6-1 neuropsych

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The Brain Function of Learning and Memory

Development of Learning and Memory in Childhood

A memory is typically described as a lasting brain representation. Memories are reflected in both thoughts and behaviors. Learning is the process by which one acquires or creates these representations. The neural structures and processes associated with learning and memory develop throughout childhood.

There are many ways to categorize the different types of memory and processes. There are three types of memory at the most basic level: sensory memory (short, sense-specific), short-term memory (about 30 seconds long), and long-term memory (indefinite duration). Memory can also be divided into verbal or visual memory systems. Autobiographical memory is a memory of events in one’s life. It can be divided into remote (from the distant past), recent, and prospective (things that have not yet occurred, like tasks people need to do the next day).

Long-term memory can be divided into explicit (declarative) and implicit (procedural) memory systems. Marked declarative memory advances occur during the first two to three years of life. Declarative memory (explicit memory) involves memories that can be recalled consciously. These include memories of facts and information (semantic memory) and memories of events and experiences (episodic memory). Even newborns may have some declarative memory. Studies indicate that newborns prefer their mother’s voice at less than three days of age. However, declarative memory improves dramatically over the first few years. This improvement is because structures, including the hippocampus and the structures on the parahippocampal gyrus, become more mature (Jackson et al., 2020).

Procedural memory (implicit memory) involves more unconscious processes. These include using earlier experience to improve task performance. This type of memory allows us to do everyday tasks without consciously thinking about them. For example, these everyday tasks include tying shoes or riding a bicycle. Procedural memory is present early since it involves brain structures that mature very early. These include the striatum, cerebellum, and brain stem. Procedural memory also relies less on verbal skills, which develop later in childhood.

Working memory refers to the dynamic nature of short-term memory. It is seen when doing mental calculations. Working memory improves significantly from about four years of age through adolescence. As children proceed through elementary and middle school, their working memory tasks improve (Forsberg et al., 2021). These changes allow them to perform increasingly complex tasks with greater reliance on working memory.

Three processes are important to understanding learning and memory. Encoding is the process of learning or acquiring information in short-term memory stores. Storage refers to consolidating or moving information into long-term memory storage. Retrieval is the process of pulling information from long-term memory. All these processes can be disrupted by brain damage or delayed development. Vast improvements in long-term memory processes occur during childhood. In the preschool years, children learn categorization. They can generalize and organize information. They gain knowledge that becomes part of their long-term memory. During the school-age years, children experience tremendous growth in their foundation of knowledge. Their processing becomes increasingly efficient, enabling them to quickly encode, organize, and store knowledge. More mature memory functions are seen in improvements in memory tasks throughout childhood and adolescence.

The use of memory strategies also matures during childhood. Memory strategies are important in enhancing information recall. Preschoolers use very simple strategies, such as verbally naming and visually examining things. By about age seven, children become more aware of memory and start to use strategies such as categorizing and rehearsal. Later, in elementary school and into adolescence, children become more organized and begin to use semantic structure to aid memory. They also begin to use more mature rehearsal techniques.

References

Forsberg, A., Blume, C. L., & Cowan, N. (2021). The development of metacognitive accuracy in working memory across childhood. Developmental Psychology, 57(8), 1297–1317. https://doi-org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/10.1037/dev0001213

Jackson, E., Leitao, S., Claessen, M., & Boyes, M. (2020). Working, declarative, and procedural memory in children with developmental language disorder. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 63(12), 4162. https://doi-org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/10.1044/2020_JSLHR-20-00135