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Several reasons can lead to the bringing up of children or child by one parent which includes marriage break-ups or death of one partner. Besides, in the past, the approach to parenting was entirely different from the one that is witnessed today. Children used to be nurtured and brought up by grandparents, parents, aunts, and close family which marked the birth of the phrase, "it takes a village to raise a child" This statement was accurate. However, with increased modernization, the "village" has shrunk and continued to disappear (Choe et al., 2013). As a result, children are no longer brought up by the community which has created a dysfunction in child development. Several studies establish that single parenthood results to significant effects on the behavioral, emotional, social, mental, and psychological outcomes of children. In other words, single parents encounter a lot of difficulties that result in a substantial bearing on the academic performance of the child.

Reason for interest in this topic

The reason why I am interested in the subject is that I have personally witnessed several children from single-parent families who experience a myriad of challenges both in their upbringing and academics. Moreover, single parents in the United States are increasing rapidly on a daily basis due to either divorce or death of one partner. In the present, about 4in every ten families are single. As a result, children from such families tend to experience many challenges ranging from behavioral and psychological disruptions that adversely impact the academic performance. These children do not receive adequate parental care and monitoring to guide them throughout their academic life such as handling homework which influences their achievement in their studies (Jeynes, 2003). Studying of this topic will thus greatly aid in identifying the impacts and challenges of single parenting, therefore establish particular mitigation approaches that can improve the well-being of single parents as well as the academic performance of children raised in such families.

Map of the themes/concepts to be evaluated

i. Theoretical literature

ii. Empirical literature

iii. Single parenting causes

iv. Impacts of single-parenthood on educational achievement of children

v. Approaches to address challenges of single parent on the children’s academic success

Literature Review

Theoretical Literature Review

According to Vygotsky’s (1978) in his cognitive development theory, all adults including teachers and parents play a major bearing on the educational success of children and students. Vygotsky pointed out that children and students who are raised by single parents face a higher risk than those raised by both parents regardless of their similar academic abilities. These children meet a lot of challenges such as inadequate parental care and love which adversely affect their concentration and academics. Wilder (2014) added that both parents and teachers should be very keen and systematic in the manner they model the attitudes and behaviors in regards to education.

Thiessen (1997) argued that students who are brought up by single parents experience a higher probability of dropping out of school for those brought up by both parents. Similarly, Amato and Keith (1991) identified those students raised by one parent face relatively more significant risks than those raised by two parents. They argued that since single parents are the bread-winners of their families, they find themselves with minimal time to assist their children with homework, institute discipline, and provide sufficient parental care and control. All these conditions results to lower academic performance (Booth & Dunn, 2013). The effect of this theory to the current research relies on the argument that the success of children in schools is determined by their initial development which is implicated by the background of their families.

Amato and Keith (1991) pointed out that productive relationship between the child and parent enhances effective parenting as well as support child/parent intimacy which improves the sense of worth in the child. Inadequate interaction among children in the single-parent families and their parents can result to the association problem that can adversely impact the efficiency of the parenting strategies, thus leading to a lot of stress to custodial parents as they thrive to fulfill their parenting roles. A close link between the child and the single parent enhances the social-emotional development of the child (Dufur et al., 2013). According to Wang & Sheikh‐Khalil (2014), they argued that it is by nature that human psyche is pleasure seeking. Single parents usually experience the pain of separation, thus can resort to risky behaviors which might be detrimental to children.

According to the theory of psychosocial developmental established by Erick (1963), if the caregiver is present, supportive, consistent, and reliable children tend to enhance their development which improves their confidence, trust, self-awareness, independence, and desire to succeed. Children and students who are brought up by single parents have similar developmental wants as other children. As such, if the single parent ensures consistency, supportive, and reliability, children will acquire attitudes of independence, self-awareness, trust, and desire to succeed.

According to the Reliance theory (1973), through the application of coping approaches and appropriate resources, single parents can overcome the difficulties that they face. Hines & Holcomb‐McCoy (2013) added that the primary objective of all individuals is to maximize their potentials as well as become the best persons they could. As such, it is not always the intention of single parents to be dysfunctional or problematic. Similar to other families, these parents strive to ensure cohesion in the family as well as support the development and growth of each member. Therefore, the theory of cognitive development is essential in this research since children tend to behave in the manner their parents do. Development of children within single families is likely to be different from those with both parents.

Regarding the above, theoretical literature, it can be noted that the theories tried to address the challenges faced by single parents as the primary effect on the academic achievement of children. It has not looked at how the design of the school or the attitudes of the students from single-parent families can also influence the academic success of children. As such, it presents the weakness of the literature. Some reports have indicated students from single-parent families to have performed better in their academics despite the challenges that they encounter. These children learn to endure difficult situation which is also transferred to the school that influences positive performance in their academics. However, the main strength of the theoretical literature review is that the authors have articulated their explanations with adequate backups efficiently.

Empirical Literature Review

The immediate impact of being brought up by a single parent is usually notable in the mental mindset and thinking of the child. Advocates and psychologist have supported this perception for a long time. Several observations and tests have concluded that single parenting makes schoolchildren more rebellious and aggressive. Therefore, these behaviors are transmitted to their educational requirements in the community. Researchers point out that the attitude could be as a result of the limitations and anger that the child experiences when growing up. As a result, these children tend to feel unaccepted, abnormal, and different (Castro et al., 2015). Typically, children who are brought up through single parenthood encounter limitations which influence their academic performance.

According to study conducted by Froiland et al. (2013) to determine the comparisons between children with both parents and single parents regarding the behavioral tendencies, it was identified that children brought up by single parents are more aggressive, less assertive, and submissive in schools which results to lower academic performance compared to children with two parents. As such, teachers, families, school counselors and administrators should be aware of the behavioral tendencies demonstrated by single-parent children.

(Ortese, 1998) pointed out that where the two parents are present, socialization and due care with children should be shown in the most efficient manner. This is so because socialization process begins with the family and depends on the efforts of both parents to provide a complementing role in the upbringing of the child. When this is assured, the child can attain self-actualization whereas others from a single-parent family can suffer denial and deprivation of particular opportunities and rights. As such it impacts the way students socialize in school. This portrays that children from two-parent families attain self-actualization, thus influence their better academic performance.

Additionally, Ortese suggested that single parents with their children require the assistance of the professional counselors who can provide reasonable advice regarding the appropriate approaches to solve small conflicts in the family. Failure of such move may be transferred into the school, therefore, impacting the academic performance of the learner. As such, it is usually a hard situation for any child to be brought up by one parent, though few of such children tend to do well in their studies. Battle (1998) added that in a family where there is no mother, and the father is not adequately privileged, the child's education would encounter similar problems. However, children who are raised by both parents tend to receive a lot of care and socialization which influence their better results in their studies.

According to Millar and Ridge (2001), usually, single mothers tend to live below the poverty line compared to single fathers. As such, economic difficulties are associated with poor academic performance and increased behavioral issues among children. Limited financial resources are also associated with residential instability which has a strong bearing on the behavioral and educational difficulties of students. Therefore, the education performance of children from single parents tends to be poor since it has been related to school drop-outs, poor attendance, and involved in risky behaviors. Additionally, families that attain their single parent status through marital dissolution are more likely to experience higher rates of family conflicts and residential instability due to change in relationships and circumstances (Millar & Ridge, 2002). As such, children who are brought up in these situations have a higher probability of encountering challenges with regard to behavioral and psychological change as well as academic achievement. Additionally, these children also fail to receive adequate control, warmth, and monitoring that can adversely impact their academic performance.

Moreover, Eamon (2005) pointed out that inadequate parenting is likely to be noted in families that experience financial challenges. Eamon identified that the parenting skills of mothers tend to go down following a divorce, and students who are exposed to such disruptions during their upbringing up experience behavioral, psychological, and academic challenges.

Nwachukwu (1998) stated that children who are brought up by single parents tend to be aggressive, hyperactive, and hostile. Nwachukwu added that although single-parent families face similar problems as those of two-parent families, they are more challenging to manage and bear when one individual is running the family. For instance, most children demonstrate hostility towards their parents as they develop and try to be self-dependant. However, in a circumstance where the rebellion and anger are channeled towards a single parent, it may appear to be worse because he or she may find it difficult to bear it unlike if they were two to share the problem. These challenges faced by single parents make it difficult for them to raise their children. Such issues may include loneliness, insecurity, poverty, and bitterness towards absent spouse about bringing up children alone without any assistance.

Moreover, Clark (2015) pointed out that there is need to address academic achievement and single-parent children. Clark identified four primary areas impacting children raised by single parents. The adult concern, acceptance, stability, and parental engagement are the areas of great interest that Clark believes as lacking in the lives of these children. She added that these children have a high possibility of school drop-outs compared to their counterparts.

Blair et al. (2014) pointed out that most single-parent families are run by mothers; therefore, the absence of a father might contribute to low income that may influence poor performance in school among the children. The lack of father may force the mother to work more to get enough money which prevents her from providing attention and guidance to the children regarding their homework. This can adversely affect the academic performance of children. The authors added that most single parents spend a lot of time working to support their families financially; thus children are neglected. These children will receive no or minimal supervision that can result in their poor performance in school (Yaw, 2016). The authors also added that it is always essential for single parents to guide their children in their homework to allow them to realize their academic weakness and suggestions for improvement.

It can be noted from the above empirical literature that most authors have just tried to address the challenges faced by single parents as the primary impact of the academic success of students. It has not looked at how the design of the school or the attitudes of the students from single-parent families can also influence the academic achievement of children. As such, it presents the weakness of the literature. Some reports have indicated students from single-parent families have performed better in their academics despite the challenges that they face. These children learn to endure difficult situation which is also transferred to the school that influences positive performance in their academics. The main strength of the empirical literature is that the arguments have been supported by enough pieces of evidence which enhance their validity.

Summary

In conclusion, the above literature review has demonstrated several previous studies that have been conducted regarding the impacts of single parenting on the educational success of children. It has pointed out the theoretical literature, empirical literature, causes of single parenting, impacts of single parenting on the educational success of children, and the mitigation approaches to address the impacts of single parenting on the academic achievement of children. Moreover, most of the theories have demonstrated single parenting challenges as the only implication on the academic success of children forgetting the design of the school to accommodate students from single parents as well as the attitudes of students towards success. Single parenting remains an issue that needs to be addressed.

References

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Amato, P. R., & Keith, B. (1991). Parental divorce and the well-being of children: a meta-analysis.

Amato, P. R., Patterson, S., & Beattie, B. (2015). Single-parent households and children’s educational achievement: a state-level analysis. Social science research, 53, 191-202.

Battle, K. (1998). Transformation: Canadian social policy since 1985. Social Policy & Administration, 32(4), 321-340.

Blair, C., Raver, C. C., & Berry, D. J. (2014). Two approaches to estimating the effect of parenting on the development of executive function in early childhood. Developmental Psychology, 50(2), 554.

Booth, A., & Dunn, J. F. (Eds.). (2013). Family-school links: How do they affect educational outcomes?. Routledge.

Castro, M., Expósito-Casas, E., López-Martín, E., Lizasoain, L., Navarro-Asencio, E., & Gaviria, J. L. (2015). Parental involvement on student academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 14, 33-46.

Choe, D. E., Olson, S. L., & Sameroff, A. J. (2013). Effects of early maternal distress and parenting on the development of children's self-regulation and externalizing behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 25(2), 437-453.

Clark, R. M. (2015). Family life and school achievement: Why poor black children succeed or fail. University of Chicago Press.

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Eamon, M. K. (2005). Social-demographic, school, neighborhood, and parenting influences on the academic achievement of Latino young adolescents. Journal of youth and adolescence, 34(2), 163-174.

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Hines, E. M., & Holcomb‐McCoy, C. (2013). Parental characteristics, ecological factors, and the academic achievement of African American males. Journal of Counseling & Development, 91(1), 68-77.

Jeynes, W. H. (2003). A meta-analysis: The effects of parental involvement on minority children’s academic achievement. Education and urban society, 35(2), 202-218.

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Thiessen, S. (1997). Effects of Single Parenting on Adolescent Academic Achievement: Establishing a Risk and Protective Factor Framework.

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Wang, M. T., & Sheikh‐Khalil, S. (2014). Does parental involvement matter for student achievement and mental health in high school?. Child Development, 85(2), 610-625.

Wilder, S. (2014). Effects of parental involvement on academic achievement: a meta-synthesis. Educational Review, 66(3), 377-397.

Yaw, L. H. (2016). The Effect of Single Parenting on Student Academic Performance in Secondary Schools in Brunei. The Social Sciences, 11(5), 698-703.