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Teaching Students with Mild and Moderate Disabilities:
Research-Based Practices
SECOND EDITION
Libby G. Cohen
National Institute of Education, Singapore
Loraine J. Spenciner
University of Maine, Farmingto
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cohen, Libby G. Teaching students with mild and moderate disabilities : research-based practices / Libby G. Cohen, Loraine J. Spenciner.-- 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-233138-8 ISBN-10: 0-13-233138-1 1. Children with disabilities--Education--United States. I. Spenciner, Loraine J. II. Title. LC4031.C64 2009 371.92’6--dc22 2008008700
Vice President and Executive Publisher: Jeffery W. Johnston Executive Editor: Ann Castel Davis Development Editor: Heather Doyle Fraser Editorial Assistant: Penny Burleson Senior Managing Editor: Pamela D. Bennett Production Editor: Sheryl Glicker Langner Production Coordination: Jodi Dowling/Aptara Design Coordinator: Diane C. Lorenzo Cover Designer: Diane Y. Ernsberger Photo Coordinator: Valerie Schultz Production Manager: Laura Messerly Director of Marketing: Quinn Perkson Marketing Manager: Erica DeLuca Marketing Coordinator: Brian Mounts
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Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458.
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Chapter 1 Preparing to Teach Students with Mild and Moderate Disabilities
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
Describe a rationale for using research-based practices in preparing to teach students with disabilities.
Discuss what beginning teachers should know about federal legislation and the education of students with disabilities.
Describe the special education process.
Compare and contrast the various settings in which special educators work and their myriad and varied teaching assignments.
1.1 Preparing to Teach
Snapshot: Meet Kalynda
“Hi! My name is Kalynda—but you can call me ‘K.’ I love to Rollerblade with my friends. My favorite subject in school is art. I have a learning disability, but I think I’m doing well in school because I have learned to be very organized, to keep up with my work, and to ask for help if I need it.”
“My special education teacher has taught me some really neat things, like how to check my writing before I pass it in. She helped me make a cue sheet that I use to check my paper myself to make sure that it has all the necessary requirements. Writing is really important in our school, and everybody has a portfolio of their work. Like I am really, really proud of mine. Last week I added a paper to my portfolio that demonstrates how I am working toward one of my school standards in literacy, showing how we understand a story from the point of view of one of the characters.
“My special education teacher has taught me how to be independent and to become a self-advocate. She invited some leaders from the business community to come speak to our class. One person was an artist who uses discarded items in her sculptures. This artist is so cool, and she also has a learning disability. It was so great to meet her and to hear her story, and sometimes I think I’ll be an artist, too. She also talked about individual rights and laws for people with disabilities. It’s hard for me to remember all the things that she said. Maybe I’ll have a chance to learn them again some day.”
… and Her Mother
“Bringing up Kalynda has been quite an experience for me as a single mother. I remember her first years of school were pretty difficult. She didn’t like to sit still long enough to listen to a story and then, in the early grades, she had a great deal of difficulty in learning how to read, and I didn’t know why. It was a relief when the IEP team determined that she had specific learning disabilities in reading and writing.
“I’m pleased with her progress now. Her teacher keeps in close contact with me, letting me know her successes. She is taking an interest in writing short stories and poetry. In fact, her teacher is encouraging her to submit some of her work to the school newspaper!
“When Kalynda experiences difficulties, her teacher lets me know too. This way we can address concerns before Kalynda becomes discouraged with her school-work. Like last week, her teacher called to let me know that Kalynda was having some difficulty in math class and wasn’t turning in her homework. Now that I know that Kalynda has homework assignments, I can follow up with her at home. Usually I just need to remind her, but sometimes I need to limit her cell [phone] use, especially the instant messaging.”
Preparing to teach students like Kalynda begins with learning about federal legislation and how these mandates guide a special educator’s work with students, families, other educators, and professionals. As you continue reading this textbook, you will learn more about students with mild and moderate disabilities and the characteristics of the most common disabilities, including learning disabilities, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, other health impairments, emotional disturbance, mental retardation, and autism spectrum disorders. And you’ll study effective research-based methods and instructional strategies for teaching students with mild and moderate disabilities.
Using Research-Based Practices
Today’s schools, state departments of education, and the federal government require teachers to use research-based practices , which refer to a body of research that supports the effectiveness of teaching methods, strategies, therapies, supplemental aids, and services in the classroom. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) defines the term scientifically based research as “...research (that) involves the application of rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures to obtain reliable and valid knowledge relevant to education activities and programs” (Sec. 300.35). According to IDEA, scientifically based research should focus on methods and instructional strategies. Educators sometimes refer to this as evidence-based practice.
Beginning educators who study, practice, and later implement these procedures know that they can deliver effective instruction to a wide variety of learners. Today research findings continue to inform our practices, especially in the areas of brain-based research. In Chapters 2 and 3 we look more closely at this research and the effects on learning and behavior.
By studying research-based practices, special education teachers develop an important knowledge base of effective methods and strategies. When using these practices in the classroom, teachers have some assurance that their instruction will be effective. The work of a special educator is both demanding and rewarding. This book starts your journey!
As you read this first chapter, think about the students and the teachers you may have already met. How do the federal laws described in this chapter influence the education and related services that students receive—or, perhaps, do not receive? Can you describe some of the job responsibilities of a special education teacher that you know? How are these responsibilities tied to federal and state legislation?
1.2 Federal Legislation and the Education of Students With Disabilities
For many years, federal legislation has greatly shaped how special education and related services are provided, along with the settings where students with disabilities receive their education. Beginning in the mid-1970s, a series of new federal laws had a major impact on children and youth with disabilities. These laws came about because parents and others who cared deeply about the civil rights of individuals with disabilities had a vision of what the future should hold.
In 1975, as a result of parent advocacy, court decisions, and many other efforts, Congress passed federal legislation that provided free, appropriate public education for students with disabilities at no cost to their parents. Furthermore, the legislation stipulated that schools offer a variety of settings that provide the most appropriate placement options and from which students with disabilities can benefit. For many students this meant being able to enroll in their local community schools. Since then there have been numerous amendments to this law, today known as IDEA.
IDEA
IDEA, also known as Public Law 108-446, changed earlier legislation that focused on ensuring that children and youth with disabilities receive a free, appropriate public education and, at the same time, have their individual educational needs determined and addressed. IDEA requires that students with disabilities have access to the general education curriculum (the same curriculum that students without disabilities have) to the maximum extent possible. IDEA expands the scope of education to include preparing students for employment and independent living. Further, IDEA strengthens the role of parents and ensures that they have meaningful opportunities to participate in the education of their child.
IDEA focuses on excellence, high standards, and high expectations, in addition to the earlier mandate of providing a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment. Teaching and learning are the primary foci of IDEA legislation. This comprehensive mandate for children and youth includes both special education and related services.
IDEA requires that students with disabilities have access to the general education curriculum.
Defining Special Education
IDEA defines special education as specially designed instruction, at no cost to parents, to meet the unique needs of a student with a disability. The instruction may be conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, or in other settings. Specially designed instruction means
1. adapting content, methodology, or delivery of instruction to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability; and
2. ensuring that the child has access to the general curriculum so that the child can meet the educational standards that apply to all children. (Sec.300.39)
Eligibility for Special Education Services
To be eligible for special education services, a student must have a disability, and that disability must adversely affect the student’s education performance. IDEA describes 14 categories of disability (Table 1.1). Some states follow these federal categories, whereas others use slightly different terms and definitions for describing disabilities.
When a student with a disability is eligible for special education, members of the student’s IEP team develop a written document that describes the goals that the student will meet during the year. The individualized education program (IEP) includes such information as who will provide the specially designed instruction, where it will be provided, and how achievement will be measured. Six basic principles establish the framework for providing special education and related services described in the IEP.
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Source: Adapted from IDEA 34 C.F.R., Sec. 300.8.
Basic Principles of IDEA
FREE APPROPRIATE PUBLIC EDUCATION.
Free appropriate public education (FAPE) ensures that no child or youth (3 to 21 years of age) will be excluded from an appropriate public education because of a disability, including students with profound disabilities, students with disruptive behaviors, and students with contagious diseases. Educators sometimes use the term zero reject to describe this mandate of enrolling all students. To help pay the extra cost of providing the special education and related services associated with FAPE, IDEA gives money to state agencies and local schools. Children and youth with disabilities receive FAPE in the least restrictive environment.
APPROPRIATE EVALUATION.
Educators must determine whether a student has a disability and, if so, whether the student needs special education and related services. Special education teachers and other professionals conducting assessments must ensure that appropriate approaches are used. Assessment approaches should be free from bias and discrimination and should be used for the purposes for which they were intended. Educators and other professionals involved in the assessment process are required to follow assessment stipulations outlined in IDEA (Figure 1.1). If the student is eligible for special education services, teachers conduct additional assessments to determine the student’s educational needs. The student’s IEP team uses the results of these assessments in planning the IEP.
THE INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM.
Each student with a disability must have an IEP that describes what the student can do, the student’s strengths, and the student’s needs. The IEP also includes a great deal of additional information, such as the educational goals and how they will be measured. Working together, a team develops the IEP. The members of the team include
Figure 1.1 General requirements of appropriate evaluation according to IDEA
Source: Adapted from IDEA 34 C.F.R., Sec. 300.304.
• the student’s parents;
• at least one regular education teacher;
• at least one special education teacher;
• a person who is qualified to provide or supervise specially designed instruction to meet the unique needs of children with disabilities and is knowledgeable about the availability of resources and the general curriculum;
• a person who can interpret the instructional implications of evaluation results;
• other individuals who have knowledge or special expertise regarding the child, including related services personnel as appropriate; and
• the student, if appropriate.
School personnel make every effort to ensure that the parents or guardians of the student are present at the IEP meeting. Parents should be notified at least several days prior to the meeting, and educators should make conscientious efforts to schedule the meeting at a mutually agreed upon time. If the parents are unable to attend the IEP meeting, the school must use other methods to ensure their participation, including individual or conference telephone calls or video conferencing. School personnel can conduct an IEP meeting without a parent in attendance, but the school is required by IDEA to maintain a record of the attempts to contact the family.
LEAST RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT.
The principle of the least restrictive environment is based on the requirement that schools must offer a variety of instructional settings to provide the most appropriate placement options for students with disabilities and from which these students can benefit. These include general education classes, resource rooms, special classes, special schools, and homebound or hospital placements.
The IEP team must consider accommodations, modifications, aids, and supports to the general education curriculum before removing a student with a disability from the regular classroom. A student is not removed from a general education classroom unless the student cannot be educated there successfully, even after the school has provided accommodations, modifications, aids, and supports. Moreover, a student with a disability cannot be required to demonstrate specific levels of performance before being considered for a regular class placement. If the IEP team decides that a student cannot benefit from the general education class, the team identifies the least restrictive setting that is appropriate for the student and from which the student can benefit.
PROCEDURAL SAFEGUARDS.
IDEA specifies procedural safeguards to ensure that the rights of parents and children are protected during the assessment process and the delivery of services. These procedures are sometimes referred to as due process and are outlined in Figure 1.2. Due process also guarantees parents or personnel in schools or agencies the right to an impartial hearing conducted by a hearing officer when disagreements occur. Either a parent or school personnel can request a hearing if differences cannot be resolved informally.
PARENT AND STUDENT PARTICIPATION IN DECISION MAKING.
Several of the previous principles described ways that parents and students can participate with teachers and other professionals during the process of planning, implementing, and evaluating services for the student. Parents and students bring added knowledge about the student’s problem and expertise in helping to create solutions. Their participation brings shared ownership of the student’s IEP and encourages the student to take responsibility for the outcomes.
The Rehabilitation Act Amendments
The Rehabilitation Act, first authorized in 1973, has been amended and reauthorized numerous times, much like IDEA. Section 504 protects the rights of students with disabilities in programs and activities in public schools and other programs that receive federal financial assistance from the U.S. Department of Education. Much like a large net, Section 504 casts a wide circle to assist students who need services but are not eligible to receive special education services under IDEA (Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.2 Procedural safeguards described by IDEA
Source: Adapted from IDEA 34 C.F.R., Secs. 300.501–520.
Section 504
The provisions of Section 504 and IDEA work well together in helping to provide a range of services for students. Similar to IDEA, Section 504 requires FAPE for eligible students, including individually designed instruction; however, Section 504 uses a broader definition of individual disability areas and other conditions. Examples of other conditions that are typically covered under Section 504 include
• communicable diseases such as tuberculosis;
• medical conditions such as allergies and heart disease;
• temporary medical conditions due to an illness or accident;
• behavioral difficulties; and
• drug or alcohol addiction.
Because of the broader definition provided by Section 504, students who do not meet the criteria for a specific disability under IDEA may be eligible to receive services and accommodations under Section 504.
When school personnel decide that a student needs services under Section 504, they meet to write a plan, commonly referred to as a 504 Plan. In developing a 504 Plan, teachers work with students and their parents to identify and list ideas that will help the student succeed in the classroom. For example, the teacher might begin by encouraging the student to think about what helps in keeping track of assignments when he or she must be absent from school. After they brainstorm ideas, they identify one or two suggestions to try. The teacher, parent, student, and other team members also discuss the student’s need for additional tutoring, during long periods of absence. From these suggestions and by working with the parents, educators develop the 504 Plan (Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.3 General student body in a public school
Source: Adapted from Student Access: A Resource Guide for Educators (p. 6), Council of Administrators of Special Education, n.d., Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children. Reprinted by permission.
No Child Left Behind Act
The No Child Left Behind Act (P.L. 107-110), designed to improve student achievement, placed renewed emphasis on key provisions, including
• early childhood education and the development of language skills and prereading skills;
• assessments that align with state academic content and achievement standards;
• ongoing assessments each year in Grades 3 to 8 and at least once during Grades 10 to 12; and
• detailed report cards to parents concerning their child’s progress;
This legislation puts special emphasis on the need to implement educational programs and instruction that can demonstrate their effectiveness. Today educators carefully review research findings to help inform classroom practices. Throughout each chapter in this textbook, you will read about relevant research related to teaching and learning and students with disabilities.
Figure 1.4 Example of a 504 plan
Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act
The Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act (P.L. 109-270) provides an increased focus on academic achievement of students in career and technical education. This includes improving student achievement and preparing the student for further learning and for postsecondary education and career preparation. This legislation promotes reform and innovation in career and technical education to assist students in acquiring the skills and knowledge to meet state and national academic standards and industry-recognized skill standards. Secondary students with disabilities need to be able to make connections between their academic and career classes. This federal law assists teachers in linking academic, career, and technical instruction in secondary and postsecondary classrooms by encouraging students to obtain experiences in all aspects of an industry, involving parents and employers, and providing links between secondary and postsecondary education.
Students, both with and without disabilities, must meet high achievement standards.
Keeping Current
Educators working with students with disabilities must be knowledgeable about current federal laws on education, especially those addressing special education services. To check current legislation, they can access Thomas Legislative Information, a Web site provided by the U.S. Congress that allows the visitor to read the full text of any law passed since 1992. This site provides the most thorough coverage of legislation related to individuals with disabilities and the field of special education.
The U.S. Department of Education maintains a Web site with current and fast-breaking news. This site also has a searchable database for information regarding changes to federal laws. From this site you may link to the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services Web site. The Office of Hearing and Appeals provides a searchable database of decisions involving the U.S. Department of Education and recipients of federal education funds. Questions regarding federal and state requirements for the education of students with disabilities can be answered at another Web site, EdLaw. This Web site contains a rich source of legal information for parents and professionals.
.3 The Special Education Process
Snapshot: Yi-Nan Chen
Yi-Nan Chen, a special educator at Central School, meets us at the school entrance and invites us in to visit her school and to talk about her work with students with disabilities. After a short tour of the building, Yi-Nan takes us to her classroom, where we ask her to explain how teachers are alerted that a student may have a disability. She begins, “Each week, the teachers in my building come together to discuss students who are not doing well academically or who have problem behaviors. We address difficulties that students are experiencing in the classroom and brainstorm solutions. Sometimes our collective ideas and support for each other provide teachers with helpful suggestions that they might not have considered otherwise.
“We also have an early intervention process for students experiencing difficulty with reading or math. This intervention provides a student with more intensive instruction than most students typically need, to see if the student will respond to the intervention. We monitor student progress—or lack of—as we collect information on student work. When teachers feel that a student continues to experience problems, they refer the student to the multidisciplinary team, sometimes called the child study team, to see if, in fact, the child has a disability and is eligible to receive special education services.
“Let me give you an example of a recent situation. One of the teachers—we affectionately call her ‘Mrs. B.’—is concerned about a student in her class named Arjun. Arjun’s family recently moved to our city from Sri Lanka. At our weekly meetings, we have discussed Arjun’s difficulties and offered suggestions for Mrs. B. to try in the classroom. Arjun is having difficulty academically and socially. He doesn’t seem to care about his work and he displays little emotion. In fact, he is very quiet—maybe too quiet—because he hardly speaks to his classmates. Lately he is showing a lack of interest in school in general, and his attendance has been poor. Mrs. B. has been providing some individual help to Arjun, and she rearranged the classroom so that students could work together on small-group projects. She hoped that this would increase Arjun’s interest and motivation. Mrs. B also tried several other interventions that often help students; however, this time there has been little success.
“Finally, Mrs. B. contacted Arjun’s parents about her concerns. It seems that they, too, were worried about their child’s progress. At home he complains about school and lately has been refusing to go. When Mrs. B. discussed referring Arjun to the multidisciplinary team, his parents wanted to know more about the process that Arjun would go through and what services might be available for him.”
As you read the following sections, consider the special education process that Arjun’s classroom teacher followed. What role did the special education teacher play? How were Arjun’s parents involved?
When Students Experience Difficulties
Many schools use educator teams to identify and address academic, social, and behavioral problems. This process involves general and special educators, who work together as a student-assistance team. When a teacher has questions and concerns about a student, team members collaborate to pinpoint the difficulties and to brainstorm possible solutions.
If a student continues to show a lack of progress, the teacher implements more intensive instruction. This instruction is known as research-based intervention, because the research findings support the intervention as being effective. The student’s progress is carefully monitored, and the intervention is adjusted or a new intervention is implemented based on the student’s response to the instruction. Although this process helps to reduce inappropriate referrals and build effective interventions within the general education classroom for many students, in Arjun’s case, Mrs. B. and other members of the student-assistance team felt the lack of progress, coupled with his low affect and overall sadness, indicated that a referral should be completed.
The Referral Process
If a student continues to demonstrate lack of progress, even after these interventions, the general education teacher notifies the parent and completes a written referral to the multidisciplinary team. The referral form describes the classroom interventions that have been tried, the results of the interventions, and the learning, social, or behavior problems that persist. Figure 1.5 illustrates the written referral that Mrs. B. completed on Arjun. Other individuals, such as a parent, the school nurse, or the school psychologist, can also complete a referral. Sometimes a student fills out a self-referral.
Figure 1.5 Written referral
Determining Eligibility
A referral is forwarded to the coordinator of the multidisciplinary team that is responsible for assessing a particular student and determining eligibility for special education services. Depending on the types of concerns and the difficulties that the student is experiencing, the multidisciplinary team members may identify other professionals, such as the school counselor, nurse, speech and language pathologist, occupational therapist, or physical therapist, who should be involved. Before a student’s assessment can begin, a parent or guardian must provide consent for an initial evaluation of their child, and all assessments must be completed within a reasonable time.
Sometimes team members meet first to clarify the questions to be answered during the assessment process and to discuss the types of assessment to complete. In Arjun’s case, the referral focused on academic work and his mental health. The team wondered if his sadness was related to a learning problem or a mental health problem or if his feelings were part of the adjustment of coming to a new country with different educational demands and, probably, the need to converse in a second language.
The team members decided to ask the school counselor and the school psychologist to join the team because of these concerns. Once all the members were assembled, the team discussed which standardized tests and other types of assessment should be conducted to gather additional information. The special education teacher was asked to work with other team members to conduct several classroom observations and gather information using formal and informal assessment instruments. The school counselor conducted a parent interview and the general education teacher provided samples of Arjun’s work. The school psychologist and the special education teacher, in addition to conducting observations, administered standardized norm-referenced tests. A norm-referenced instrument is a commercially published test that compares a student’s test performance with that of similar students who have taken the same test.
Once all the assessment information was assembled, the team met to discuss the results. Team members considered the following: Does the student have a disability that adversely affects the student’s educational performance? Team members followed state and federal laws and regulations to answer this question.
As members reported their findings, the team realized that the parent interview helped answer some of their questions about Arjun’s transition to his new school. During the interview, Arjun’s parents talked about his previous school, an all-boys’ school in Sri Lanka, where his classes were delivered in English. The interview revealed that Arjun’s home language is actually English, but he also speaks Sinhal and Tamil, the languages of Sri Lanka. In his previous school, he had difficulty learning, and his teacher had discussed concerns about his moodiness. Other members reported the results of classroom observations and other assessments. In synthesizing the information, the team agreed that Arjun had symptoms of depression. Once the team determined that he was eligible for special education services, team members began the process of planning the IEP.
Program Planning
If the multidisciplinary team determines that a student is eligible for services, the team members convene as an IEP team to develop the student’s individualized education program. This IEP meeting often includes the members of the multidisciplinary team but may also include additional professionals with unique expertise, such as a parent advocate. The IEP team facilitator, usually an administrator, is responsible for coordinating all team meetings at the school or district level.
Planning the IEP
The IEP provides a framework for teaching a student with a disability. Based on assessment information gathered by team members, the IEP includes specific information about the student’s current level of functioning, strengths, and needs. The team uses this information to plan the individualized education program and, later, to determine the extent of the student’s progress and accomplishments.
At the IEP meeting, there is much to talk about. In this section, we look at how team members begin planning the student’s IEP and some of the questions they consider. Figure 1.6 illustrates these questions and provides reference links to IDEA.
During the IEP team meeting, parents provide information about their child’s strengths and interests as well as areas of concern. The student may participate by sharing reflections on past work, current difficulties, and aspirations for the future. Other members of the team report the results of classroom observations and other assessments, including the student’s current strengths and needs. They also discuss the results of the initial or most recent evaluations and information about the student’s performance on any general statewide or districtwide assessments. This information provides the team with a base to use in establishing the student’s current level of functioning in the areas of concern and determining if the student requires (or continues to need) special education services.
Figure 1.6 The many questions considered by the IEP team
As the team plans the student’s IEP, members address any specially designed instruction that should be used to meet the special needs of the student. Specially designed instruction may include identifying and implementing specific teaching methods, instructional strategies, appropriate accommodations or modifications, instructional materials and equipment, and/or teaching and learning resources. IDEA requires that the descriptions of special education, related services, and supplementary aids and services must be based on peer-reviewed research to the extent possible. The team also discusses the student’s ability to access instructional materials and makes arrangements for the student to have print materials in a digital format, if needed (Figure 1.7). A digital social studies textbook, for example, allows the student to listen to the material, gaining content information while also following along with the text.
ACCOMMODATIONS AND MODIFICATIONS.
The IEP team also identifies the appropriate accommodations and modifications needed by the student. Accommodations refer to changes to the education program that do not substantially alter the instructional level, the content of the curriculum, or the assessment criteria; modifications involve changes or adaptations of the education program that alter the level, content, and/or assessment criteria. If the student will not participate in some or all of the general educations classes, even after considering accommodations and modifications, team members write an explanation of the extent to which the student will not participate. If the student needs accommodations or modifications to participate in state or districtwide assessment of achievement, team members include a statement of these accommodations or modifications.
The National Special Education Elementary Longitudinal Study reported that there are sometimes discrepancies in the accommodations available for state or districtwide assessments and those listed on a student’s IEP or 504 plan. In one study, 76.2% of the students had the accommodation of extended time written in their IEPs or 504 plans, but only 53.3% received extended time on standardized tests (Bottsford-Miller, Thurlow, Stout, & Quenemoen, 2006, p. 5). Figure 1.8 illustrates the accommodations and modifications frequently used in the general education classroom.
Figure 1.7 NIMAS: Access to instructional materials
Figure 1.8 Accommodations frequently used in the general education classroom
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY.
As team members consider the student’s education program, they must also consider the student’s assistive technology (AT) needs and services. For example, Arjun’s team raised questions such as, What do we want Arjun to be able to do within his IEP that he is currently not able to do because of his emotional and learning needs? Would AT enable Arjun to meet this goal(s)? What has been tried to meet his special learning needs in the past? Is it working? Is it providing him with the least restrictive environment?
AT devices include a variety of technology, tools, software, or equipment that can be purchased or specially designed. These materials are used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of an individual with a disability. IDEA also provides for AT services, which include any service that directly assists a child with a disability in the selection, acquisition, or use of an AT device. AT services involve evaluation of the needs of the child, including a functional evaluation of the child; acquiring the device; selecting, designing, fitting, customizing, adapting, applying, maintaining, repairing, or replacing the device; coordinating and using other therapies or services; and training the child, family, and professionals (Sec. 300.6).
AT includes both simple, low-cost materials and high-cost digital equipment. Low-cost devices include a wide-tip marking pen or highlighting tape to indicate key concepts in a textbook. More expensive devices include a handheld device (or personal digital assistant, or PDA), a touch screen, or a smart keyboard with word-processing software. Sometimes software is considered an AT device when it provides the means for a student to access the general education curriculum. For example, a student with a learning disability may use specialized word-processing software with word prediction. Word prediction is a feature of the program that predicts words based on the first letter that the student types. This specialized software helps many students with short-term memory difficulties, word-retrieval problems, and spelling difficulties.
CONSIDERATION OF SPECIAL FACTORS.
Depending on the needs of the student, the IEP team considers special factors:
• Use of Braille for students who have a visual impairment, unless the IEP team determines after an evaluation of the child’s reading and writing skills that instruction in Braille or the use of Braille is not appropriate.
• Use of a sign language interpreter so that a deaf or hard-of-hearing student can participate in the general curriculum.
• Use of strategies such as positive behavioral intervention and supports, for students whose behaviors impede their own learning or the learning of others.
• Communication needs of the student. For students who are deaf or hard of hearing, the team considers the student’s language and communication needs, as well as opportunities for direct communication with peers and professional personnel in the child’s language and communication mode, including direct instruction in the student’s language and communication mode.
• Language needs of the student with limited English proficiency as they relate to the student’s IEP.
POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION, STRATEGIES, AND SUPPORT.
The general education teacher, along with other IEP team members, assists in determining positive behavioral interventions and strategies for the student. For example, the team discusses the student’s need to develop positive interactions with peers through social skill instruction. The regular classroom teacher discusses how this instruction can be transferred to the general education classroom. The school psychologist might be identified as a support person in helping to prevent the student’s recurring problem behaviors, if any exist.
RELATED SERVICES.
After considering specialized instruction, the team discusses the related services that are required to assist the student to benefit from special education services. These services are offered by professionals in disciplines other than education. IDEA provides for a variety of related services, such as occupational therapy, rehabilitation counseling, and social work services. These services are identified and written into the student’s IEP. Table 1.2 lists all the related services mandated by IDEA.
SUMMER MONTHS.
The team also considers whether a student with a disability needs services during the summer months. This right to summer school services is called extended school year (ESY) services . These services are not limited to particular categories of disability. When a team considers ESY services, it usually considers a variety of factors, including the likelihood of regression of skills and abilities that occurs when a student does not receive services.
SUPPLEMENTAL AIDS AND SERVICES.
To assist the student in being involved in and making progress in the general education curriculum, the team may identify supplemental aids and services . These are provided in the regular education classroom or in another education-related setting to enable children with disabilities to be educated with children without disabilities to the greatest extent possible (Sec. 300.42).
Table 1.2 Related Services Mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
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Related services include services that are required to assist a student with a disability to benefit from special education services. These services are identified in the student’s IEP and may include one or more of the following: • Audiology • Counseling services • Early identification and assessment of disabilities in children • Interpreting services • Medical services • Occupational therapy • Orientation and mobility services • Parent counseling and training • Physical therapy • Psychological services • Recreation • Rehabilitation counseling • School health services • Social work services in schools • Speech-language pathology • Transportation services |
Source: Adapted From IDEA 34 C.F.R., Sec. 300.34.
TRANSITION SERVICES.
Beginning not later than the first IEP to be in effect when the child turns 16 (or younger, if determined appropriate by the IEP team), each student with a disability must have an IEP that includes a statement of transition services (Sec. 300.320). This statement is updated annually and must include (1) appropriate measurable postsecondary goals based on age appropriate transition assessments related to training, education, employment, and, where appropriate, independent living skills; and (2) the transition services (including courses of study) needed to assist the child in reaching those goals. This section of the IEP also includes the transfer of rights at age of majority. In other words, 1 year before the child reaches the legal age of adulthood, according to state law, the IEP must include a statement that the student has been informed of his or her rights.
Individualizing the IEP
According to IDEA, an IEP must include specific information concerning a student’s present level of academic achievement and functional performance. Based on this information, the team develops annual goals, including academic and functional goals, that enable the student to be involved in and make progress in the general education curriculum and that meet the student’s other educational needs. In Chapters 6 and 7, we examine how special education teachers write IEP goals.
Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives
A Wealth of Classroom Experiences and Expectations
In preparing to teach, educators must consider the wealth of classroom experiences and expectations that children bring. Students come from diverse cultural, ethnic, racial, economic, and linguistic backgrounds. In fact, 20% of the students ages 5 to 17 enrolled in elementary and secondary schools have at least one foreign-born parent, and almost 10 million speak a language other than English at home (Harper, 2003). The National Center for Education Statistics (Hussar & Bailey, 2006) projects that between 2004 and 2015, enrollment will increase only 6% for students who are of non-Hispanic white ethnicity. Other students will see a more dramatic increase, including a 27% increase for students who are of non-Hispanic black ethnicity; an increases of 42% for students who are Hispanic; 28% for students who are Asian or Pacific Islanders; 30% for students who are American Indian or Alaska Native; and 34% for students who are nonresident foreigners.
Students bring rich experiences and expectations to their schools. Folk tales, dances, music, and family traditions enrich the teaching and learning experience for all students and their teachers. Students can celebrate diversity in the classroom because their teachers promote cultural competence. Cultural and linguistic perspectives involve being responsive to students, their families, and their communities—a theme that you will find in each chapter of this book.
These perspectives play an important role in the process of obtaining special education services. When the IEP team meets, members must be aware of not only the student’s first language but also the student’s home language(s). For example, how will the team gather assessment information about a student who speaks four languages but is just learning English?
In the past, many students with disabilities were inappropriately placed in separate and special classes based on the results of standardized tests given in English. When working with students who are English language learners, teachers must ensure that the assessment approaches used measure the extent of the disability rather than the child’s English language skills. IDEA states that tests and other evaluation procedures must not discriminate on a racial or cultural basis and mandates that assessments must be provided and administered in the child’s native language or another mode of communication unless it is clearly not feasible to do so.
Questions for Reflection
1. Consider the students in the schools in your community. Does your community reflect the diversity of families in your state? In the nation?
2. What materials and other resources does your state department of education provide for families of students with disabilities? Other than English, in what other languages are the materials available?
In addition to annual goals, short-term objectives, or benchmarks, are required for students with more significant disabilities who follow alternative achievement standards with alternative state and districtwide assessments aligned to these standards. These objectives describe the standards that the student will work to meet. Each short-term objective includes the following required components:
• Behavior described in terms that can be observed.
• The criteria for successful performance.
• The method for evaluating the behavior.
• The time period for which the objective will be reviewed.
Short-term objectives are not required for students with disabilities whose annual goals are aligned with the general education curriculum or to the state’s learning standards.
The IEP must contain other components, too. For example, when a student will not participate in a regular class, the team must provide an explanation of the extent to which the student will not do so. Also, the IEP must include the projected date for the beginning of the services and anticipated frequency, location, and duration of services.
Monitoring Progress
So that all team members can refer to the child’s IEP as needed, the team chairperson or another designated staff person arranges for the student’s IEP to be available to each regular education teacher, special education teacher, related service provider, and any other service provider who is responsible for its implementation. Parents, too, receive a copy of their child’s IEP.
Special educators and related service personnel continuously monitor the student’s IEP once services begin. The teacher knows the student’s current level of performance, what the student can do in each academic area, and what other needs the student has, such as the need to improve social skills or decrease problem behaviors. The teacher tracks progress through regular observation, student work samples, demonstrations, and formal and informal tests. Monitoring the IEP on a regular basis allows the teacher to make adjustments in the specially designed instruction when necessary.
Teachers and other professionals working with the student must report progress to parents in report cards, in progress notes, or in other ways at least as often as parents of students without disabilities receive report cards. This progress report enables parents to learn about the progress of their child and the extent to which that progress will enable the child to reach the IEP goals by the end of the program year.
Evaluating Progress
Evaluating Individual Student Progress: Annual Review
At the end of the program year—or more frequently if needed—the IEP team reconvenes to discuss the student’s progress. Has the student met the IEP goals? The special education teacher and other school personnel who have assisted in providing special education and related services described in the student’s IEP report on the student’s progress and on measures of achievement. These measures include various assessments of student performance such as portfolios, observations, curriculum-based assessments, and norm-referenced instruments. The team determines what services the student continues to need, if any. For students who need continuing services, the team plans the program for the coming year.
IN PRACTICE
IDEA requires that the IEP team plan and develop a written description of the specially designed instruction that a student needs. During this process the team considers many questions, one of which is whether or not the student needs AT devices and services. The IEP team is responsible for determining the child’s AT needs on a case-by-case basis as part of special education, related services, or supplementary aids and services. For team members with many other responsibilities, keeping abreast of different AT devices is challenging. Sometimes large school districts employ an AT team consisting of special educators, speech and language pathologists, occupational and physical therapists, computer technicians, and others who assist the IEP team with finding solutions. Sometimes smaller or regional schools employ an AT specialist.
Classroom Focus
Special educator Maria Perez checks the trunk of her car to make sure she has all the AT devices for the students she will visit today. She is an itinerant AT specialist and covers the school districts in her region of the state. When the IEP team determines that a student may need AT, the team coordinator contacts Maria and makes arrangements for her to visit the school. With her combination of training as a special educator and an AT specialist, she is qualified to work with team members to help determine the AT needs of a student with a disability. With access to AT devices through the regional AT center, she brings a variety of devices to the school.
Working Toward Solutions
Working with the student, parents, and other team members, Maria assists in determining the most appropriate device(s) and arranges for the student to borrow the device from the AT center for a trial period. Maria also works with team members to arrange training for the student, family members, and teachers, if needed. She makes plans to return once the trial period is over to help team members assess the effectiveness of the device and to work with the IEP team to locate funding sources to purchase it. When the device is not satisfactory, she suggests an alternative device and continues to work with the student and IEP team members to determine the best technology solution for the student.
Maria works with students and teachers across different grade levels and curriculum areas. Today she is to observe a student with learning disabilities in a middle school science class; and then she will meet with the IEP team to discuss problems that the student is having in using the classroom materials. Later, Maria will visit another school and provide one-to-one training for a student with mental retardation who is learning how to use specialized software for writing assignments.
What The Research Says
The term digital divide refers to technology and the people who use it—and those who don’t. Technology is not only an integral part of academic life today but an essential part of social life as well. Students use Web-based social networking, such as MySpace or Face-book, to stay in touch with friends and to keep abreast of important happenings. Instant messaging is another way to stay well connected with peers, friends, and family. In fact, one study found that 96% of U.S. students ages 9–17 who have Internet access use social networking technology to interact with their peers. The most common topic of discussion was education (eSchool News online, 2007). Technology is so much a part of our daily lives—can you imagine what life would be like without the ability to access and use technology? According to a national study (Enders and Bridges, 2006), more than 70% of people with disabilities are on the other side of the divide, unable to access technology. When technology separates groups of people who cannot access the information, teachers need to examine AT solutions and become advocates for their students.
MyEducationLab: Your Turn
Begin by investigating AT that students need to be successful learners and communicators. Go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Technology Use in the Classroom. Then watch the two videos “Headsprout Reading” and “SmartBoards for Students with Hearing Impairments” and answer the accompanying questions. After viewing the videos, be prepared to discuss your findings. As a teacher, how might you use AT in the classroom? What other technologies might you use to help students in learning and communicating with others? Next, explore examples of student and teacher artifacts: View two of the artifacts listed in the topic Technology Use in the Classroom and answer the accompanying questions. Be prepared to share your ideas with the class.
Evaluating Overall Special Education and Related Services
Along with evaluating individual student progress, program evaluation should address the success of the overall special education program provided by the school. Are students with disabilities making progress in the special education program? Special education programs must be able to demonstrate that students who receive services are making progress and gaining new skills and knowledge. Are parents satisfied with the special education services? Are students with disabilities pleased with the services? As consumers of special education services, students and parents should be given regular opportunities to provide feedback to special education teachers and administrators. Program evaluation can include interviews, checklists, surveys, or formal program-evaluation instruments, and information can be collected from special education teachers, parents, and students themselves. Special education teachers strive to provide high-quality, effective services. To that end, these services must be evaluated on a regular basis and changes made, if indicated.
1.4 Environments Where Special Education Teachers Work
Because IDEA provides for a continuum of special education services in the least restrictive environment, special education teachers work in many different settings (Figure 1.9). Some teachers have their own classrooms; some teachers have no classroom of their own (but consult or coteach in the general education classroom); some teachers spend at least some of the school day traveling among students in different schools or hospital settings. The following sections describe the continuum of environments and various teaching responsibilities of special educators in these settings.
Figure 1.9 Settings where special educators work
Snapshot: Meet Some Special Educators
As you meet the following special educators and learn about their teaching assignments, think about the environment where each educator works and the types of instruction and consultations that they provide. What types of teaching appeal to you? In what settings do you think that you might like to work?
… meet Vicente Pajaro
Vicente Pajaro, a special educator at Suncook School, begins the day with an early-morning meeting with the first-grade classroom teacher. They discuss their concerns about one of the students, Lou Traforti, who has problem behaviors. Over the past month, Lou has begun to interrupt other students during classwork and is generally disrespectful. Vicente listens carefully as the teacher describes her frustration concerning Lou and the reactions of other students. Together, they brainstorm several interventions to manage Lou’s behaviors. Lou has not been referred for special education services yet, and both teachers are hoping that changes in teaching strategies may help to support positive student behaviors. Together they decide that during the next few days, the teacher will work with the students to develop a set of guidelines for classroom and playground behavior. The students and the teacher will be responsible for ensuring that all students in the classroom follow the guidelines.
… meet Joy Lu
Joy Lu stops at her office to look for her social studies folder and project notebook for the fifth-grade class. She hurries down the corridor to the classroom where she will be coteaching and assisting students with disabilities in their civics unit. Today, the classroom teacher will lead the class in a discussion of the reading assignment while Joy provides a graphic organizer of the discussion for Marik, a student with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Joy will monitor Marik’s progress and be ready to offer support and encouragement as needed because Marik frequently becomes distracted and has difficulty completing activities. Later, the students will move into small groups for an activity, and Joy and her coteacher will move among the groups assisting individual students as needed.
… meet John Bates
John Bates scans the schedule posted near the desk. Managing the activities in the high school resource room requires good organizational and coordination skills. He plans instructional activities for each student, meets with his teaching assistant to review the day’s activities, and arranges time to meet with the classroom teachers. Today his morning begins with a group of eight students with learning disabilities who come to the resource room for senior English. In an hour, these students will leave to return to their regular classrooms, and other students will arrive. Throughout the day there may only be 3 to 10 students at a time, but they include students with different needs and strengths. John carefully organizes each student’s assignment and makes sure that each person understands the work. John arranges time to help some students directly while others work on specially designed assignments.
During the day he will work with students in the areas of English, including reading for comprehension and writing, organizational, and study skills. Several of the students have behavior and attention disorders in addition to learning problems, so John needs to consider how to promote positive behaviors as well as academic skills.
Consulting in the General Education Classroom
By consulting with the general education teacher, special education teachers provide support to students with disabilities in the regular classroom. In the consulting model, the special education teacher meets with the general education classroom teacher on a regular basis to discuss the needs of students, types of supports, accommodations, and modifications. They talk about how a particular teaching strategy is helping (or not helping) and brainstorm about other techniques to use. The consulting teacher has many other responsibilities, including coordinating services and resources and locating special materials or equipment that individual students with disabilities need to participate in classroom activities.
Coteaching in the General Education Classroom
Teachers who coteach divide up the work and share the teaching load, including planning, teaching, modifying instruction, and assessing progress, with their regular education colleagues. Sometimes they work with groups of students, each guiding small-group discussions. At other times, one of the teachers assumes the role of lead teacher while the other teacher moves around the classroom, assisting students both with and without disabilities on an as-needed basis. Their roles may be reversed, depending on the teachers’ preferences and their individual strengths in one or more areas of the curriculum.
Providing Instruction in the Resource Room
Special education teachers may work in a separate classroom, called the resource room or learning center. Some students with disabilities come to the resource room for extra classroom support in one or more curriculum areas. The resource room teacher works closely with the general education classroom teacher to provide tutorial support and teaching geared to students’ needs in reading, mathematics, or other areas of the curriculum.
Other students with disabilities come to the resource room for special instruction. The special instruction may include adapted or special materials and/or specific teaching methods and strategies. For these students, the special educator plans and implements instructional activities in social skills, reading, writing, mathematics, science, or social studies, for example. To monitor student progress and achievement, the special educator uses a variety of assessment approaches. In Chapter 5, we look more closely at how teachers link instructional activities with assessment and discuss the various ways teachers assess student progress.
Teaching in the Special Education Classroom
Special education teachers who work in special education classrooms in public schools teach children who have difficulty learning in the regular classroom for a majority of the day. Teachers in these settings have the responsibility of planning and implementing specially designed instruction in all areas of the curriculum that the student does not receive in the general education setting. Teachers adapt content and/or delivery of instruction to address the unique needs of the student.
Like special educators who work in resource rooms, teachers who work in special education classrooms use a variety of assessment approaches to monitor student progress, developing skills, and achievement. Assessment activities are ongoing and provide both teacher and student with valuable feedback regarding their work. The teacher uses the assessment information not only to determine how students are progressing but also to modify practice. When a student is not making expected gains, the teacher will consider a number of questions. For example, what additional instructional activities does the student need? Is the teaching method effective? Is the student grouping effective?
Traveling and Itinerant Teaching
Schools sometimes share a special education teacher. For the teacher, this means traveling among different schools, carrying materials back and forth, working with complicated schedules, and perhaps having more than one supervisor. Special education teachers with specific expertise in an area such as visual impairments or individuals who work in rural areas find that schools cannot hire a full-time professional but can pool their resources to offer the special education services that children need.
Working in a Day or Residential Treatment Program
Special education teachers who are employed by special day or residential treatment programs work with students who all have similar disabilities. For example, the school may be designed for students with moderate disabilities, including significant behavior or learning problems, or students with autism spectrum disorders. Special education teachers are responsible for planning and implementing the specialized instruction and assessing student progress. Teachers who work in special schools typically teach a class where students are of similar age and ability. Special-purpose schools may provide day or residential programs.
Providing Home and Hospital Instruction
Special education teachers who work with students in their homes spend much of their day traveling among students. Like itinerant teachers, home teachers instruct a wide range of temporarily homebound students, in terms of age and ability. For example, a student with Down syndrome who has a heart condition may have an acute medical crisis that involves hospitalization and several weeks of recuperation at home. Teachers who provide home instruction focus on assisting students to maintain their educational progress, so that they can return to their local schools once their condition improves or stabilizes.
Similar to home instructors, special education teachers who provide instruction in hospitals typically work with an individual student for a short period of time. Students with disabilities may be hospitalized for an acute condition or accident and will eventually be discharged. Other students with chronic conditions, such as leukemia, will be in and out of the hospital several times over the course of a year. In both situations, the hospital-based teacher helps students keep up with work that they would otherwise miss.
Working with Charter Schools, Private Schools, and Homeschoolers
Although much of our discussion so far has focused on federal legislation and the responsibilities of public schools, more and more students with and without disabilities are attending public charter schools or private schools or are receiving instruction at home through homeschooling programs. Charter schools provide alternatives to local public schools and have increased dramatically in number since the first charter schools appeared in the 1990s. They offer some degree of independence from the rules and regulations that apply to traditional public schools. However, charter schools must follow all federal civil rights laws including IDEA and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act (Ahearn, 2002).
As an alternative to public school or a charter school, sometimes parents elect to place their child in a private school or provide homeschooling. In these cases, the local school must still provide special education and related services to that child. School representatives and representatives of the private school or homeschoolers consult to design and develop special education and related services. They discuss how the process will operate throughout the school year so that the child can participate in special education or related serives, including who will provide the services and where they will be provided. They may decide to transport the student to the public school to receive special services. In these cases, the special educator will follow the child’s IEP to provide instruction, monitor, and evaluate progress.
Thus the field of special education provides opportunities to work with a wide range of students. We have seen that, as a special educator, your teaching responsibilities differ, depending on the type of setting or program. In the next chapter, we turn our attention to learning more about the students with whom you may work someday.
Summary
• Preparing to be a special education teacher begins by knowing more about research-based practices that provide evidence for effective practice in the classroom.
• Federal legislation, including IDEA, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, No Child Left Behind, and the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act, ensure that students with disabilities will meet high academic and functional achievement standards and have access to appropriate services at no cost to the parents.
• The special education process involves procedures mandated by IDEA that school personnel and a student’s parents follow to identify a student with a disability and to plan, provide, and evaluate appropriate services.
• Special educators teach in a variety of settings, including consulting or coteaching in the general education classroom, instructing in the resource room or self-contained classroom, traveling between schools as an itinerant teacher, teaching in a day or residential treatment program, tutoring children who are homebound or hospital based, and working with students who are enrolled in charter or private schools or who are homeschooled
