married), and Stability, which required obedience to their superiors. Clergy were not under these restrictions. For some

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centuries before 1122, the most effective Popes and theologians had been monks (Pope Gregory VII, Thomas Aquinas). By 1150 most of the leadership of the Church was in the hands of the monks, from the Pope on down to Bishops. After 1150 all clergy were required to be celibate in the same manner as monks, even though some leaders protested (Bernard of Clairvaux, a monk and influential Cistercian Abbott, warned of widespread immorality). Other monastic duties, such as saying the “Offices” -eight specified times of the day and night when hymns were sung and psalms, lessons, and prayers were said- were not required of Priests. 2. Monks also became the primary examples of “religious” or righteous living for the common people. Many priests were not seen as truly “holy,” in the sense of “mortifying the flesh” by an ascetic lifestyle. Furthermore, since so many priests were incapable of giving spiritual instruction because of their profound lack of education, the monks and *friars (religious who did not close themselves up in the “Cloister” of a Monastery but were free to move among the people) became the preachers and teachers for the people. Their lessons were simple and practical. As a result, the monks and friars were idolized by the people. They are seen as the truly "Religious," and the common people participate vicariously in holiness through them; monks are in some sense the "hope" of people for a good life / salvation. So, monks who are immoral seem to imperil everyone's salvation. 3. What the "Church" is comes to be defined in *sacerdotal terms. In other words, only the Pope, Bishops, priests, and the "religious" (monks & nuns) are the true Church, Bride of Christ. Everyone else can only hope to become the Bride of Christ. Thus, what the Church does is defined as what priests do, and all the things of the Church, even the worship, prayers, etc, are designed for and performed by the priests alone.

a. After about AD 1100, the People are increasingly alienated from Worship. Priests begin to "celebrate" the Mass with their backs to the people. All worship, praying, or singing was done only by the professionals (the monks of the Choir). The people were allowed only to say the “Amen” at certain points, and to kneel and receive the "Host" (the transubstantiated wafer) during the Eucharist. "Rood Screens" were generally erected to prevent the people from seeing the crucifix, the altar, or the priest. A bell was rung to let the people know when to kneel or to rise. b. The people were also alienated from the love of God. Christ was seen as the Wrathful Judge, who was not very willing to give grace, and certainly not mercy. And so, the “Blessed Virgin Mary” and the "Saints" become the objects of the people's affections, for they offered the possibility of salvation to people who did not measure up to God’s expectations.