Discussion response.

The Contribution of Organized Activity to Cultural Sensitivity and Personal and Social Development: A Structural Equation Model

Junhyoung Kim • Jinmoo Heo • In Heok Lee • Wonseok Suh •

Hyangmi Kim

Accepted: 5 March 2014 / Published online: 15 May 2014 � Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

Abstract Past research has demonstrated that cross-cultural contact between members of different ethnicities and races reduces negative stereotypes and improves intergroup

relations, which contribute to a sense of cultural sensitivity. From a psychological per-

spective on cross-cultural contact, cross-cultural encounters may lead to growth experi-

ences. Participation in organized activities may develop a sense of cultural sensitivity as

well as personal and social development. Using a survey among college students, this study

was conducted utilizing structural equation model to investigate the effect of organized

activity involvement on cultural sensitivity and personal growth and social development.

The results indicate that organized activity involvement leads to a sense of cultural sen-

sitivity, such as cross-group friendships, intentions of crosscultural contacts and cultural

awareness. In addition, participation in organized activities helps facilitate personal (e.g.,

self-understanding, attitudes and self-discipline) and social development (e.g., social

relationship, social adaptations and social resources).

J. Kim Department of Recreation, Parks, and Leisure Services Administration, College of Education and Human Services, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI, USA e-mail: [email protected]

J. Heo Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

I. H. Lee Program of Workforce Education, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA

W. Suh (&) Creative Informatics & Computing Institute, Korea University, 145, Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 136-701, Republic of Korea e-mail: [email protected]

H. Kim Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA

123

Soc Indic Res (2015) 120:499–513 DOI 10.1007/s11205-014-0593-y

Keywords Cultural sensitivity � Organized activity � Personal development � Social development

1 Introduction

In light of the drastic influx of immigrants and diversity of society in the United States

(US), colleges are now characterized as culturally and ethnically diverse and, as such,

cross-cultural contact and interactions are pervasive and unavoidable for students (Fischer

2008; Raskoff and Sundeen 2001). Social psychology research on interracial contact has

explored ways to facilitate positive cross-cultural interactions and as a result of it, students

gain positive experiences such as cultural and ethnic understandings, cross-group friend-

ships, and expanded worldviews. As one strategy of improving cross-cultural contact,

researchers have emphasized the notion of cultural sensitivity, which involves cultural

knowledge and cultural and ethnic understanding (e.g., Anderson et al. 2006; Greenholtz

2005). These studies indicate that when individuals exhibit a sense of cultural sensitivity,

they are aware of cultural similarities and differences and learn and apply new cultural

perspectives on their lives. As a result, being culturally sensitive helps individuals to

develop communication skills and reduce negative stereotypes and prejudice toward

people with different cultural and ethnic backgrounds. The importance of cultural sensi-

tivity has applied into a variety of social contexts that range from health care to business to

education; this research has provided various programs, such as study abroad, cultural

competence, and cultural knowledge and awareness to improve a sense of cultural sensi-

tivity for college students (e.g., Akiba and Miller 2004; Foronda 2008; Greenholtz 2005).

Participation in organized activities may play an important role in developing a sense of

cultural sensitivity among college students. The orientation of organized activities is based

on self-determination and intrinsic motivation because any individuals can engage in any

activities based on their preferences and interests. Multiple studies have found that par-

ticipation in activities contributes to positive interracial contact and interactions such as

cross-group friendship and cultural knowledge (e.g., Astin 1993; Sáenz 2005; Shinew et al.

2004). For example, Suh and Kim (2011) investigated the relationship between partici-

pation in organized activities and cross-group friendships and found that through partici-

pating in organized activities college students established and developed a sense of cross-

group friendships. From a perspective of immigrants, Kim (2012a, b) showed that by

engaging in activities Korean female immigrants developed intimate relationships with

other ethnic groups and expanded their worldviews by gaining cultural knowledge. These

studies indicate that by participating in organized activities, college students are given to

interact with other ethnic groups, which may lead to the development of cultural

sensitivity.

Research suggests that participation in organized activities leads to personal and social

development during adolescence (e.g., Hansen et al. 2003; Larson 2000; Mohoney et al.

2005). For example, researchers report that involvement in organized activities contributes

to personal development such as self-esteem, a sense of self-directedness and empower-

ment, and self-identity (e.g., Barber et al. 2001; Larson 2000; Palen and Coatsworth 2007).

As part of social benefits as a result of organized activity participation, researchers have

demonstrated that organized activities provided a context in which adolescents gained

interpersonal relationships and communication skills, developed social integration and

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123

community connections, and expanded social networks with other ethnic groups (e.g.,

Fletcher and Shaw 2000; Hansen et al. 2003; Mohoney et al. 2001). For examples, Sax and

Astin (1997) provided evidence that in a context of organized youth sports, adolescents

developed a better understanding of racial attitudes toward different ethnic groups, which

may lead to cultural sensitivity.

In spite of benefits of organized activity participation such as cultural sensitivity and

personal and social benefits, previous research has mainly conducted a qualitative approach

to observe the effects of organized activity participation for the establishment of cross-

group friendship and cultural understandings. Little research has explored a causal and

effect relationship between participation organized activities and cultural sensitivity. In

addition, by developing cultural sensitivity, individuals may experience personal and social

development such as self-discovery, career goals, attitudes, values, social skills, and social

interactions. In this study, we mainly focused on how involvement in organized activities

leads to cultural sensitivity and personal and social development.

The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of participation in organized

activities on cultural sensitivity and personal and social development. To test the rela-

tionships among organized activity participation, cultural sensitivity, and personal and

social development, we established our hypothesized model, which follows:

Hypothesis 1 Participation in organized activities would contribute to cultural sensitivity and personal and social development.

Hypothesis 2 Cultural sensitivity would lead to personal and social development.

2 Literature Reviews

2.1 Organized Activities and Cultural Sensitivity

In a multicultural society, it is important to note that college students should develop skills

that allow them to recognize and negotiate their values, attitudes, and behaviors in a

culturally sensitive manner, because they have a line of communication and interaction

with other ethnic groups on a daily basis. Several researchers have demonstrated that

cultural sensitivity is a crucial element in enabling individuals to successfully live and

work with others from different cultural backgrounds, which contributes to positive cross-

cultural contact (Bhawuk and Brislin 1992; Landis and Bhagat 1996). Anderson et al.

(2006) have suggested that an individual’s cultural sensitivity is associated with the ability

to adapt and negotiate his or her own behavior to cultural and ethnic differences, which

leads to personal growth.

Involvement in organized activities may play an important role in developing a sense of

cultural sensitivity. In a setting of education, Astin (1993) introduced the concept of

diversity activities, such as discussions of racial issues, the creation of cultural awareness

workshops, classes focused on ethnic issues and socialization with others of different

ethnicities and cultures. By engaging in these activities, college students reported better

cultural and ethnic understanding. In addition, Sáenz (2005) showed that students who

reported a greater extent of diverse informal activities (e.g., hanging out, social conver-

sations, watching movies) with members of racial or ethnic out-groups prior to college

were likely to report having positive interracial contact and interactions during college.

Suh and Kim (2011) demonstrated a positive relationship between participation in orga-

nized activities and cross-group friendship among college students.

Intergroup Contact and Organized Activity 501

123

Using a qualitative research approach, Watkins et al. (2007) suggested that adolescents

who participated in a community youth program developed cross-group friendships,

learned about cultural and ethnic similarities and differences, and enhanced their cultural

awareness. Kim (2012a, b) conducted in-depth interviews with Korean female immigrants

and found that they developed intimate social interactions with individuals who had dif-

ferent cultural and ethnic backgrounds through recreation activities and reduced negative

stereotypes.

In a community-based activity, Shinew et al. (2004) focused on one specific type of

leisure environment, community gardens, as a potential site for positive interracial inter-

actions. Shinew et al. suggested that community gardening provided a positive context in

which individuals of different races could work together, which may in turn contribute to

enhanced interracial contact and interactions. In addition, Pinquart et al. (2000) analyzed

the improvements in attitudes of children and older adults who participated in organized

intergenerational activities, such as writing stories, making glove puppets and performing a

puppet show. This study indicated that organized intergenerational activities improved the

children’s attitudes toward older adults, which was in turn associated with an increased

frequency of positive intergenerational contact and interactions.

2.2 Organized Activities and Personal and Social Development

Research has stressed the importance of organized activity involvement as a way of

improving personal and social development of adolescents. Previous studies demon-

strated that involvement in organized activities facilitated personal exploration and self-

identity and provided clear goals and communication skills for adolescents (e.g.,

Dworkin et al. 2003; Fredricks et al. 2002). In addition, by participating in organized

activities, adolescents developed the ability to deal with various stressors and emotional

and psychological concerns such as depression and anxiety (Dworkin et al., 2003). As an

example, Shumer (1997) found that adolescents who are actively involved in volun-

teering activity report higher self-esteem and self-efficacy than those not actively

involved in volunteering activity (Conrad and Hedin 1991; Shumer 1997). In addition,

involvement in community service helped adolescents to develop social competences and

social skills and foster a sense of connectedness and attachment to the community (Yates

and Youniss 2006).

Researchers demonstrate that organized activity involvement is beneficial for expanding

social networks and developing social support from peers and community (Brown 1990;

Eccles and Templeton 2002). By interacting with other participants through organized

activities, adolescents are able to develop the ability to manage social and interpersonal

situations in various contexts and cultivate social skills and communication abilities (e.g.,

Eccles and Templeton 2002; Patrick et al. 1999). For example, adolescents who are

actively involved in school-based extracurricular activities reported that they developed

social skills and expanded social networks and supports (e.g., Eccles and Templeton 2002;

Holland and Andre, 1987; Patrick et al. 1999). In comparison with class work, Hansen

et al. (2003) stated that extracurricular activities ‘‘… are more likely to involve collabo- rative group interactions, thus affording more opportunities for the development of

teamwork skills’’ (p. 49). In addition, extracurricular activities provide a unique context

through which adolescents can develop social relationships and better understanding of

their peers from culturally and ethnically diverse groups (National Research Council 2000;

Patrick et al. 1999).

502 J. Kim et al.

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2.3 Cultural Sensitivity and Personal and Social Development

Limited literature exists on the relationships between cultural sensitivity and personal and

social development. Conceptually, Adler (1975) stated, ‘‘paradoxically, the more one is

capable of experiencing new and different dimensions of human diversity, the more one

learns of oneself’’ (p. 22). He suggested that through cross-cultural contact individuals

experience personal growth because they learn different cultural perspectives and

acknowledge cultural similarities and differences. Even a culture shock has positive effects

that foster cultural sensitivity and attainment of cultural knowledge, which lead to personal

growth (Adler 1975). In addition, Montuori and Fahim (2004) suggested that cross-cultural

contact enables individuals to explore their own cultural values and beliefs and accept

different ways of interacting and communicating with others, which contribute to personal

growth. These conceptualized papers stressed that cross-cultural contact associated with

cultural sensitivity enable individuals to develop the ability to effectively cope with new

cultural experiences and be receptive to new experiences that could lead to growth (Adler

1975; Montuori and Fahim 2004).

In two recent studies of qualitative works, Kim et al. (2012) explored how Korean

immigrant adolescents deal with adaptation difficulties and interracial contact and

interactions. They found that in spite of negative interracial contact and interactions,

they gained positive outcomes by attaining cultural knowledge, reducing negative ste-

reotypes and prejudice, and experiencing psychological thriving. In addition, Korean

female immigrants experienced psychological thriving and developed cross-group

friendships through meaningful activity participation, which led to personal growth

(Kim 2012a, b).

3 Methods

3.1 Participants

The sample for this study consisted of 606 college students who were enrolled in

business-related programs at a university in the northeastern United States during the

fall of 2005. The data were collected during the fall semester and administered with the

instructors’ assistance. Prior to the data collection process, the instructors were trained

by the study research team on how to administer the instrument. Participation in this

study was voluntary and anonymous. A total of 704 questionnaires were collected and,

after the removal of incomplete surveys that contained missing information for all

variables, 606 questionnaires (86.08 %) were used for the data analysis. Out of 606

participants, 11 cases (1.8 %) contained missing values: however, we decided to keep

these cases in this study because a few variables have missing values and the use of the

maximum likelihood estimator in structural equation modeling can readily handle

missing values.

The sample consisted of 341 males (56.3 %) and 265 females (43.7 %) whose

ages ranged from 18 to 20. Most of the participants were Caucasian (85.8 %), while

5.8 % were Asian American, 3.3 % were African American, 3.3 % were Hispanic and

1.8 % were international students. Of the participants’ parents’ educational levels,

47.3 % held bachelor’s degrees and 33.2 % had attained graduate degrees (See

Table 1).

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3.2 Measurements

3.2.1 Cultural Sensitivity

We modified LaBahn and Harich’s (1997) Cultural Sensitivity Scale (CSEN), which

focuses on cultural awareness, cross-group friendships, and intentions of cross-group

contact. A five-item scale was used and the participants rated the degree to which they

agreed or disagreed with the following statements on a scale of ‘‘1- strongly disagree’’ to

‘‘7-strongly agree.’’ Examples of these items are ‘‘A person’s culture affects his/her view

of the world, including other people,’’ ‘‘I feel generally confident in expressing my views

in a culturally mixed group,’’ and ‘‘I have friends who are culturally different from me.’’

Thus, the total score ranged from 1 to 7, which corresponded to the original 7-point scale.

A higher score indicated a higher level of ethnic and cultural understanding. Cronbach’s

alpha for all five items was .68.

3.2.2 Organized Activity

Involvement in organized activities was measured using an adaptation of the Social

Integration Scale that was developed by Pascarella and Terenzini (1980). This scale fea-

tures a 7-item questionnaire that uses a 7-point Likert scale. It has been used extensively

and is applicable to college students when measuring peer relationships and involvement in

activities, particularly school-based extracurricular and community-based activities (Kra-

emer 1997; Pascarella et al. 1986; Stage 1989). In this study, we focused on extracurricular

and community-based activities as organized activities. Prior to conducting the survey, the

third investigator conducted an educational session to explain the context of school-based

extracurricular activities offered by the institution and community-based activities (e.g.,

volunteer work) to the participants. The participants were asked, using two questions, to

rate the degree to which they agreed or disagreed with the following statements on a scale

of ‘‘1-strongly disagree’’ to ‘‘7-strongly agree’’: (a) ‘‘While attending the university, I

participated in school-based extracurricular activities’’ and (b) ‘‘While attending the uni-

versity, I engaged in community-based activities.’’ Cronbach’s alpha for the two items was

.78.

Table 1 Frequencies of partici- pant characteristics

Characteristics n %

Gender

Male 341 56.3

Female 265 43.7

Race

Caucasian 515 85.0

African American 20 3.3

Asian 35 5.8

Hispanic 20 3.3

International student 11 1.8

Parents’ education

High school 113 18.7

College 286 47.2

Graduate school 201 33.2

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3.2.3 Personal Development

We modified the scales developed by Terenzini et al. (1984) in order to measure personal

development. This questionnaire has been used widely to measure personal development

(e.g., self-discovery, career goals, attitudes, values and coping) among college students

(Starrfield 1992; Terenzini et al. 1984; Toutkoushian and Smart 2001; Volkwein, 2010). A

three-item scale asked the participants to rate the degree to which they agreed or disagreed

with the following statements on a scale of ‘‘1—strongly disagree’’ to ‘‘7—strongly

agree:’’ ‘‘My university experiences made an important contribution to my development

of: (a) ‘self-understanding,’ (b) ‘self-discipline’ and (c) ‘a mature attitude.’’’ A higher

score indicated a higher level of personal development. The Cronbach’s alpha for these

three items was .91.

3.2.4 Social Development

In order to assess social development, the participants completed a four-item scale. This scale

was used to measure how the individuals understood the views of others, managed social

situations and located social support systems (Graham and Cockriel 1997; Pascarella and

Terenzini 1991). The participants were asked to rate the degree to which they agreed or

disagreed with the following statements on a scale of ‘‘1—strongly disagree’’ to ‘‘7—strongly

agree’’: (a) ‘‘My educational experience in university contributed to the development of my

understanding of others and their views,’’ (b) ‘‘My educational experience at the university

contributed to my ability to identify resources when needed,’’ (c) ‘‘My educational experience

at the university contributed to my ability to successfully manage social relationships’’ and

(d) ‘‘My educational experience at the university contributed to my ability to adapt to a variety

of social situations.’’ The Cronbach’s alpha for these four items was .90.

3.3 Data Analysis

A structural equation modeling approach was used to examine the relationships between

cultural and ethnic understanding, organized activities and personal growth in our model.

We estimated the model using Mplus 6.0 with robust maximum likelihood estimation.

Using the selected fix indices with prior acceptable criteria for model fit (e.g., v-square statistics, standardized root mean square residual [SRMR] B .08, root mean square error of

approximation [RMSEA] B .08, comparative fit index [CFI] C .95 and Tucker-Lewis

index [TLI] C .90), we assessed whether the model fit the data well (Hu and Bentler 1995,

1999). After evaluating the measurement model that identified the relationships between

Table 2 Cut off criteria and observed indices for the model fit

Indexes Cut-off criterion a

Result Fit

Measurement model Structural model

v2 – 150.997 (df = 71) 150.998 (df = 71) No

TLI 0.90–1.00 .959 .959 Yes

SRMR \0.08 or \0.1 .038 .038 Yes RMSEA \0.06 .043 .043 Yes CFI C0.95 .968 .968 Yes

a Recommended by Hu and Bentler (1995, 1999)

Intergroup Contact and Organized Activity 505

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the observed and latent variables, we examined the hypothesized relationships among the

constructs.

4 Results

The overall fit indices for the measurement and structural models suggested that the models

fit the data well (see Table 2). All of the parameter estimates and the signs on the

parameters were consistent with the hypotheses. In addition, the measurement error vari-

ances for the observed variables were reasonable. However, the measurement error vari-

ances for the observed variables were somewhat large when used to identify cultural

sensitivity, indicating that the proportion of the observed variability in the cultural sen-

sitivity explained by the underlying construct ranged from 25 to 43 %. Also, the modifi-

cation indices did not suggest any significant addition to the model. The parameter

estimates and standard errors are reported in Table 3.

An alternative model of explaining the influence of organized activity on three

endogenous factors, cultural sensitivity, personal and social development, was also tested

and compared to the hypothesized model. The lowest AIC and BIC values

(DAIC = 113.293 and DBIC = 100.072) and overall fit indices (CFI = .931, TLI = .915, RMSEA = .062, and SRMR = .052) for the alternative model suggested that the

hypothesized model was a better model than the alternative model. Thus, the current study

adopted the initially hypothesized model.

For the structural portion of the model, all of the path coefficients were significant and

the parameters had positive signs in accordance with our hypotheses (see Fig. 1). Orga-

nized activities were significantly associated with cultural sensitivity (.155), which was

also in line with our hypotheses and indicated that individuals who were more highly

involved in organized activities than their counterparts were more likely to show a higher

level of cultural sensitivity. As hypothesized, personal (.232) and social development

(.353) increased with participation in organized activities. That is, the more a college

student was involved in organized activities, the more likely he/she was to demonstrate a

higher level of personal growth and social development. Although the strength of cultural

sensitivity for personal and social growth was relatively weak compared to that of orga-

nized activity involvement, it was still able to positively predict personal (.173) and social

development (.177). More specifically, the magnitude of the standardized estimate for

organized activities on personal development was approximately three times greater than

for cultural sensitivity on personal growth, while the magnitude of the organized activities’

standardized estimate on social development was two times greater than that of cultural

sensitivity.

5 Discussion

This study was an initial exploration of the cause and effect relationships among organized

activity involvement, cultural sensitivity, and personal and social development. The current

study showed that involvement in organized activities contributed to cultural sensitivity,

such as intent for intergroup contact, the formation of cross-group friendships and cultural

awareness. The results of this study demonstrated that organized activity participation led

to personal and social development and cultural sensitivity also contributed to personal and

social development. Cultural sensitivity developed through participating in organized

506 J. Kim et al.

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Table 3 Robust maximum likelihood estimates for a measurement model

Parameter Unstandardized estimate

SE t Standardized estimate

Factor loadings

Social development (SD) by

SD1 0.812 .050 16.160 .711

SD2 0.758 .052 14.679 .660

SD3 1.069 .051 21.010 .870

SD4 1.037 .057 18.136 .843

Organized activity (OA) by

OA1 1.323 .101 13.065 .743

OA2 1.488 .107 13.918 .697

Cultural sensitivity (CS) by

CS1 0.754 .084 8.927 .504

CS2 0.567 .064 8.880 .552

CS3 0.772 .063 12.211 .653

CS4 0.710 .063 11.292 .570

CS5 0.790 .064 12.418 .605

Personal development (PD) by

PD1 1.183 .053 22.421 .885

PD2 1.264 .046 27.499 .886

PD3 1.198 .052 22.994 .896

Measurement error variances

SD1 0.647 .066 9.863 .495

SD2 0.742 .067 11.067 .564

SD3 0.367 .065 5.660 .243

SD4 0.438 .059 7.480 .290

OA 1 1.418 .248 5.728 .448

OA 2 2.350 .295 7.957 .515

CS1 1.672 .167 9.991 .746

CS2 0.731 .070 10.482 .695

CS3 0.803 .086 9.334 .574

CS4 1.049 .113 9.296 .675

CS5 1.082 .107 10.124 .634

PD1 0.389 .044 8.857 .217

PD2 0.438 .048 9.196 .215

PD3 0.351 .066 5.284 .196

Factor variance and covariance

SD 1.000

OA 1.000

CS 1.000

PD 1.000

SD $ OA 0.422 .051 8.296 .422 SD $ CS 0.264 .061 4.291 .264 SD $ PD 0.662 .036 18.191 .662

Intergroup Contact and Organized Activity 507

123

activities helped college students to develop self-understanding, self-discipline and atti-

tudes and improve social skills and the ability to deal with various social situations.

Previous conceptualized and qualitative studies (e.g., Astin 1993; Kim 2012a, b; Shinew

et al. 2004; Watkins et al. 2007) explored the value of organized activity involvement for

cross-group friendship and positive interracial contact and interactions. This study expands

the scope of these studies that by participating in organized activities college students

developed a sense of cultural sensitivity. The results of this study indicate that as a result of

participating in organized activities college students are provided an opportunity to interact

with other ethnic groups, developed cross-group friendships, and gain cultural awareness.

Social psychologists have stressed the importance of cross-group friendships and cul-

tural awareness to improve intergroup contact and interactions (e.g., Emerson et al. 2002;

Levin et al. 2003). They found that cross-group friendships allowed individuals to reduce

negative stereotypes and enhance cultural and ethnic understandings. The result of this

study provides an insight that organized activity participation is used as a means of

Table 3 continued

Parameter Unstandardized estimate

SE t Standardized estimate

OA $ CSe 0.272 .058 4.673 .272 OA $ PD 0.425 .049 8.625 .425 CS $ PD 0.220 .050 4.360 .220

* p \ .05; ** p \ .01

Fig. 1 Structural model for cultural sensitivity. Note. Estimates are reported unstandardized, standard error in parentheses, and standardized. Standardized estimates for error variances are proportions of unexplained variance. *p \ .05; **p \ .01

508 J. Kim et al.

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developing cross-group friendships and gaining cultural knowledge. As a result, individ-

uals have more intentions to interact with other ethnic groups.

This study extends prior research that in a context of organized activities positive cross-

cultural contact has allowed individuals to reduce negative stereotypes and prejudice

(Emerson et al. 2002; Pettigrew and Tropp 2006; 2008). According to Pettigrew (1998),

finding previously unnoticed similarities and differences in cross-cultural contact helps

individuals reduce negative views of the out-group and increase positive feelings. The

results of this study indicate that organized activity involvement provides opportunities

through which participants can be exposed to extended social interactions as a result of a

cross-group friendship circle. Upon further analysis of this finding, it can be argued that the

context of organized activities may be associated with a reduction of negative stereotypes

due to cross-group friendship and positive cross-cultural contact. In addition, this study

suggests that individuals who establish cross-group friendships may be culturally sensitive

and have more openness and insight in regard to interacting with other groups whose

members belong to different ethnicities.

Previous research has suggested that intergroup contact may be stressful to both in- and

out-group members (Mallett et al. 2008; Plant and Sachs-Ericsson 2004; Richeson et al.

2007). In particular, some African Americans have negative experiences associated with

racial and cultural differences, which cause contact avoidance (Feagin 1992; Major et al.

2002; Mendoza-Denton et al. 2002). Thus, during cross-cultural contact, individuals of

different ethnic and cultural backgrounds and uncertainty about cultural differences may

experience stress related to cultural and ethnic differences. In spite of the negative con-

sequences of cross-cultural contact, a growing body of literature has provided evidence to

show that people can experience psychological growth, including improved self-esteem,

the perception of positive personal changes, strengthened relationships and a deepening of

spiritual beliefs as a result of stress (Park et al. 1996; Tedeschi et al. 1998). Our study

supports the literature reviews presented by Adler (1975) and Montuori and Fahim (2004),

which stated that growth occurs as a result of cross-cultural contact. Our results reveal that

cultural sensitivity via organized activities provides opportunities for personal and social

development. It seems that individuals who engage in organized activities are more likely

to understand their own values, attitudes and goals and understand themselves better, as

well as experience positive social outcomes (e.g., the ability to manage social situations,

understand others’ views and locate social support mechanisms). Therefore, this finding

extends the idea that regardless of the positive or negative outcomes that result from cross-

cultural contact, cultural sensitivity as a result of organized activity involvement serves as

an important facilitator of growth experiences such as personal and social development.

A growing body of research suggests that organized activity involvement is positively

associated with personal and social development among young adults (Hansen et al. 2003;

Larson 2000). Other researchers have demonstrated the association between organized

youth involvement and social development, including interpersonal gains, peer support,

social integration and community ties (Hansen et al. 2003; Mohoney et al. 2001). This

study extends the body of literature that organized activities contribute to personal and

social development.

5.1 Limitations

The current study is limited in several respects. First, the study only focused on organized

activity involvement, such as school-based extracurricular and community service activi-

ties. However, the implications of activity involvement may differ depending on the type

Intergroup Contact and Organized Activity 509

123

of activity. Future studies should explore the relationships between other types of recre-

ational activities and personal and social growth. Also, additional information on how

involvement in extracurricular activities differed from involvement in community service

activities in regard to growth would provide further insight into this complex process. It

may be helpful for researchers to employ a combination of qualitative and quantitative

research methods in order to better understand how these two types of activities affect

personal and social growth separately.

Another limitation was that it was a challenge to understand how the participants’

experiences that were related to organized activity participation helped intergroup

understanding and relations. It may be helpful for researchers to employ a combination of

qualitative research methods and quantitative research techniques in order to help readers

better understand how individuals’ involvement influences their cross-cultural contact and

cultural and ethnic understandings.

Additionally, most of the participants in this study were Caucasian (86 %). It would be

helpful if future research included a more diverse sample so that the perceptions of other

typically underrepresented groups could be examined.

When interpreting the results, it should be noted that the magnitudes of some indices

(e.g., cultural sensitivity for personal and social growth) in our structural model are weak.

This study was conducted in 2005, and it is possible that the attitudes and perspectives of

our sample may not be the best reflections of that of current college students.

The last limitation was that this study failed to provide a context of organized activities

in relation to cross-cultural contact. It is unclear to articulate that participants would

engage in organized activities in a heterogeneous leisure context. Future research is sug-

gested to explore the characteristics of organized activities related to cross-cultural

contacts.

6 Conclusions

Organized activities make a contribution to cultural sensitivity, which eventually leads to

personal and social development. A variety of activities may provide positive atmospheres

in which participants interact with others and develop a sense of cultural negotiation. In

addition, organized activities can foster positive views of cultural differences, facilitate the

development of meaningful relationships, create opportunities through which participants

can discover interpersonal similarities and promote friendships between individuals who

have different ethnic, racial and/or cultural backgrounds. Therefore, leisure professionals

need to consider the value of leisure activities as a method of developing cultural sensi-

tivity and personal and social development.

References

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An analysis of motives. Small Group Research, 35(6), 623–642. Anderson, P. H., Lawton, L., Rexeisen, R. J., & Hubbard, A. C. (2006). Short-term study abroad and

intercultural sensitivity: A pilot study. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30, 457–469. Astin, A. W. (1993). Diversity and multiculturalism on campus: How are students affected? Change, 25(2),

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