Order #483877 Topic: [Revision] Arts Patronage in the Renaissance Era

The Life ofFilippo Brunelleschi, Sculptor and Architect

[1377-1446]

Nature has created many men who are small and insignificant in appearance but who arc endowed with spirits so full of greatness and hearts of such boundless courage that they have no peace until they undertake difficult and almost impossible tasks and bring them to completion, to the astonishment of those who witness them. No matter how vile or base these projects may be, when opportunity puts them into the hands of such men, they become valuable and lofty enterprises.

Thus, we should never turn up our noses when we meet people who in their physical appearance do not possess the initial grace and beauty that Nature should bestow upon skil- ful artisans when they come into the world, for without a doubt veins of gold are hidden beneath the sod. And many times those with poor features develop such great generosity of spirit and sincerity of heart that when nobility of soul is joined to these qualities, the greatest miracles may be ex- pected of them, for they work to embellish ugliness of body with strength of intellect. This can be clearly seen in Filippo di Ser Brunellesco, who was no less ill-favoured in appearance than Forese da Rabatta and Giotto,* but whose genius was so lofty that it might well be said he had been sent to us by Heaven to give a new form to architecture which had been going astray for hundreds of years; the men of those times had spent many fortunes badly, constructing buildings with no sense of order, bad methods, poor design, bizarre inventions, a shameful lack of grace, and the worst kinds of decoration. And since the world had existed for so many years without such a remarkable mind and such a divine spirit, Heaven willed that Filippo should leave behind him the

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I I I I

greatest, tallest, and most beautiful structure of all those built in modern times as well as in antiquity, demonstrating that the genius of Tuscan artisans, although it had been lost, was not completely dead.* Heaven also endowed Filippo with the highest virtues, among which was that of friend- ship, so that there never existed a man more kind or loving than he. In his judgement he was dispassionate, and when- ever he considered the measure of another man's merits, he set aside his own interest or that of his friends. He knew himself and communicated the degree of his own talent to others, and he was always ready to help a neighbour in need, declaring himself a confirmed enemy of vice and an admirer of those who practised virtue. He never wasted his time but was always striving to assist his friends, either by himself or with the help of others, and he went about visiting his friends and always supporting them.

It is said that in Florence there lived a man of excellent reputation, with many praiseworthy habits and industrious in his affairs, whose name was Ser Brunellesco di Lippo Lapi, whose grandfather, called Cambio, was an educated person and the son of a physician, Master Ventura Bacherini, who was very famous in those days.* Brunellesco married a very well-bred woman from the noble Spini family, and as part of her dowry she brought him a house, where he and his sons lived until their death, which is situated just opposite San Michele Berteldi on the side in a corner past the Piazza degli Agli. There he -worked and lived happily until the year 1377,* when a son was born to him, whose birth made him as happy as could be imagined and to whom he gave the name of Filippo, after his dead father. In his early years, the father diligently taught his son the rudiments of letters, in which the boy showed himself to be so clever and of such a lofty intellect that he often kept his mind detached, as if he did not intend to perfect himself in such matters. On the contrary, it seemed as if his mind were turned to matters of greater utility, with the result that Ser Brunellesco—who wanted his son to fol- low his own profession, that of notary, or that of his great- great-grandfather—was very displeased. Nevertheless, since his father observed his son to be continuously attracted to

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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112 F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I

ingenious matters of art and mechanics, he had him learn to use the abacus and to write; and then he apprenticed him in the goldsmith's craft so that he might learn the art of design with a friend of his. And this greatly satisfied Filippo, who began to learn and to practise the various aspects of this craft, and not many years had passed before he could mount precious stones better than the older artisans in the trade. He tried his hand at niello* and worked upon larger pieces, such as some half-length silver figures of prophets placed at the head of the altar of the church of San Jacopo in Pistoia, which he executed for the trustees of the Works Department of that city's cathedral and which are considered most beautiful. He also worked on objects in bas-relief, demonstrating such a pro- found understanding of this craft that it •was inevitable his mind would surpass the boundaries of this profession. Thus, after taking some training with certain learned men, he began to speculate over matters of time and motion, weights and wheels, how they could be made to turn and how they moved, and as a result, he created with his own hands a num- ber of very fine and very beautiful clocks.

Not satisfied with this, there arose in his heart the desire to do sculpture on the largest scale. And this occurred later, for since the young Donatello was reputed to be talented in this art and to show great promise, Filippo began to keep his company constantly, and such great affection grew up be- tween them due to the talent each possessed that it seemed as if they could not live -without each other. And so Filippo, who was very skilled in many things, worked at many professions, and he did not work in them long before he was considered by people with some understanding of these matters to be a most excellent architect, as he demonstrated in his techniques for decorating and restoring houses: for instance, on the corner of the Ciai family facing towards the Old Market, he did a great deal of work at the home of Apollonio Lapi, one of his relatives, where he -worked while it was being built. And he did much the same thing outside of Florence for the tower and house of the Petraia at Castello. In the Palazzo della Signoria, he arranged and partitioned all those rooms where the office of the officials of the Monte* was located, and he constructed the

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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FILIPPO B R U N E L L E S C H I 113

doors and windows in a style derived from that of antiquity but which was then not widely used, since architecture was in a very crude state in Tuscany.*

Then, the friars of Santo Spirito wanted him to carve a lime-wood statue of the penitent Saint Mary Magdalene to place in a chapel, and since Filippo had done a number of small things in sculpture, he was anxious to demonstrate that he could succeed in works of a larger scale and agreed to do the figure. When it was completed and put in place, it was considered very beautiful, but in the subsequent fire in that church during the year 1471, it was burned along with many other important objects.

Filippo paid great attention to perspective, then very badly employed as a result of the many errors made in using it. He wasted a great deal of time in this but finally discovered by himself a means by which it could be done correctly and per- fectly—that is, by tracing it with a ground-plan and profile with intersecting lines, a discovery truly very ingenious and useful to the art of design. He took such delight in perspective that he drew a sketch of Piazza San Giovanni,* which shows all the divisions of the black-and-white marble inlay diminish- ing with a singular gracefulness, and in a similar way he drew the house of the Misericordia with the shops of the daldone makers* and the arch of the Pecori, with the column of Saint Zenobius on the other side. Since this work was praised by the artisans and those who possessed good judgement in this craft, it encouraged him so much that before long he began another, and he drew the Palace, Piazza, and Loggia of the Signoria along with the roof of the Pisani and all the surrounding buildings. These works kindled the spirits of other artisans who studied them afterwards with careful attention.

In particular, Filippo taught perspective to Masaccio, a young painter and his very close friend at the time, who then honoured his teacher by what he displayed in the buildings he painted in his •works. It only remained for him to teach his method to those who worked in tarsia, which is the craft of inlaying coloured pieces of wood, and he stimulated these artisans so much that they developed excellent procedures and useful techniques from his teaching, for both then and

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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114 F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I

afterwards many excellent works brought fame and profit to Florence for many years.

One evening Messer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli* returned from his work and happened to be in his garden having supper •with some of his friends, and he invited Filippo to join them. Having listened to him discussing the mathematical sciences, Filippo struck up such a friendship with Paolo that he learned geometry from him. And although Filippo was not a learned man, he was able to argue everything so well from his own practice and experience that he confounded Paolo on many occasions. And thus, Filippo continued to study, working on matters of Christian scripture, not hesitating to intervene in the disputations and sermons of learned men and profiting so much from his remarkable memory that Messer Paolo, in praising him, used to say that when he heard Filippo argue, he thought he was listening to a new Saint Paul. He also spent a great deal of this period working on matters relating to Dante, coming to understand the places Dante mentioned and their dimensions so well that he would often use Dante to make comparisons and cite the poem in his arguments. His mind was constantly grinding out and thinking up ingenious and difficult problems. Nor could he have found anyone whose intelligence satisfied him more than Donatello, with whom he held friendly conversations, both men taking pleasure in each other's company, as they conferred together on the problems of their trade.

Now, in those days Donatello had finished a wooden crucifix which -was placed in Florence's church of Santa Croce under the scene of the young boy resurrected by Saint Francis painted in fresco by Taddeo Gaddi, and Donatello wanted to hear Filippo's opinion of it. But he regretted having asked, for Filippo replied that he had placed a peasant on the cross, which gave birth to the popular saying that is discussed at length in the life of Donatello: 'Take some wood and make one yourself.' As a result, even though Filippo never lost his temper over things that were said to him, no matter what the provocation, he remained silent for many months while he executed a wooden crucifix of the same dimensions and excellence and worked with great artistry, design and care.

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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P I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I 115

And so he sent Donatello to his home ahead of him almost as a joke (since Donatello did not know that Filippo had executed such a work), and while he gazed at it, Donatello dropped the apron he was wearing filled with eggs and things they had intended to eat together, carried away by his astonishment and by the ingenious and artistic style Filippo had employed in the legs, torso, and arms of the figure, all arranged and combined in such a fashion that besides declaring himself beaten, Donatello proclaimed the •work to be a miracle. Today this crucifix is in Santa Maria Novella between the Strozzi Chapel and the Bardi da Vernia Chapel and is still praised to the skies by modern artists. The talents of these truly distinguished masters were so apparent that they were commissioned by the Butchers' Guild and the Linen-Drapers' Guild to sculpt two marble figures to be placed in their niches on the sides of Orsanmichele. Filippo left the statues for Donatello to do alone, since he had taken on other responsibilities, and Donatello executed them perfectly.*

After this, in 1401, it was decided, since sculpture had reached such heights, to redo the two bronze doors of the Church and the Baptistery of San Giovanni, since from Andrea Pisano's death until that time no masters existed who knew how to execute them. As a result, these intentions were made known to the sculptors then living in Tuscany, and they •were summoned and given an allowance and a year's time to complete a single scene. Among those summoned were Filippo and Donatello in competition with Lorenzo Ghibcrti, Jacopo della Fonte [QuerciaJ, Simone da Colle, Francesco di Valdambrino, and Niccolo d'Arezzo, each of whom was to execute a scene on his own. The scenes were completed in the same year and put on display for comparison, and they were all very beautiful, each one different from the others. Donatello's scene was well designed but poorly executed; the one by Jacopo was well designed and carefully executed but lacked the diminishing of the figures which properly divides the scenes; Francesco di Valdambrino's scene, given the man- ner in which he had executed it, reflected a poverty of inven- tion and figures; and the worst of all were those by Niccolo d'Arezzo and Simone da Colle. The best was that by Lorenzo

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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Il6 F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I

di Clone Ghiberti. It possessed design, care, inventiveness, skill, and figures which were well worked out. Nor was Filippo's scene much inferior to it, for in it he had represented Abraham sacrificing Isaac, along with a servant who, while waiting for Abraham near an ass grazing, pulls a thorn from his foot, a detail which deserves considerable praise. When the scenes were placed on display, Filippo and Donatello were satisfied only with the one by Lorenzo, and they judged him to be more suitable for this project than either they or the artisans who had created the other scenes. And so they persuaded the consuls with sound arguments to commission the project to Lorenzo, demonstrating in this fashion how the public and private interests might best be served, and this was certainly the true fruit of friendship, talent without envy, and sound judgement of their own abilities, for which they deserved more praise than if they had brought the project to perfection themselves. What happy spirits are those who, while helping one another, also take pleasure in praising the labour of others! How unhappy arc the artisans of our own times who, while doing harm to others, are eaten up by envy in attacking them when they cannot vent their malice!

The consuls begged Filippo to work on the project along with Lorenzo, but he did not wish to do so, intending instead to be first in a single craft rather than equal or second in this •work. And so he gave the scene, which he had executed in bronze, to Cosimo de' Medici, who, with the passing of time, had it set up in the Old Sacristy of San Lorenzo on the back of the altar, -where it is today, and Donatello's scene -was given to the Money-Changers' Guild.*

After the commission had been given to Lorenzo Ghiberti, Filippo and Donatello met and decided to leave Florence together and to stay in Rome for several years, Filippo studying architecture and Donatello sculpture. Filippo did so because he wished to surpass both Lorenzo and Donatello, believing that architecture was more necessary for man's needs than sculpture or painting. He sold a small farm that he possessed in Settignano and left Florence to go to Rome.* Upon seeing the grandeur of the buildings and the perfection of the remains of the temples, he stood there so engrossed

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I I i y

in thought that he seemed beside himself with amazement. And so, Filippo and Donatello arranged to take the meas-

urements of the cornices and to sketch out the ground-plans of these buildings, constantly working without sparing either time or expense. They left no spot unvisited, either within Rome or out in the countryside, and, in so far as they could, they took the measurements of everything of any worth. And since Filippo was free from domestic concerns, he abandoned himself to his studies and did not worry about eating or sleep- ing; his only concern was the architecture, which was already in ruins, that is, the good ancient orders and not the barbarous German style which was frequently employed in his times.* And Filippo conceived two grandiose ideas: the first was to bring good architecture back to light, since he believed that if he did this, he would leave behind him no less a reputation than Cimabue or Giotto; the other was to find a means, if he could, to raise the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. The difficulties of accomplishing this were such that no one after the death of Arnolfo Lapi* had enough courage to attempt the feat without expending an enormous sum for a wooden frame. Filippo, however, never confided his thoughts to Donatello or to any living soul, nor did he cease working in Rome until he had pondered all the problems related to the Pantheon and how it might have been vaulted. He had exam- ined and sketched all the vaultings of antiquity and studied them continually. And if by chance he and Donatello found buried fragments of capitals, columns, cornices, and supports for buildings, they •would set to work and have them exca- vated to reach the foundations. As a result, rumours spread around Rome, and as they passed through the streets carelessly dressed, the people called them the 'treasure-hunters', because they believed they were practising geomancy* in order to locate buried treasure. The reason for this was that one day they uncovered an ancient earthenware pot full of medals.

Filippo was short of money and went about meeting his expenses by setting very precious gems for his goldsmith friends, and since Donatello had returned to Florence, he thus remained alone in Rome, and -with even greater study and toil than before he continued training himself by observing the

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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Il8 F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I

ruins of these buildings. He did not rest until there was no sort of building he had not sketched: round, square, and octagonal temples, basilicas, aqueducts, baths, arches, coliseums, amphi- theatres, and every kind of brick temple, extracting from all this the methods employed in girding and securing the walls and in constructing the arches of the vaults, as well as all the means of joining stones by hinging and dovetailing. When he investigated the fact that all the huge stones had acute-angled holes underneath in the middle, he discovered that it was for the iron instrument we call the ulivella, with which the stones were hoisted, and he reintroduced this technique and brought it back into use once again. Then he classified the various architectural orders one by one: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. And his studies were so intense that his mind was capable of imagining how Rome once appeared even before the city fell into ruins.

The air of the city caused Filippo a slight problem in the year 1407, and, advised by his friends to seek a change of climate, he returned to Florence. There, in his absence, many building projects had suffered, and upon his arrival he pro- vided many plans and much advice. During the same year,* the trustees of the Works Department of Santa Maria del Fiore and the consuls of the Wool Guild called together local architects and engineers to discuss the method of vaulting the dome. The group included Filippo, and he advised them that it was necessary to remove the roof from the building and to avoid following Arnolfo's plan. He suggested that they should instead construct a frieze fifteen armslengths in height and make a large eye in the middle of each side, since besides taking off the supports of the dome it could thus be vaulted more easily. Models were accordingly planned and built.

One morning, a few months after recovering from his illness, Filippo was standing in the piazza of Santa Maria del Fiore with Donatello and some other artisans, discussing matters relating to ancient sculpture. Donatello was telling how, as he returned from Rome, he had taken the road through Orvieto to see the famous marble fagade of the Duomo which was constructed by several different masters and in those times considered a remarkable work. And he

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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added that while passing through Cortona, he entered a parish church and saw an extremely beautiful ancient tombstone upon which there was a scene carved in marble, a very rare thing in those days, since the abundance of antiquities we enjoy today had not yet been unearthed. Donatello continued, describing the method the ancient master had employed in creating that work, and the finesse which it displayed along with the perfection and excellence of its workmanship. This aroused in Filippo such a burning desire to sec it that dressed just as he was, in his cloak, hood, and wooden clogs, without telling anyone where he was going, he went off on foot and willingly allowed himself to be carried off to Cortona by his love for the art of sculpture. And when he had seen and enjoyed the tombstone, he sketched it with his pen, and then, taking his drawing, he returned to Florence, •without Donatello or anyone else realizing that he had even left, since they thought he must be drawing plans or dreaming up some project.

When he returned to Florence, he showed them the sketch of the tombstone he had drawn with such great care. Donatello was greatly amazed by it, since he could see how much love Filippo had for the art of sculpture. Filippo then remained for many months in Florence, where he secretly executed models and mechanisms for work on the dome but still spent time joking with the other artisans. It was then that he played the practical joke of the Fat Man and Mattco,* and often amused himself by going to help Lorenzo Ghiberti pol- ish something on his doors. But Filippo had heard that there •was some discussion of making provisions for engineers to vault the dome [of Santa Maria del Fiore], and one morning his fantasy moved him to return to Rome because he thought his reputation would increase if he had to be sought after in a place other than Florence. Therefore, while Filippo was in Rome, the project was studied, and his exceptionally sharp mind was recalled, since he had demonstrated in his argu- ments a certainty and courage which had not been found in the other masters, who were standing around with the masons, bewildered, having lost their confidence, and believ- ing they could never discover a method of vaulting the dome,

L . O . T . A . - 7

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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I 2 O F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I

nor beams Co construct a framework strong enough to support the reinforcement and weight of such a gigantic structure. Determined to see the project through to its conclusion, they wrote to Filippo in Rome and begged him to return to Florence. And since he wished for nothing else, Filippo very graciously returned.

Upon his arrival, the trustees of the Works Department of Santa Maria del Fiore and the consuls of the Wool-Makers' Guild assembled and explained to Filippo all of the diffi- culties—from the largest down to the smallest—which their workmen were encountering, and since the artisans were pres- ent at the meeting along with the others, Filippo spoke these words:

Honourable Trustees, there is no doubt that difficulties always arise in the execution of great projects, and if ever an undertaking presented problems, this plan of yours presents more perplexing ones than perhaps even you imagine. For I do not know if the ancients ever put up a vault as awesome as this one, and I have thought many times about the reinforcements required both outside and inside, so that we can work safely on the project, but I have never been able to make up my mind: the width of the structure discourages me no less than the height. If the dome could be rounded, we might employ the technique employed by the Romans when they vaulted the Pantheon in Rome—that is, the Rotunda—but here we must pursue the eight sides, using iron ties and toothing in the stones, which will be an even more difficult feat. But when I remember that this is a church consecrated to God and the Virgin, I am confident that since it is being built in Her honour, She will not fail to instil knowledge •where there is none and to provide to whoever may be the architect of such an enterprise the necessary strength, wisdom, and talent. But how can I assist you here, when the project is not mine? Let me tell you, however, that if I were commissioned to do it, I would courageously and quite resolutely discover a way to vault the dome without so many difficulties. But until now I have not thought about this at all, and you would like me to explain my method to you? But when Your Lordships really decide that the dome must be vaulted, you will be obliged not only to test my opinion (which will be insufficient advice for such a grandiose undertaking) but to take the trouble and expense of arranging for Tuscans and Italians, as well as Germans, Frenchmen, and architects of every nation, to gather in Florence within a year's time on a specific day, and you should

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I 121

propose your project to them so that after it has been argued and resolved among so many masters, it may be initiated and given over to the man who most clearly gives some indication of possessing the best technique and judgement for completing such a work. And I know of no better advice or procedures to give you than these.

The consuls and trustees liked Filippo's advice and proced- ures, but in the meantime they would have liked him to con- struct a model to which he had given some thought. But he pretended not to be concerned with the project; indeed, after he took his leave of them, he declared he had been asked by letter to return to Rome. Once the consuls realized that their prayers and those of the trustees were not enough to stop him, they had many of his friends entreat him, but when he did not yield to their request, one morning—it was the twenty-sixth day of May in 1417*—the trustees allocated him a sum of money, which can be found credited to Filippo in the account books of the Office of the Works Department, all this being done to mollify him. But, firm in his purpose, Filippo left Florence and returned to Rome, where he continuously studied this project, organizing and preparing for the completion of such a work and believing (as was true) that he was the only man capable of carrying out such a plan.

Filippo's advice about engaging other architects was given for no other reason than the fact that they might bear -witness to his exceptional talent, rather than because he thought they might discover a means of vaulting the dome and take on a burden that was too great for them. And thus a great deal of time was wasted before these architects arrived from their various cities and countries, since they had been summoned from afar by orders given to Florentine merchants -who lived in France, Germany, England, and Spain, and who had been commissioned to spend whatever was necessary to secure from the rulers of these countries the services of the most experi- enced and distinguished talents who lived in those regions. When the year 1420 arrived, all of these foreign masters, along with those from Tuscany, as well as all of the most skilful Florentine architects, were finally assembled in Florence,

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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and Filippo returned from Rome. They all then met in the Office of the Works Department of Santa Maria del Fiore in the presence of the consuls and the trustees, along with a selected group of the most worthy citizens, in order to choose a method for vaulting the dome after the opinion of each artisan had been heard. Thus, they summoned all the artists to the hearing and listened to their opinions one by one, as each artist explained the plans he had developed for the project. It was a marvellous thing to hear the strange and varied views on this subject, for some declared that they would construct brick pillars from ground level to support the arches and hold up the framework that would bear the weight; others maintained that it would be well to vault the dome with pumice stone so that it would weigh less; and many of them agreed on constructing a pillar in the middle and vaulting the dome with a pavilion-shape, like the one over San Giovanni in Florence. And there were even some who said that it would be a good idea to fill up the church with a mixture of earth and coins, so that when the space was vaulted anyone who wanted to do so would be permitted to carry away the earth, and in this fashion the people would rapidly clear it away without expense. Filippo alone declared that the dome could be vaulted without using too many beams and without pillars or mounds of earth at a much lower cost than the many arches would incur, and he said it could be done quite easily without any reinforcements.

To the trustees, as well as to the workmen and all the assembled citizens, who had expected some fine scheme, it seemed that Filippo was talking nonsense, and they mocked him and laughed at him, turning away and declaring that he should speak of something else—that his method was that of a madman—which he was. As a result, Filippo, taking offence, declared:

Sirs, you must realize that it is not possible to vault the dome in any way other than this one. Although you may laugh at me, you must understand (unless you wish to be obstinate) that it neither should nor could be done otherwise. If you want to execute it according to the scheme I have developed, it will be necessary to turn the cupola with

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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the curvature of a pointed arch and to make two vaults with one inside and one outside, so that a man can walk between them. And over the corners of the angles of the eight sides, the structure must be bound together through its thickness by dovetailing the stones and, similarly, the sides of the dome must be bound together with ties of oak. And attention must be paid to the lighting, the stairways, and the conduits for draining off the rain-water. And none of you has remembered to point out that internal scaffolding can be constructed to do the mosaics and a countless number of other difficult tasks. But I, who envision the dome already vaulted, recognize that there is no other method nor any other way to vault it than the one that I have set forth.

And the more heated Filippo grew in his discussion, as he sought to explain his idea so that they could understand it and believe in it, the more questions they raised, so that they believed him even less and considered him even more of a fool and a chatterbox. As a result, they dismissed him several times, but, in the end, he refused to leave and was carried out bodily from the hearing by several young men, with everyone considering him to be completely crazy. This disgraceful experience was the reason why Filippo later had to declare that he did not have the courage to pass through the streets of the city for fear of hearing people say: 'Look! There goes the madman!'

After this meeting, the trustees remained confused over the difficult methods proposed by the first masters as well as by the one suggested at last by Filippo, which seemed foolish to them, since they believed he was mistaken about the project in two ways: the first was the idea of erecting a double vault, which would be very large and dangerously heavy; and the second was the idea of constructing it without framework. On the other hand, Filippo, who had spent so many years of study in order to obtain the commission, did not know what to do and was tempted on many occasions to leave Florence. Yet, since he wanted to succeed, he had to arm himself with patience, and he was clever enough to realize that the opinions of the citizens in his home town never held firm for very long. Filippo could have shown them a small model that he had constructed, but he did not want to do so, having recognized

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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the lack of understanding on the part of the consuls, the envy of the artisans, and the fickle favour of the citizens, each of whom preferred first one thing and then another according to whatever struck his fancy. I am not at all surprised by this, since everyone in this town professes to understand as much in these matters as skilled masters do, although there are very few, in fact, who do so; and I say this hoping those who truly understand will excuse me.

Thus, what Filippo was unable to achieve among the assembled officials he tried to achieve by drawing different individuals aside, speaking now with this consul and now with that trustee, and in like manner with many townspeople, showing them some part of his plan, so that he led them to the decision to give the commission for this project either to him or to one of the foreigners. As a result, the consuls, trustees, and citizens, encouraged in this fashion, all met together and discussed the project with the architects. But with his strong arguments, they were all beaten and won over by Filippo. It is said that the argument over the egg arose during the meeting in the following way. They wanted Filippo to explain his intentions in detail and to show his model, as they had shown theirs, something he did not want to do, and he in turn proposed to both foreign and Florentine masters that whoever could stand an egg upright upon a marble slab should execute the dome, since in this way their intelligence would be revealed. Therefore, when Filippo produced an egg, all those masters tried to make it stand upright, but none of them found the way to do it. Then they asked Filippo to do it, and he graciously took the egg, cracked its bottom on the marble and made it stand upright. The artisans loudly complained that they could have done the same thing, and, laughing, Filippo answered that they would also have learned how to vault the dome if they had seen his model and his plans. And so they decided that Filippo should have the responsibility of ex- ecuting this project, and he was told to give more details to the consuls and trustees.

After he had returned home, Filippo wrote down what he had in mind as clearly as he could upon a sheet of paper in order to give it to the assembled officials in this fashion:

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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Honourable Trustees, considering the difficulties involved in building this structure, I find that there is no possible means of forming the vaults in a perfect circle, since the plane of the lantern is so great that any weight placed upon it would immediately cause it to collapse. Thus, it seems to me that those architects who have not kept their eye on the longevity of such a structure show little passion for memorials and do not understand why they are built. I decided, therefore, to construct inner vaulting in sections matching the outer sides, giving them the proportions and curvature of the pointed arch, for the curvature of this type of arch always thrusts upwards to form the top of the dome, and when the lantern is loaded on to the dome, they will combine to make it durable. At its base, the vaulting must be three-and-three-quarter armslengths thick, and it must rise like a pyramid, narrowing outside where it closes up and where the lantern is to be placed. And the vault must be onc-and-one-quarter arms- lengths thick. Then another vault must be made over this one which will be two-and-a-half armslengths thick from the base, in order to protect the one inside from the rain. This one must also dimmish proportionally like a pyramid and join the lantern like the other vault, so that at its apex, it will be two-thirds of an armslength thick. For every angle, there will be a ribbed buttress, making eight in all; and there will be two buttresses for the middle of every side, which makes a total of sixteen; two buttresses, each one four armslengths thick at the base, must be built in the middle of these angles on the interior and exterior of each face of the dome. The two vaults, erected in the shape of pyramids, must rise together in equal proportions up to the summit of the eye, which is closed up by the lantern. Then twenty-four buttresses will be erected with the vaults built around them as well as six arches of blue-grey sandstone, which will be strong, long, and well-braced with iron; the iron ties will be covered with tin, and iron chains will be placed over the blocks of blue-grey sandstone to bind the vaulting to the buttresses. The foundation must be built of solid blocks up to a height of five-and- one-quarter armslengths, and from there the buttresses must continue and the vaults must be separated. The first and second circles must be completely reinforced at the base with long blocks of blue-grey sandstone laid lengthwise, so that both of the dome's vaults may rest upon them. And at the height of every nine armslengths, the vaults should possess smaller arches between the buttresses linked together with thick oaken ties to bind the buttresses that hold up the inner vaulting. These oaken ties will then be covered with iron plates because of the stairways. All of the buttresses must be constructed with blue-grey sandstone and hard stone, and, in like manner, the

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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sides of the dome must be made of thick stone bound to the buttresses up to a height of twenty-four armslengths, and from that point on must be built with bricks or pumice stone, according to whatever the builder may decide, to make them as light as possible. Outside a passage-way must be constructed above the round win- dows and a terrace below with perforated parapets two armslengths high, corresponding to those of the little tribunes below; or rather there should be two passage-ways, one above the other, resting upon a well-decorated cornice, with the one above left uncovered. The rain-water will be carried off the dome by a marble gutter, one-third of an armslength wide, which will throw the water into a section of hard stone constructed under the gutter; at the angles on the outside surfaces of the dome there will be eight marble ribs of an appropriate size and rising an armslength high above the dome, corniced at the head and two armslengths wide, so that there may be peaks and eaves everywhere. They must rise like a pyramid from their base up to the summit. The two vaults must be constructed in this manner without a framework up to a height of thirty armslengths, and from there on in whatever way the master builders who are charged with its construction advise, since practical experience will show how the work should be carried out.

When Filippo had finishing •writing this, he went in the morning to the assembled officials, and after he gave them this sheet of paper they considered the whole proposal. And although they were incapable of understanding it, they saw the liveliness of Filippo's mind and the fact that none of the other architects was on firmer ground, in contrast to Filippo, who displayed an obvious confidence in his explanations, repeating the same thing in such a -way that it seemed as if he had already constructed ten such vaults. The consuls drew to one side and decided to give him the project, but they did want to see some proof of how the vault could be constructed without any framework, while approving all the rest of his details. Fortune was favourable to their desire, for Bartolomco Barbadori* had previously wanted to build a chapel in the church of Santa Felicita and had discussed it with Filippo, who had set to work and without a framework had vaulted this chapel, which is at the entrance of the church on the right by the holy-water stoup, also by his hand. And similarly, Filippo had, at that time, vaulted another chapel in the church of San

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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Jacopo sopr'Arno for Stiatta Ridolfl next to the chapel of the high altar. These •works inspired more confidence in Filippo's project than had his explanations.

And so, after the consuls and the trustees of the Works Department were convinced by Filippo's written explanation and by the projects they had examined, they commissioned the dome to him, naming him the principal master builder by a vote taken with beans. But they contracted with him to build no higher up than twelve armslcngths, telling him that they wanted to see how the project was turning out; if it succeeded, as he claimed, they would not fail to commission him to do the rest of the work. Filippo thought it was strange to see such obstinacy and mistrust on the part of the consuls and trustees; and if he had not been convinced he was the only man capable of completing such a project, he would not have set to doing it. Yet, since he was anxious to pursue the fame it would bring, he took it on and pledged himself to bring the project to a perfect conclusion. His sheet of paper and his pledge were copied into a book used by the superintendent for keeping accounts for the wood and marble; Filippo was granted the same allowance for his work that they had given up to that time to other master builders. When the artisans and the townspeople learned that the commission had been granted to Filippo, some approved but others were resentful, as is always true of popular opinion, as well as the opinions of those who are thoughtless or envious. While preparations for beginning the construction were under way, there arose a faction among the artisans and townspeople who went to face the consuls and trustees and declared that the decision had been made in haste, that a project such as this one should not be undertaken on the advice of a single man, and that they could be excused for doing so only if there were a lack of excellent artisans, but there was, instead, an abund- ance of them. The decision, they claimed, brought no hon- our to the city, since if any mishap occurred, as sometimes happens with buildings, they might be blamed for having given too onerous a task to a single individual without con- sidering the damage and public shame which might result from this; and so, in order to curb Filippo's enthusiasm, it

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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128 F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I

would be well, they claimed, to provide him with a partner. Lorenzo Ghiberti had earned a fine reputation for the

demonstration of his genius in the doors of San Giovanni, and the fact that he was admired by certain men who were very influential in the government was shown very clearly when these men observed Filippo's fame growing, and, under the pretext of their love and affection for this building, these men worked on the consuls and trustees in such a way that they imposed an associate on Filippo for this project. The degree of Filippo's despair and bitterness over what the trustees had done may be measured by the fact that he was about to leave Florence, and if it had not been for Donatello and Luca della Robbia, who comforted him, he might well have lost control. Truly wicked and cruel is the anger of those who, blinded by envy, endanger honour and beautiful works through ambi- tious rivalry! It was certainly not to their credit that Filippo did not destroy his models, burn his plans, and in less than half an hour discard the results of all the work he had done for so many years. The trustees first begged Filippo's pardon and urged him to proceed, assuring him that he, and no one else, was the inventor and creator of this structure, but they gave Lorenzo the same salary as they gave to Filippo. Filippo carried on the project with very little enthusiasm, realizing that he would have to endure all the hard work that it would require and that he would then have to share the honour and fame with Lorenzo. Still, he determined that he would find some way of ensuring that Lorenzo would not last too long on the project, and he went ahead together with Lorenzo according to his contract with the trustees.

Meanwhile, it occurred to Filippo to make a model, since no one had yet done so, and having thus set to work, he had it done by a carpenter named Bartolomco* who lived near the studio. And in this model, which was made exactly to scale, he characteristically included all the difficult details, such as the illuminated and dark stairways, all sorts of windows, doors, tie irons, and buttresses, as well as a section of the gallery. Having heard about this model, Lorenzo tried to see it, but when Filippo prevented him from doing so, he flew into a rage and ordered a model of his own to be made so that it would

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I 129

appear he was actually earning his salary and that he was about to do something. Filippo was paid fifty lire and fifteen soldi for these models, as -we can see in an allocation recorded in the account book kept by Migliori di Tommaso on the third of October in 1419, and Lorenzo Ghiberti received three hundred lire for the labour and expenses incurred in making his model, more because of the friendship and favour that he enjoyed than because of its usefulness or benefit to the building project.*

This situation, which lasted until 1426, was an aggravation in Filippo's eyes because both Lorenzo and Filippo were con- sidered equally to be the originators of the project, and the mental anguish Filippo suffered over this was so strong that he lived in great pain. Meanwhile, he had developed various new concepts and finally decided to rid himself of Lorenzo, -who he realized would be of little use in this undertaking. Filippo had already raised the two vaults all around the dome to a height of twelve armslengths, and now had to install the stone and wooden ties. This was a difficult task, and he wanted to discuss it with Lorenzo to discover whether or not Lorenzo had considered these problems. And he found out that Lorenzo had not even thought about these matters and that his only response was to say that he relied upon Filippo, since Filippo was the designer. Lorenzo's reply delighted Filippo, since he felt this provided him with a way to remove Lorenzo from the project and to reveal that Lorenzo lacked the know- ledge his friends thought he possessed and that it was their favouritism which had put him in the position he occupied.

Now the workmen on the project were at a standstill and were awaiting orders to begin the section above the twelve armslengths, to build the vaults and to bind them with the chains, since the dome had begun to close up towards the top. To do this, they had to build scaffolding so that the workmen and masons could work without danger, since the height was so great that merely looking down from above brought fear and dismay to even the most confident soul. Therefore, the masons and the other master builders were awaiting the plans for building the chains and scaffolding, and when neither Lorenzo nor Filippo made any decisions, the masons and the

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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I 3 O F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I

other masters began to mutter among themselves when they saw that the initial sense of urgency was now lacking. And since these men •were poor individuals who lived by their labour and were afraid that neither architect had the courage to go ahead with the project, as best they could and knew how, they remained at work on the structure, replastcring and retouching everything that had been built up to that moment.

One morning or another, Filippo did not turn up at •work but went to bed with a bandage around his head, and, constantly crying out, he had hot plates and cloths prepared with the greatest solicitude, pretending to have a pain in his side. When they heard this, the masters awaiting orders about how to proceed asked Lorenzo what should be done next. He replied that the schedule was Filippo's responsibility and that they would have to wait for him. Somebody asked him: 'But don't you know what he has in mind?' 'Yes,' Lorenzo answered, 'but I wouldn't do anything without him.' Lorenzo said this to excuse himself, for he had never seen Filippo's model and had never asked him what kind of schedule he wanted to keep to, and, in order not to appear ignorant, he was very vague and answered only in ambiguous terms in speaking about the matter, especially since he knew that he •was taking part in the project against Filippo's will.

Filippo's illness had already lasted more than two days, and the supervisor of the project and a good number of the master builders went to see him and continuously begged him to tell them -what they should do. But Filippo declared: 'You have Lorenzo; let him do a little something.' Nor could they get any other answer out of him. Upon hearing this, discussions and serious criticism arose over the entire project: some people •were saying that Filippo had taken to bed out of grief because he lacked the courage to vault the dome, or that he regretted having become involved in the project. And his friends defended him, saying that if he were upset, it was a result of the disgrace of having been given Lorenzo as a partner, but that he was actually ill from the pain in his side, caused by his strenuous work on the project.

Thus, while the arguments continued, the project was stalled, and almost all of the work by the masons and the

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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stone-cutters came to a standstill. And these men, muttering against Lorenzo, began to say: 'He's good enough to draw his salary but not to give orders so that we can do the work. Oh, if Filippo were not here, or if his illness were to last for long, how would Lorenzo manage? Is it Filippo's fault that he is sick?' Seeing themselves put to shame by this state of affairs, the trustees of the Works Department resolved to go and see Filippo, and upon arriving, they first consoled him for his illness and then explained to him the state of disorder into which the building project had fallen and how many diffi- culties his illness had caused. At this, with speech impassioned both by his love for the project and by his feigned illness, Filippo declared: 'Isn't he there—Lorenzo? What is he doing? I'm amazed at you.' When the trustees responded, 'He won't do anything without you!', Filippo retorted to them: 'I would do quite well without him.'

His very pointed and double-edged reply was enough for them, and after they had left him, they knew he was ill because he wanted to work alone. Therefore, they sent his friends to remove him from his bed, intending to take Lorenzo off the project. And so Filippo returned to the building, but when he saw the degree of favouritism shown to Lorenzo and realized that he would still receive his salary without doing any work, Filippo devised another means of holding him up to ridicule and making public how little understanding Lorenzo had of this profession. And in Lorenzo's presence, he presented this proposal to the trustees:

My Lords the Trustees, if we were as sure about the length of time we have to live as we arc about the probability of our death, there is no doubt whatsoever that many projects which are begun would be completed rather than left unfinished. The misfortune of the illness I suffered could have taken my life and brought this project to a halt. Therefore, in case I ever fall ill again, or—God forbid!—Lorenzo should, in order for one or the other of us to go on with his part of the work, I thought that just as you, My Lords, have divided the salary between us, so you should also divide the work, so that spurred on by the desire to demonstrate what each of us knows, each may securely acquire honour and profit in the presence of this republic. Now, there are two difficult matters which at present have to be dealt

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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132 F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I

with: the first is the scaffolding so that the masons can lay their bricks, which is to be used both inside and outside the structure and which must hold up workers, stones, and lime, as well as the winch for pulling up heavy loads and other similar devices; the other is the chain which has to be placed above the level of twclve-armslengths in order to bind the eight sides of the dome and to support the structure, so that all the weight superimposed upon it will tighten and hold it in such a way that the weight will not stretch or widen the dome but will, on the contrary, be evenly distributed throughout the entire edifice. Let Lorenzo, therefore, take up one of these tasks, whichever he feels he can most easily carry out, and I shall work without any disagreement to execute the other so that no more time is lost.

When he heard this, Lorenzo was forced for the sake of his own honour to accept one of these tasks, and even though he did so quite unwillingly, he decided to pick the chain as the easiest of the two, since he could trust the advice of the ma- sons and remembered that in the vault of San Giovanni in Florence, there was a chain of stone ties from which he could take part, if not all, of the plan. And so one set to work on the scaffolding while the other worked on the chain, and both completed their work. Filippo's scaffoldings were built with so much ingenuity and skill that they were truly considered to be the contrary of what many had imagined them to be before, since the masons could work upon them just as safely and could pull up heavy loads and stand upon them just as securely as if they were standing upon solid ground. And the models for this scaffolding are preserved in the Works Department of the Duomo. Upon one of the eight sides, Lorenzo built his chain with the greatest difficulty, and when it was completed Filippo was called by the trustees to see it; he said nothing to them, but with certain of his friends he discussed the matter, declaring that another kind of binding was required, that it should have been put up in a different way, that it was not sufficient to support the weight that was to be placed on it, since it did not bind the structure as tightly as it should, and, finally, that the allowance which was given to Lorenzo, along with the cost of the chain he had built, was money thrown away. Filippo's opinion became known, and he was charged with showing how he would have constructed the chain if he

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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FILIPPO B R U N E L L E S C H I I J 3

had undertaken that task. Since he had already prepared plans and models, he immediately showed them, and when they were examined by the trustees and the other master builders, they recognized the error they had fallen into by favouring Lorenzo, and wishing to rectify this mistake and to demon- strate that they understood the proper procedures, they named Filippo administrator and head for life of the entire structure* and ordered that nothing should be done on the project •without his approval. And in order to acknowledge their approval, they presented Filippo with the gift of one hundred florins appropriated by the consuls and trustees on 13 August 1423, and signed by Lorenzo Paoli, notary of the Works Department, and charged to Mcsser Gherardo di Filippo Corsini; and they came to a decision to provide Filippo with an allowance for life of one hundred florins a year.*

And so, having given orders for the construction to proceed, Filippo pursued it so closely and carefully that not a stone could be placed without his wanting to inspect it. On the other hand Lorenzo, finding himself beaten and nearly disgraced, was favoured and assisted to such an extent by his friends that he still drew his salary, claiming he could not be dismissed for another three years. For every little detail, Filippo continuously drew sketches and made models of frames to be built and structures for pulling up heavy loads. But this did not prevent spiteful people, friends of Lorenzo, from driving him to desperation, having different models built every day to compete with his, to the extent that Master Antonio da Verzelli* executed one of them, while other mas- ters, shown favouritism and preference now by this citizen and now by that one, demonstrated their fickle nature, their inadequate knowledge, and their lack of understanding, for although they had perfect models in hand, they kept pro- moting imperfect and useless ones.

The chains around the eight sides of the dome were already completed, and the masons, gaining heart, worked boldly, but Filippo then asked of them more than the usual, and because of some criticism that he directed at their work as well as some other things which happened daily, they got sick and tired of him. And so, moved by this and by envy, the leaders joined

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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134 F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I

together in a conspiracy and said that the work was strenuous and dangerous, and that they did not want to vault the dome without a huge raise (even though their salary had already been increased more than usual), thinking in this way to take revenge upon Filippo and to make a profit for themselves. This development displeased the trustees and Filippo as well, and, having thought about it, one Saturday evening he made up his mind to fire them all. Finding themselves fired and not knowing how matters might end, the men were in a very bad humour, and on the following Monday Filippo set ten Lombards to work, and by staying right there on the spot, ordering 'Do this here and that there', he taught them so much in a single day that they worked on the project for many weeks. On the other hand, the masons who saw themselves fired, their work taken away from them, and this disgrace heaped on them, did not have any other work that •was more profitable than this, and they sent messengers to tell Filippo that they would willingly return to work, begging his pardon as vigorously as they could. In this way, Filippo kept them dangling for many days in the fear that he would not hire them back; then he took them back at a lower salary than they had initially received; and so, where they had thought to make a profit, they suffered a loss, and with their vendetta against Filippo they only caused damage and loss for themselves.

The grumbling thus stopped, and the genius of Filippo prevailed, once it was seen how smoothly the structure -was being vaulted, and anyone who was not blinded by passion held that he had already shown a courage never seen in the works of any other architects, either ancient or modern, and this came about because he brought out his model. In it everyone could see for himself the extremely careful plans he had conceived for the stairs, the lighting both inside and out (so that no one might injure himself in the darkness out of fear), and all the various iron guard-rails for the ascent which were set up and carefully arranged where the climb was steep. Besides this, he had even thought of putting iron bars inside to support the scaffolding if ever mosaics or paintings were to be added; and he likewise placed in the least dangerous positions

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I 135

the various sections of the guttering from which the water could run off, showing some covered, others uncovered; and he followed this up by organizing various holes and openings so that the force of the winds would be broken and to ensure that exhalations or earthquakes could not damage the struc- ture. In all of this he demonstrated how much he had profited from his studies during his many years in Rome. Considering what he achieved in the dovetailing, fitting, joining, and binding the stones makes one tremble and stand in awe and shrink with fear at the thought that a single mind was capable of as much as that of Filippo. And it continued to grow at such a pace that there was nothing, no matter how difficult and challenging, it could not render simple and easy. And he showed this in using counterweights and wheels for hauling heavy loads, which enabled a single ox to draw a load as heavy as six pairs could barely have drawn before.

The structure had grown so high by this time that it was extremely disruptive to go down to the ground after having climbed up, and not only was a great deal of time lost by the masters in going to eat and drink, but they suffered great discomfort from the heat of the day. Filippo therefore found a way to open eating places with kitchens on the dome, where he sold wine as well, and in this fashion no one left the work until the evening. This was convenient for the workmen and exceedingly advantageous to the project. Filippo's spirits rose so high as he observed the project moving steadily ahead and turning out so successfully that he worked constantly; he him- self -went to the kilns -where the bricks were being formed, since he wanted to see the clay and knead it himself, and when the bricks were baked, he wanted to pick them out as carefully as possible with his own hands. He would examine the stones being used by the stone-cutters to see if they were hard or contained any thin cracks, and he provided them with models for the joints and the fittings made from -wood, from wax, and even from turnips, and similarly, he designed iron tools for the blacksmiths. He discovered a means of producing hinges with heads and hooks which greatly simplified architecture, which through him was raised to a level of perfection probably never before achieved among the Tuscans.

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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136 FILIl'PO B R U N E L L E S C H I

In 1423, Florence could not have been happier or more joy- ful when Filippo -was elected to the Signoria for the months of May and June by the San Giovanni district,* while Lapo Niccolini was chosen as Gonfalonierc of Justice by the Santa Croce district. And if he is found listed in the register of priors as Filippo di Ser Brunellesco Lippi, as he ought to be, no one should be surprised by this, since his grandfather was named da Lippi and not dc' Lapi—an error which is seen in this same register and repeated in countless other lists, as anyone well knows who has seen it or is familiar with the customs of those times. Filippo performed the duties of this office and the other judicial positions he held in his native city and always demonstrated good judgement in all his actions.

They had already begun to close the two vaults towards the eye where the lantern was to begin, and although Filippo had constructed in both Rome and Florence several models in clay and in wood of each one, which had not been seen, he still had to make the final decision about which one he wanted to execute. Deciding to complete the gallery, he drew several designs for it which remained, after his death, in the Office of the Works Department but which have been misplaced because of the carelessness of those officials. In our own day, in order to complete the project, one section of one of the eight sides was built, but because it did not match Filippo's design, it was abandoned and left unfinished upon the advice of Michelangelo Buonarroti.

With his own hands, Filippo also made a model for the lantern with eight sides based upon the proportions of the dome, which, to tell the truth, turned out very well because of its inventiveness, variety, and decoration. He included in the model a stairway for climbing up to the ball [011 the lantern], •which was a marvellous thing indeed, but because he had plugged up the entrance with a piece of wood inserted from underneath, no one but Filippo knew it existed. Although he was now highly praised and had already triumphed over the envy and the arrogance of many, he was not able to prevent all the masters in Florence from setting out to produce various models of their own, once they had seen what he had done, and even a woman from the Gaddi family dared to enter

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I 137

the competition with Filippo's design! However, he merely laughed at their presumption, and many of his friends advised him not to show his model to any other artisans, so that they •would not learn from it. To them he replied that there existed only one good model, and that the rest were worthless. Some of the other masters had put details from Filippo's model into their own, but when he saw them, Filippo would always say: 'The next model this man makes will be just like mine.'

Filippo's model was lavishly praised by everyone, but they supposed it to be defective, since they could not see the stairway leading to the ball. Nevertheless, the trustees decided to commission Filippo to do the project, provided, however, that he showed him where to place the stairway. So Filippo removed the piece of wood from the model, which was in the lower part, revealing in a pillar the stairway as we sec it today—in the form of a hollow tube; on one side, there was a channel with bronze rungs by which, placing one foot after the other, one might climb up to the top. Because Filippo was old and would not live long enough to see the lantern com- pleted, he stipulated in his will that it should be built follow- ing the model and his written instructions. Done otherwise, he declared, the structure would collapse, because it was vaulted in a pointed arch, and the -weight would have to press downward to strengthen it. Filippo was not able to see the completion of the edifice before his death, but he raised it up quite well to a height of several armslengths. He also had almost all the marble that was to be used cut and carefully prepared, and when the people saw all the marble delivered, they were amazed that it was possible he -wished to place such a weight upon that vaulting. It was also the opinion of many clever people that the vaulting would not bear the weight, and it seemed to them quite fortunate that he had brought the project to where it then stood and that it was tempting God to load the vaults too heavily. Filippo always laughed about this to himself, and after preparing all the machinery and gear that would be used to build it, he spent all his time and thought in anticipating, preparing, and providing for every little detail, even to the point of making sure that the corners of the finished marble would not be chipped when it -was being

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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138 FILIPl'O B R U N E L L E S C H I

hauled up by protecting all the arches of the tabernacles with •wooden frames, and as for the rest, as I have said, there -were written instructions and models.

As for how beautiful the project is, the structure itself provides the most eloquent testimony. From ground-level to the lantern, the height measures one hundred and fifty-four armslengths; the body of the lantern thirty-six armslengths; the copper ball four armslengths;* the cross eight armslengths; or two hundred and two armslengths in all.* And it can quite rightly be declared that the ancients never constructed their buildings so high, nor did they run so great a risk as that of wishing to challenge the heavens, as this -work of Filippo's surely seems to do: seeing it soaring up to such a height, it appears equal to the mountains around Florence. And, to tell the truth, it appears that the heavens are envious of it, for it is continuously struck by lightning bolts every day.

While this project was under construction, Filippo worked upon many other buildings which we shall now describe in order. With his own hand, he constructed a model for the chapter house of Santa Croce in Florence for the Pazzi family,* a work of great variety and beauty.* ... Around that time work was begun on the church of San Lorenzo in Florence by order of the parishioners, who had named the prior as master builder of the structure, a man who professed to understand architecture and who took great delight in it as a pastime. He had already begun the construction of brick pillars when Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici, who had promised the parishioners and the prior to erect the sacristy and a chapel at his expense, had Filippo over for lunch one morning, and after discussing a number of things, he asked Filippo about the initial work on San Lorenzo and what he thought of it. Filippo was forced by Giovanni's entreaties to reveal his honest opinion, and in order to tell the truth, he found fault with many details of the project, such as the fact that it was organized by a person who perhaps possessed more book learning than experience with buildings of that kind. Whereupon, Giovanni asked Filippo if he could produce something better and more beautiful, and to this Filippo replied:

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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Without a doubt! And I am amazed that, as the leader of this project, you do not pledge several thousand scudi and construct the body of a church with dimensions worthy of such a site and of the burial places of so many noblemen, for once the nobility see such a beginning, they will follow suit with their chapels and all their resources— especially since no other memory of us remains behind except the walls which bear witness for hundreds and thousands of years to those who constructed them.*

Inspired by Filippo's words, Giovanni decided to construct the sacristy and the major chapel along with the entire body of the church, although only seven other families agreed to join him because the others lacked the resources. And these families were: the Rondinelli, the Ginori, the Dalla Stufa, the Neroni, the Ciai, the Marignolli, the Martelli, and the Marco di Luca, and their chapels were to be built in the cross of the building. The sacristy was the first part to be erected, while the church was built a section at a time. The other chapels constructed along the length of the church were then granted one by one to parishioners who were not of the nobility. The sacristy had not yet been covered when Giovanni de' Medici passed to a better life, leaving behind his son Cosimo. Cosimo possessed a bolder spirit than his father, and, taking delight in such memorials, he arranged for the construction to continue as his first building project, which brought him so much pleasure that from then on until the time of his death, Cosimo was always building. Cosimo took a warmer interest in this project, and while one part was being planned, another was being completed. And since Cosimo had taken on the project as a pastime, he was constantly occupied with it. His con- cern was the reason why Filippo completed the sacristy and Donatello made the stuccoes, the stone ornaments for the porticoes, and the bronze doors. Cosimo also had his father's tomb constructed under a large slab of marble supported by four small columns in the middle of the sacristy where the priests don their vestments, and in the same place, he had tombs built for his own family, separating the women from the men. In one of the two little rooms on either side of the sacristy, he built a well and a wash-basin in one corner. And all in all, everything built in this structure reflects his excellent judgement.

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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140 F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I

Giovanni and the others had planned to place the choir under the tribune in the middle; Cosimo changed this plan at Filippo's suggestion. Filippo enlarged the main chapel (which was originally a smaller space) so that the choir could be constructed where it stands today, and when it was completed, the tribune in the middle and the rest of the church remained to be built. This tribune and the remainder [of the church] was not vaulted until after Filippo's death. The church is one hundred and forty-four armslengths long, and a great many mistakes can be seen in its construction; one among the others is that of placing the columns on the ground without mounting them on dados of the same height as the bases supporting the pillars on the steps. Thus, the pillars appear shorter than the columns, making the entire work look lop- sided. All this was the result of following the advice of the men who remained after Filippo died and were envious of his renown, and who, during his lifetime, having constructed opposing models, had been, nevertheless, humiliated by some of his sonnets. And after Filippo's death, these individuals took their revenge not only upon this project but upon all those which remained for them to complete. Filippo left behind his model, and completed part of the presbytery for the priests of San Lorenzo, making the cloister one hundred and forty armslengths long.

While this building was being constructed, Cosimo de' Medici decided to build his own palace, and he therefore explained his intentions to Filippo, who put everything else aside and made for Cosimo a very beautiful and large model of this palace, which Filippo wanted to place in the piazza facing San Lorenzo, isolated on every side. Filippo's virtuosity was so clearly displayed in this model that it seemed too luxurious and grand to Cosimo, and, more to avoid envy than the expense, he gave up the idea of using Filippo's plan. While Filippo was working on the model, he used to thank fate for the opportunity of building such a home—something he had desired to do for many years—and for having come upon someone who wanted and was able to build it. But then when he learned of Cosimo's decision not to go on with the project, he angrily broke his model into a thousand pieces. And

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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F1LIPPO B R U N E L L E S C H I 14!

Cosimo was very sorry not to have followed Filippo's plan, for he later constructed the other palace,* and he used to say that he had never conversed with a man of greater courage and intelligence than Filippo.... *

It is also said that Filippo invented the machinery for the Paradise of San Felice in Piazza, (located in the same city) in order to stage the mystery play or, rather, the feast of the Annunciation as was customary in the old days at that place in Florence. The machinery was truly marvellous and demon- strated the talent and skill of the man who invented it, for on high a Heaven full of living and moving figures could be seen, as well as countless lights, flashing on and off like lightning. I do not want my description to appear laboured in recounting precisely how the mechanisms of this machinery functioned, since every bit of it has been ruined and the men who knew how to discuss its workings from experience arc now dead. There is no hope of reconstructing it, for the Camaldolite monks who once inhabited the place are gone and have been replaced by the nuns of Saint Peter Martyr, primarily because the monastery of the Carmine was damaged by the machinery which pulled down the timbers supporting its roof.

In order to create these effects, Filippo had placed a half- globe shaped like an empty bowl, or a barber's basin turned upside-down, between two of the beams which supported the roof of the church. This half-globe was made from thin and light laths fastened to an iron star which turned around its circumference; the laths narrowed towards a large iron ring in the centre, which was balanced in the middle and around which revolved the iron star which supported the framework of laths. This entire mechanism was held up by a strong beam of fir-wood well reinforced with iron, which was lying across the timbers of the roof, and to this beam was attached the ring which held the half-globe suspended and balanced. From the ground it truly looked like Heaven. At its base on the inside edge, certain wooden brackets were placed, just large enough for a person to stand upon, and also inside but at the height of an armslength, there were iron clasps. On each of the brackets stood a child of about twelve years of age, secured with an iron clasp one-and-one-half armslcngths high in

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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142 F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I

such a way that he could not have fallen even if he tried. These young cherubs, twelve in all, were arranged upon the

brackets, as I have explained, and were dressed as angels with golden wings and golden skeins of hair. When it was time, they joined hands, and as they moved their arms about, they seemed to be dancing—especially since the half-globe was constantly turning and moving. Inside the globe and above the angels' heads were three circles or garlands of lights set up with some tiny little torches that could not be overturned. These lights looked like stars from the ground, while the supports covered with raw cotton resembled clouds.

From the above-mentioned ring hung a thick iron bar with another ring on its side, to which was attached a thin cord which fell to the ground, as I shall describe. This thick iron bar had eight arms which revolved in an arc large enough to cross the entire space of the empty half-globe, and at the end of each arm was a flat stand as large as a wooden platter; placed on each stand was a young boy of about nine years of age who was held tightly in place by an iron clasp soldered to the upper portion of the branch, but in such a fashion that he could turn slowly in every direction. Supported by this iron bar, these eight little angels were lowered, by means of a small winch which was let out very slowly, from the empty space in the half-globe to a distance of eight armslengths below the level of the flat timbers supporting the roof, in such a fashion that they could be seen without obstructing the view of the other angels •who were standing around the inside of the half-globe. In- side this 'bouquet' of eight angels (as it was appropriately called) was a copper mandorla which was hollow inside and contained many little torches set in small holes upon an iron tube shaped like a pipe: when a spring was held down, all of the lights were concealed in the empty space within the copper mandorla; and when the same spring was released, all of the lights could be seen shining through the little holes.

Once the 'bouquet' reached its appointed place, the man- dorla, which was attached to that thin cord, was lowered very, very slowly by another little •winch and reached the platform where the performance took place. On the stage, exactly where the mandorla came to rest was a raised throne with four

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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FILIPPO B R U N E L L E S C H I 143

steps in the middle with an opening through which the iron point of the mandorla passed. A man hidden below the throne bolted the mandorla down when it reached its place, and it thus stood securely upright. Inside the mandorla, playing the role of an angel, was a young boy of about fifteen years of age who was fastened by an iron clasp to the middle of the mandorla and also to its base to prevent him from falling, and so that he could kneel, the iron clasp was made in three pieces—as he kneeled down, one piece slid smoothly into the other.

And so, when the 'bouquet' was lowered down and the mandorla rested upon the throne, the man who bolted down the mandorla unfastened the iron clasp which held in the angel, whereupon he came out, walked along the stage, and reached the place where he hailed the Virgin and made the Annunciation. Then, after he returned to the mandorla, while the lights—which had been extinguished upon his arrival— were relit, the iron clasp supporting him was fastened once again by the man hidden underneath; and once the bolt holding the mandorla down was released, it was drawn upwards once again, while the angels in the 'bouquet' sang and those in the Heaven turned about, making it seem a real Paradise, especially since, besides the chorus of angels and the 'bouquet', there was a figure of God the Father near the shell of the half-globe surrounded by angels similar to the ones described above and secured with iron clasps. In this fashion, the Heaven, the 'bouquet', the figure of God the Father, and the mandorla with its countless lights and sweet music truly represented Paradise. In addition, to make it possible to open and close this Heaven, Filippo had two huge doors built on either side, each five armslengths high, with iron rollers, or actually copper ones, set in grooves, and the grooves were so well oiled that when a thin rope 'was pulled on either side with a small winch, the doors opened and closed, according to what was desired, by drawing together the two parts of the doors or drawing them slowly apart by means of the grooves. And, thus constructed, these doors produced two effects: first, since they were heavy, they created a noise sounding like thunder when they were pulled; second, when closed they served as

L . O . T . A . - 8

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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144 F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I

a stage for arranging the angels and for accommodating the other items that were needed inside. Thus, these ingenious devices, as well as many others, were invented by Filippo, even if some people maintain that they were invented long be- fore him. Whatever the case may be, it is appropriate to have discussed them, since they have completely fallen into disuse.

But let us return to Filippo. His fame and reputation had grown to such an extent that anyone who needed to construct a building sent for him from great distances to obtain draw- ings and models prepared by the hand of such a great man, and people would employ the influence of his friends and the most lavish means to do so *

One year during Lent, the sermons at the church of Santo Spirito were delivered by Master Francesco Zoppo, then very popular with the congregation, who spoke strongly in favour of the convent, the school for young men, and especially the church which had burned down in those days.* As a result, the leaders of the district—Lorenzo Ridolfi, Bartolomeo Cor- binelli, Neri di Gino Capponi, Gogo di Stagio Dati, and count- less other citizens—obtained permission from the Signoria to rebuild the church of Santo Spirito, and they named Stoldo Frescobaldi the supervisor. Because of the interest Stoldo had in the old church (the main chapel and the high altar of which belonged to his family), he toiled long hours on this project. In fact, at the very beginning, before the funds were received from taxing those who owned tombs and chapels there, he provided thousands of scudi out of his own pocket, for which he was later reimbursed.

After the project had been discussed, Filippo was sent for, and he made a model complete with all the useful and honour- able details he could devise suitable for a Christian church. Filippo urged that the ground-plan of this edifice be turned completely around, since above all he wanted the piazza to reach the bank of the Arno so that everyone passing by there from Genoa, the Riviera, the Lunigiana district, and from the areas of Pisa and Lucca could observe the magnificence of the structure. But because certain citizens who did not wish to tear down their homes refused this change, Filippo "s desires had no impact.

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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F I L I P P O B R U N E L L E S C H I 145

Filippo then constructed a model for the church along with that of the monks' quarters as it is today. The length of the church was one hundred and sixty-one armslengths, while its width was fifty-four armslengths, and it was so well planned in the arrangement of its columns and its other decorations, that no other building could have been constructed which would have been richer, more delightful, or more graceful. And, to tell the truth, if it had not been for the curse of those who spoil the lovely beginnings of things by always pre- tending to understand more than others, this church would today be the most perfect church in all Christendom. As it stands, it is therefore more charming and better proportioned than any other, even though its model was not followed in every respect, as we see in certain external details which do not reflect the arrangement of its interior: it seems, for example, that this is the case with the doors and the frames of the windows, which do not correspond to those in the model. I shall pass over some errors attributed to Filippo, which, one has to believe, would not have been tolerated if he had carried out the building's construction, for everything he created he brought to perfection with his great judgement, discretion, ingenuity, and skill. And this work proved him to possess a truly divine genius.

Filippo was humorous in his conversation and very witty in his retorts. For example, on one occasion he wished to make a biting remark about Lorenzo Ghiberti who had bought a farm at Monte Morello, called Lepriano. Spending two times more on this farm than he earned from it, Lorenzo became so disgusted with it that he sold it. When someone asked Filippo what was the best thing Lorenzo had ever done, perhaps thinking that he should vex Lorenzo because of the enmity between them, Filippo replied: 'Selling Lepriano.'

Finally, having grown very old—that is, having reached the age of sixty-nine—Filippo passed to a better life in the year 1446 on the sixteenth of April, after labouring strenuously to create those works which earned him an honourable name on earth and a resting place in Heaven. His death caused indescrib- able grief in his native city, which recognized and esteemed him more after death than it had done while he was alive, and he

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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was buried with elaborate ceremony and the greatest honour in Santa Maria del Fiore (although his family tomb -was in San Marco) under the pulpit near the door, where there is a coat of arms with two fig leaves and some green waves in a field of gold, indicating that his ancestors came from the region of Ferrara, namely, from Ficaruolo, a walled town on the River Po, as is suggested by the leaves which signify the place and the waves the river. His artisan friends grieved most deeply— especially the poorer ones whom he constantly assisted. Thus, living like a Christian, he left to the world the memory of his kindness and his remarkable talents. In my opinion, it can be said of Filippo that from the time of the ancient Greeks and Romans to the present day, there never existed a man more rare or excellent than he, and Filippo deserves even greater praise, for in his lifetime the German style was venerated throughout Italy and practised by older artisans, as is seen in countless buildings. Filippo rediscovered the use of the ancient cornices and restored the Tuscan, Corinthian, Doric, and Ionic orders to their original forms.*... Filippo was most unfor- tunate in some respects, because besides always having to contend with some opposition, several of his buildings •were not completed during his lifetime, and they were left unfin- ished afterwards. And among the other unfinished projects, it was a great tragedy that the monks of the Angeli could not (as I mentioned) complete the church he began,* since after they had spent more than three thousand scudi on what we can see today—the funds coming in part from the Merchants' Guild and in part from the Monte where the moneys were deposited —the capital was squandered, and the structure was left and remains incomplete. Thus, as was mentioned in the life of Niccolo da Uzzano,* whoever wishes to leave behind a memorial of this kind should complete it himself while he is still alive, without relying upon anyone else. And what I have said about this church could also be said of a great many other buildings planned by Filippo Brunelleschi.

THE END OF THE L I F E OF F I L I P P O BRUNELLESCHI

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1998. Accessed October 11, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central. Created from monash on 2019-10-11 08:53:35.

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