wk4 1
Teaching Students with Mild and Moderate Disabilities:
Research-Based Practices
SECOND EDITION
Libby G. Cohen
National Institute of Education, Singapore
Loraine J. Spenciner
University of Maine, Farmingto
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cohen, Libby G. Teaching students with mild and moderate disabilities : research-based practices / Libby G. Cohen, Loraine J. Spenciner.-- 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-233138-8 ISBN-10: 0-13-233138-1 1. Children with disabilities--Education--United States. I. Spenciner, Loraine J. II. Title. LC4031.C64 2009 371.92’6--dc22 2008008700
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Chapter 4
Chapter 4 Partnering with Educators, Professionals, Paraprofessionals, Parents and Other Family Members
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Describe the skills and knowledge for effective partnerships.
Discuss ways of working with educators and other professionals in arrangements such as coteaching and consulting.
Discuss ways of working with paraprofessionals.
Identify ways to communicate effectively with parents and other family members.
Special educators develop partnerships with many individuals—colleagues, parents, professionals from other agencies, and community members. They work closely with classroom teachers to plan and implement appropriate teaching and learning activities, and they work with paraprofessionals such as teaching aides or assistants, supervising their work with small groups or individual students. To support the carryover of skills to classrooms, they also meet regularly with therapists such as speech and language pathologists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and therapeutic recreational therapists. Special educators work closely with parents and other family members, too, regarding the child’s progress and changes in performance. They also work with other professionals, such as rehabilitation counselors and job counselors, in planning and implementing transition activities and community-based instruction. In addition, they may develop close partnerships with members of the community who volunteer to work in the classroom or mentor individual students.
4.1 Skills and Knowledge for Effective Partnerships
Establishing professional partnerships takes many different skills as well as knowledge about working with others. Much has been written about how partnerships develop and how individuals within these relationships work together. Partnerships can be very different, depending on the training of the individuals involved. In the following section we look at various contemporary models of collaboration.
Contemporary Models for Working with Others
Models of collaboration typically used in schools today include the mental health consultation model, the behavioral model, and the collaborative model. Each model has a separate theoretical base, goals, and responsibilities for team members. For example, in a school district where the team follows a mental health model, special educators take responsibility for gathering information about problems and then work with the teachers (or students or parents) to cope with, create, or implement solutions together. In a school district where the team follows a behavioral perspective, special educators encourage mutual problem solving but also act as expert consultants. Educators using the collaborative consultation model assume shared ownership in solving learning and behavior problems, with general and special educators bringing their own discipline-specific competencies to the situation. Depending on administrative leadership or training of team members, educators may incorporate an eclectic approach, such as a combination of models.
Various consultation models for understanding the perspectives of others are well documented (Erchul & Martens, 2002; Franklin, Harris, & Allen-Meares, 2006; Gallessich, 1982; Remer, 2007). We like the rich metaphor and the vision of working from a bridge (Trumbull, Rothstein-Fisch, Greenfield, & Quiroz, 2001). From a bridge, one can see both sides simultaneously, enhancing one’s perspective and allowing one to travel back and forth between points of view. “The bridge is more than just knowledge of each cultural framework. It is an expansion of understanding cultures beyond that which can be seen only from one side or the other” (Trumbull et al., p. 131).
Gaining Knowledge and Skills
To develop strong partnerships, special educators need to have a toolbox of knowledge, skills, and strategies. In the following sections we examine confidentiality of information, trust as a basic skill in developing partnerships, and collaboration with others. Then, we examine ways to problem solve and resolve conflicts using both nonconfrontational and confrontational solutions. Finally, we see how teachers continue to work to improve their skills.
Confidentiality
Strong partnerships involve open and honest communication as information is shared with other professionals, paraprofessionals, and parents. But are there limits? If so, how are they observed? Special educators and other professionals working with students and their families have a legal and an ethical responsibility to ensure that the information is used appropriately. All individuals need to agree that the information being shared is for the purpose of assisting the student in the education program. A professional should discuss a particular student only with individuals who need to know the information and with whom the family has agreed the information may be shared. Discussions about a student are exchanged in appropriate places where only the individuals who need to know the information are present, never where others may overhear the conversation. Educators share information that is relevant to the classroom and to student learning. For example, a special educator might share with a teacher aide information about a student’s new medication and possible side effects of which the teachers need to be aware.
All written information is subject to the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) (Public Law 93-380). This federal law gives a family the right to review all records kept on their child and to challenge any of the information in the records. FERPA also states than no educational agency (such as a public school) may release student information without written consent from the parents. When information is released, school personnel must maintain records on when it was released and to whom as well as send a copy of the records that were released to the student’s parents.
An educator gains trust by using empathy and by accepting the skills and competence of others.
Gaining Trust
Team members gain trust by using empathy; by accepting the skills, competencies, and experiences of other team members; and by believing that other team members are competent (DeBoer, 1995). Special educator Josh McDougal and classroom teacher Danielle Bubier have gained a sense of trust while working together during the school year. After Danielle confided to Josh, “I want Rafael to be able to do well, but I’m not sure how best to help him,” Josh replied, “Yes, I know how you feel. I had that same feeling last year when Rafael came to our school. He was so far behind the other students in his grade, and his motivation was low. We found that he responded well to working with another student or in small groups. I think that your plans for student work groups for the project will help Rafael get a good start. And using heterogeneous grouping of students is a good instructional strategy.” Josh showed that he understood Danielle’s concerns, but he also wanted Danielle to know that he recognized and appreciated her skills as a classroom teacher. Josh continued, “Since Rafael has been having difficulty with map reading, let’s plan when I could provide one-to-one instruction in the resource room so that he doesn’t get left behind on this. I’d also like to have him try a new writing program that may help in completing the interview assignment.”
Collaborating
Collaborating is a process in which two or more individuals share their own experiences, skills, and knowledge. It involves feelings of mutual respect, equality, and personal value. Educators create collaborative learning environments by the ways they interact with students, parents, other educators, and other professionals. A collaborative relationship connotes parity, reciprocity, mutual problem solving, shared resources, responsibility, and accountability (Heron & Harris, 2001).
Collaboration among educators or other professionals also involves having a colleague to assist in navigating unfamiliar or challenging situations (Klein & Chen, 2001). Whereas new teachers use collaboration and outreach to other professionals to establish a support network, these approaches bring fresh insights and skills to more experienced teachers.
Researchers found changes in classroom practices and increased student performance when teachers worked in teams in a predominantly diverse middle school located in a low-socioeconomic-status neighborhood (Trimble & Peterson, 2000). Collaboration as part of a learning community distinguished a high-performance, high-poverty school from other high-poverty schools (Bell, 2001). Development of school-based collaborative partnerships among families, community members, school personnel, and students enhanced family and community involvement in education and was self-sustaining over time (Rudo, Achacoso, & Perez, 2000).
Problem Solving
Teaching students with learning and behavior problems involves both working independently and working with others to solve problems. A special educator may work with a small group of students in promoting positive behavior but consult on a weekly basis with the school psychologist regarding instructional strategies and student progress. Sometimes special educators and other team members use a problem-solving sequence that keeps the team focused on a vision and how to achieve it.
Problem solving begins with team members developing a shared vision of what a student will be able to do. This keeps the team centered on a common positive goal. To help members focus on the problem, an effective facilitator uses a flip chart or graphic organizer software and records comments so that all team members can see the results of their work. The facilitator invites participation, valuing and supporting contributions by commenting: That’s a good point. I am glad that you raised that question. How can we build on Danielle’s suggestions?
Once team members identify the vision or possible solutions, they list the student’s strengths, challenges, and needs. Each participant contributes to the discussion. Identifying not only problem areas and concerns but also what the student does well ensures that positive aspects of the student’s performance are not forgotten. Later, when members identify the plan of action, the student’s strengths will be the foundation of the design.
To communicate effectively, team members do not merely exchange messages but also use substantive, analytical communication (Heron & Harris, 2001). During problem solving, individuals may describe other problems and pinpoint information regarding where, when, and with whom the problems most frequently happen. By describing the problems in detail, the team will be able to build the framework of the action plan while identifying the area of concern.
When the student is part of the team, problem solving can become a powerful process. Not only does the student have a unique perspective, but listening to other team members often brings new insights to the student. A student who listens and participates with adult team members sees a group that is interested in progress and achievement. Through participation, a student can become invested in the action plan.
Educators use various techniques to help solve problems. The following sections examine brainstorming and the nominal group technique.
Brainstorming.
At some point, each of us has used the problem-solving technique of brainstorming, which involves generating as many ideas as possible. Usually one person acts as the recorder, writing down the ideas. No idea is rejected. In fact, a basic tenet of brainstorming is not to judge any idea until all the ideas are listed. Once this is done, participants can review the list, discussing and eliminating ideas until they decide which solution to implement.
NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE.
Sometimes group members do not agree on a solution or the priority of items. Sometimes groups do not function in a manner that allows each member to have an equal voice. The nominal group technique is a decision-making process in which all members’ voices are equally represented. During the process the group generates a collective ranking of all the items or solutions being considered. This technique consists of the following steps (adapted from Friend & Cook, 2007):
1. Each person is given the same number of index cards, each card corresponding to one of the items or solutions (as many as 10 ideas and 10 cards) and then writes one idea on each card.
2. Each person then ranks the cards from high (thus assigning a 10 for the most important of 10 cards) to low.
3. A facilitator gathers the cards and synthesizes the information.
4. If a consenous emerges, the procedure is complete; if not, additional discussion ensues and then the group participates in a second vote. (pp. 45–46).
Resolving Conflicts
Teachers and others who approach partnerships with a can-do attitude can be successful team players. Positive attitudes are contagious. But sometimes teachers with upbeat attitudes find themselves in situations that are difficult to resolve.
When professionals work closely with others, conflicts may arise over misunderstandings or lack of success in carrying out a student’s IEP. Some conflicts may be resolved in a nonconfrontational manner, whereas others may require direct confrontation.
NONCONFRONTATIONAL SOLUTION.
A nonconfrontational solution involves working around the problem and modeling the desired behavior (Snell & Janney, 2005). The problem is resolved without directly confronting the person. For example, during the school year, special educator Josh Bernstein became more and more frustrated over the classroom teacher’s seeming lack of effort to support Yolanda, a student with learning and behavior problems, in her attempts to make friends. Josh decided to address the situation by joining the classroom teacher for recess duty. On the playground, he observed the students, waiting for the right opportunity. When Yolanda picked up one of the kick balls from the storage box, he went over to her and began talking. “What game would you like to play with the kick ball?” Yolanda decided on a popular game, Call Out. As Josh scanned the playground, he observed a couple of children who were watching. He suggested to Yolanda, “Anne and Jodi look like they’re trying to find something to do. Why don’t you invite them to play?” Josh stayed with Yolanda to support the beginning of the game. Then, once the children were engaged, he stepped back. By modeling intervention strategies on the playground and then discussing them informally with the classroom teacher who was on playground duty, Josh did not address his concerns directly. He worked around the problem by providing an opportunity for the classroom teacher to observe an effective way of helping the student join and participate with a group of classmates.
CONFRONTATIONAL SOLUTIONS.
Sometimes a situation calls for immediate action followed by a discussion with the other person. The individual who is concerned plans the meeting and identifies a quiet space where there will be no interruptions. At the beginning of the meeting, the individual states the specific concerns, using “I” messages to explain feelings. The individual listens to the other person’s reaction. Together they discuss alternatives for the future.
Let us return to Josh, the special education teacher who was concerned about Yolanda, to see how this approach works. Using the confrontational approach, he contacted the classroom teacher in order to schedule a meeting. “A concern with Yolanda has come up that I would like to discuss. Would you have about half an hour sometime this week in which we can sit down and talk?” On the day of the meeting, Josh thanked the classroom teacher for taking the time to meet and then continued, “I want to share a concern about Yolanda’s lack of friends on the playground and see if we can come up with some strategies to address the situation. When the class has recess, Yolanda is having a great deal of difficulty with some of the other girls. The group that uses the swings has been refusing to let her join them. They tell her to go away and refuse to share equipment. The girls who usually play soccer seem to have chosen sides and will not let her play with them. I feel that it is important to address this situation because it is affecting how Yolanda feels about herself.”
After using the “I” messages, Josh paused and listened to the classroom teacher’s reply. “Well, I have noticed that Yolanda does not seem to be playing with the other children but, to be honest, I am so busy during recess duty settling arguments and making sure that everyone is safe that it’s difficult to worry about just one child.” After both teachers had a chance to talk about their concerns, they discussed possible solutions. They decided to try two of the ideas. During Yolanda’s scheduled time in the resource room, Josh would provide social skills instruction in learning ways to join a group of classmates. The classroom teacher would use the class morning meeting time to talk about the school community and the responsibilities of each student in this community, both in the classroom and at recess.
Improving and Evaluating Knowledge and Skills
Good teachers continually reflect on and evaluate their own actions and behavior. After a collaborative meeting, coteaching activity, or consultation, a teacher may spend a few minutes reflecting on the work. The teacher identifies what went well and what needs to be improved. To assist in evaluating personal skills, a teacher can use reflective journals or opportunity thinking. Opportunity thinking , conversations that people have with themselves while reflecting on events that happened during a particular situation, allows people to evaluate and improve their actions.
Reflective Journal
A reflective journal is a personal record of the teaching process from the educator’s perspective. The journal provides an opportunity to record a summary of interactions, including exchanges that went well, problems that were encountered, and strategies that were used. Teachers may record ideas that can be tried another time or questions to consider. A special educator recorded the following passage during her first year of teaching:
October 2
I met with Dylan’s aunt and uncle this afternoon. They have cared for him the last 6 to 7 months since he was removed from his biological parents. The uncle was very open when talking about the situation. But many times I had to redirect the uncle back to the actual questions that I posed. He provided a lot of detail—because I used a lot of open-ended questions?—but I was able to gather information about their concerns. They were looking for some help in knowing what to do. They both asked many questions about some of Dylan’s behaviors and what the child should be doing in school. For next time: I need to review typical development for 7-year-olds. Check on community resources that are available?
Opportunity Thinking
“I don’t know if I’ll ever finish this assignment,” you may have thought. Or perhaps you looked at the situation this way: “I’m halfway through … I’m doing pretty well.” Many people engage in a conversation with themselves as they reflect on a situation. These conversations can be considered opportunity thinking. To examine opportunity thinking more closely, you may want to examine your self-talk:
1. Observe and record your self-talk.
2. Reflect on your observations.
a. Analyze the thoughts on which your self-talk is based by looking at how functional and constructive your thoughts are.
b. For each self-talk sentence (or underlying thought) that is defeating, substitute a self-talk sentence or thought that is more functional or constructive.
3. Change your actions.
a. Substitute your new, more constructive thoughts in difficult situations.
b. Continue to monitor your self-talk and the accompanying, underlying thoughts. (Adapted from Neck & Manz, 2007)
4.2 Working with Educators and Other Professionals
Collaborative Teaming
Collaborative teaming is a process in which two or more individuals work together to enable students to develop their skills and abilities. The IEP team is an example of a team that should be collaborative, but not all collaborative teams are IEP teams. Collaborative teams can include two or more individuals, such as special educators, general educators, paraprofessionals, therapists, parents, counselors, adapted physical education specialists, nurses, and others, depending on the needs of the student. Members of collaborative teams discuss problems, assess students’ needs, identify solutions, implement plans, and evaluate outcomes.
Snell and Janney (2005) describe the characteristics of members who are team centered:
• Understand other team members’ roles and talents
• Get over the “I have to know everything” phenomenon
• Explore team member values in order to identify values common to the team
• Learn to communicate effectively among team members
• Identify and resolve concerns
• Learn how to reach consensus on decisions
• Develop trust among members (p. 12)
Collaborative teaming often leads special educators to consider coteaching.
Coteaching
Coteaching involves collaborating with other professionals in planning and implementing learning activities with students. Coteaching usually takes place in the general education classroom. A special educator may coteach with a classroom teacher or, depending on the needs of students, may coteach with the speech and language pathologist, physical therapist, or occupational therapist. Wilson (2006) describes coteaching as one of the “potentially most supportive of the setting options for students with disabilities” as well as a model that relies on “strong administrative support and outstanding teaching” (p 203). From the literature, Heron and Harris (2001) identify eight components that contribute to coteaching: (1) interpersonal communication: (2) physical arrangement of the classroom: (3) familiarity with the curriculum: (4) curriculum goals and modification: (5) behavior management: (6) instruction presentation: (7) grading and evaluation; and (8) instructional planning. When professionals plan coteaching activities, they often use one or more different structures, such as complementary instruction or role exchange.
Complementary Instruction
Complementary instruction involves two or more professionals who coteach, each complementing the role of the other, based on individual skills, knowledge, and abilities. During complementary instruction, one individual may assume the lead, with the other playing a supportive role. Later, the roles are reversed. Usually, the general educator maintains primary responsibility for teaching the subject matter and the special educator assumes responsibility for addressing students’ specific needs. Figure 4.1 shows the complementary roles of an English teacher and a special education teacher in a high school English class.
Figure 4.1 Coteaching complementary roles in a high school English class
Source: Collaborative Teaming: Teachers’ Guides to Inclusive Practices (p. 110) by M. E. Snell and R. Janney, 2005, Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Reprinted by permission of M. E. Snell and the publisher.
Figure 4.2 Challenges of coteaching: A teacher’s perspective
Source: From “A Passion for Action Research,” by N. L. Langerock, TEACHING Exceptional Children, 33(2), 2000, pp. 26–34. Copyright © 2000 by the Council for Exceptional Children. Reprinted with permission.
Complementary instruction can be a rewarding experience. Educators often report that they gain new ideas for instructional activities and classroom management by working closely with a colleague (Snell & Janney, 2005). Complementary instruction also provides rich opportunities for reflection and self-improvement (Figure 4.2).
However, complementary instruction is not without challenges. Based on a series of observations and interviews with more than 70 general education/special education teams, Vaughn, Schumm, and Arguelles (1997) identified several areas that teachers must address if this method is to be successful:
• Whose students are these? The general education teacher is responsible for all the students in the class, but how do these responsibilities change when the special education teacher is in the room? Who is responsible for the students with special needs in the general education classroom, and when do these responsibilities change?
• Who evaluates students’ performances and assigns grades? General educators are accustomed to grading based on a uniform set of expectations. Making joint decisions and developing guidelines for grading, such as a joint reporting system, will reduce potential problems.
• Whose classroom-management rules are used? When should the special education teacher step in to assist with classroom management? Coteachers should discuss, negotiate, and agree on ways of managing behavior problems and the roles they would like each other to assume.
• What are students told? Do students have two teachers? The students should be informed that they have two teachers and that both teachers have the same authority. Many students who have participated in classrooms where coteaching has occurred report that they like having two teachers rather than one.
• What are parents told? Parents should be brought in early as part of the planning process in preparing to coteach.
• How can teachers have time to coplan? Teachers need uninterrupted time each week for planning. Some teacher teams designate a day or a half day every 6 to 8 weeks to plan, identify changes to be implemented, and discuss student progress.
Role Exchange
Role exchange is a process used during coteaching activities that enables one individual to mentor another in developing new professional skills. The experienced individual works with a group of students to demonstrate a particular teaching strategy while the other person observes. Afterward, they discuss the activity and reverse roles, with the mentor providing coaching and feedback. Special educators may exchange roles with other educators or other professionals. For example, a physical therapist may demonstrate therapeutic positioning for students when they are completing an activity while seated or when sitting on the floor; an occupational therapist may show how to use sensory integration therapy, techniques that help a student focus on the instructional activity during small-group work. As you read the Snapshot on Per Lysaker, an elementary special educator, consider how Per and his colleague, Tina Young, used role exchange in the resource room.
Snapshot: Per Lysaker, Elementary Special Educator
Per Lysaker, an elementary special educator, and Tina Young, a speech and language pathologist, were reviewing the language strategies that Tina would be demonstrating once the children arrived in the resource room. “I’ll be using a couple of different techniques to increase language,” said Tina. “One strategy is called expansion. You’ll see me restating some of the students’ words and then adding words or more complex phrases. I’ll also be using an open-ended questioning technique. This type of questioning moves students away from simple yes/no responses and requires them to think more deeply about their responses.” They planned that, first, Tina would work with the students, modeling expansion and questioning while Per observed. Then Per would try out the strategies while Tina observed. She would provide coaching and feedback while Per developed his skills in using these techniques with students.
Consulting
In addition to collaborative teaming and coteaching, special educators may spend a portion of their time consulting. Consulting is an interactive process in which individuals with specific areas of expertise come together for the purpose of generating solutions to mutually defined problems (adapted from Idol, Nevin, & Paolucci-Whitcomb, 2000). They work together to discuss questions and concerns about students with disabilities, to brainstorm ideas, to implement suggestions, and to evaluate their effectiveness. Consulting differs from simple collaboration because here suggestions are generated, implemented, and evaluated. Consulting involves an expert model of problem solving rather than the mutual problem solving used in collaboration. Teachers may use a written form to initiate the request for consultation (Figure 4.3). Although most special educators spend at least some of their time consulting with classroom teachers, therapists, and other professionals and paraprofessionals, others work exclusively as consultants.
Research to Practice
Instructional Consultation Teams and Referral to Special Education Services
Gravois and Rosenfield (2006) wondered if instructional consultation teams could impact on the disproportionate referral and placement of minority students in special education, which has been an ongoing problem for many years. During a 2-year period, these researchers worked with 22 schools to train teams of special educators, general educators, support personnel, and administrators. When a teacher needed classroom support, the teacher met one on one with the assigned team member or case manager. Together the teacher and the case manager designed and implemented instructional and management practices within the classroom using measurable goals. Team members collected, charted, and analyzed classroom data to help improve instruction and intervention for all students. The researchers found that this intense focus and data-based support enhanced student achievement, especially minority student achievement, in the classroom and reduced the need to refer students to special education services.
Questions for Reflection
1. What kinds of problems might classroom teachers want to discuss with members of an instructional consultation team? Share your ideas with the class.
2. What might be additional outcomes for students who participate in classrooms where data collection is a regular part of instruction?
4.3 Working with Paraprofessionals
Frequently, beginning teachers find that they are working side by side with experienced paraprofessionals or teacher assistants. In fact, both new and experienced teachers may have the responsibility of supervising paraprofessionals’ work, providing on-the-job training, and giving and receiving feedback from experienced assistants (Morgan & Ashbaker, 2001). These responsibilities may present difficulties, such as supervising an adult who has more experience in the classroom than the teacher. In the following section, we examine the research and some strategies that educators use to create positive working relationships with paraprofessionals.
Working with and supervising paraprofessionals involves both administrative and management skills. In a survey of more then 500 administrators, teachers, and paraprofessionals, Wallace, Shin, Bartholomay, and Stahl (2001) identified seven competencies that educators need. Educators need to communicate with paraprofessionals to share student-related information and explain the role of the paraprofessional. They must coordinate schedules, establish goals, set plans, establish time for planning, and consider the strengths and interests of paraprofessionals when aligning tasks. Educators should provide regular feedback regarding each paraprofessional’s work performance, support paraprofessionals in providing instruction to students, and provide support and direction to paraprofessionals who work in independent capacities. Through modeling, educators demonstrate a caring and respectful manner when interacting with students. Educators should inform administrators, teachers, and parents of the responsibilities and roles paraprofessionals have in the educational program and should advocate for the paraprofessional regarding training and leave time, modifications of responsibility, involvement in decision groups, and so on. Educators should provide on-the-job training for skill development. Finally, they should maintain regular positive and supportive interactions with paraprofessionals and contribute to the evaluation of paraprofessionals’ performance (adapted from Wallace et al.).
Figure 4.3 Request for consultation
Special educators work with and supervise paraprofessionals.
Planning and Scheduling
Special education teachers have responsibilities for planning and managing instruction for students with disabilities, identifying accommodations and modifications, and participating on the IEP team. According to IDEA, paraprofessionals who are adequately trained and supervised may assist in the delivery of special education and related services. To help reduce potential problems, the teacher can ask school administrators and paraprofessionals to meet and discuss teaching and classroom responsibilities. Clarifying roles decreases the likelihood of misunderstandings as the year goes on and strengthens collaboration and teamwork.
Because classrooms are such busy places, teachers and paraprofessionals often have difficulty finding time to plan how they will coordinate their work in the classroom unless it is a scheduled activity. Rueda and Monzó (2000) found that lack of planning time allowed little time for paraprofessionals to ask questions of teachers and for teachers to assist paraprofessionals in developing effective teaching strategies. Both groups indicated that more opportunities for teacher-paraprofessional interaction would be very beneficial. One solution is to identify regular meeting times and to follow a schedule. These meetings help enable communication, joint planning, negotiation, and consensus.
Instructional Support
Once the IEP team has met and developed the IEP, the special education teacher and classroom teacher work to implement the program along with paraprofessionals and other professionals. Although paraprofessionals do not participate in writing the IEP, they often are the individuals who work most closely with students and are responsible for carrying out the instruction under the supervision of the teacher.
The special educator or case manager, who may be a special educator, assumes the coordination responsibilities, making sure that paraprofessionals have the knowledge and skills to carry out the instruction. Some schools use a system that places a paraprofessional at a particular level of responsibility, depending on the person’s education and/or experience (Table 4.1). These levels are often tied to the paraprofessional’s amount of college coursework and salary. Using Table 4.1, select a level and consider how you would coordinate your work and that of a paraprofessional in your classroom.
Source: Adapted from The Employment and Preparation of Paraeducators: The State of the Art, by A.L. Pickitt, M. Linkins, and T. Wallace, 2003. Retrieved September 18, 2007, from http://www.nrcpara.org/report.
Once an IEP is written, teachers and paraprofessionals carefully go over the student’s goals and objectives to discuss how they will be carried out. On a regular basis, the teacher and paraprofessional confer on the teaching and learning activities, reflecting on strategies that worked well and discussing changes that needed to be implemented. Together, they regularly monitor the student’s progress. Let us revisit some special educators we met in Chapter 1 to learn more about how they work with paraprofessionals.
Snapshot: Return Visits with Joy Lu and John Bates, Special Educators
Joy Lu, a special education teacher whom we met in Chapter 1, was working with the fifth-grade teacher on a civics unit. During their weekly planning sessions, Joy, the classroom teacher, and the paraprofessional carefully reviewed the planned activities. They discussed the fact that once the small-group activities began, they would move among the groups, assisting individual students as needed. Joy described her concerns about the special needs of Marek, a student with ADHD. She talked about the need to monitor Marek’s progress and be ready to offer support, structure, and redirection as needed for him to complete the activities with his group.
When we last visited John’s resource room, he was reviewing his schedule for the day. Before the students arrived, he met with the teaching assistant to review progress notes on the students and to discuss any adjustments that should be made to the planned teaching and learning activities for the day. Several of the students had been using laptops for their writing logs but were having difficulty using the speech-output features. John turned to the laptop on his desk, and together he and the teaching assistant went over the procedure for finding the options within the computer’s control panel. They decided that the teaching assistant would create cue cards describing each step for the students to use and would work individually with students who continued to have difficulty.
4.4 Working with Parents and Other Family Members
Parents need access to meaningful information about their child’s work and progress (President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education, 2002). Working with parents as partners in their child’s education requires educators to have good interpersonal and communication skills. Let us examine how educators can develop these skills.
Communication Skills
Interacting with parents and others requires effective communication skills. Communication includes talking and listening as well as using and interpreting nonverbal messages. Communication also involves writing, such as composing an informal note or e-mail message, which requires skills in written expression to convey a message without the benefit of immediate feedback from the receiver. More formal communications include synthesizing information and composing periodic written reports or end-of-year evaluation summaries concerning student progress.
Teachers communicate with parents to share their observations of a student’s academic achievement and behavioral progress and to notify parents when the student is experiencing problems or having success. Communications should be open, polite, and diplomatic. Effective communicators present their concerns in a clear, precise manner and provide examples. Sensitivity to feelings helps create a positive atmosphere. Use reflection to demonstrate understanding and acknowledgment of a person’s feelings: I understand that this situation is stressful for you. Clarify by restating: It sounds like you usually observe this behavior in the morning. Use direct language, avoiding educational jargon such as, I’ll call the SAT, ASAP.
IN PRACTICE
Supporting students with disabilities in regular education classrooms involves working closely with colleagues in general education. Sometimes collaborative efforts do not come easily. A special educator may be hesitant to team with a classroom teacher because the special educator is not familiar with the curriculum content. Sometimes a general educator is hesitant about having a student with a disability in the classroom. A teacher may feel that he or she does not have the knowledge of how to work with a student with academic and behavioral problems or the teacher may feel that the student’s challenging behaviors are disruptive to other students in the classroom. On the other hand, some general educators believe in inclusion, knowing that they will have in-class support from the special education teacher. When both teachers feel comfortable about working together, students benefit.
Classroom Focus
Second-grade teacher Barbara Williams has a busy classroom of 18 children, 2 of whom have identified disabilities. One child, Cory, has autism spectrum disorder with limited communication skills. Chandra has Down syndrome with low vision. Both children need peers who will be good language models as well as peers with whom they can learn and play.
Barbara is an experienced teacher with a master’s degree in literacy. She provides a rich language environment and many hands-on activities. On the wall is a list of new vocabulary words that the children have learned since September. Each week, they add several words to the list. Having the chart visible encourages children to use new terms throughout the day in their writings or in sharing ideas during class discussions.
The words are selected from the children’s literature that they are reading. Barbara uses a vocabulary technique planning sheet as well as a reading outline as she plans and organizes reading instruction. When she reads a story aloud to the children, she uses literature conversations and a strategy called “knee to knee, eye to eye,” which encourages children to talk about their reading (Cole, 2003). The children know that when she stops reading and asks a question, each child should turn to the child beside him or her and discuss possible answers (knee to knee and eye to eye). When Barbara calls the children back together, she gives each group a chance to share their thoughts and ideas before going on.
Working Toward Solutions
During the first hour of each morning, Barbara teaches reading using a variety of children’s literature and activities. During this time, Joan LaCasse, special educator, joins the class. In addition to supporting Cory and Chandra, Joan assists any child who needs help. As Joan learns more about the strategies that Barbara uses in teaching reading, she feels more comfortable in the classroom.
During their planning meeting this past week, she talked with Barbara about the possibility of taking the lead in teaching some of the lesson. Barbara was supportive of the idea and together they planned how the lesson would flow. They chose the book Adelita by Tomie dePaola. This Mexican tale focuses on a young girl, Adelita, who lives with a cruel stepmother and stepsisters and old Esperanza, who becomes a fairy godmother. After the reading, the teachers hope that the children will be able to compare and contrast elements of this story with the more familiar Cinderella story that the children know. This story also introduces many new vocabulary words that the teachers identify.
Barbara encourages Joan to begin the lesson and introduce the story. They talk about some questions that Joan might ask as the children look at the book cover. As Joan reads the story, she will stop after certain pages that the teachers choose. Barbara suggests, “Here’s where Doña Micaela plans to send old Esperanza away. When you read how Esperanza pleads with her not to do so, you can introduce the definition that we developed. ‘Pleading means to ask for something that you feel really strongly about.’”
She continues, “I find that by filling out this planning sheet, I can remember how to include multiple ways for the children to learn the meaning and begin to use their new words.”
Following are the outline of the lesson and the vocabulary technique planning sheet that the teachers used:
What the Research Says
Cramer and Stivers (2007) offer further suggestions to special educators who are interested in coteaching while using their specialized knowledge and skills. These authors suggest reading more about strategies for collaboration, because no one strategy works for everyone. These authors also suggest becoming more familiar with professional literature of general education colleagues and attending professional development workshops with general educators.
According to Villa and Thousand (2005), collaboration is an essential feature in school life. As more and more students with disabilities receive education in regular education classrooms, teachers must be prepared to work and learn together. Collaboration translates into a win-win situation for all.
MyEducationLab: Your Turn
In what other ways might schools support general education and special education teachers working together? Go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Parents & Families. Then select an article to read and answer accompanying questions. Be prepared to share your thoughts. Next, visit a classroom to observe how another teacher builds vocabulary skills; go to the topic Reading Instruction on MyEducationLab and watch the video entitled “Creating Word Walls.” Be prepared to compare and contrast the instructional approaches from the video and the ones presented here for teaching new vocabulary.
Seeking Information and Clarifying Interactions
Asking questions is a primary way of seeking more information and clarifying interactions. Teachers use a variety of questions for different purposes. Friend and Cook (2007) identify three different types:
1. Questions that seek information. This is the most common type of question. For example, a special educator asks the teacher assistant, “What problem behaviors did you see during free time?” to obtain information about student behaviors while she was out of the room.
2. Questions that provide information. A teacher sometimes uses questions to provide information to another individual by attempting to guide action by giving suggestions. A special educator asks, “What do you think would happen if you gave Cindi only one set of directions at a time?”
3. Questions that clarify or confirm information. Teachers use this type of question to clarify information that may not be fully understood, such as, “What did you mean when you said that you are not in favor of extended school year programming for Jose?”
Questioning Techniques
A teacher’s skill in using different questioning techniques greatly affects the amount of information that he or she receives. Questions may be open ended or closed ended, direct or indirect. Open-ended questions have a large number of possible answers, when a special educator says to a new classroom teacher, “I’m so happy that Samantha is going to be in your classroom this year. What are some ways that I could help you?” A small number of answers characterizes closed-ended questions, as when a special educator says to a new classroom teacher, “Do you want me to help you in planning for Samantha?” Sometimes a situation calls for closed-ended questions. The special educator continues the conversation by saying, “Would you prefer to meet before or after school?”
The questions that have been used so far are examples of direct questions. Indirect questioning can be very useful at times, because the listener is not required to provide an answer. Indirect questions do not put anyone on the spot. For example, It would be interesting to know if Samantha could participate in the small-group activity without the help of the teacher assistant is an indirect question.
Communicating through Text
Even when using e-mail or text messaging and when posting information on a class Web site, educators adopt and practice effective communication strategies. In electronic communication, word choice can affect meaning, organization can affect clarity, and typographical techniques can emphasize ideas (Schultz, 2000). Using electronic communication involves levels of preparation similar to those of a phone call or face-to-face meeting as well as additional types of preparation. first, an the educator determines the purpose of the message and the information to be conveyed. Once the text has been composed, the educator reviews the information for organization, content, and appropriate tone. The following e-mail examples were composed and sent by a busy educator. What do you think the parent’s response will be to Message 1? To Message 2?
Message 1
Mrs. A.,
Tried to reach u several times by phone today. Need to set time for fall parent conference. Is 3:30 on the 21st or 4:30 on the 22nd best for u?
Ms. S.
Message 2
Dear Mrs. A.,
We are making plans for our annual fall parent conferences the week of the 21st, and I am writing in the hope that you can let me know which of two times would be best for you. The dates available are Monday the 21st at 3:30 or Tuesday the 22nd at 4:30. I look forward to talking with you about Jon’s work. Could you let me know as soon as possible which time would be more convenient for you?
Sincerely,
Ms. S.
Conducting an effective parent-teacher conference involves preparation and planning.
Active Listening
Being able to express yourself is one aspect of communication; listening is another. Teachers who use active listening send the message that the conversation is important. Active listening consists of hearing and responding to the words that the speaker uses. Individuals who use active listening offer relevant comments to the conversation, and they ask the speaker to provide an example when they are not sure that they understand. Active listening involves putting aside your own agenda to hear what the other person is saying.
Positive nonverbal communication helps others feel comfortable and willing to share ideas and concerns. Posture, gestures, eye contact, a tilt of the head, or a brief frown all send messages. The burden of interpretation is on the receiver. Nonverbal communication is often difficult to decipher because it is subtle and culture bound; yet, with the increasing number of students from linguistically diverse cultures, teachers should acquire sensitivity to these messages as well. Sometimes a nonverbal message can be misunderstood. Examples of common misconceptions among educators include seeming lack of interest or lack of response on the part of a parent when, in fact, that is not the case (Table 4.2).
Conducting Parent Conferences
Special educators conduct many parent conferences during the year as they build partnerships with students’ families. Some conferences are informal and occur during schoolwide parent conference evenings; other conferences are scheduled because the teacher or parent has concerns about the progress of the student. During parent conferences, teachers share examples of student work, discuss progress, raise concerns, and problem-solve solutions. These conferences allow parents to share their observations, questions, and concerns with their child’s teachers, too.
Sources: Adapted from Lynch & Hanson, 2004; Klein & Chen, 2001.
Preparation and Planning
Conducting a parent conference requires preparation and planning. Before the conference, the teacher assembles examples of the student’s work and summarizes the academic, social, and behavioral strengths and concerns of the student. For example, a special educator may prepare a written record, create a graph of progress in reading and math, and summarize behavioral observations in a chart. If a parent requires an interpreter or a translator, arrangements must be made well in advance of the conference.
Conference Day
When a parent arrives, the teacher thanks the parent for coming and talks informally before beginning the conference in order to establish rapport. For example, one special educator begins by saying, “¡Hola! [hello] Mrs. Rodriguez, thanks for taking time to come in this afternoon. I have been looking forward to our meeting. Your daughter Maria speaks of you often.” If English is not the home language of the family, the teacher may attempt to learn and use a few words in the family’s native language.
At the beginning, educators review the conference agenda, including the time limits for the conference, and describe the expected outcomes. Reviewing the conference process relieves stress and helps keep the conference moving in a positive direction. For example, the teacher begins: “First, I am going to ask you to share with me what you have observed about Maria this year that makes you feel good about your child’s progress.” As the parent conference continues, the teacher will ask the parent to discuss any questions or concerns. Effective listening is especially critical. Listening is a primary way of not only gaining information but also conveying interest in what the parent is saying (Friend & Cook, 2007). Together the teacher and parent review examples of the student’s work, and the teacher shares classroom observations of the student. As the conference draws to a close, the teacher summarizes what they discussed, including the next steps, and thanks the parent for coming. The teacher may inquire about the best ways to keep in touch during the year.
More formal conferences are part of the IEP process and involve the IEP team members. These meetings also provide an opportunity to build strong partnerships with parents. Educators can take an active role by greeting family members, making introductions, and helping them feel welcome.
Keeping in Touch
Finding the best ways to keep in touch during the school year helps build effective teacher-parent partnerships. In addition to planned meetings, teachers use phone calls and written communications such as e-mail or rotating notebooks between home and school to stay in touch. Frequently, special educators assist parents to connect with other organizations that support families. These organizations not only provide a network of individuals who have common concerns but also provide a forum for advocacy on behalf of children and youth with disabilities.
National Organizations That Support Families
Parents and other family members may wish to be in contact with other parents with similar concerns. Federally funded parent centers in each state provide training and information to parents of preschoolers, school-age children, and young adults with disabilities. These services, offered at no charge, help parents participate more effectively in their child’s education and learn more about ways to advocate for their child. To reach the parent center in your state, you can conduct an Internet search or contact the Technical Assistance Alliance for Parent Centers (the Alliance), the agency that coordinates the delivery of technical assistance to the Parent Training and Information Centers and the Community Parent Resource Centers through four regional centers located in California, New Hampshire, Texas, and Ohio. Educators and other professionals who work with children with disabilities may also take advantage of information provided by parent centers and other national organizations that support families (Table 4.3)
4.5 Working with Community Partners
Special educators often reach outside the classroom to work with community partners. Being an effective teacher involves knowing these community connections. Chapter 10 shows how special educators can work closely with mental health professionals in local and regional community agencies when students with severe behavior problems have needs beyond the capacity of the school.
When students enter middle school and, to a greater extent, high school, special educators work closely with professionals in rehabilitation services. For students who will be transitioning from school to work or postsecondary education, the special educator may work with a job coach or rehabilitation counselor. Together they will ensure that the student makes a successful transition from school.
Students with disabilities benefit greatly from partnerships and collaboration of school, family, and community (Catalano, Loeber, & McKinney, 1999; Kober, 2002; McEvoy & Welker, 2000; Van Acker & Wehby, 2000). School partnerships with community groups also increase student achievement. Students with emotional and behavioral disabilities showed a significant improvement in reading achievement over time in schools that were involved in restructuring activities, including the use of mental health services (Kutash et al., 2001).
Summary
• Effective partnerships require educators to develop skills and knowledge about confidentiality, gaining trust, collaborating, problem solving, and resolving conflicts.
• Coteaching involves working in partnership with other professionals in planning and implementing learning activities with students, whereas collaboration involves an interactive process in which individuals work together to discuss questions and concerns about students with disabilities, to brainstorm ideas, to implement suggestions, and to evaluate their effectiveness.
• Working with paraprofessionals includes clarifying roles, communicating information about the student, arranging time to plan instructional support, and discussing student progress.
• Communicating effectively with parents and other family members involves seeking information and clarifying interactions, using appropriate questioning techniques, and active listening.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
Community Partnerships
Professional partnerships provide teachers with opportunities to build bridges across cultural communities. Large school districts sometimes employ individuals in the community to work in schools as community-school consultants. These individuals typically help answer questions about community customs, connect a teacher with community resources, or come to the classroom to share information with students.
In smaller school districts, teachers or paraprofessionals may take on the role of community-school consultant. Frequently, paraprofessionals live in the cultural community and share common experiences with students. Because teachers and paraprofessionals work closely as a team, the paraprofessional can provide the teacher with information and connections to other community resources.
Paraprofessionals also can serve as a bridge for students between home and school. Rueda and DeNeve (2001) found that paraprofessionals use interesting classroom strategies and provide “comfort zones” to help students learn and develop motivation in the classroom. They observed paraprofessionals using subtle strategies, such as a hand on the shoulder at a strategic moment, and less subtle strategies, such as the use of locally meaningful phrases. For example, a paraprofessional might call a student mijo, which is an affectionate term often used by Latino parents, meaning “my little one” (p. 5).
Questions for Reflection
1. How might a community consultant assist you in your teaching?
2. What are some of the benefits for schools that employ community consultants?
To answer these questions and deepen your understanding of diversity in schools and communities, go to the Companion Web site at
www.prenhall.com/cohen
, select
Chapter 4
, and then choose Considering Diversity.
Chapter 1 Preparing to Teach Students with Mild and Moderate Disabilities
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Describe a rationale for using research-based practices in preparing to teach students with disabilities.
Discuss what beginning teachers should know about federal legislation and the education of students with disabilities.
Describe the special education process.
Compare and contrast the various settings in which special educators work and their myriad and varied teaching assignments.
1.1 Preparing to Teach
Snapshot: Meet Kalynda
“Hi! My name is Kalynda—but you can call me ‘K.’ I love to Rollerblade with my friends. My favorite subject in school is art. I have a learning disability, but I think I’m doing well in school because I have learned to be very organized, to keep up with my work, and to ask for help if I need it.”
“My special education teacher has taught me some really neat things, like how to check my writing before I pass it in. She helped me make a cue sheet that I use to check my paper myself to make sure that it has all the necessary requirements. Writing is really important in our school, and everybody has a portfolio of their work. Like I am really, really proud of mine. Last week I added a paper to my portfolio that demonstrates how I am working toward one of my school standards in literacy, showing how we understand a story from the point of view of one of the characters.
“My special education teacher has taught me how to be independent and to become a self-advocate. She invited some leaders from the business community to come speak to our class. One person was an artist who uses discarded items in her sculptures. This artist is so cool, and she also has a learning disability. It was so great to meet her and to hear her story, and sometimes I think I’ll be an artist, too. She also talked about individual rights and laws for people with disabilities. It’s hard for me to remember all the things that she said. Maybe I’ll have a chance to learn them again some day.”
… and Her Mother
“Bringing up Kalynda has been quite an experience for me as a single mother. I remember her first years of school were pretty difficult. She didn’t like to sit still long enough to listen to a story and then, in the early grades, she had a great deal of difficulty in learning how to read, and I didn’t know why. It was a relief when the IEP team determined that she had specific learning disabilities in reading and writing.
“I’m pleased with her progress now. Her teacher keeps in close contact with me, letting me know her successes. She is taking an interest in writing short stories and poetry. In fact, her teacher is encouraging her to submit some of her work to the school newspaper!
“When Kalynda experiences difficulties, her teacher lets me know too. This way we can address concerns before Kalynda becomes discouraged with her school-work. Like last week, her teacher called to let me know that Kalynda was having some difficulty in math class and wasn’t turning in her homework. Now that I know that Kalynda has homework assignments, I can follow up with her at home. Usually I just need to remind her, but sometimes I need to limit her cell [phone] use, especially the instant messaging.”
Preparing to teach students like Kalynda begins with learning about federal legislation and how these mandates guide a special educator’s work with students, families, other educators, and professionals. As you continue reading this textbook, you will learn more about students with mild and moderate disabilities and the characteristics of the most common disabilities, including learning disabilities, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, other health impairments, emotional disturbance, mental retardation, and autism spectrum disorders. And you’ll study effective research-based methods and instructional strategies for teaching students with mild and moderate disabilities.
Using Research-Based Practices
Today’s schools, state departments of education, and the federal government require teachers to use research-based practices , which refer to a body of research that supports the effectiveness of teaching methods, strategies, therapies, supplemental aids, and services in the classroom. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) defines the term scientifically based research as “...research (that) involves the application of rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures to obtain reliable and valid knowledge relevant to education activities and programs” (Sec. 300.35). According to IDEA, scientifically based research should focus on methods and instructional strategies. Educators sometimes refer to this as evidence-based practice.
Beginning educators who study, practice, and later implement these procedures know that they can deliver effective instruction to a wide variety of learners. Today research findings continue to inform our practices, especially in the areas of brain-based research. In Chapters 2 and 3 we look more closely at this research and the effects on learning and behavior.
By studying research-based practices, special education teachers develop an important knowledge base of effective methods and strategies. When using these practices in the classroom, teachers have some assurance that their instruction will be effective. The work of a special educator is both demanding and rewarding. This book starts your journey!
As you read this first chapter, think about the students and the teachers you may have already met. How do the federal laws described in this chapter influence the education and related services that students receive—or, perhaps, do not receive? Can you describe some of the job responsibilities of a special education teacher that you know? How are these responsibilities tied to federal and state legislation?
1.2 Federal Legislation and the Education of Students With Disabilities
For many years, federal legislation has greatly shaped how special education and related services are provided, along with the settings where students with disabilities receive their education. Beginning in the mid-1970s, a series of new federal laws had a major impact on children and youth with disabilities. These laws came about because parents and others who cared deeply about the civil rights of individuals with disabilities had a vision of what the future should hold.
In 1975, as a result of parent advocacy, court decisions, and many other efforts, Congress passed federal legislation that provided free, appropriate public education for students with disabilities at no cost to their parents. Furthermore, the legislation stipulated that schools offer a variety of settings that provide the most appropriate placement options and from which students with disabilities can benefit. For many students this meant being able to enroll in their local community schools. Since then there have been numerous amendments to this law, today known as IDEA.
IDEA
IDEA, also known as Public Law 108-446, changed earlier legislation that focused on ensuring that children and youth with disabilities receive a free, appropriate public education and, at the same time, have their individual educational needs determined and addressed. IDEA requires that students with disabilities have access to the general education curriculum (the same curriculum that students without disabilities have) to the maximum extent possible. IDEA expands the scope of education to include preparing students for employment and independent living. Further, IDEA strengthens the role of parents and ensures that they have meaningful opportunities to participate in the education of their child.
IDEA focuses on excellence, high standards, and high expectations, in addition to the earlier mandate of providing a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment. Teaching and learning are the primary foci of IDEA legislation. This comprehensive mandate for children and youth includes both special education and related services.
IDEA requires that students with disabilities have access to the general education curriculum.
Defining Special Education
IDEA defines special education as specially designed instruction, at no cost to parents, to meet the unique needs of a student with a disability. The instruction may be conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, or in other settings. Specially designed instruction means
1. adapting content, methodology, or delivery of instruction to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability; and
2. ensuring that the child has access to the general curriculum so that the child can meet the educational standards that apply to all children. (Sec.300.39)
Eligibility for Special Education Services
To be eligible for special education services, a student must have a disability, and that disability must adversely affect the student’s education performance. IDEA describes 14 categories of disability (Table 1.1). Some states follow these federal categories, whereas others use slightly different terms and definitions for describing disabilities.
When a student with a disability is eligible for special education, members of the student’s IEP team develop a written document that describes the goals that the student will meet during the year. The individualized education program (IEP) includes such information as who will provide the specially designed instruction, where it will be provided, and how achievement will be measured. Six basic principles establish the framework for providing special education and related services described in the IEP.
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Source: Adapted from IDEA 34 C.F.R., Sec. 300.8.
Basic Principles of IDEA
FREE APPROPRIATE PUBLIC EDUCATION.
Free appropriate public education (FAPE) ensures that no child or youth (3 to 21 years of age) will be excluded from an appropriate public education because of a disability, including students with profound disabilities, students with disruptive behaviors, and students with contagious diseases. Educators sometimes use the term zero reject to describe this mandate of enrolling all students. To help pay the extra cost of providing the special education and related services associated with FAPE, IDEA gives money to state agencies and local schools. Children and youth with disabilities receive FAPE in the least restrictive environment.
APPROPRIATE EVALUATION.
Educators must determine whether a student has a disability and, if so, whether the student needs special education and related services. Special education teachers and other professionals conducting assessments must ensure that appropriate approaches are used. Assessment approaches should be free from bias and discrimination and should be used for the purposes for which they were intended. Educators and other professionals involved in the assessment process are required to follow assessment stipulations outlined in IDEA (Figure 1.1). If the student is eligible for special education services, teachers conduct additional assessments to determine the student’s educational needs. The student’s IEP team uses the results of these assessments in planning the IEP.
THE INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM.
Each student with a disability must have an IEP that describes what the student can do, the student’s strengths, and the student’s needs. The IEP also includes a great deal of additional information, such as the educational goals and how they will be measured. Working together, a team develops the IEP. The members of the team include
Figure 1.1 General requirements of appropriate evaluation according to IDEA
Source: Adapted from IDEA 34 C.F.R., Sec. 300.304.
• the student’s parents;
• at least one regular education teacher;
• at least one special education teacher;
• a person who is qualified to provide or supervise specially designed instruction to meet the unique needs of children with disabilities and is knowledgeable about the availability of resources and the general curriculum;
• a person who can interpret the instructional implications of evaluation results;
• other individuals who have knowledge or special expertise regarding the child, including related services personnel as appropriate; and
• the student, if appropriate.
School personnel make every effort to ensure that the parents or guardians of the student are present at the IEP meeting. Parents should be notified at least several days prior to the meeting, and educators should make conscientious efforts to schedule the meeting at a mutually agreed upon time. If the parents are unable to attend the IEP meeting, the school must use other methods to ensure their participation, including individual or conference telephone calls or video conferencing. School personnel can conduct an IEP meeting without a parent in attendance, but the school is required by IDEA to maintain a record of the attempts to contact the family.
LEAST RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT.
The principle of the least restrictive environment is based on the requirement that schools must offer a variety of instructional settings to provide the most appropriate placement options for students with disabilities and from which these students can benefit. These include general education classes, resource rooms, special classes, special schools, and homebound or hospital placements.
The IEP team must consider accommodations, modifications, aids, and supports to the general education curriculum before removing a student with a disability from the regular classroom. A student is not removed from a general education classroom unless the student cannot be educated there successfully, even after the school has provided accommodations, modifications, aids, and supports. Moreover, a student with a disability cannot be required to demonstrate specific levels of performance before being considered for a regular class placement. If the IEP team decides that a student cannot benefit from the general education class, the team identifies the least restrictive setting that is appropriate for the student and from which the student can benefit.
PROCEDURAL SAFEGUARDS.
IDEA specifies procedural safeguards to ensure that the rights of parents and children are protected during the assessment process and the delivery of services. These procedures are sometimes referred to as due process and are outlined in Figure 1.2. Due process also guarantees parents or personnel in schools or agencies the right to an impartial hearing conducted by a hearing officer when disagreements occur. Either a parent or school personnel can request a hearing if differences cannot be resolved informally.
PARENT AND STUDENT PARTICIPATION IN DECISION MAKING.
Several of the previous principles described ways that parents and students can participate with teachers and other professionals during the process of planning, implementing, and evaluating services for the student. Parents and students bring added knowledge about the student’s problem and expertise in helping to create solutions. Their participation brings shared ownership of the student’s IEP and encourages the student to take responsibility for the outcomes.
The Rehabilitation Act Amendments
The Rehabilitation Act, first authorized in 1973, has been amended and reauthorized numerous times, much like IDEA. Section 504 protects the rights of students with disabilities in programs and activities in public schools and other programs that receive federal financial assistance from the U.S. Department of Education. Much like a large net, Section 504 casts a wide circle to assist students who need services but are not eligible to receive special education services under IDEA (Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.2 Procedural safeguards described by IDEA
Source: Adapted from IDEA 34 C.F.R., Secs. 300.501–520.
Section 504
The provisions of Section 504 and IDEA work well together in helping to provide a range of services for students. Similar to IDEA, Section 504 requires FAPE for eligible students, including individually designed instruction; however, Section 504 uses a broader definition of individual disability areas and other conditions. Examples of other conditions that are typically covered under Section 504 include
• communicable diseases such as tuberculosis;
• medical conditions such as allergies and heart disease;
• temporary medical conditions due to an illness or accident;
• behavioral difficulties; and
• drug or alcohol addiction.
Because of the broader definition provided by Section 504, students who do not meet the criteria for a specific disability under IDEA may be eligible to receive services and accommodations under Section 504.
When school personnel decide that a student needs services under Section 504, they meet to write a plan, commonly referred to as a 504 Plan. In developing a 504 Plan, teachers work with students and their parents to identify and list ideas that will help the student succeed in the classroom. For example, the teacher might begin by encouraging the student to think about what helps in keeping track of assignments when he or she must be absent from school. After they brainstorm ideas, they identify one or two suggestions to try. The teacher, parent, student, and other team members also discuss the student’s need for additional tutoring, during long periods of absence. From these suggestions and by working with the parents, educators develop the 504 Plan (Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.3 General student body in a public school
Source: Adapted from Student Access: A Resource Guide for Educators (p. 6), Council of Administrators of Special Education, n.d., Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children. Reprinted by permission.
No Child Left Behind Act
The No Child Left Behind Act (P.L. 107-110), designed to improve student achievement, placed renewed emphasis on key provisions, including
• early childhood education and the development of language skills and prereading skills;
• assessments that align with state academic content and achievement standards;
• ongoing assessments each year in Grades 3 to 8 and at least once during Grades 10 to 12; and
• detailed report cards to parents concerning their child’s progress;
This legislation puts special emphasis on the need to implement educational programs and instruction that can demonstrate their effectiveness. Today educators carefully review research findings to help inform classroom practices. Throughout each chapter in this textbook, you will read about relevant research related to teaching and learning and students with disabilities.
Figure 1.4 Example of a 504 plan
Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act
The Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act (P.L. 109-270) provides an increased focus on academic achievement of students in career and technical education. This includes improving student achievement and preparing the student for further learning and for postsecondary education and career preparation. This legislation promotes reform and innovation in career and technical education to assist students in acquiring the skills and knowledge to meet state and national academic standards and industry-recognized skill standards. Secondary students with disabilities need to be able to make connections between their academic and career classes. This federal law assists teachers in linking academic, career, and technical instruction in secondary and postsecondary classrooms by encouraging students to obtain experiences in all aspects of an industry, involving parents and employers, and providing links between secondary and postsecondary education.
Students, both with and without disabilities, must meet high achievement standards.
Keeping Current
Educators working with students with disabilities must be knowledgeable about current federal laws on education, especially those addressing special education services. To check current legislation, they can access Thomas Legislative Information, a Web site provided by the U.S. Congress that allows the visitor to read the full text of any law passed since 1992. This site provides the most thorough coverage of legislation related to individuals with disabilities and the field of special education.
The U.S. Department of Education maintains a Web site with current and fast-breaking news. This site also has a searchable database for information regarding changes to federal laws. From this site you may link to the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services Web site. The Office of Hearing and Appeals provides a searchable database of decisions involving the U.S. Department of Education and recipients of federal education funds. Questions regarding federal and state requirements for the education of students with disabilities can be answered at another Web site, EdLaw. This Web site contains a rich source of legal information for parents and professionals.
.3 The Special Education Process
Snapshot: Yi-Nan Chen
Yi-Nan Chen, a special educator at Central School, meets us at the school entrance and invites us in to visit her school and to talk about her work with students with disabilities. After a short tour of the building, Yi-Nan takes us to her classroom, where we ask her to explain how teachers are alerted that a student may have a disability. She begins, “Each week, the teachers in my building come together to discuss students who are not doing well academically or who have problem behaviors. We address difficulties that students are experiencing in the classroom and brainstorm solutions. Sometimes our collective ideas and support for each other provide teachers with helpful suggestions that they might not have considered otherwise.
“We also have an early intervention process for students experiencing difficulty with reading or math. This intervention provides a student with more intensive instruction than most students typically need, to see if the student will respond to the intervention. We monitor student progress—or lack of—as we collect information on student work. When teachers feel that a student continues to experience problems, they refer the student to the multidisciplinary team, sometimes called the child study team, to see if, in fact, the child has a disability and is eligible to receive special education services.
“Let me give you an example of a recent situation. One of the teachers—we affectionately call her ‘Mrs. B.’—is concerned about a student in her class named Arjun. Arjun’s family recently moved to our city from Sri Lanka. At our weekly meetings, we have discussed Arjun’s difficulties and offered suggestions for Mrs. B. to try in the classroom. Arjun is having difficulty academically and socially. He doesn’t seem to care about his work and he displays little emotion. In fact, he is very quiet—maybe too quiet—because he hardly speaks to his classmates. Lately he is showing a lack of interest in school in general, and his attendance has been poor. Mrs. B. has been providing some individual help to Arjun, and she rearranged the classroom so that students could work together on small-group projects. She hoped that this would increase Arjun’s interest and motivation. Mrs. B also tried several other interventions that often help students; however, this time there has been little success.
“Finally, Mrs. B. contacted Arjun’s parents about her concerns. It seems that they, too, were worried about their child’s progress. At home he complains about school and lately has been refusing to go. When Mrs. B. discussed referring Arjun to the multidisciplinary team, his parents wanted to know more about the process that Arjun would go through and what services might be available for him.”
As you read the following sections, consider the special education process that Arjun’s classroom teacher followed. What role did the special education teacher play? How were Arjun’s parents involved?
When Students Experience Difficulties
Many schools use educator teams to identify and address academic, social, and behavioral problems. This process involves general and special educators, who work together as a student-assistance team. When a teacher has questions and concerns about a student, team members collaborate to pinpoint the difficulties and to brainstorm possible solutions.
If a student continues to show a lack of progress, the teacher implements more intensive instruction. This instruction is known as research-based intervention, because the research findings support the intervention as being effective. The student’s progress is carefully monitored, and the intervention is adjusted or a new intervention is implemented based on the student’s response to the instruction. Although this process helps to reduce inappropriate referrals and build effective interventions within the general education classroom for many students, in Arjun’s case, Mrs. B. and other members of the student-assistance team felt the lack of progress, coupled with his low affect and overall sadness, indicated that a referral should be completed.
The Referral Process
If a student continues to demonstrate lack of progress, even after these interventions, the general education teacher notifies the parent and completes a written referral to the multidisciplinary team. The referral form describes the classroom interventions that have been tried, the results of the interventions, and the learning, social, or behavior problems that persist. Figure 1.5 illustrates the written referral that Mrs. B. completed on Arjun. Other individuals, such as a parent, the school nurse, or the school psychologist, can also complete a referral. Sometimes a student fills out a self-referral.
Figure 1.5 Written referral
Determining Eligibility
A referral is forwarded to the coordinator of the multidisciplinary team that is responsible for assessing a particular student and determining eligibility for special education services. Depending on the types of concerns and the difficulties that the student is experiencing, the multidisciplinary team members may identify other professionals, such as the school counselor, nurse, speech and language pathologist, occupational therapist, or physical therapist, who should be involved. Before a student’s assessment can begin, a parent or guardian must provide consent for an initial evaluation of their child, and all assessments must be completed within a reasonable time.
Sometimes team members meet first to clarify the questions to be answered during the assessment process and to discuss the types of assessment to complete. In Arjun’s case, the referral focused on academic work and his mental health. The team wondered if his sadness was related to a learning problem or a mental health problem or if his feelings were part of the adjustment of coming to a new country with different educational demands and, probably, the need to converse in a second language.
The team members decided to ask the school counselor and the school psychologist to join the team because of these concerns. Once all the members were assembled, the team discussed which standardized tests and other types of assessment should be conducted to gather additional information. The special education teacher was asked to work with other team members to conduct several classroom observations and gather information using formal and informal assessment instruments. The school counselor conducted a parent interview and the general education teacher provided samples of Arjun’s work. The school psychologist and the special education teacher, in addition to conducting observations, administered standardized norm-referenced tests. A norm-referenced instrument is a commercially published test that compares a student’s test performance with that of similar students who have taken the same test.
Once all the assessment information was assembled, the team met to discuss the results. Team members considered the following: Does the student have a disability that adversely affects the student’s educational performance? Team members followed state and federal laws and regulations to answer this question.
As members reported their findings, the team realized that the parent interview helped answer some of their questions about Arjun’s transition to his new school. During the interview, Arjun’s parents talked about his previous school, an all-boys’ school in Sri Lanka, where his classes were delivered in English. The interview revealed that Arjun’s home language is actually English, but he also speaks Sinhal and Tamil, the languages of Sri Lanka. In his previous school, he had difficulty learning, and his teacher had discussed concerns about his moodiness. Other members reported the results of classroom observations and other assessments. In synthesizing the information, the team agreed that Arjun had symptoms of depression. Once the team determined that he was eligible for special education services, team members began the process of planning the IEP.
Program Planning
If the multidisciplinary team determines that a student is eligible for services, the team members convene as an IEP team to develop the student’s individualized education program. This IEP meeting often includes the members of the multidisciplinary team but may also include additional professionals with unique expertise, such as a parent advocate. The IEP team facilitator, usually an administrator, is responsible for coordinating all team meetings at the school or district level.
Planning the IEP
The IEP provides a framework for teaching a student with a disability. Based on assessment information gathered by team members, the IEP includes specific information about the student’s current level of functioning, strengths, and needs. The team uses this information to plan the individualized education program and, later, to determine the extent of the student’s progress and accomplishments.
At the IEP meeting, there is much to talk about. In this section, we look at how team members begin planning the student’s IEP and some of the questions they consider. Figure 1.6 illustrates these questions and provides reference links to IDEA.
During the IEP team meeting, parents provide information about their child’s strengths and interests as well as areas of concern. The student may participate by sharing reflections on past work, current difficulties, and aspirations for the future. Other members of the team report the results of classroom observations and other assessments, including the student’s current strengths and needs. They also discuss the results of the initial or most recent evaluations and information about the student’s performance on any general statewide or districtwide assessments. This information provides the team with a base to use in establishing the student’s current level of functioning in the areas of concern and determining if the student requires (or continues to need) special education services.
Figure 1.6 The many questions considered by the IEP team
As the team plans the student’s IEP, members address any specially designed instruction that should be used to meet the special needs of the student. Specially designed instruction may include identifying and implementing specific teaching methods, instructional strategies, appropriate accommodations or modifications, instructional materials and equipment, and/or teaching and learning resources. IDEA requires that the descriptions of special education, related services, and supplementary aids and services must be based on peer-reviewed research to the extent possible. The team also discusses the student’s ability to access instructional materials and makes arrangements for the student to have print materials in a digital format, if needed (Figure 1.7). A digital social studies textbook, for example, allows the student to listen to the material, gaining content information while also following along with the text.
ACCOMMODATIONS AND MODIFICATIONS.
The IEP team also identifies the appropriate accommodations and modifications needed by the student. Accommodations refer to changes to the education program that do not substantially alter the instructional level, the content of the curriculum, or the assessment criteria; modifications involve changes or adaptations of the education program that alter the level, content, and/or assessment criteria. If the student will not participate in some or all of the general educations classes, even after considering accommodations and modifications, team members write an explanation of the extent to which the student will not participate. If the student needs accommodations or modifications to participate in state or districtwide assessment of achievement, team members include a statement of these accommodations or modifications.
The National Special Education Elementary Longitudinal Study reported that there are sometimes discrepancies in the accommodations available for state or districtwide assessments and those listed on a student’s IEP or 504 plan. In one study, 76.2% of the students had the accommodation of extended time written in their IEPs or 504 plans, but only 53.3% received extended time on standardized tests (Bottsford-Miller, Thurlow, Stout, & Quenemoen, 2006, p. 5). Figure 1.8 illustrates the accommodations and modifications frequently used in the general education classroom.
Figure 1.7 NIMAS: Access to instructional materials
Figure 1.8 Accommodations frequently used in the general education classroom
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY.
As team members consider the student’s education program, they must also consider the student’s assistive technology (AT) needs and services. For example, Arjun’s team raised questions such as, What do we want Arjun to be able to do within his IEP that he is currently not able to do because of his emotional and learning needs? Would AT enable Arjun to meet this goal(s)? What has been tried to meet his special learning needs in the past? Is it working? Is it providing him with the least restrictive environment?
AT devices include a variety of technology, tools, software, or equipment that can be purchased or specially designed. These materials are used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of an individual with a disability. IDEA also provides for AT services, which include any service that directly assists a child with a disability in the selection, acquisition, or use of an AT device. AT services involve evaluation of the needs of the child, including a functional evaluation of the child; acquiring the device; selecting, designing, fitting, customizing, adapting, applying, maintaining, repairing, or replacing the device; coordinating and using other therapies or services; and training the child, family, and professionals (Sec. 300.6).
AT includes both simple, low-cost materials and high-cost digital equipment. Low-cost devices include a wide-tip marking pen or highlighting tape to indicate key concepts in a textbook. More expensive devices include a handheld device (or personal digital assistant, or PDA), a touch screen, or a smart keyboard with word-processing software. Sometimes software is considered an AT device when it provides the means for a student to access the general education curriculum. For example, a student with a learning disability may use specialized word-processing software with word prediction. Word prediction is a feature of the program that predicts words based on the first letter that the student types. This specialized software helps many students with short-term memory difficulties, word-retrieval problems, and spelling difficulties.
CONSIDERATION OF SPECIAL FACTORS.
Depending on the needs of the student, the IEP team considers special factors:
• Use of Braille for students who have a visual impairment, unless the IEP team determines after an evaluation of the child’s reading and writing skills that instruction in Braille or the use of Braille is not appropriate.
• Use of a sign language interpreter so that a deaf or hard-of-hearing student can participate in the general curriculum.
• Use of strategies such as positive behavioral intervention and supports, for students whose behaviors impede their own learning or the learning of others.
• Communication needs of the student. For students who are deaf or hard of hearing, the team considers the student’s language and communication needs, as well as opportunities for direct communication with peers and professional personnel in the child’s language and communication mode, including direct instruction in the student’s language and communication mode.
• Language needs of the student with limited English proficiency as they relate to the student’s IEP.
POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION, STRATEGIES, AND SUPPORT.
The general education teacher, along with other IEP team members, assists in determining positive behavioral interventions and strategies for the student. For example, the team discusses the student’s need to develop positive interactions with peers through social skill instruction. The regular classroom teacher discusses how this instruction can be transferred to the general education classroom. The school psychologist might be identified as a support person in helping to prevent the student’s recurring problem behaviors, if any exist.
RELATED SERVICES.
After considering specialized instruction, the team discusses the related services that are required to assist the student to benefit from special education services. These services are offered by professionals in disciplines other than education. IDEA provides for a variety of related services, such as occupational therapy, rehabilitation counseling, and social work services. These services are identified and written into the student’s IEP. Table 1.2 lists all the related services mandated by IDEA.
SUMMER MONTHS.
The team also considers whether a student with a disability needs services during the summer months. This right to summer school services is called extended school year (ESY) services . These services are not limited to particular categories of disability. When a team considers ESY services, it usually considers a variety of factors, including the likelihood of regression of skills and abilities that occurs when a student does not receive services.
SUPPLEMENTAL AIDS AND SERVICES.
To assist the student in being involved in and making progress in the general education curriculum, the team may identify supplemental aids and services . These are provided in the regular education classroom or in another education-related setting to enable children with disabilities to be educated with children without disabilities to the greatest extent possible (Sec. 300.42).
Table 1.2 Related Services Mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
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Related services include services that are required to assist a student with a disability to benefit from special education services. These services are identified in the student’s IEP and may include one or more of the following: • Audiology • Counseling services • Early identification and assessment of disabilities in children • Interpreting services • Medical services • Occupational therapy • Orientation and mobility services • Parent counseling and training • Physical therapy • Psychological services • Recreation • Rehabilitation counseling • School health services • Social work services in schools • Speech-language pathology • Transportation services |
Source: Adapted From IDEA 34 C.F.R., Sec. 300.34.
TRANSITION SERVICES.
Beginning not later than the first IEP to be in effect when the child turns 16 (or younger, if determined appropriate by the IEP team), each student with a disability must have an IEP that includes a statement of transition services (Sec. 300.320). This statement is updated annually and must include (1) appropriate measurable postsecondary goals based on age appropriate transition assessments related to training, education, employment, and, where appropriate, independent living skills; and (2) the transition services (including courses of study) needed to assist the child in reaching those goals. This section of the IEP also includes the transfer of rights at age of majority. In other words, 1 year before the child reaches the legal age of adulthood, according to state law, the IEP must include a statement that the student has been informed of his or her rights.
Individualizing the IEP
According to IDEA, an IEP must include specific information concerning a student’s present level of academic achievement and functional performance. Based on this information, the team develops annual goals, including academic and functional goals, that enable the student to be involved in and make progress in the general education curriculum and that meet the student’s other educational needs. In Chapters 6 and 7, we examine how special education teachers write IEP goals.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
A Wealth of Classroom Experiences and Expectations
In preparing to teach, educators must consider the wealth of classroom experiences and expectations that children bring. Students come from diverse cultural, ethnic, racial, economic, and linguistic backgrounds. In fact, 20% of the students ages 5 to 17 enrolled in elementary and secondary schools have at least one foreign-born parent, and almost 10 million speak a language other than English at home (Harper, 2003). The National Center for Education Statistics (Hussar & Bailey, 2006) projects that between 2004 and 2015, enrollment will increase only 6% for students who are of non-Hispanic white ethnicity. Other students will see a more dramatic increase, including a 27% increase for students who are of non-Hispanic black ethnicity; an increases of 42% for students who are Hispanic; 28% for students who are Asian or Pacific Islanders; 30% for students who are American Indian or Alaska Native; and 34% for students who are nonresident foreigners.
Students bring rich experiences and expectations to their schools. Folk tales, dances, music, and family traditions enrich the teaching and learning experience for all students and their teachers. Students can celebrate diversity in the classroom because their teachers promote cultural competence. Cultural and linguistic perspectives involve being responsive to students, their families, and their communities—a theme that you will find in each chapter of this book.
These perspectives play an important role in the process of obtaining special education services. When the IEP team meets, members must be aware of not only the student’s first language but also the student’s home language(s). For example, how will the team gather assessment information about a student who speaks four languages but is just learning English?
In the past, many students with disabilities were inappropriately placed in separate and special classes based on the results of standardized tests given in English. When working with students who are English language learners, teachers must ensure that the assessment approaches used measure the extent of the disability rather than the child’s English language skills. IDEA states that tests and other evaluation procedures must not discriminate on a racial or cultural basis and mandates that assessments must be provided and administered in the child’s native language or another mode of communication unless it is clearly not feasible to do so.
Questions for Reflection
1. Consider the students in the schools in your community. Does your community reflect the diversity of families in your state? In the nation?
2. What materials and other resources does your state department of education provide for families of students with disabilities? Other than English, in what other languages are the materials available?
In addition to annual goals, short-term objectives, or benchmarks, are required for students with more significant disabilities who follow alternative achievement standards with alternative state and districtwide assessments aligned to these standards. These objectives describe the standards that the student will work to meet. Each short-term objective includes the following required components:
• Behavior described in terms that can be observed.
• The criteria for successful performance.
• The method for evaluating the behavior.
• The time period for which the objective will be reviewed.
Short-term objectives are not required for students with disabilities whose annual goals are aligned with the general education curriculum or to the state’s learning standards.
The IEP must contain other components, too. For example, when a student will not participate in a regular class, the team must provide an explanation of the extent to which the student will not do so. Also, the IEP must include the projected date for the beginning of the services and anticipated frequency, location, and duration of services.
Monitoring Progress
So that all team members can refer to the child’s IEP as needed, the team chairperson or another designated staff person arranges for the student’s IEP to be available to each regular education teacher, special education teacher, related service provider, and any other service provider who is responsible for its implementation. Parents, too, receive a copy of their child’s IEP.
Special educators and related service personnel continuously monitor the student’s IEP once services begin. The teacher knows the student’s current level of performance, what the student can do in each academic area, and what other needs the student has, such as the need to improve social skills or decrease problem behaviors. The teacher tracks progress through regular observation, student work samples, demonstrations, and formal and informal tests. Monitoring the IEP on a regular basis allows the teacher to make adjustments in the specially designed instruction when necessary.
Teachers and other professionals working with the student must report progress to parents in report cards, in progress notes, or in other ways at least as often as parents of students without disabilities receive report cards. This progress report enables parents to learn about the progress of their child and the extent to which that progress will enable the child to reach the IEP goals by the end of the program year.
Evaluating Progress
Evaluating Individual Student Progress: Annual Review
At the end of the program year—or more frequently if needed—the IEP team reconvenes to discuss the student’s progress. Has the student met the IEP goals? The special education teacher and other school personnel who have assisted in providing special education and related services described in the student’s IEP report on the student’s progress and on measures of achievement. These measures include various assessments of student performance such as portfolios, observations, curriculum-based assessments, and norm-referenced instruments. The team determines what services the student continues to need, if any. For students who need continuing services, the team plans the program for the coming year.
IN PRACTICE
IDEA requires that the IEP team plan and develop a written description of the specially designed instruction that a student needs. During this process the team considers many questions, one of which is whether or not the student needs AT devices and services. The IEP team is responsible for determining the child’s AT needs on a case-by-case basis as part of special education, related services, or supplementary aids and services. For team members with many other responsibilities, keeping abreast of different AT devices is challenging. Sometimes large school districts employ an AT team consisting of special educators, speech and language pathologists, occupational and physical therapists, computer technicians, and others who assist the IEP team with finding solutions. Sometimes smaller or regional schools employ an AT specialist.
Classroom Focus
Special educator Maria Perez checks the trunk of her car to make sure she has all the AT devices for the students she will visit today. She is an itinerant AT specialist and covers the school districts in her region of the state. When the IEP team determines that a student may need AT, the team coordinator contacts Maria and makes arrangements for her to visit the school. With her combination of training as a special educator and an AT specialist, she is qualified to work with team members to help determine the AT needs of a student with a disability. With access to AT devices through the regional AT center, she brings a variety of devices to the school.
Working Toward Solutions
Working with the student, parents, and other team members, Maria assists in determining the most appropriate device(s) and arranges for the student to borrow the device from the AT center for a trial period. Maria also works with team members to arrange training for the student, family members, and teachers, if needed. She makes plans to return once the trial period is over to help team members assess the effectiveness of the device and to work with the IEP team to locate funding sources to purchase it. When the device is not satisfactory, she suggests an alternative device and continues to work with the student and IEP team members to determine the best technology solution for the student.
Maria works with students and teachers across different grade levels and curriculum areas. Today she is to observe a student with learning disabilities in a middle school science class; and then she will meet with the IEP team to discuss problems that the student is having in using the classroom materials. Later, Maria will visit another school and provide one-to-one training for a student with mental retardation who is learning how to use specialized software for writing assignments.
What The Research Says
The term digital divide refers to technology and the people who use it—and those who don’t. Technology is not only an integral part of academic life today but an essential part of social life as well. Students use Web-based social networking, such as MySpace or Face-book, to stay in touch with friends and to keep abreast of important happenings. Instant messaging is another way to stay well connected with peers, friends, and family. In fact, one study found that 96% of U.S. students ages 9–17 who have Internet access use social networking technology to interact with their peers. The most common topic of discussion was education (eSchool News online, 2007). Technology is so much a part of our daily lives—can you imagine what life would be like without the ability to access and use technology? According to a national study (Enders and Bridges, 2006), more than 70% of people with disabilities are on the other side of the divide, unable to access technology. When technology separates groups of people who cannot access the information, teachers need to examine AT solutions and become advocates for their students.
MyEducationLab: Your Turn
Begin by investigating AT that students need to be successful learners and communicators. Go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Technology Use in the Classroom. Then watch the two videos “Headsprout Reading” and “SmartBoards for Students with Hearing Impairments” and answer the accompanying questions. After viewing the videos, be prepared to discuss your findings. As a teacher, how might you use AT in the classroom? What other technologies might you use to help students in learning and communicating with others? Next, explore examples of student and teacher artifacts: View two of the artifacts listed in the topic Technology Use in the Classroom and answer the accompanying questions. Be prepared to share your ideas with the class.
Evaluating Overall Special Education and Related Services
Along with evaluating individual student progress, program evaluation should address the success of the overall special education program provided by the school. Are students with disabilities making progress in the special education program? Special education programs must be able to demonstrate that students who receive services are making progress and gaining new skills and knowledge. Are parents satisfied with the special education services? Are students with disabilities pleased with the services? As consumers of special education services, students and parents should be given regular opportunities to provide feedback to special education teachers and administrators. Program evaluation can include interviews, checklists, surveys, or formal program-evaluation instruments, and information can be collected from special education teachers, parents, and students themselves. Special education teachers strive to provide high-quality, effective services. To that end, these services must be evaluated on a regular basis and changes made, if indicated.
1.4 Environments Where Special Education Teachers Work
Because IDEA provides for a continuum of special education services in the least restrictive environment, special education teachers work in many different settings (Figure 1.9). Some teachers have their own classrooms; some teachers have no classroom of their own (but consult or coteach in the general education classroom); some teachers spend at least some of the school day traveling among students in different schools or hospital settings. The following sections describe the continuum of environments and various teaching responsibilities of special educators in these settings.
Figure 1.9 Settings where special educators work
Snapshot: Meet Some Special Educators
As you meet the following special educators and learn about their teaching assignments, think about the environment where each educator works and the types of instruction and consultations that they provide. What types of teaching appeal to you? In what settings do you think that you might like to work?
… meet Vicente Pajaro
Vicente Pajaro, a special educator at Suncook School, begins the day with an early-morning meeting with the first-grade classroom teacher. They discuss their concerns about one of the students, Lou Traforti, who has problem behaviors. Over the past month, Lou has begun to interrupt other students during classwork and is generally disrespectful. Vicente listens carefully as the teacher describes her frustration concerning Lou and the reactions of other students. Together, they brainstorm several interventions to manage Lou’s behaviors. Lou has not been referred for special education services yet, and both teachers are hoping that changes in teaching strategies may help to support positive student behaviors. Together they decide that during the next few days, the teacher will work with the students to develop a set of guidelines for classroom and playground behavior. The students and the teacher will be responsible for ensuring that all students in the classroom follow the guidelines.
… meet Joy Lu
Joy Lu stops at her office to look for her social studies folder and project notebook for the fifth-grade class. She hurries down the corridor to the classroom where she will be coteaching and assisting students with disabilities in their civics unit. Today, the classroom teacher will lead the class in a discussion of the reading assignment while Joy provides a graphic organizer of the discussion for Marik, a student with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Joy will monitor Marik’s progress and be ready to offer support and encouragement as needed because Marik frequently becomes distracted and has difficulty completing activities. Later, the students will move into small groups for an activity, and Joy and her coteacher will move among the groups assisting individual students as needed.
… meet John Bates
John Bates scans the schedule posted near the desk. Managing the activities in the high school resource room requires good organizational and coordination skills. He plans instructional activities for each student, meets with his teaching assistant to review the day’s activities, and arranges time to meet with the classroom teachers. Today his morning begins with a group of eight students with learning disabilities who come to the resource room for senior English. In an hour, these students will leave to return to their regular classrooms, and other students will arrive. Throughout the day there may only be 3 to 10 students at a time, but they include students with different needs and strengths. John carefully organizes each student’s assignment and makes sure that each person understands the work. John arranges time to help some students directly while others work on specially designed assignments.
During the day he will work with students in the areas of English, including reading for comprehension and writing, organizational, and study skills. Several of the students have behavior and attention disorders in addition to learning problems, so John needs to consider how to promote positive behaviors as well as academic skills.
Consulting in the General Education Classroom
By consulting with the general education teacher, special education teachers provide support to students with disabilities in the regular classroom. In the consulting model, the special education teacher meets with the general education classroom teacher on a regular basis to discuss the needs of students, types of supports, accommodations, and modifications. They talk about how a particular teaching strategy is helping (or not helping) and brainstorm about other techniques to use. The consulting teacher has many other responsibilities, including coordinating services and resources and locating special materials or equipment that individual students with disabilities need to participate in classroom activities.
Coteaching in the General Education Classroom
Teachers who coteach divide up the work and share the teaching load, including planning, teaching, modifying instruction, and assessing progress, with their regular education colleagues. Sometimes they work with groups of students, each guiding small-group discussions. At other times, one of the teachers assumes the role of lead teacher while the other teacher moves around the classroom, assisting students both with and without disabilities on an as-needed basis. Their roles may be reversed, depending on the teachers’ preferences and their individual strengths in one or more areas of the curriculum.
Providing Instruction in the Resource Room
Special education teachers may work in a separate classroom, called the resource room or learning center. Some students with disabilities come to the resource room for extra classroom support in one or more curriculum areas. The resource room teacher works closely with the general education classroom teacher to provide tutorial support and teaching geared to students’ needs in reading, mathematics, or other areas of the curriculum.
Other students with disabilities come to the resource room for special instruction. The special instruction may include adapted or special materials and/or specific teaching methods and strategies. For these students, the special educator plans and implements instructional activities in social skills, reading, writing, mathematics, science, or social studies, for example. To monitor student progress and achievement, the special educator uses a variety of assessment approaches. In Chapter 5, we look more closely at how teachers link instructional activities with assessment and discuss the various ways teachers assess student progress.
Teaching in the Special Education Classroom
Special education teachers who work in special education classrooms in public schools teach children who have difficulty learning in the regular classroom for a majority of the day. Teachers in these settings have the responsibility of planning and implementing specially designed instruction in all areas of the curriculum that the student does not receive in the general education setting. Teachers adapt content and/or delivery of instruction to address the unique needs of the student.
Like special educators who work in resource rooms, teachers who work in special education classrooms use a variety of assessment approaches to monitor student progress, developing skills, and achievement. Assessment activities are ongoing and provide both teacher and student with valuable feedback regarding their work. The teacher uses the assessment information not only to determine how students are progressing but also to modify practice. When a student is not making expected gains, the teacher will consider a number of questions. For example, what additional instructional activities does the student need? Is the teaching method effective? Is the student grouping effective?
Traveling and Itinerant Teaching
Schools sometimes share a special education teacher. For the teacher, this means traveling among different schools, carrying materials back and forth, working with complicated schedules, and perhaps having more than one supervisor. Special education teachers with specific expertise in an area such as visual impairments or individuals who work in rural areas find that schools cannot hire a full-time professional but can pool their resources to offer the special education services that children need.
Working in a Day or Residential Treatment Program
Special education teachers who are employed by special day or residential treatment programs work with students who all have similar disabilities. For example, the school may be designed for students with moderate disabilities, including significant behavior or learning problems, or students with autism spectrum disorders. Special education teachers are responsible for planning and implementing the specialized instruction and assessing student progress. Teachers who work in special schools typically teach a class where students are of similar age and ability. Special-purpose schools may provide day or residential programs.
Providing Home and Hospital Instruction
Special education teachers who work with students in their homes spend much of their day traveling among students. Like itinerant teachers, home teachers instruct a wide range of temporarily homebound students, in terms of age and ability. For example, a student with Down syndrome who has a heart condition may have an acute medical crisis that involves hospitalization and several weeks of recuperation at home. Teachers who provide home instruction focus on assisting students to maintain their educational progress, so that they can return to their local schools once their condition improves or stabilizes.
Similar to home instructors, special education teachers who provide instruction in hospitals typically work with an individual student for a short period of time. Students with disabilities may be hospitalized for an acute condition or accident and will eventually be discharged. Other students with chronic conditions, such as leukemia, will be in and out of the hospital several times over the course of a year. In both situations, the hospital-based teacher helps students keep up with work that they would otherwise miss.
Working with Charter Schools, Private Schools, and Homeschoolers
Although much of our discussion so far has focused on federal legislation and the responsibilities of public schools, more and more students with and without disabilities are attending public charter schools or private schools or are receiving instruction at home through homeschooling programs. Charter schools provide alternatives to local public schools and have increased dramatically in number since the first charter schools appeared in the 1990s. They offer some degree of independence from the rules and regulations that apply to traditional public schools. However, charter schools must follow all federal civil rights laws including IDEA and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act (Ahearn, 2002).
As an alternative to public school or a charter school, sometimes parents elect to place their child in a private school or provide homeschooling. In these cases, the local school must still provide special education and related services to that child. School representatives and representatives of the private school or homeschoolers consult to design and develop special education and related services. They discuss how the process will operate throughout the school year so that the child can participate in special education or related serives, including who will provide the services and where they will be provided. They may decide to transport the student to the public school to receive special services. In these cases, the special educator will follow the child’s IEP to provide instruction, monitor, and evaluate progress.
Thus the field of special education provides opportunities to work with a wide range of students. We have seen that, as a special educator, your teaching responsibilities differ, depending on the type of setting or program. In the next chapter, we turn our attention to learning more about the students with whom you may work someday.
Summary
• Preparing to be a special education teacher begins by knowing more about research-based practices that provide evidence for effective practice in the classroom.
• Federal legislation, including IDEA, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, No Child Left Behind, and the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act, ensure that students with disabilities will meet high academic and functional achievement standards and have access to appropriate services at no cost to the parents.
• The special education process involves procedures mandated by IDEA that school personnel and a student’s parents follow to identify a student with a disability and to plan, provide, and evaluate appropriate services.
• Special educators teach in a variety of settings, including consulting or coteaching in the general education classroom, instructing in the resource room or self-contained classroom, traveling between schools as an itinerant teacher, teaching in a day or residential treatment program, tutoring children who are homebound or hospital based, and working with students who are enrolled in charter or private schools or who are homeschooled