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The effort to match job requirements with personality characteristics is described by John Holland’s  personality–job fit theory , one of the more proven theories in use internationally. 82 The Vocational Preference Inventory questionnaire contains 160 occupational titles. Respondents indicate which they like or dislike, and their answers form personality profiles. Holland presented six personality types and proposed that satisfaction and the propensity to leave a position depend on how well individuals match their personalities to a job.  Exhibit 5-3  describes the six types, their personality characteristics, and examples of congruent occupations for each.

Exhibit 5-3 

Holland’s Typology of Personality and Congruent Occupations

Figure 5-3 Full Alternative Text

Personality–job fit theory

A theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover.

 There are cultural implications for person–job fit that speak to workers’ expectations that jobs will be tailored to them. In individualistic countries where workers expect to be heard and respected by management, increasing person–job fit by tailoring the job to the person increases the individual’s job satisfaction. However, in collectivistic countries, person–job fit is a weaker predictor of job satisfaction because people do not expect to have jobs tailored to them, so they value person–job fit efforts less. Therefore, managers in collectivistic cultures should not violate cultural norms by designing jobs for individuals; rather they should seek people who will likely thrive in jobs that have already been structured. 83

Person–Organization Fit

We’ve noted that researchers have looked at matching people to organizations and jobs. If an organization has a dynamic and changing environment and needs employees who are able to readily change tasks and move easily between teams, it’s more important that employees’ personalities fit with the overall organization’s culture than with the characteristics of any specific job.

Person–organization fit  essentially means people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values, and they leave organizations that are not compatible with their personalities. 84  Using the Big Five terminology, for instance, we could expect that extraverts fit well with aggressive and team-oriented cultures; people high on agreeableness match better with a supportive organizational climate; and highly open people fit better in organizations that emphasize innovation rather than standardization. 85  Following these guidelines when hiring should yield employees who fit better with the organization’s culture, which should, in turn, result in higher employee satisfaction and reduced turnover. Research on person–organization fit has also looked at whether people’s values match the organization’s culture. A match predicts job satisfaction, commitment to the organization, and low turnover. 86

Person–organization fit

A theory that people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values, and leave when there is not compatibility.

In pursuit of fit, it is more important than ever for organizations to manage their image online since job seekers view company websites as part of their pre-application process. Applicants want to see a user-friendly website that provides information about company philosophies and policies. For example, millennials in particular may react positively when they perceive an organization is committed to work–life balance. The website is so important to the development of perceived person–organization fit that improvements to its style (usability) and substance (policies) can lead to more applicants. 87

Other Dimensions of Fit

Although person–job fit and person–organization fit are considered the most salient dimensions for workplace outcomes, other avenues of fit are worth examining. These include person–group fit and person–supervisor fit. Person–group fit is important in team settings, where the dynamics of team interactions significantly affect work outcomes. Person–supervisor fit has become an important area of research since poor fit in this dimension can lead to lower job satisfaction and reduced performance.

 All dimensions of fit are sometimes broadly referred to as person–environment fit. Each dimension can predict work attitudes, which are partially based on culture. A recent meta-analysis of person–environment fit in East Asia, Europe, and North America suggested the dimensions of person–organization and person–job fit are the strongest predictors of positive work attitudes and performance in North America. These dimensions are important to a lesser degree in Europe, and they are least important in East Asia. 88

Cultural Values

Unlike personality, which is largely genetically determined, values are learned. They are passed down through generations and they vary by cultures. As researchers have sought to understand cultural value differences, two important frameworks have emerged from Geert Hofstede and the GLOBE studies.

Hofstede’s Framework

One of the most widely referenced approaches for analyzing variations among cultures was done by Geert Hofstede. 89  Hofstede surveyed more than 116,000 IBM employees in 40 countries about their work-related values and found managers and employees varied on five value dimensions of national culture:

· Power distance.  Power distance  describes the degree to which people in a country accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. A high rating on power distance means large inequalities of power and wealth exist and are tolerated in the culture, as in a class or caste system that discourages upward mobility. A low power distance rating characterizes societies that stress equality and opportunity.

Power distance

A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.

· Individualism versus collectivism.  Individualism  is the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups and believe in an individual’s rights above all else.  Collectivism  emphasizes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them. In OB, we tend to refer to the terms in the framework of individualist(ic) and collectivist(ic) countries/cultures.

Individualism

A national culture attribute that describes the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups.

Collectivism

A national culture attribute that describes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them Collectivistic countries/cultures in which people see themselves as interdependent and seek community and group goals. Collectivistic values are found in Asia, Africa, and South America, for example.

· Masculinity versus femininity. Hofstede’s construct of  masculinity  is the degree to which the culture favors traditional masculine roles such as achievement, power, and control, as opposed to viewing men and women as equals. A high masculinity rating indicates the culture has separate roles for men and women, with men dominating the society. A high  femininity  rating means the culture sees little differentiation between male and female roles and treats women as the equals of men in all respects.

Masculinity

A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favors traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control. Societal values are characterized by assertiveness and materialism.

Femininity

A national culture attribute that indicates little differentiation between male and female roles; a high rating indicates that women are treated as the equals of men in all aspects of the society.

· Uncertainty avoidance. The degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured situations defines their  uncertainty avoidance . In cultures scoring high on uncertainty avoidance, people have increased anxiety about uncertainty and ambiguity and use laws and controls to reduce uncertainty. People in cultures low on uncertainty avoidance are more accepting of ambiguity, are less rule oriented, take more risks, and more readily accept change.

Uncertainty avoidance

A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.

· Long-term versus short-term orientation. This typology measures a society’s devotion to traditional values. People in a culture with  long-term orientation  look to the future and value thrift, persistence, and tradition. In a  short-term orientation , people value the here and now; they also accept change more readily and don’t see commitments as impediments to change.

Long-term orientation

A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence.

Short-term orientation

A national culture attribute that emphasizes the present and accepts change.