WK1 Discussion and Replies

7

Internet: Motivation And Beginnings

7.1 A Proliferation Of LANs

By the late 1970s, computer networking began to blossom. Several computer manufacturers had introduced small minicomputers with sufficient computational power to handle a few users. Because such computers were less expensive than older main- frame computers, individual departments could afford their own computer. As the pre- vious chapter explains, Local Area Networks had appeared, and many organizations be- gan installing them. Each department had sufficient budget to fund LAN installation and operation; the department could decide who had access, and could devise policies regarding use of the network.

Autonomy had the advantage of allowing each department to choose computers and LAN technologies that fit the department’s needs. However, autonomy had some severe drawbacks. Allowing each group to act independently encouraged a proliferation of LAN technologies. Autonomy also meant differing policies — uses that were per- mitted in one department were forbidden in another. More important, heterogeneity had a negative economic impact on the overall organization. Because each department or- dered equipment separately, the company could not negotiate a large quantity discount. In addition, networking staff were not interchangeable — differences in equipment meant that a technician who installed and managed a network in one department might not understand the equipment in another department.

The proliferation of multiple LAN technologies had another downside: data avail- able in a given department could not be shared easily (e.g., across a LAN). To under- stand why, one must know that each LAN technology chose its own message format

69

7

Internet: Motivation And Beginnings

7.1 A Proliferation Of LANs

By the late 1970s, computer networking began to blossom. Several computer manufacturers had introduced small minicomputers with sufficient computational power to handle a few users. Because such computers were less expensive than older main- frame computers, individual departments could afford their own computer. As the pre- vious chapter explains, Local Area Networks had appeared, and many organizations be- gan installing them. Each department had sufficient budget to fund LAN installation and operation; the department could decide who had access, and could devise policies regarding use of the network.

Autonomy had the advantage of allowing each department to choose computers and LAN technologies that fit the department’s needs. However, autonomy had some severe drawbacks. Allowing each group to act independently encouraged a proliferation of LAN technologies. Autonomy also meant differing policies — uses that were per- mitted in one department were forbidden in another. More important, heterogeneity had a negative economic impact on the overall organization. Because each department or- dered equipment separately, the company could not negotiate a large quantity discount. In addition, networking staff were not interchangeable — differences in equipment meant that a technician who installed and managed a network in one department might not understand the equipment in another department.

The proliferation of multiple LAN technologies had another downside: data avail- able in a given department could not be shared easily (e.g., across a LAN). To under- stand why, one must know that each LAN technology chose its own message format

69

K392894.indd 97 03/08/18 12:07 pmComer, Douglas E.. The Internet Book : Everything You Need to Know about Computer Networking and How the Internet Works, CRC Press LLC, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=5502790. Created from apus on 2025-01-08 05:09:10.

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70 Internet: Motivation And Beginnings Chap. 7

and electrical signals. Thus, a company with multiple LAN technologies could not form a large, company-wide network merely by hooking cables between all the LAN systems.

7.2 No Technology Solves All Problems

In the 1960s, as work began on computer networks, many of the scientists and en- gineers expected data networking to follow the same approach as the telephone system. Individuals might start experimenting, but eventually, a single, large data communica- tion system would exist that spanned the world and allowed computers to communicate, analogous to the way the phone system allows humans to communicate. They asked the question,

What is the best network technology for a global network system?

To answer the question, they started to explore possibilities. Engineers designed wired and wireless network technologies, and built experimental systems. They worked on ways computers could use networks, and they measured performance.

Looking for one technology to solve all problems seemed like a good approach, but it was flawed. As time went on, researchers found that a network that is ideal for one situation is not ideal for another. A technology that spans a long distance is sub- stantially more expensive than a technology that spans a short distance. Because short wires pick up less interference, data can be transferred over a short wire at a much higher rate than it can be transferred over a long wire.

7.3 Wide Area Network Technologies

The search for a network technology that allowed all computers to communicate led scientists and engineers to experiment with networks that could connect computers across large geographic distances. Initially, they were called long-haul networks, but the name was changed to Wide Area Networks (WANs) to contrast with LANs. Chapter 5 describes the basics of modems that use a modulated carrier wave to send data over a long distance. WANs use modems to send signals across long-distance transmission lines, but a WAN does much more than merely connect a pair of computers. A given WAN consists of transmission lines interconnecting sites plus specialized hardware sys- tems at each site that unifies the transmission lines into a coordinated system.

The hardware system at each site is known as a WAN switch. All the transmission lines coming from other sites connect to the WAN switch, as do local computers at the site. Figure 7.1 shows an example WAN that connects four sites.

Sec. 7.3 Wide Area Network Technologies 71

Site 1 Site 2

Site 3 Site 4

WAN switch connected to other sites

computers

Figure 7.1 Illustration of a WAN that spans four sites.

Because it operates independent of computers, a WAN switch can keep running, even when all computers at the site are powered down. The WAN switch accepts mes- sages sent from other sites. If a message has been sent to one of the local computers, the WAN switch delivers the message; otherwise, the WAN switch forwards the mes- sage on toward its destination. In the figure, for example, when a computer at Site 2 sends a message to a computer at Site 4, the WAN switch at Site 2 forwards the mes- sage to the WAN switch at Site 3, which forwards the message to the WAN switch at Site 4. Finally, the WAN switch at Site 4 delivers the message to the computer.

To summarize:

A Wide Area Network (WAN) technology uses a special-purpose hardware device called a WAN switch at each site. The WAN switch connects to transmission lines that lead to other sites, and forwards messages to their final destination.

To understand the importance of WANs, imagine a company with offices in four cities: New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Austin. The company can install a WAN that links computers in each office. Physically, the WAN might consist of four leased transmission lines, similar to those in Figure 7.1. Conceptually, the WAN functions much like a giant LAN that allows the computers at all sites to communicate.

7.4 Can We Build A Global WAN?

It may seem that a WAN could satisfy the need for a single, global computer net- work. A WAN allows computers at a given site to communicate with one another. A WAN also allows a computer at any site to communicate with an arbitrary computer at any other site.

Although WAN technology looks promising, it does not solve the problem. There are two big drawbacks. The first drawback arises from cost because the equipment and transmission lines are far too expensive for an average user. The second drawback

K392894.indd 98 03/08/18 12:07 pmComer, Douglas E.. The Internet Book : Everything You Need to Know about Computer Networking and How the Internet Works, CRC Press LLC, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=5502790. Created from apus on 2025-01-08 05:09:10.

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70 Internet: Motivation And Beginnings Chap. 7

and electrical signals. Thus, a company with multiple LAN technologies could not form a large, company-wide network merely by hooking cables between all the LAN systems.

7.2 No Technology Solves All Problems

In the 1960s, as work began on computer networks, many of the scientists and en- gineers expected data networking to follow the same approach as the telephone system. Individuals might start experimenting, but eventually, a single, large data communica- tion system would exist that spanned the world and allowed computers to communicate, analogous to the way the phone system allows humans to communicate. They asked the question,

What is the best network technology for a global network system?

To answer the question, they started to explore possibilities. Engineers designed wired and wireless network technologies, and built experimental systems. They worked on ways computers could use networks, and they measured performance.

Looking for one technology to solve all problems seemed like a good approach, but it was flawed. As time went on, researchers found that a network that is ideal for one situation is not ideal for another. A technology that spans a long distance is sub- stantially more expensive than a technology that spans a short distance. Because short wires pick up less interference, data can be transferred over a short wire at a much higher rate than it can be transferred over a long wire.

7.3 Wide Area Network Technologies

The search for a network technology that allowed all computers to communicate led scientists and engineers to experiment with networks that could connect computers across large geographic distances. Initially, they were called long-haul networks, but the name was changed to Wide Area Networks (WANs) to contrast with LANs. Chapter 5 describes the basics of modems that use a modulated carrier wave to send data over a long distance. WANs use modems to send signals across long-distance transmission lines, but a WAN does much more than merely connect a pair of computers. A given WAN consists of transmission lines interconnecting sites plus specialized hardware sys- tems at each site that unifies the transmission lines into a coordinated system.

The hardware system at each site is known as a WAN switch. All the transmission lines coming from other sites connect to the WAN switch, as do local computers at the site. Figure 7.1 shows an example WAN that connects four sites.

Sec. 7.3 Wide Area Network Technologies 71

Site 1 Site 2

Site 3 Site 4

WAN switch connected to other sites

computers

Figure 7.1 Illustration of a WAN that spans four sites.

Because it operates independent of computers, a WAN switch can keep running, even when all computers at the site are powered down. The WAN switch accepts mes- sages sent from other sites. If a message has been sent to one of the local computers, the WAN switch delivers the message; otherwise, the WAN switch forwards the mes- sage on toward its destination. In the figure, for example, when a computer at Site 2 sends a message to a computer at Site 4, the WAN switch at Site 2 forwards the mes- sage to the WAN switch at Site 3, which forwards the message to the WAN switch at Site 4. Finally, the WAN switch at Site 4 delivers the message to the computer.

To summarize:

A Wide Area Network (WAN) technology uses a special-purpose hardware device called a WAN switch at each site. The WAN switch connects to transmission lines that lead to other sites, and forwards messages to their final destination.

To understand the importance of WANs, imagine a company with offices in four cities: New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Austin. The company can install a WAN that links computers in each office. Physically, the WAN might consist of four leased transmission lines, similar to those in Figure 7.1. Conceptually, the WAN functions much like a giant LAN that allows the computers at all sites to communicate.

7.4 Can We Build A Global WAN?

It may seem that a WAN could satisfy the need for a single, global computer net- work. A WAN allows computers at a given site to communicate with one another. A WAN also allows a computer at any site to communicate with an arbitrary computer at any other site.

Although WAN technology looks promising, it does not solve the problem. There are two big drawbacks. The first drawback arises from cost because the equipment and transmission lines are far too expensive for an average user. The second drawback

70 Internet: Motivation And Beginnings Chap. 7

and electrical signals. Thus, a company with multiple LAN technologies could not form a large, company-wide network merely by hooking cables between all the LAN systems.

7.2 No Technology Solves All Problems

In the 1960s, as work began on computer networks, many of the scientists and en- gineers expected data networking to follow the same approach as the telephone system. Individuals might start experimenting, but eventually, a single, large data communica- tion system would exist that spanned the world and allowed computers to communicate, analogous to the way the phone system allows humans to communicate. They asked the question,

What is the best network technology for a global network system?

To answer the question, they started to explore possibilities. Engineers designed wired and wireless network technologies, and built experimental systems. They worked on ways computers could use networks, and they measured performance.

Looking for one technology to solve all problems seemed like a good approach, but it was flawed. As time went on, researchers found that a network that is ideal for one situation is not ideal for another. A technology that spans a long distance is sub- stantially more expensive than a technology that spans a short distance. Because short wires pick up less interference, data can be transferred over a short wire at a much higher rate than it can be transferred over a long wire.

7.3 Wide Area Network Technologies

The search for a network technology that allowed all computers to communicate led scientists and engineers to experiment with networks that could connect computers across large geographic distances. Initially, they were called long-haul networks, but the name was changed to Wide Area Networks (WANs) to contrast with LANs. Chapter 5 describes the basics of modems that use a modulated carrier wave to send data over a long distance. WANs use modems to send signals across long-distance transmission lines, but a WAN does much more than merely connect a pair of computers. A given WAN consists of transmission lines interconnecting sites plus specialized hardware sys- tems at each site that unifies the transmission lines into a coordinated system.

The hardware system at each site is known as a WAN switch. All the transmission lines coming from other sites connect to the WAN switch, as do local computers at the site. Figure 7.1 shows an example WAN that connects four sites.

Sec. 7.3 Wide Area Network Technologies 71

Site 1 Site 2

Site 3 Site 4

WAN switch connected to other sites

computers

Figure 7.1 Illustration of a WAN that spans four sites.

Because it operates independent of computers, a WAN switch can keep running, even when all computers at the site are powered down. The WAN switch accepts mes- sages sent from other sites. If a message has been sent to one of the local computers, the WAN switch delivers the message; otherwise, the WAN switch forwards the mes- sage on toward its destination. In the figure, for example, when a computer at Site 2 sends a message to a computer at Site 4, the WAN switch at Site 2 forwards the mes- sage to the WAN switch at Site 3, which forwards the message to the WAN switch at Site 4. Finally, the WAN switch at Site 4 delivers the message to the computer.

To summarize:

A Wide Area Network (WAN) technology uses a special-purpose hardware device called a WAN switch at each site. The WAN switch connects to transmission lines that lead to other sites, and forwards messages to their final destination.

To understand the importance of WANs, imagine a company with offices in four cities: New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Austin. The company can install a WAN that links computers in each office. Physically, the WAN might consist of four leased transmission lines, similar to those in Figure 7.1. Conceptually, the WAN functions much like a giant LAN that allows the computers at all sites to communicate.

7.4 Can We Build A Global WAN?

It may seem that a WAN could satisfy the need for a single, global computer net- work. A WAN allows computers at a given site to communicate with one another. A WAN also allows a computer at any site to communicate with an arbitrary computer at any other site.

Although WAN technology looks promising, it does not solve the problem. There are two big drawbacks. The first drawback arises from cost because the equipment and transmission lines are far too expensive for an average user. The second drawback

K392894.indd 99 03/08/18 12:07 pmComer, Douglas E.. The Internet Book : Everything You Need to Know about Computer Networking and How the Internet Works, CRC Press LLC, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=5502790. Created from apus on 2025-01-08 05:09:10.

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72 Internet: Motivation And Beginnings Chap. 7

arises from the general structure. A WAN is a great way to connect multiple sites, but not a great way to connect billions of individual subscribers. Additional technology would be needed to extend the WAN to homes and small offices without requiring them to install a WAN switch.

7.5 U.S. Department Of Defense Networking Research

In the 1960s, the U.S. Department Of Defense became interested in using computer networks. Because the idea of computer networking was new, little was known about how to build networks or how they could be used. Through the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA),† the military funded research on networking using a variety of technologies. In the 1970s, ARPA had several operational computer networks and had begun to pass technology on to the military. ARPA projects included a WAN called the ARPANET, as well as networks that used satellites and radio transmission for communi- cation.

DARPA realized the military would face the same problem that many organiza- tions with multiple network systems faced: each network connected a set of computers, but no path existed between computers on separate networks. In essence, each network formed an isolated island that connected a set of computers, with no path between the islands.

7.6 Experimental Research

DARPA research examined how to interconnect all machines from a large organi- zation. DARPA started with a few basic ideas, awarded grants to researchers in both industry and academia, and arranged for the researchers to cooperate in solving the problem. Researchers discussed their findings, and generated new ideas at regular meetings.

Instead of allowing researchers to engage in theoretical discussions, DARPA en- couraged them to apply their ideas to real computers. DARPA chose researchers in- terested in experimental work, and insisted that they build prototype software to test their ideas.

7.7 The Internet Emerges

In 1973, two people working with DARPA, Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn, wrote a paper that proposed a completely new approach. Instead of trying to find a single tech- nology that would work well in all situations, interconnect the networks and add new software that passes data across the interconnection. They used the term internetwork to emphasize the interconnection of networks, and it quickly became shortened to inter- net. The name was applied to both the research project and to the prototype communi-

†The agency switched to the name Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and after the research community switched preferences a few times, the name DARPA survived.

Sec. 7.7 The Internet Emerges 73

cation system that was built. To distinguish the idea from the specific prototype, researchers working on the DARPA project adopted the convention of writing internet in lowercase when referring to internetworks in general, and writing Internet with an uppercase I when referring to their experimental prototype. The key point is:

DARPA researchers investigated ways to solve the problem of incom- patible networks. The research project produced a prototype system known by the name Internet.

Chapter 13 discusses the structure of an internet in detail. It explains how the In- ternet solves the problem of connecting together LANs and WANs, and how seemingly incompatible networks work together.

7.8 The ARPANET Backbone

The ARPANET was especially important to the Internet project, and was often called the backbone network because it was the central WAN that tied researchers to- gether. Each researcher working on the Internet project had a computer connected to the ARPANET.

Although having a Wide Area Network in place helped researchers communicate, the ARPANET became a key part of the Internet project because it allowed researchers to attach more than one computer at each site. Researchers took advantage of the feature and used ARPANET for two purposes. First, they used the ARPANET like a conventional WAN to connect a computer at each site. Second, they added an addition- al connection at each site, and arranged to use the additional connection to experiment with new ideas. Thus, the ARPANET served as both a standard network that permitted researchers to move data among sites involved in the project, and as an experimental network that allowed researchers to evaluate new network techniques and new applica- tions.

7.9 Internet Software

Computer software forms an important part of Internet technology because software, not hardware, is key in making it possible to interconnect networks. Later chapters discuss the software that makes internetworking possible and efficient. For now, it is sufficient to know that DARPA’s Internet project uncovered scientific princi- ples and engineering optimizations that resulted in the software that made Internet com- munication possible and efficient. Although the software has many subparts, research- ers worked to ensure that the software formed an integrated system. The end result is a smooth, apparently seamless software design. The parts work together so well that most users do not sense the underlying complexity.

K392894.indd 100 03/08/18 12:07 pmComer, Douglas E.. The Internet Book : Everything You Need to Know about Computer Networking and How the Internet Works, CRC Press LLC, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=5502790. Created from apus on 2025-01-08 05:09:10.

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72 Internet: Motivation And Beginnings Chap. 7

arises from the general structure. A WAN is a great way to connect multiple sites, but not a great way to connect billions of individual subscribers. Additional technology would be needed to extend the WAN to homes and small offices without requiring them to install a WAN switch.

7.5 U.S. Department Of Defense Networking Research

In the 1960s, the U.S. Department Of Defense became interested in using computer networks. Because the idea of computer networking was new, little was known about how to build networks or how they could be used. Through the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA),† the military funded research on networking using a variety of technologies. In the 1970s, ARPA had several operational computer networks and had begun to pass technology on to the military. ARPA projects included a WAN called the ARPANET, as well as networks that used satellites and radio transmission for communi- cation.

DARPA realized the military would face the same problem that many organiza- tions with multiple network systems faced: each network connected a set of computers, but no path existed between computers on separate networks. In essence, each network formed an isolated island that connected a set of computers, with no path between the islands.

7.6 Experimental Research

DARPA research examined how to interconnect all machines from a large organi- zation. DARPA started with a few basic ideas, awarded grants to researchers in both industry and academia, and arranged for the researchers to cooperate in solving the problem. Researchers discussed their findings, and generated new ideas at regular meetings.

Instead of allowing researchers to engage in theoretical discussions, DARPA en- couraged them to apply their ideas to real computers. DARPA chose researchers in- terested in experimental work, and insisted that they build prototype software to test their ideas.

7.7 The Internet Emerges

In 1973, two people working with DARPA, Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn, wrote a paper that proposed a completely new approach. Instead of trying to find a single tech- nology that would work well in all situations, interconnect the networks and add new software that passes data across the interconnection. They used the term internetwork to emphasize the interconnection of networks, and it quickly became shortened to inter- net. The name was applied to both the research project and to the prototype communi-

†The agency switched to the name Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and after the research community switched preferences a few times, the name DARPA survived.

Sec. 7.7 The Internet Emerges 73

cation system that was built. To distinguish the idea from the specific prototype, researchers working on the DARPA project adopted the convention of writing internet in lowercase when referring to internetworks in general, and writing Internet with an uppercase I when referring to their experimental prototype. The key point is:

DARPA researchers investigated ways to solve the problem of incom- patible networks. The research project produced a prototype system known by the name Internet.

Chapter 13 discusses the structure of an internet in detail. It explains how the In- ternet solves the problem of connecting together LANs and WANs, and how seemingly incompatible networks work together.

7.8 The ARPANET Backbone

The ARPANET was especially important to the Internet project, and was often called the backbone network because it was the central WAN that tied researchers to- gether. Each researcher working on the Internet project had a computer connected to the ARPANET.

Although having a Wide Area Network in place helped researchers communicate, the ARPANET became a key part of the Internet project because it allowed researchers to attach more than one computer at each site. Researchers took advantage of the feature and used ARPANET for two purposes. First, they used the ARPANET like a conventional WAN to connect a computer at each site. Second, they added an addition- al connection at each site, and arranged to use the additional connection to experiment with new ideas. Thus, the ARPANET served as both a standard network that permitted researchers to move data among sites involved in the project, and as an experimental network that allowed researchers to evaluate new network techniques and new applica- tions.

7.9 Internet Software

Computer software forms an important part of Internet technology because software, not hardware, is key in making it possible to interconnect networks. Later chapters discuss the software that makes internetworking possible and efficient. For now, it is sufficient to know that DARPA’s Internet project uncovered scientific princi- ples and engineering optimizations that resulted in the software that made Internet com- munication possible and efficient. Although the software has many subparts, research- ers worked to ensure that the software formed an integrated system. The end result is a smooth, apparently seamless software design. The parts work together so well that most users do not sense the underlying complexity.

72 Internet: Motivation And Beginnings Chap. 7

arises from the general structure. A WAN is a great way to connect multiple sites, but not a great way to connect billions of individual subscribers. Additional technology would be needed to extend the WAN to homes and small offices without requiring them to install a WAN switch.

7.5 U.S. Department Of Defense Networking Research

In the 1960s, the U.S. Department Of Defense became interested in using computer networks. Because the idea of computer networking was new, little was known about how to build networks or how they could be used. Through the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA),† the military funded research on networking using a variety of technologies. In the 1970s, ARPA had several operational computer networks and had begun to pass technology on to the military. ARPA projects included a WAN called the ARPANET, as well as networks that used satellites and radio transmission for communi- cation.

DARPA realized the military would face the same problem that many organiza- tions with multiple network systems faced: each network connected a set of computers, but no path existed between computers on separate networks. In essence, each network formed an isolated island that connected a set of computers, with no path between the islands.

7.6 Experimental Research

DARPA research examined how to interconnect all machines from a large organi- zation. DARPA started with a few basic ideas, awarded grants to researchers in both industry and academia, and arranged for the researchers to cooperate in solving the problem. Researchers discussed their findings, and generated new ideas at regular meetings.

Instead of allowing researchers to engage in theoretical discussions, DARPA en- couraged them to apply their ideas to real computers. DARPA chose researchers in- terested in experimental work, and insisted that they build prototype software to test their ideas.

7.7 The Internet Emerges

In 1973, two people working with DARPA, Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn, wrote a paper that proposed a completely new approach. Instead of trying to find a single tech- nology that would work well in all situations, interconnect the networks and add new software that passes data across the interconnection. They used the term internetwork to emphasize the interconnection of networks, and it quickly became shortened to inter- net. The name was applied to both the research project and to the prototype communi-

†The agency switched to the name Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and after the research community switched preferences a few times, the name DARPA survived.

Sec. 7.7 The Internet Emerges 73

cation system that was built. To distinguish the idea from the specific prototype, researchers working on the DARPA project adopted the convention of writing internet in lowercase when referring to internetworks in general, and writing Internet with an uppercase I when referring to their experimental prototype. The key point is:

DARPA researchers investigated ways to solve the problem of incom- patible networks. The research project produced a prototype system known by the name Internet.

Chapter 13 discusses the structure of an internet in detail. It explains how the In- ternet solves the problem of connecting together LANs and WANs, and how seemingly incompatible networks work together.

7.8 The ARPANET Backbone

The ARPANET was especially important to the Internet project, and was often called the backbone network because it was the central WAN that tied researchers to- gether. Each researcher working on the Internet project had a computer connected to the ARPANET.

Although having a Wide Area Network in place helped researchers communicate, the ARPANET became a key part of the Internet project because it allowed researchers to attach more than one computer at each site. Researchers took advantage of the feature and used ARPANET for two purposes. First, they used the ARPANET like a conventional WAN to connect a computer at each site. Second, they added an addition- al connection at each site, and arranged to use the additional connection to experiment with new ideas. Thus, the ARPANET served as both a standard network that permitted researchers to move data among sites involved in the project, and as an experimental network that allowed researchers to evaluate new network techniques and new applica- tions.

7.9 Internet Software

Computer software forms an important part of Internet technology because software, not hardware, is key in making it possible to interconnect networks. Later chapters discuss the software that makes internetworking possible and efficient. For now, it is sufficient to know that DARPA’s Internet project uncovered scientific princi- ples and engineering optimizations that resulted in the software that made Internet com- munication possible and efficient. Although the software has many subparts, research- ers worked to ensure that the software formed an integrated system. The end result is a smooth, apparently seamless software design. The parts work together so well that most users do not sense the underlying complexity.

K392894.indd 101 03/08/18 12:07 pmComer, Douglas E.. The Internet Book : Everything You Need to Know about Computer Networking and How the Internet Works, CRC Press LLC, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=5502790. Created from apus on 2025-01-08 05:09:10.

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74 Internet: Motivation And Beginnings Chap. 7

7.10 The Name Is TCP/IP

Two pieces of the Internet software stand out as particularly important and innova- tive. Internet Protocol (IP) software provides basic communication, and the Transmis- sion Control Protocol (TCP) software provides key functions that applications need. Consequently, the entire set of Internet communication software is known by the initials of these two important parts; usually the term is written with a slash between the names: TCP/IP.†

When a more formal name is needed for the set of software specifications, researchers use The TCP/IP Internet Protocol Suite. The formal name is more accurate because it points out that the entire set contains more than just the two protocols. In the end, however, the simpler name has persisted — both vendors who sell the technology as well as users who acquire and install it use the term TCP/IP.

7.11 The Surprising Choice Of Open Standards

To encourage vendors to adopt Internet technology, DARPA decided to make the research results public. Whenever a researcher discovered a new technique, measured network performance, or extended the TCP/IP software, DARPA asked that the researcher document the results in a report. All the specifications needed to build TCP/IP software, and all the experience installing and using it were documented. DARPA made the reports available to everyone.

DARPA’s practice of publishing network specifications was surprising because it ran counter to accepted practice. Commercial companies that developed network tech- nologies had kept their discoveries and technical specifications private. In fact, most companies had filed patents to guarantee that no other company could use the same techniques. The idea was derived from standard business practice:

Prevailing business opinion suggested that a company selling comput- er networks could maximumize profits by protecting their networking technology with patents that ensured no other vendor’s computers could attach to the network without paying a fee.

In the mid-1970s, major computer companies that sold network systems made sure that only their computers could connect to their network technology. Various LAN and WAN technologies had been created, but each vendor guarded their proprietary technol- ogy. To emphasize that a technology is not available to outsiders, computer profession- als use the term closed. A closed technology is proprietary to one company, and not available for use by others without a fee.

From its inception, the Internet project aspired to produce an open set of standards that would permit computers from all vendors to communicate and permit any type of network to be included. The open philosophy meant that instead of filing patents,

†One pronounces the name by spelling out the letters “T-C-P-I-P.”

Sec. 7.11 The Surprising Choice Of Open Standards 75

researchers made their discoveries about the Internet public, and published the specifica- tions needed to build TCP/IP software for anyone to use. Although it now seems non- controversial, the approach was shocking at the time.

A network technology is closed if a company owns the technology and uses patents and trade secrets to prevent other companies from build- ing products that use it. By contrast, the Internet is open because all specifications are publicly available and any company can build a compatible technology.

7.12 Open Communication Systems Win

Computer companies found that, despite their efforts to sell closed systems, custo- mers began to acquire several brands of computers. Advances in processor and memory hardware made new computer designs possible. Plummeting costs made personal com- puters affordable. Organizations like the U.S. military realized that as computer tech- nology evolved, vendors would continually offer new models. Furthermore, not all software worked on all computers. A large organization usually has many brands and models of computers because it needs software systems and computers for many pur- poses. Only an open network system can be used to interconnect computers from mul- tiple vendors. In summary:

Because large organizations have multiple types and brands of com- puters, a closed network that is restricted to one vendor’s products is inadequate. Only an open communication system allows computers from multiple vendors to communicate.

7.13 Placing Internet Technical Documentation Online

The Internet project pioneered another idea: using a computer network to make technical documents available. When DARPA began the Internet project, computer net- works were so new that only a few people had ever heard of them; very few individuals had actually used a network. Fortunately, most of the researchers that DARPA chose to work on the Internet were among the group that had experience with networks. They had helped design and build the ARPANET, and had devised a few networking applica- tions. They decided to use the ARPANET to exchange technical information, and placed technical documents in computer files accessible over the ARPANET. It was a pioneering idea at the time.

Initially, the Internet researchers planned to issue technical documents in two steps. When a report was first written, it would be made available to other researchers for comments. After a short time, the author would incorporate all comments and issue a final version of the report. To implement the two steps, researchers established two

K392894.indd 102 03/08/18 12:07 pmComer, Douglas E.. The Internet Book : Everything You Need to Know about Computer Networking and How the Internet Works, CRC Press LLC, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=5502790. Created from apus on 2025-01-08 05:09:10.

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74 Internet: Motivation And Beginnings Chap. 7

7.10 The Name Is TCP/IP

Two pieces of the Internet software stand out as particularly important and innova- tive. Internet Protocol (IP) software provides basic communication, and the Transmis- sion Control Protocol (TCP) software provides key functions that applications need. Consequently, the entire set of Internet communication software is known by the initials of these two important parts; usually the term is written with a slash between the names: TCP/IP.†

When a more formal name is needed for the set of software specifications, researchers use The TCP/IP Internet Protocol Suite. The formal name is more accurate because it points out that the entire set contains more than just the two protocols. In the end, however, the simpler name has persisted — both vendors who sell the technology as well as users who acquire and install it use the term TCP/IP.

7.11 The Surprising Choice Of Open Standards

To encourage vendors to adopt Internet technology, DARPA decided to make the research results public. Whenever a researcher discovered a new technique, measured network performance, or extended the TCP/IP software, DARPA asked that the researcher document the results in a report. All the specifications needed to build TCP/IP software, and all the experience installing and using it were documented. DARPA made the reports available to everyone.

DARPA’s practice of publishing network specifications was surprising because it ran counter to accepted practice. Commercial companies that developed network tech- nologies had kept their discoveries and technical specifications private. In fact, most companies had filed patents to guarantee that no other company could use the same techniques. The idea was derived from standard business practice:

Prevailing business opinion suggested that a company selling comput- er networks could maximumize profits by protecting their networking technology with patents that ensured no other vendor’s computers could attach to the network without paying a fee.

In the mid-1970s, major computer companies that sold network systems made sure that only their computers could connect to their network technology. Various LAN and WAN technologies had been created, but each vendor guarded their proprietary technol- ogy. To emphasize that a technology is not available to outsiders, computer profession- als use the term closed. A closed technology is proprietary to one company, and not available for use by others without a fee.

From its inception, the Internet project aspired to produce an open set of standards that would permit computers from all vendors to communicate and permit any type of network to be included. The open philosophy meant that instead of filing patents,

†One pronounces the name by spelling out the letters “T-C-P-I-P.”

Sec. 7.11 The Surprising Choice Of Open Standards 75

researchers made their discoveries about the Internet public, and published the specifica- tions needed to build TCP/IP software for anyone to use. Although it now seems non- controversial, the approach was shocking at the time.

A network technology is closed if a company owns the technology and uses patents and trade secrets to prevent other companies from build- ing products that use it. By contrast, the Internet is open because all specifications are publicly available and any company can build a compatible technology.

7.12 Open Communication Systems Win

Computer companies found that, despite their efforts to sell closed systems, custo- mers began to acquire several brands of computers. Advances in processor and memory hardware made new computer designs possible. Plummeting costs made personal com- puters affordable. Organizations like the U.S. military realized that as computer tech- nology evolved, vendors would continually offer new models. Furthermore, not all software worked on all computers. A large organization usually has many brands and models of computers because it needs software systems and computers for many pur- poses. Only an open network system can be used to interconnect computers from mul- tiple vendors. In summary:

Because large organizations have multiple types and brands of com- puters, a closed network that is restricted to one vendor’s products is inadequate. Only an open communication system allows computers from multiple vendors to communicate.

7.13 Placing Internet Technical Documentation Online

The Internet project pioneered another idea: using a computer network to make technical documents available. When DARPA began the Internet project, computer net- works were so new that only a few people had ever heard of them; very few individuals had actually used a network. Fortunately, most of the researchers that DARPA chose to work on the Internet were among the group that had experience with networks. They had helped design and build the ARPANET, and had devised a few networking applica- tions. They decided to use the ARPANET to exchange technical information, and placed technical documents in computer files accessible over the ARPANET. It was a pioneering idea at the time.

Initially, the Internet researchers planned to issue technical documents in two steps. When a report was first written, it would be made available to other researchers for comments. After a short time, the author would incorporate all comments and issue a final version of the report. To implement the two steps, researchers established two

74 Internet: Motivation And Beginnings Chap. 7

7.10 The Name Is TCP/IP

Two pieces of the Internet software stand out as particularly important and innova- tive. Internet Protocol (IP) software provides basic communication, and the Transmis- sion Control Protocol (TCP) software provides key functions that applications need. Consequently, the entire set of Internet communication software is known by the initials of these two important parts; usually the term is written with a slash between the names: TCP/IP.†

When a more formal name is needed for the set of software specifications, researchers use The TCP/IP Internet Protocol Suite. The formal name is more accurate because it points out that the entire set contains more than just the two protocols. In the end, however, the simpler name has persisted — both vendors who sell the technology as well as users who acquire and install it use the term TCP/IP.

7.11 The Surprising Choice Of Open Standards

To encourage vendors to adopt Internet technology, DARPA decided to make the research results public. Whenever a researcher discovered a new technique, measured network performance, or extended the TCP/IP software, DARPA asked that the researcher document the results in a report. All the specifications needed to build TCP/IP software, and all the experience installing and using it were documented. DARPA made the reports available to everyone.

DARPA’s practice of publishing network specifications was surprising because it ran counter to accepted practice. Commercial companies that developed network tech- nologies had kept their discoveries and technical specifications private. In fact, most companies had filed patents to guarantee that no other company could use the same techniques. The idea was derived from standard business practice:

Prevailing business opinion suggested that a company selling comput- er networks could maximumize profits by protecting their networking technology with patents that ensured no other vendor’s computers could attach to the network without paying a fee.

In the mid-1970s, major computer companies that sold network systems made sure that only their computers could connect to their network technology. Various LAN and WAN technologies had been created, but each vendor guarded their proprietary technol- ogy. To emphasize that a technology is not available to outsiders, computer profession- als use the term closed. A closed technology is proprietary to one company, and not available for use by others without a fee.

From its inception, the Internet project aspired to produce an open set of standards that would permit computers from all vendors to communicate and permit any type of network to be included. The open philosophy meant that instead of filing patents,

†One pronounces the name by spelling out the letters “T-C-P-I-P.”

Sec. 7.11 The Surprising Choice Of Open Standards 75

researchers made their discoveries about the Internet public, and published the specifica- tions needed to build TCP/IP software for anyone to use. Although it now seems non- controversial, the approach was shocking at the time.

A network technology is closed if a company owns the technology and uses patents and trade secrets to prevent other companies from build- ing products that use it. By contrast, the Internet is open because all specifications are publicly available and any company can build a compatible technology.

7.12 Open Communication Systems Win

Computer companies found that, despite their efforts to sell closed systems, custo- mers began to acquire several brands of computers. Advances in processor and memory hardware made new computer designs possible. Plummeting costs made personal com- puters affordable. Organizations like the U.S. military realized that as computer tech- nology evolved, vendors would continually offer new models. Furthermore, not all software worked on all computers. A large organization usually has many brands and models of computers because it needs software systems and computers for many pur- poses. Only an open network system can be used to interconnect computers from mul- tiple vendors. In summary:

Because large organizations have multiple types and brands of com- puters, a closed network that is restricted to one vendor’s products is inadequate. Only an open communication system allows computers from multiple vendors to communicate.

7.13 Placing Internet Technical Documentation Online

The Internet project pioneered another idea: using a computer network to make technical documents available. When DARPA began the Internet project, computer net- works were so new that only a few people had ever heard of them; very few individuals had actually used a network. Fortunately, most of the researchers that DARPA chose to work on the Internet were among the group that had experience with networks. They had helped design and build the ARPANET, and had devised a few networking applica- tions. They decided to use the ARPANET to exchange technical information, and placed technical documents in computer files accessible over the ARPANET. It was a pioneering idea at the time.

Initially, the Internet researchers planned to issue technical documents in two steps. When a report was first written, it would be made available to other researchers for comments. After a short time, the author would incorporate all comments and issue a final version of the report. To implement the two steps, researchers established two

K392894.indd 103 03/08/18 12:07 pmComer, Douglas E.. The Internet Book : Everything You Need to Know about Computer Networking and How the Internet Works, CRC Press LLC, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=5502790. Created from apus on 2025-01-08 05:09:10.

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76 Internet: Motivation And Beginnings Chap. 7

series of reports: Requests For Comments (RFCs) and Internet Engineering Notes (IENs).

Unfortunately, the best laid plans often go astray. Researchers found that some of the initial reports were so well done that they did not need revision or improvement. Other reports were rewritten completely, but reissued as an RFC for another round of comments. Most researchers found it more productive to continue investigating new ideas than to edit old reports. In the end, RFC reports became the official record of the project and the IEN series was dropped. The irony is that each of the documents that specifies the technology of the largest, most successful computer network in history has a label that implies the work is somehow unfinished and the author is still waiting tenu- ously for comments. To summarize:

For historical reasons, the technical documents that define TCP/IP and related Internet technology are called Requests For Comments.

Researchers working on the Internet project had access to all RFCs because they were stored on a computer attached to the ARPANET. Each RFC was assigned an in- teger number, and an index was kept that listed the title of each number. At any time, a researcher who wanted to know the details of a particular piece of Internet software could use the ARPANET to retrieve the RFC that contained the information. If the researcher did not remember which RFC was needed, they could retrieve the index.

Keeping the project documentation accessible across the network enabled everyone working on the project to coordinate their activities and keep software up-to-date with the specifications. More important, rapid communication among the researchers in- creased the speed at which the project progressed.

Because documents that specified technical details of TCP/IP and the Internet project were accessible over the ARPANET, work on the pro- ject proceeded more quickly.

As the Internet project progressed, the technology reached a stage where prototype software could be deployed and tested. A fledgling Internet was born. One of the first applications that researchers devised for the new Internet was a mechanism that could be used to access RFCs. In fact, almost all the initial applications for the Internet were motivated by the needs of the researchers building it.

7.14 The U.S. Military Adopted TCP/IP

By 1982, a prototype Internet was in place and the TCP/IP technology had been tested. A few dozen academic and industrial research sites had been using TCP/IP reg- ularly. Then the U.S. military started to use TCP/IP on its networks.

Sec. 7.14 The U.S. Military Adopted TCP /IP 77

In the beginning of 1983, DARPA expanded the use of TCP/IP to include all mili- tary sites that connected to the ARPANET. The date marked a transition for the Inter- net as it began to change from an experiment to a production communication facility.

7.15 Summary

The Internet began as a research project funded by DARPA. Researchers studied ways to interconnect computers that used various kinds of networks. The name Internet refers to both the project and the prototype network system that researchers built.

Known by the name TCP/IP, the software used to make the Internet operate con- tains many complex pieces of software that work together to provide communication. The software works so well that it hides the details of the underlying hardware and pro- vides the illusion of a seamless system.

The Internet standards are open because the specifications needed to build TCP/IP software or use the Internet are freely available to everyone. Researchers who devised the Internet published technical information in a series of reports that describe the Inter- net and the TCP/IP software it uses. For historical reasons, each document in the series is labeled Requests For Comments.

EXERCISES

7.1 Many individuals have tried to claim credit for the Internet. An easy way to spot a fake claim is to look for dates before 1973 when the Internet idea was initially published as a research paper. Search online and see if you can spot a fake claim.

7.2 After the Internet demonstrated the value of open standards, others adopted the idea. Look up “open software” on Wikipedia and write a one-paragraph summary of the idea.

7.3 In the 1970s, one of the main arguments in favor of using closed technologies focused on economics: companies asked how they could make money if other companies could build the same products. Look online and compare the histories of Cisco Systems, one of the first companies to build products using the open Internet standards, and Digital Equipment Corporation, a company that sold proprietary DECNET protocols. Which was most suc- cessful?

7.4 Perform an Internet search of humorous or funny Internet history, and find something that makes you smile.

7.5 Although those of us working on the Internet project were using an early version in the 1970s, most people only heard about the Internet in the 1990s. Ask older family members about their first encounter with the Internet, and have them guess when the Internet was created.

K392894.indd 104 03/08/18 12:07 pmComer, Douglas E.. The Internet Book : Everything You Need to Know about Computer Networking and How the Internet Works, CRC Press LLC, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=5502790. Created from apus on 2025-01-08 05:09:10.

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76 Internet: Motivation And Beginnings Chap. 7

series of reports: Requests For Comments (RFCs) and Internet Engineering Notes (IENs).

Unfortunately, the best laid plans often go astray. Researchers found that some of the initial reports were so well done that they did not need revision or improvement. Other reports were rewritten completely, but reissued as an RFC for another round of comments. Most researchers found it more productive to continue investigating new ideas than to edit old reports. In the end, RFC reports became the official record of the project and the IEN series was dropped. The irony is that each of the documents that specifies the technology of the largest, most successful computer network in history has a label that implies the work is somehow unfinished and the author is still waiting tenu- ously for comments. To summarize:

For historical reasons, the technical documents that define TCP/IP and related Internet technology are called Requests For Comments.

Researchers working on the Internet project had access to all RFCs because they were stored on a computer attached to the ARPANET. Each RFC was assigned an in- teger number, and an index was kept that listed the title of each number. At any time, a researcher who wanted to know the details of a particular piece of Internet software could use the ARPANET to retrieve the RFC that contained the information. If the researcher did not remember which RFC was needed, they could retrieve the index.

Keeping the project documentation accessible across the network enabled everyone working on the project to coordinate their activities and keep software up-to-date with the specifications. More important, rapid communication among the researchers in- creased the speed at which the project progressed.

Because documents that specified technical details of TCP/IP and the Internet project were accessible over the ARPANET, work on the pro- ject proceeded more quickly.

As the Internet project progressed, the technology reached a stage where prototype software could be deployed and tested. A fledgling Internet was born. One of the first applications that researchers devised for the new Internet was a mechanism that could be used to access RFCs. In fact, almost all the initial applications for the Internet were motivated by the needs of the researchers building it.

7.14 The U.S. Military Adopted TCP/IP

By 1982, a prototype Internet was in place and the TCP/IP technology had been tested. A few dozen academic and industrial research sites had been using TCP/IP reg- ularly. Then the U.S. military started to use TCP/IP on its networks.

Sec. 7.14 The U.S. Military Adopted TCP /IP 77

In the beginning of 1983, DARPA expanded the use of TCP/IP to include all mili- tary sites that connected to the ARPANET. The date marked a transition for the Inter- net as it began to change from an experiment to a production communication facility.

7.15 Summary

The Internet began as a research project funded by DARPA. Researchers studied ways to interconnect computers that used various kinds of networks. The name Internet refers to both the project and the prototype network system that researchers built.

Known by the name TCP/IP, the software used to make the Internet operate con- tains many complex pieces of software that work together to provide communication. The software works so well that it hides the details of the underlying hardware and pro- vides the illusion of a seamless system.

The Internet standards are open because the specifications needed to build TCP/IP software or use the Internet are freely available to everyone. Researchers who devised the Internet published technical information in a series of reports that describe the Inter- net and the TCP/IP software it uses. For historical reasons, each document in the series is labeled Requests For Comments.

EXERCISES

7.1 Many individuals have tried to claim credit for the Internet. An easy way to spot a fake claim is to look for dates before 1973 when the Internet idea was initially published as a research paper. Search online and see if you can spot a fake claim.

7.2 After the Internet demonstrated the value of open standards, others adopted the idea. Look up “open software” on Wikipedia and write a one-paragraph summary of the idea.

7.3 In the 1970s, one of the main arguments in favor of using closed technologies focused on economics: companies asked how they could make money if other companies could build the same products. Look online and compare the histories of Cisco Systems, one of the first companies to build products using the open Internet standards, and Digital Equipment Corporation, a company that sold proprietary DECNET protocols. Which was most suc- cessful?

7.4 Perform an Internet search of humorous or funny Internet history, and find something that makes you smile.

7.5 Although those of us working on the Internet project were using an early version in the 1970s, most people only heard about the Internet in the 1990s. Ask older family members about their first encounter with the Internet, and have them guess when the Internet was created.

76 Internet: Motivation And Beginnings Chap. 7

series of reports: Requests For Comments (RFCs) and Internet Engineering Notes (IENs).

Unfortunately, the best laid plans often go astray. Researchers found that some of the initial reports were so well done that they did not need revision or improvement. Other reports were rewritten completely, but reissued as an RFC for another round of comments. Most researchers found it more productive to continue investigating new ideas than to edit old reports. In the end, RFC reports became the official record of the project and the IEN series was dropped. The irony is that each of the documents that specifies the technology of the largest, most successful computer network in history has a label that implies the work is somehow unfinished and the author is still waiting tenu- ously for comments. To summarize:

For historical reasons, the technical documents that define TCP/IP and related Internet technology are called Requests For Comments.

Researchers working on the Internet project had access to all RFCs because they were stored on a computer attached to the ARPANET. Each RFC was assigned an in- teger number, and an index was kept that listed the title of each number. At any time, a researcher who wanted to know the details of a particular piece of Internet software could use the ARPANET to retrieve the RFC that contained the information. If the researcher did not remember which RFC was needed, they could retrieve the index.

Keeping the project documentation accessible across the network enabled everyone working on the project to coordinate their activities and keep software up-to-date with the specifications. More important, rapid communication among the researchers in- creased the speed at which the project progressed.

Because documents that specified technical details of TCP/IP and the Internet project were accessible over the ARPANET, work on the pro- ject proceeded more quickly.

As the Internet project progressed, the technology reached a stage where prototype software could be deployed and tested. A fledgling Internet was born. One of the first applications that researchers devised for the new Internet was a mechanism that could be used to access RFCs. In fact, almost all the initial applications for the Internet were motivated by the needs of the researchers building it.

7.14 The U.S. Military Adopted TCP/IP

By 1982, a prototype Internet was in place and the TCP/IP technology had been tested. A few dozen academic and industrial research sites had been using TCP/IP reg- ularly. Then the U.S. military started to use TCP/IP on its networks.

Sec. 7.14 The U.S. Military Adopted TCP /IP 77

In the beginning of 1983, DARPA expanded the use of TCP/IP to include all mili- tary sites that connected to the ARPANET. The date marked a transition for the Inter- net as it began to change from an experiment to a production communication facility.

7.15 Summary

The Internet began as a research project funded by DARPA. Researchers studied ways to interconnect computers that used various kinds of networks. The name Internet refers to both the project and the prototype network system that researchers built.

Known by the name TCP/IP, the software used to make the Internet operate con- tains many complex pieces of software that work together to provide communication. The software works so well that it hides the details of the underlying hardware and pro- vides the illusion of a seamless system.

The Internet standards are open because the specifications needed to build TCP/IP software or use the Internet are freely available to everyone. Researchers who devised the Internet published technical information in a series of reports that describe the Inter- net and the TCP/IP software it uses. For historical reasons, each document in the series is labeled Requests For Comments.

EXERCISES

7.1 Many individuals have tried to claim credit for the Internet. An easy way to spot a fake claim is to look for dates before 1973 when the Internet idea was initially published as a research paper. Search online and see if you can spot a fake claim.

7.2 After the Internet demonstrated the value of open standards, others adopted the idea. Look up “open software” on Wikipedia and write a one-paragraph summary of the idea.

7.3 In the 1970s, one of the main arguments in favor of using closed technologies focused on economics: companies asked how they could make money if other companies could build the same products. Look online and compare the histories of Cisco Systems, one of the first companies to build products using the open Internet standards, and Digital Equipment Corporation, a company that sold proprietary DECNET protocols. Which was most suc- cessful?

7.4 Perform an Internet search of humorous or funny Internet history, and find something that makes you smile.

7.5 Although those of us working on the Internet project were using an early version in the 1970s, most people only heard about the Internet in the 1990s. Ask older family members about their first encounter with the Internet, and have them guess when the Internet was created.

K392894.indd 105 03/08/18 12:07 pmComer, Douglas E.. The Internet Book : Everything You Need to Know about Computer Networking and How the Internet Works, CRC Press LLC, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=5502790. Created from apus on 2025-01-08 05:09:10.

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Chapter Contents 8 The Incredible Growth 8.1 Introduction 81 8.2 Stimulating Adoption 81 8.3 Meanwhile, Back In Computer Science 82 8.4 The Internet Meets Unix 82 8.5 The U.S. Military Makes A Commitment 83 8.6 The Internet Doubled In Size In One Year 83 8.7 Internet For Every Computer Science Department 84 8.8 Graduate Student Volunteers Contribute 85 8.9 Internet Governance: The IAB And IETF 85 8.10 NSF Led Internet Expansion 86 8.11 NSF Target: All Of Science And Engineering 87 8.12 The NSFNET Backbone 87 8.13 On To The ANS Backbone 88 8.14 Commercialization 89 8.15 Exponential Growth 89 8.16 When Will Growth End? 91

K392894.indd 106 03/08/18 12:07 pmComer, Douglas E.. The Internet Book : Everything You Need to Know about Computer Networking and How the Internet Works, CRC Press LLC, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=5502790. Created from apus on 2025-01-08 05:09:10.

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Chapter Contents 8 The Incredible Growth 8.1 Introduction 81 8.2 Stimulating Adoption 81 8.3 Meanwhile, Back In Computer Science 82 8.4 The Internet Meets Unix 82 8.5 The U.S. Military Makes A Commitment 83 8.6 The Internet Doubled In Size In One Year 83 8.7 Internet For Every Computer Science Department 84 8.8 Graduate Student Volunteers Contribute 85 8.9 Internet Governance: The IAB And IETF 85 8.10 NSF Led Internet Expansion 86 8.11 NSF Target: All Of Science And Engineering 87 8.12 The NSFNET Backbone 87 8.13 On To The ANS Backbone 88 8.14 Commercialization 89 8.15 Exponential Growth 89 8.16 When Will Growth End? 91

Chapter Contents 8 The Incredible Growth 8.1 Introduction 81 8.2 Stimulating Adoption 81 8.3 Meanwhile, Back In Computer Science 82 8.4 The Internet Meets Unix 82 8.5 The U.S. Military Makes A Commitment 83 8.6 The Internet Doubled In Size In One Year 83 8.7 Internet For Every Computer Science Department 84 8.8 Graduate Student Volunteers Contribute 85 8.9 Internet Governance: The IAB And IETF 85 8.10 NSF Led Internet Expansion 86 8.11 NSF Target: All Of Science And Engineering 87 8.12 The NSFNET Backbone 87 8.13 On To The ANS Backbone 88 8.14 Commercialization 89 8.15 Exponential Growth 89 8.16 When Will Growth End? 91

K392894.indd 107 03/08/18 12:07 pmComer, Douglas E.. The Internet Book : Everything You Need to Know about Computer Networking and How the Internet Works, CRC Press LLC, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=5502790. Created from apus on 2025-01-08 05:09:10.

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8

The Incredible Growth

8.1 Introduction

During the years between 1980 and the 2000s, the Internet changed from a small, experimental research project into the world’s largest computer network. In 1981, the Internet connected approximately one hundred computers at research sites and universi- ties. By 2000, over seventy-two million computers were attached, and the Internet con- tinues to grow. The introduction of the smart phone changed the Internet considerably; in 2016, more users accessed the Internet through a smart phone than through a laptop or desktop computer.

This chapter chronicles the phenomenal growth of the Internet and the changes that accompanied it. It discusses steps that were taken to stimulate growth, and concludes by explaining some of the consequences and opportunities that arose from rapid adop- tion.

8.2 Stimulating Adoption

In 1980, the Internet was merely a research project. A handful of universities and research labs had copies of the TCP/IP software. By 1985, it was becoming a produc- tion network system. Experimental TCP/IP software was available for several brands of computers, and it was used every day. The Internet reached researchers at few dozen academic and industrial research labs.

Before the U.S. military could use TCP/IP for production work, however, the tech- nology needed to become more robust. The software needed to be polished and tested,

81

K392894.indd 108 03/08/18 12:07 pmComer, Douglas E.. The Internet Book : Everything You Need to Know about Computer Networking and How the Internet Works, CRC Press LLC, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=5502790. Created from apus on 2025-01-08 05:09:10.

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