Respond
Copyright
Gail Burnaford and Tara Brown
Teaching and Learning in 21st Century Learning Environments: A Reader
Editor in Chief, AVP: Steve Wainwright
Sponsoring Editor: Cheryl Cechvala
Development Editor: Cheryl Cechvala
Assistant Editor: Amanda Nixon
Senior Editorial Assistant: Nicole Sanchez-Sullivan
Production Editor: Lauren LePera
Senior Product Manager: Peter Galuardi
Cover Design: Jelena Mirkovic Jankovic
Printing Services: Bordeaux
Production Services: Lachina Publishing Services
ePub Development: Lachina Publishing Services
Permission Editor: Karen Ehrmann
Video Production: Ed Tech Productions
Cover Image: Stockbyte/Jupiterimages/Thinkstock
ISBN-10: 1621781496
ISBN-13: 978-1-62178-149-3
Copyright © 2014 Bridgepoint Education, Inc.
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Preface
Teaching and Learning in 21st Century Learning Environments: A Reader prepares readers to enter the field of education ready to address the needs of 21st-century learners. The book is intended to serve as a bridge between coursework that participants have taken, and the ongoing professional development that graduates are encouraged to pursue upon course and program completion.
The text presents excerpts from leading voices in education, providing insight on crucial topics such as differentiation for diverse learners, curriculum and instruction, professional growth and leadership, and skills for digital age learning. The authors integrate theory, research studies, and practical application to provide readers with a set of tools and strategies for continuing to learn and grow in the field of education. Finally, embedded video interviews with practicing educators offer a real-world perspective of important topics.
Textbook Features
Teaching and Learning in 21st Century Learning Environments: A Reader includes a number of features to help students understand key concepts:
Voices From the Field feature boxes: Provide personal stories from educators based on real experiences in the field, giving readers a sense of what it really means to be an educator in the 21st century.
Tying It All Together feature boxes: Provide guidance to assist students in synthesizing the information presented within each chapter.
Videos: Provide real-world perspectives from practicing educators on key topics in 21st-century education.
Critical Thinking and Discussion Questions: Are found at the end of each article. These questions prompt students to critically examine the information presented in each excerpt and draw connections to their own experiences.
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About the Authors
Gail Burnaford
Gail Burnaford holds a Ph.D. in Curriculum and Instruction from Georgia State University, and is currently Professor in the Department of Curriculum, Culture and Educational Inquiry at Florida Atlantic University. Prior to moving to Florida, she directed the Undergraduate Teacher Education and School Partnerships Program at Northwestern University’s School of Education and Social Policy.
Dr. Burnaford is the author of four books and numerous articles on topics related to teacher learning, professional development, arts integration and curriculum design. She has served as Principal Investigator on multiple program evaluations focused on arts integration partnerships, including those funded through the U.S. Department of Education’s Professional Development Grants. Dr. Burnaford has acquired eLearning Certification and teaches courses including research in curriculum and instruction, educational policy, documentation and assessment, and curriculum leadership in hybrid, online and face-to-face learning environments. Her current research focuses on faculty’s use of iPads in teaching and the nature/impact of faculty feedback on student work.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the many people who were involved in the development of this text. Special thanks are due to Cheryl Cechvala, sponsoring editor and development editor; Amanda Nixon, assistant editor; Nicole Sanchez-Sullivan, senior editorial assistant; and Lauren LePera, production editor. Thanks also to the following Ashford faculty and advisors for their helpful advice and suggestions: Amy Gray, Stephen Halfaker, Kathleen Lunsford, Andrew Shean, Melissa Phillips, Tony Valley, Gina Warren, and Laurie Wellner.
Finally, the authors would like to thank the following reviewers for their valuable feedback and insight:
Paula Conroy, University of Northern Colorado
Graham Crookes, University of Hawaii
Tara Brown
Tara M. Brown is an Assistant Professor of Education at the University of Maryland, College Park. She holds a doctorate degree from the Harvard Graduate School of Education, and is a former secondary classroom teacher in alternative education.
Tara’s research focuses on the experiences of low-income adolescents and young adults served by urban schools, particularly as related to disciplinary exclusion and dropout. She specializes in qualitative, community-based, participatory, and action research methodologies. Her most recent research is entitled Uncredentialed: Young Adults Living without a Secondary Degree. This community-based participatory study focuses on the social, educational, and economic causes and implications of school dropout among primarily Latina/o young adults living in mid-sized, post-industrial city.
Ch 3: Assessment in the 21st Century
3.1 Five Assessment Myths and Their Consequences, by Rick Stiggins
Introduction
Rick Stiggins is a well-known consultant and expert in the field of assessment. He founded the Assessment Training Institute, which provides professional development in assessment for teachers and school leaders. He has served on the faculty at Michigan State University, the University of Minnesota, and Lewis and Clark College. Stiggins has also served as director of the American College Testing Program.
Stiggins’ article emphasizes the importance of paying attention to assessment at the classroom level. He notes that in the current educational climate, there is huge investment in yearly standardized tests rather than daily assessments that are a part of teaching. Stiggins states, however, that teachers are not well-prepared to assess effectively and have not had much assessment training in their teacher education programs.
Stiggins’ article about the myths that drive assessment is especially important because of his attention to students and their role in assessment. He laments that nowhere in the assessment literature over the past 60 years do we find reference to students as “users” and “instructional decision makers.” Finally, the author describes the power of assessing for learning rather than relying on grades and test scores to motivate students.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Stiggins, R. (2007). Five assessment myths and their consequences. Education Week, 27(8), 28–29. Reprinted with permission from the author.
America has spent 60 years building layer upon layer of district, state, national, and international assessments at immense cost—and with little evidence that our assessment practices have improved learning. True, testing data have revealed achievement problems. But revealing problems and helping fix them are two entirely different things.
As a member of the measurement community, I find this legacy very discouraging. It causes me to reflect deeply on my role and function. Are we helping students and teachers with our assessment practices, or contributing to their problems?
My reflections have brought me to the conclusion that assessment’s impact on the improvement of schools has been severely limited by several widespread but erroneous beliefs about what role it ought to play. Here are five of the most problematic of these assessment myths:
Myth 1: The Path to School Improvement Is Paved With Standardized Tests.
Evidence of the strength of this belief is seen in the evolution, intensity, and immense investment in our large-scale testing programs. We have been ranking states on the basis of average college-admission-test scores since the 1950s, comparing schools based on district-wide testing since the 1960s, comparing districts based on state assessments since the 1970s, comparing states based on national assessment since the 1980s, and comparing nations on the basis of international assessments since the l990s. Have schools improved as a result?
The problem is that once-a-year assessments have never been able to meet the information needs of the decisionmakers who contribute the most to determining the effectiveness of schools: students and teachers, who make such decisions every three to four minutes. The brief history of our investment in testing outlined above includes no reference to day-to-day classroom assessment, which represents 99.9 percent of the assessments in a student’s school life. We have almost completely neglected classroom assessment in our obsession with standardized testing. Had we not, our path to school improvement would have been far more productive.
Myth 2: School and Community Leaders Know How to Use Assessment to Improve Schools.
Over the decades, very few educational leaders have been trained to understand what standardized tests measure, how they relate to the local curriculum, what the scores mean, how to use them, or, indeed, whether better instruction can influence scores. Beyond this, we in the measurement community have narrowed our role to maximizing the efficiency and accuracy of high-stakes testing, paying little attention to the day-to-day impact of test scores on teachers or learners in the classroom.
Many in the business community believe that we get better schools by comparing them based on annual test scores, and then rewarding or punishing them. They do not understand the negative impact on students and teachers in struggling schools that continuously lose in such competition. Politicians at all levels believe that if a little intimidation doesn’t work, a lot of intimidation will, and assessment has been used to increase anxiety. They too misunderstand the implications for struggling schools and learners.
Myth 3: Teachers Are Trained to Assess Productively.
Teachers can spend a quarter or more of their professional time involved in assessment-related activities. If they assess accurately and use results effectively, their students can prosper. Administrators, too, use assessment to make crucial curriculum and resource-allocation decisions that can improve school quality.
Given the critically important roles of assessment, it is no surprise that Americans believe teachers are thoroughly trained to assess accurately and use assessment productively. In fact, teachers typically have not been given the opportunity to learn these things during preservice preparation or while they are teaching. This has been the case for decades. And lest we believe that teachers can turn to their principals or other district leaders for help in learning about sound assessment practices, let it be known that relevant, helpful assessment training is rarely included in leadership-preparation programs either.
Myth 4: Adult Decisions Drive School Effectiveness.
We assess to inform instructional decisions. Annual tests inform annual decisions made by school leaders. Interim tests used formatively permit faculty teams to fine-tune programs. Classroom assessment helps teachers know what comes next in learning, or what grades go on report cards. In all cases, the assessment results inform the grown-ups who run the system.
But there are other data-based instructional decisionmakers present in classrooms whose influence over learning success is greater than that of the adults. I refer, of course, to students. Nowhere in our 60-year assessment legacy do we find reference to students as assessment users and instructional decisionmakers. But, in fact, they interpret the feedback we give them to decide whether they have hope of future success, whether the learning is worth the energy it will take to attain it, and whether to keep trying. If students conclude that there is no hope, it doesn’t matter what the adults decide. Learning stops. The most valid and reliable “high stakes” test, if it causes students to give up in hopelessness, cannot be regarded as productive. It does more harm than good.
Myth 5: Grades and Test Scores Maximize Student Motivation and Learning.
Most of us grew up in schools that left lots of students behind. By the end of high school, we were ranked based on achievement. There were winners and losers. Some rode winning streaks to confident, successful life trajectories, while others failed early and often, found recovery increasingly difficult, and ultimately gave up. After 13 years, a quarter of us had dropped out and the rest were dependably ranked. Schools operated on the belief that if I fail you or threaten to do so, it will cause you to try harder. This was only true for those who felt in control of the success contingencies. For the others, chronic failure resulted, and the intimidation minimized their learning. True hopelessness always trumps pressure to learn.
Society has changed the mission of its schools to “leave no child behind.” We want all students to meet state standards. This requires that all students believe they can succeed. Frequent success and infrequent failure must pave the path to optimism. This represents a fundamental redefinition of productive assessment dynamics.
Classroom-assessment researchers have discovered how to assess for learning to accomplish this. Assessment for learning (as opposed to of learning) has a profoundly positive impact on achievement, especially for struggling learners, as has been verified through rigorous scientific research conducted around the world. But, again, our educators have never been given the opportunity to learn about it.
Sound assessment is not something to be practiced once a year. As we look to the future, we must balance annual, interim or benchmark, and classroom assessment. Only then will we meet the critically important information needs of all instructional decisionmakers. We must build a long-missing foundation of assessment literacy at all levels of the system, so that we know how to assess accurately and use results productively. This will require an unprecedented investment in professional learning both at the preservice and in-service levels for teachers and administrators, and for policymakers as well.
Of greatest importance, however, is that we acknowledge the key role of the learner in the assessment-learning connection. We must begin to use classroom assessment to help all students experience continuous success and come to believe in themselves as learners.
Source: Stiggins, R. (2007). Five assessment myths and their consequences. Education Week 27(8), pp. 28–29. © Rick Stiggins. As first appeared in Education Week, October 16, 2007. Reprinted with permission from the author.
Summary
Stiggins offers five myths regarding assessment. He then suggests the consequences that teachers and leaders face when the educational community apparently believes these myths. The author challenges the myth that standardized testing can be the path to school improvement, noting that classroom assessment has much more power over student learning. He asserts, contrary to popular opinion, that most teachers and leaders do not know how to use assessment data to improve schools, nor are teachers adequately prepared to assess productively.
Educators and the general public appear to believe that grades and test scores motivate student learning, despite the evidence that classroom-based assessment for learning is actually what promotes student success. Finally, Stiggins debunks the myth that adult decisions drive school effectiveness and reminds readers of the role the students themselves play in the process.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. To what degree do you believe students play a pivotal role in school effectiveness as “assessment users” and “instructional decision makers”? How might that role be strengthened for students in schools?
2. How would you evaluate your own assessment knowledge and preparation for teaching and leadership in assessment? How would you characterize the gaps in your knowledge about assessment?
3. Imagine that you are speaking to a group of parents of students in a middle school. Explain how you would assess students daily in order to improve your teaching.
4. Discuss Rick Stiggins’ assertion that school improvement is not informed by standardized test results. What are some of the problems with relying on yearly standardized tests to drive curriculum and teaching in a school?
3.2 Assessment Literacy for Teachers: Faddish or Fundamental? by W. James Popham
Introduction
W. James Popham is an emeritus professor in the graduate school of the University of California, Los Angeles. He is considered one of the premier researchers in the field of assessment and is the founder of IOX Assessment Associates, a research and development organization.
This article introduces the concept of assessment literacy as a fundamental task for professional development in schools, especially in the current context in which teacher preparation assessment programs may be viewed as inadequate. Popham claims that teachers know very little about assessment beyond the administration of traditional tests, and in this piece he describes 13 “must understand” assessment topics for teachers, including the difference between formative and summative assessment tools. He also differentiates between classroom assessments and accountability assessments in terms of their goals and uses by teachers and administrators.
A key concept offered in this article is the idea that assessment approaches that are instructionally sensitive can be directly related to good teaching or, conversely, poor teaching. Popham maintains that teachers need to know the basics of the content area of assessment, including reliability, the three types of validity, types of test items, and the development and scoring of alternative assessments such as portfolios, exhibitions, peer, and self-assessments.
Teachers and leaders also need to be able to interpret standardized test results and use them meaningfully to improve instruction, because they are a key feature of today’s data-driven practice in many schools and districts.
Finally, the article reminds readers that assessment of English-language learners and students with disabilities remains an essential content field for all teachers.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Popham, W. J. (2009). Assessment literacy for teachers: faddish or fundamental? Theory Into Practice, 48, 4–11.
In recent years, increasing numbers of professional development programs have dealt with assessment literacy for teachers and/or administrators. Is assessment literacy merely a fashionable focus for today’s professional developers or, in contrast, should it be regarded as a significant area of professional development interest for many years to come? After dividing educators’ measurement-related concerns into either classroom assessments or accountability assessments, it is argued that educators’ inadequate knowledge in either of these arenas can cripple the quality of education. Assessment literacy is seen, therefore, as a sine qua non for today’s competent educator. As such, assessment literacy must be a pivotal content area for current and future staff development endeavors. Thirteen must-understand topics are set forth for consideration by those who design and deliver assessment literacy programs. Until preservice teacher education programs begin producing assessment literate teachers, professional developers must continue to rectify this omission in educators’ professional capabilities.
For the past several years, assessment literacy has been increasingly touted as a fitting focus for teachers’ professional development programs. The sort of assessment literacy that is typically recommended refers to a teacher’s familiarity with those measurement basics related directly to what goes on in classrooms. Given today’s ubiquitous, externally imposed scrutiny of schools, we can readily understand why assessment literacy might be regarded as a likely target for teachers’ professional development. Yet, is assessment literacy a legitimate focus for teachers’ professional development programs or, instead, is it a fashionable but soon forgettable fad?
The Consequences of Omission
Many of today’s teachers know little about educational assessment. For some teachers, test is a four-letter word, both literally and figuratively. The gaping gap in teachers’ assessment-related knowledge is all too understandable. The most obvious explanation is, in this instance, the correct explanation. Regrettably, when most of today’s teachers completed their teacher-education programs, there was no requirement that they learn anything about educational assessment. For these teachers, their only exposure to the concepts and practices of educational assessment might have been a few sessions in their educational psychology classes or, perhaps, a unit in a methods class (La Marca, 2006; Stiggins, 2006).
Thus, many teachers in previous years usually arrived at their first teaching assignment quite bereft of any fundamental understanding of educational measurement. Happily, in recent years we have seen the emergence of increased preservice requirements that offer teacher education candidates greater insights regarding educational assessment. Accordingly, in a decade or two, the assessment literacy of the nation’s teaching force is bound to be substantially stronger. But for now, it must be professional development—completed subsequent to teacher education—that will supply the nation’s teachers with the assessment related skills and knowledge they need.
* * *
A Quick Content Dip
Professional development programs focused on assessment literacy need to be tailored. Such a program designed for school administrators is likely to be similar to an assessment-literacy program for teachers, in the sense that many of the topics to be treated would be essentially identical, but some salient content differences would—and should—exist. To conclude this analysis, I would like to lay out the content that should be addressed—in a real-world, practical manner rather than an esoteric, theoretical fashion—during an assessment-literacy professional development program for teachers. This will only be a brief listing of potential content, but those who are interested in a closer look at possible content for such programs will find more detailed treatments of potential emphases in the list of references.
Those considering what to include in an assessment literacy professional development program for teachers should seriously consider focusing on a set of target skills and knowledge dealing with the following content:
1. The fundamental function of educational assessment, namely, the collection of evidence from which inferences can be made about students’ skills, knowledge, and affect. A common misconception among educators is to reify test scores, as though such scores are the true target of an educator’s concern. In reality, the only reason we test our students is in order collect evidence regarding what we cannot see—understanding, skill development, and so on. Almost all of our educational goals are aimed at unseeable skills and knowledge. We cannot tell how much history a student knows just by looking at that student. Thus, we must rely on students’ overt test performances to produce evidence so we can arrive at defensible inferences about students’ covert skills and knowledge.
2. Reliability of educational assessments, especially the three forms in which consistency evidence is reported for groups of test-takers (stability, alternate-form, and internal consistency) and how to gauge consistency of assessment for individual test-takers. Many educators place absolutely unwarranted confidence in the accuracy of educational tests, especially those high-stakes tests created by well-established testing companies. When educators grasp the nature of measurement error, and realize the myriad factors that can trigger inconsistency in a student’s test performances, those educators will regard with proper caution the imprecision of the results obtained on even some of our most time-honored assessment instruments.
3. The prominent role three types of validity evidence should play in the building of arguments to support the accuracy of test-based interpretations about students, namely, content-related, criterion-related, and construct-related evidence. Anytime an educator utters the phrase a valid test, that educator is—at least technically—in error. It is not a test that is valid or invalid. Rather, it is the inference we base on a test-taker’s score whose validity is at issue. Moreover, the types of validity evidence we collect are fundamentally different. As a consequence, for example, classroom teachers need to know that the chief kind of validity evidence they need to attend to should be content-related.
4. How to identify and eliminate assessment bias that offends or unfairly penalizes test-takers because of personal characteristics such as race, gender, or socioeconomic status. During the past two decades, the measurement community has devised both judgmental and empirical ways of dramatically reducing the amount of assessment bias in our large-scale educational tests. Classroom teachers need to know how to identify and eliminate bias in their own teacher-made tests.
5. Construction and improvement of selected-response and constructed-response test items. Through the years, measurement specialists have been assembling a collection of guidelines regarding how to create wonderful, rather than wretched, test items. Moreover, once a set of test items has been constructed, there are easily used procedures available for making those items even better. Educators who generate tests need to be conversant with the creation and honing of test items.
6. Scoring of students’ responses to constructed-response tests items, especially the distinctive contribution made by well-formed rubrics. Although constructed-response test items such as essay and short answer items often provide particularly illuminating evidence about students’ skills and knowledge, the scoring of students’ responses to such items often goes haywire because of loose judgmental procedures. Teachers need to know how to create and use rubrics, that is, scoring guides, so students’ performances on constructed-response items can be accurately appraised.
7. Development and scoring of performance assessments, portfolio assessments, exhibitions, peer assessments, and self-assessments. Gone are the days when teachers only had to know how to score tests by distinguishing between a circled T or F for students’ answers to true–false items. Given the current use of assessment procedures calling for students to respond in dramatically diverse ways, today’s teachers need to learn how to generate and perhaps score a considerable variety of assessment strategies.
8. Designing and implementing formative assessment procedures consonant with both research evidence and experience-based insights regarding such procedures’ likely success. Formative assessment is a process, not a particular type of test. Because there is now substantial evidence at hand that properly employed formative assessment can meaningfully boost students’ achievement (Black & Wiliam, 1998a), today’s educators need to understand the innards of this potent classroom process.
9. How to collect and interpret evidence of students’ attitudes, interests, and values. When considering the importance of students’ acquisition of cognitive versus affective outcomes, it could be argued that inattention to students’ attitudes, interests, and values can have a lasting, negative impact on those students. Teachers, therefore, should at least learn how to assess their students’ affect so that, if those teachers choose to do so, they can get an accurate fix on their students’ affective dispositions.
10. Interpreting students’ performances on large-scale, standardized achievement and aptitude assessments. Because students’ performances are of interest to both teachers and students’ parents, teachers must understand the most widely used techniques for reporting students’ scores on today’s oft-administered standardized examinations, including, for example, what is meant by a scale score.
11. Assessing English Language Learners and students with disabilities. Although most of the measurement concepts that educators need to understand will apply across the board to all types of students, there are special assessment issues associated with students whose first language is not English and for students with disabilities. Because today’s educators have been adjured to attend to such students with more care than was seen in the past, it is important for all teachers to become conversant with the assessment procedures most suitable for these subgroups of students.
12. How to appropriately (and not inappropriately) prepare students for high-stakes tests. Given the pressures on educators to have their students shine on state and, sometimes, district accountability tests, there have been reports of test-preparation practices that are patently inappropriate. In many instances, such unsound practices arise simply because teachers had not devoted attention to the question of how students should and should not be readied for important tests. They should be prepared to do so.
13. How to determine the appropriateness of an accountability test for use in evaluating the quality of instruction. It is not safe to assume that, because an accountability test has been officially adopted in a state, this test is suitable for evaluating schools. More than ever before, educators need to understand what makes a test suitable for appraising the quality of instruction.
All but a few of these 13 content recommendations are applicable to both classroom assessments and accountability assessments. The recommendations regarding the determination of an accountability test’s evaluative appropriateness and interpreting students’ performances on large-scale, standardized tests, of course, refer only to accountability assessments. Conversely, the recommendation regarding learning about formative assessment procedures clearly deals with classroom assessments rather than accountability assessments. Beyond those dissimilarities, however, a professional development program aimed at the promotion of teachers’ assessment literacy should show how the bulk of the content recommended here has clear relevance to both classroom assessments and accountability assessments.
Of particular merit these days is the use of professional learning communities as an adjunct to, or in place of, more traditional professional development activities. Such communities consist of small groups of teachers and/or administrators who meet periodically over an extended period of time, for instance, one or more school years, to focus on topics such as those identified above. If such a group consists exclusively of teachers, then it is typically referred to as a teacher learning community. If administrators are involved, then the label professional learning community is usually affixed. Given access to at least some written or electronic materials as a backdrop (e.g., Popham, 2006, which is available gratis to such learning communities), collections of educators with similar interest can prove to be remarkably effective in helping educators acquire significant new insights.
Fad-Free Focus?
The presenting question that initiated this analysis was whether professional development programs aimed at enhancing teachers’ assessment literacy were warranted, either in the short-term or long-term. I identified two sets of teachers’ assessment-related decisions that could be illuminated by such programs, namely, those decisions related to classroom assessments and those decisions related to accountability assessments. Although, at the current time, teachers are surely faced with assessment-dependent choices stemming from both of these sorts of assessments, will both types of assessments be with us over the long haul?
The answer to that question is, in my view, an emphatic Yes. With regard to classroom assessments, the influential work of Black and Wiliam (1998a, 1998b) lends powerful empirical support attesting to the learning dividends of instructionally oriented classroom assessment. When classroom assessments are conceived as assessments for learning, rather than assessments of learning, students will learn better what their teacher wants them to learn. Not only is the evidence supporting such a formative approach to classroom assessment demonstrably effective, but there are—happily—diverse ways to implement an instructionally oriented approach to classroom assessment. As the two British researchers point out:
The range of conditions and contexts under which studies have shown that gains can be achieved must indicate that the principles that underlie achievement of substantial improvements in learning are robust. Significant gains can be achieved by many different routes, and initiatives here are not likely to fail through neglect of delicate and subtle features. (Black & Wiliam, 1998a, pp. 61–62)
It appears, then, that teachers who want to be optimally effective ought to be learning about the essentials of classroom assessment for a long while to come.
Turning to accountability assessment, there seems little reason to believe that the demand for test-based evidence of teachers’ effectiveness will evaporate—ever. Accountability pressure on educators springs from taxpayers’ doubts that their public schools are as effective as they ought to be. It will take decades of consistent educational success stories before the public is disabused of its skeptical regard for public schools. Even if the public were ever to relax its demands for educational accountability evidence, thoughtful educators still ought to insist on the collection of such evidence. That is the kind of requirement that any self-respecting profession ought to impose on itself.
Thus, it seems that assessment literacy is a commodity needed by teachers for their own long-term well-being, and for the educational well-being of their students. For the foreseeable future, teachers are likely to exist in an environment where test-elicited evidence plays a prominent instructional and evaluative role. In such environments, those who control the tests tend to control the entire enterprise. Until preservice teacher educators routinely provide meaningful assessment literacy for prospective teachers, the architects of professional development programs will need to offer assessment-literacy programs. We can only hope they do it well.
References
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998a). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy, and Practice, 5(1), 7–73.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998b). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139–148.
La Marca. P. (2006). Assessment literacy: Building capacity for improving student learning. Paper presented at the National Conference on Large-Scale Assessment, Council of Chief State School Officers, San Francisco, CA.
Popham, W. J. (2006). Mastering assessment: A self-service system for educators. New York: Routledge.
Stiggins, R. J. (2006). Assessment for learning: A key to student motivation and learning. Phi Delta Kappa Edge, 2(2), 1–19.
Source: Popham, W. J. (2009). Assessment Literacy for Teachers: Faddish or Fundamental? Theory Into Practice 48: 4–11. Taylor and Francis. Copyright © 2009 Routledge.
Summary
Popham’s article presents a range of assessment topics that teachers and leaders should be knowledgeable about; he terms competence in these content areas as “assessment literacy” and asserts that professional development in school districts should focus explicitly on these areas in order to improve schools and enhance student learning.
The author asserts that the word assessment, for most teachers, is synonymous with the word test. He poses the critical question, “What kinds of assessments do teachers most need to understand?” and responds with a list of 13 topics.
The article suggests that teachers and leaders need to be able not only to apply meaningful and varied assessments but also to understand and be “literate” in the field of assessment itself. The author claims that standardized testing in the United States tends to be “instructionally insensitive,” meaning that the results have little or no relationship to how well students are taught.
Finally, the author challenges professional development leaders to consider how to embed these important concepts and practices into ongoing teacher learning venues in schools, and he mentions professional learning communities (PLCs) as a promising approach.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Design a year of PLC meetings in which teachers engage in conscious assessment literacy learning. What would such meetings look like? How would teachers engage with each other in learning more about assessment in PLCs?
2. Popham writes that school administrators need assessment literacy training that is, in some ways, like the professional development needed by teachers. He then mentions that there would be some differences in terms of what administrators need to know. What might those differences be?
3. One of the 13 “must understand” topics refers to eliminating assessments that offend or penalize students because of race, gender, or socioeconomic status. Discuss this topic in terms of your experience and the students you have encountered. How might schools and teachers work toward bias-free assessment?
4. This article briefly refers to the need for teachers to assess students’ affect, that is, their attitudes, interests, and values. Why is this important, and how might teachers do this as part of their practice?
5. What is your overall impression of this article and the author’s presentation of the tenets of assessment literacy
3.3 Seven Keys to Effective Feedback, by Grant Wiggins
Introduction
Grant Wiggins has been a central contributor to the field of assessment in the last 25 years, due in part to his landmark book, Educative Assessment: Designing Assessments to Inform and Improve Student Performance, as well as his work with Jay McTighe. Wiggins and coauthor McTighe have written many books and articles focused on backward design for curriculum and assessment. Used in hundreds of school districts around the country, backward design is a process of planning curriculum from the goals or aims “backwards.”
This article directs readers’ attention to feedback as a means of providing learners with information about how they are doing in their efforts to reach a specific goal. Wiggins is clear about the need for a goal in order for feedback to be meaningful to learners. The author also asserts that feedback is not evaluative or judgmental, nor is it advice-driven. Effective feedback is user-friendly, timely, ongoing and consistent.
Wiggins also calls attention to the responsibilities of the learner to be open to and use feedback. He writes: “If I am not clear on my goals or if I fail to pay attention to them, I cannot get helpful feedback” (p. 18). Finally, Wiggins explains that research shows the power of teaching less in order to provide more feedback. A careful consideration of this concept may be the essential next step in improving assessment practices.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Wiggins, G. (2012). 7 keys to effective feedback. Educational Leadership, 70(1), 10–19.
Who would dispute the idea that feedback is a good thing? Both common sense and research make it clear: Formative assessment, consisting of lots of feedback and opportunities to use that feedback, enhances performance and achievement.
Yet even John Hattie (2008), whose decades of research revealed that feedback as among the most powerful influences on achievement, acknowledges that he has “struggled to understand the concept” (p. 173). And many writings on the subject don’t even attempt to define the term. To improve formative assessment practices among both teachers and assessment designers, we need to look more closely at just what feedback is—and isn’t.
What Is Feedback, Anyway?
The term feedback is often used to describe all kinds of comments made after the fact, including advice, praise, and evaluation. But none of these are feedback, strictly speaking.
Basically, feedback is information about how we are doing in our efforts to reach a goal. I hit a tennis ball with the goal of keeping it in the court, and I see where it lands—in or out. I tell a joke with the goal of making people laugh, and I observe the audience’s reaction—they laugh loudly or barely snicker. I teach a lesson with the goal of engaging students, and I see that some students have their eyes riveted on me while others are nodding off.
Here are some other examples of feedback:
· A friend tells me, “You know, when you put it that way and speak in that softer tone of voice, it makes me feel better.”
· A reader comments on my short story, “The first few paragraphs kept my full attention. The scene painted was vivid and interesting. But then the dialogue became hard to follow; as a reader, I was confused about who was talking, and the sequence of actions was puzzling, so I became less engaged.”
· A baseball coach tells me, “Each time you swung and missed, you raised your head as you swung so you didn’t really have your eye on the ball. On the one you hit hard, you kept your head down and saw the ball.”
Note the difference between these three examples and the first three I cited—the tennis stroke, the joke, and the student responses to teaching. In the first group, I only had to take note of the tangible effect of my actions, keeping my goals in mind. No one volunteered feedback, but there was still plenty of feedback to get and use. The second group of examples all involved the deliberate, explicit giving of feedback by other people.
Whether the feedback was in the observable effects or from other people, in every case the information received was not advice, nor was the performance evaluated. No one told me as a performer what to do differently or how “good” or “bad” my results were. (You might think that the reader of my writing was judging my work, but look at the words used again: She simply played back the effect my writing had on her as a reader.) Nor did any of the three people tell me what to do (which is what many people erroneously think feedback is—advice). Guidance would be premature; I first need to receive feedback on what I did or didn’t do that would warrant such advice.
In all six cases, information was conveyed about the effects of my actions as related to a goal. The information did not include value judgments or recommendations on how to improve.
Decades of education research support the idea that by teaching less and providing more feedback, we can produce greater learning (see Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Hattie, 2008; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). Compare the typical lecture-driven course, which often produces less-than-optimal learning, with the peer instruction model developed by Eric Mazur (2009) at Harvard. He hardly lectures at all to his 200 introductory physics students; instead, he gives them problems to think about individually and then discuss in small groups. This system, he writes, “provides frequent and continuous feedback (to both the students and the instructor) about the level of understanding of the subject being discussed” (p. 51), producing gains in both conceptual understanding of the subject and problem-solving skills. Less “teaching,” more feedback equals better results.
Feedback Essentials
Whether feedback is just there to be grasped or is provided by another person, helpful feedback is goal-referenced; tangible and transparent; actionable; user-friendly (specific and personalized); timely; ongoing; and consistent.
Goal-Referenced
Effective feedback requires that a person has a goal, takes action to achieve the goal, and receives goal-related information about his or her actions. I told a joke—why? To make people laugh. I wrote a story to engage the reader with vivid language and believable dialogue that captures the characters’ feelings. I went up to bat to get a hit. If I am not clear on my goals or if I fail to pay attention to them, I cannot get helpful feedback (nor am I likely to achieve my goals).
Information becomes feedback if, and only if, I am trying to cause something and the information tells me whether I am on track or need to change course. If some joke or aspect of my writing isn’t working—a revealing, nonjudgmental phrase—I need to know.
Note that in everyday situations, goals are often implicit, although fairly obvious to everyone. I don’t need to announce when telling the joke that my aim is to make you laugh. But in school, learners are often unclear about the specific goal of a task or lesson, so it is crucial to remind them about the goal and the criteria by which they should self-assess. For example, a teacher might say,
· The point of this writing task is for you to make readers laugh. So, when rereading your draft or getting feedback from peers, ask, how funny is this? Where might it be funnier?
· As you prepare a table poster to display the findings of your science project, remember that the aim is to interest people in your work as well as to describe the facts you discovered through your experiment. Self-assess your work against those two criteria using these rubrics. The science fair judges will do likewise.
Tangible and Transparent
Any useful feedback system involves not only a clear goal, but also tangible results related to the goal. People laugh, chuckle, or don’t laugh at each joke; students are highly attentive, somewhat attentive, or inattentive to my teaching.
Even as little children, we learn from such tangible feedback. That’s how we learn to walk; to hold a spoon; and to understand that certain words magically yield food, drink, or a change of clothes from big people. The best feedback is so tangible that anyone who has a goal can learn from it.
Alas, far too much instructional feedback is opaque, as revealed in a true story a teacher told me years ago. A student came up to her at year’s end and said, “Miss Jones, you kept writing this same word on my English papers all year, and I still don’t know what it means.” “What’s the word?” she asked. “Vag-oo,” he said. (The word was vague!)
Sometimes, even when the information is tangible and transparent, the performers don’t obtain it—either because they don’t look for it or because they are too busy performing to focus on the effects. In sports, novice tennis players or batters often don’t realize that they’re taking their eyes off the ball; they often protest, in fact, when that feedback is given. (Constantly yelling “Keep your eye on the ball!” rarely works.) And we have all seen how new teachers are sometimes so busy concentrating on “teaching” that they fail to notice that few students are listening or learning.
That’s why, in addition to feedback from coaches or other able observers, video or audio recordings can help us perceive things that we may not perceive as we perform; and by extension, such recordings help us learn to look for difficult-to-perceive but vital information. I recommend that all teachers videotape their own classes at least once a month. It was a transformative experience for me when I did it as a beginning teacher. Concepts that had been crystal clear to me when I was teaching seemed opaque and downright confusing on tape—captured also in the many quizzical looks of my students, which I had missed in the moment.
Actionable
Effective feedback is concrete, specific, and useful; it provides actionable information. Thus, “Good job!” and “You did that wrong” and B+ are not feedback at all. We can easily imagine the learners asking themselves in response to these comments, what specifically should I do more or less of next time, based on this information? No idea. They don’t know what was “good” or “wrong” about what they did.
Actionable feedback must also be accepted by the performer. Many so-called feedback situations lead to arguments because the givers are not sufficiently descriptive; they jump to an inference from the data instead of simply presenting the data. For example, a supervisor may make the unfortunate but common mistake of stating that “many students were bored in class.” That’s a judgment, not an observation. It would have been far more useful and less debatable had the supervisor said something like, “I counted ongoing inattentive behaviors in 12 of the 25 students once the lecture was underway. The behaviors included texting under desks, passing notes, and making eye contact with other students. However, after the small-group exercise began, I saw such behavior in only one student.”
Such care in offering neutral, goal-related facts is the whole point of the clinical supervision of teaching and of good coaching more generally. Effective supervisors and coaches work hard to carefully observe and comment on what they observed, based on a clear statement of goals. That’s why I always ask when visiting a class, “What would you like me to look for and perhaps count?” In my experience as a teacher of teachers, I have always found such pure feedback to be accepted and welcomed. Effective coaches also know that in complex performance situations, actionable feedback about what went right is as important as feedback about what didn’t work.
User-Friendly
Even if feedback is specific and accurate in the eyes of experts or bystanders, it is not of much value if the user cannot understand it or is overwhelmed by it. Highly technical feedback will seem odd and confusing to a novice. Describing a baseball swing to a 6-year-old in terms of torque and other physics concepts will not likely yield a better hitter. Too much feedback is also counterproductive; better to help the performer concentrate on only one or two key elements of performance than to create a buzz of information coming in from all sides.
Expert coaches uniformly avoid overloading performers with too much or too technical information. They tell the performers one important thing they noticed that, if changed, will likely yield immediate and noticeable improvement (“I was confused about who was talking in the dialogue you wrote in this paragraph”). They don’t offer advice until they make sure the performer understands the importance of what they saw.
Timely
In most cases, the sooner I get feedback, the better. I don’t want to wait for hours or days to find out whether my students were attentive and whether they learned, or which part of my written story works and which part doesn’t. I say “in most cases” to allow for situations like playing a piano piece in a recital. I don’t want my teacher or the audience barking out feedback as I perform. That’s why it is more precise to say that good feedback is “timely” rather than “immediate.”
A great problem in education, however, is untimely feedback. Vital feedback on key performances often comes days, weeks, or even months after the performance—think of writing and handing in papers or getting back results on standardized tests. As educators, we should work overtime to figure out ways to ensure that students get more timely feedback and opportunities to use it while the attempt and effects are still fresh in their minds.
Before you say that this is impossible, remember that feedback does not need to come only from the teacher or even from people at all. Technology is one powerful tool—part of the power of computer-assisted learning is unlimited, timely feedback and opportunities to use it. Peer review is another strategy for managing the load to ensure lots of timely feedback; it’s essential, however, to train students to do small-group peer review to high standards, without immature criticisms or unhelpful praise.
Ongoing
Adjusting our performance depends on not only receiving feedback but also having opportunities to use it. What makes any assessment in education formative is not merely that it precedes summative assessments, but that the performer has opportunities, if results are less than optimal, to reshape the performance to better achieve the goal. In summative assessment, the feedback comes too late; the performance is over.
Thus, the more feedback I can receive in real time, the better my ultimate performance will be. This is how all highly successful computer games work. If you play Angry Birds, Halo, Guitar Hero, or Tetris, you know that the key to substantial improvement is that the feedback is both timely and ongoing. When you fail, you can immediately start over—sometimes even right where you left off—to get another opportunity to receive and learn from the feedback. (This powerful feedback loop is also user-friendly. Games are built to reflect and adapt to our changing need, pace, and ability to process information.)
It is telling, too, that performers are often judged on their ability to adjust in light of feedback. The ability to quickly adapt one’s performance is a mark of all great achievers and problem solvers in a wide array of fields. Or, as many little league coaches say, “The problem is not making errors; you will all miss many balls in the field, and that’s part of learning. The problem is when you don’t learn from the errors.”
Consistent
To be useful, feedback must be consistent. Clearly, performers can only adjust their performance successfully if the information fed back to them is stable, accurate, and trustworthy. In education, that means teachers have to be on the same page about what high-quality work is. Teachers need to look at student work together, becoming more consistent over time and formalizing their judgments in highly descriptive rubrics supported by anchor products and performances. By extension, if we want student-to-student feedback to be more helpful, students have to be trained to be consistent the same way we train teachers, using the same exemplars and rubrics.
Progress Toward a Goal
In light of these key characteristics of helpful feedback, how can schools most effectively use feedback as part of a system of formative assessment? The key is to gear feedback to long-term goals.
Let’s look at how this works in sports. My daughter runs the mile in track. At the end of each lap in races and practice races, the coaches yell out split times (the times for each lap) and bits of feedback (“You’re not swinging your arms!” “You’re on pace for 5:15”), followed by advice (“Pick it up—you need to take two seconds off this next lap to get in under 5:10!”).
My daughter and her teammates are getting feedback (and advice) about how they are performing now compared with their final desired time. My daughter’s goal is to run a 5:00 mile. She has already run 5:09. Her coach is telling her that at the pace she just ran in the first lap, she is unlikely even to meet her best time so far this season, never mind her long-term goal. Then, he tells her something descriptive about her current performance (she’s not swinging her arms) and gives her a brief piece of concrete advice (take two seconds off the next lap) to make achievement of the goal more likely.
The ability to improve one’s result depends on the ability to adjust one’s pace in light of ongoing feedback that measures performance against a concrete, long-term goal. But this isn’t what most school district “pacing guides” and grades on “formative” tests tell you.
They yield a grade against recent objectives taught, not useful feedback against the final performance standards. Instead of informing teachers and students at an interim date whether they are on track to achieve a desired level of student performance by the end of the school year, the guide and the test grade just provide a schedule for the teacher to follow in delivering content and a grade on that content. It’s as if at the end of the first lap of the mile race, my daughter’s coach simply yelled out, “B+ on that lap!”
The advice for how to change this sad situation should be clear: Score student work in the fall and winter against spring standards, use more pre- and post-assessments to measure progress toward these standards, and do the item analysis to note what each student needs to work on for better future performance.
“But There’s No Time!”
Although the universal teacher lament that there’s no time for such feedback is understandable, remember that “no time to give and use feedback” actually means “no time to cause learning.” As we have seen, research shows that less teaching plus more feedback is the key to achieving greater learning. And there are numerous ways—through technology, peers, and other teachers—that students can get the feedback they need.
References
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Hattie, J. (2008). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. New York: Routledge.
Marzano, R., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Mazur, E. (2009, January 2). Farewell, lecture? Science, 323, 50–51.
Source: Wiggins, G. (2012). 7 keys to effective feedback. Educational Leadership. 70(1), 10–19. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Copyright © Grant Wiggins.
Summary
Wiggins calls for feedback to be stable, accurate, and trustworthy. He highlights the difference between feedback, evaluation, and grading, implicitly challenging teachers to expand their repertoire to include all three processes on a regular basis.
Wiggins also calls for frequent feedback, claiming that the more feedback students receive, the more learning will occur. He concludes the article by acknowledging the difficulty of finding the time to provide such feedback in today’s classrooms; he suggests that teachers consider teaching less and providing more feedback through technology, peers, and other educators. If the goal is to enhance and improve learning, then time providing direct feedback is well spent.
Wiggins also proposes more pre- and postassessments, more item analysis on tests in which students are provided specific information about their errors, and more early practice testing (i.e., in the fall for spring tests) that could provide individualized feedback as part of classroom practice.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What do you think about the concept of teaching less in order to provide more feedback? What might that look like in today’s classrooms, whether face to face or online?
2. Providing feedback that actually contributes to learning is not easy and is not a skill that educators necessarily learn through preservice teacher education. How do teachers learn to provide feedback that is useful?
3. Wiggins claims that feedback is not the same as evaluation. Yet, feedback can be part of a formative assessment process that does provide information to learners before it is too late. When should evaluation or judgment be avoided, and when is it important to give evaluative comments that help students learn from their mistakes?
4. Design a research study in which you and your colleagues would examine feedback to students provided online. Determine how you would explore the connections between feedback provided and subsequent student work improvement.
3.4 Feedback and Feed Forward, by Nancy Frey and Doug Fisher
Introduction
Nancy Frey and Doug Fisher are both professors of educational leadership at San Diego State University. They are the founders of Literacy for Life and have written and presented about reading, collaborative learning, and, most recently, the common core English language arts standards in PLCs. They are also the authors of the 2011 text, The Formative Assessment Action Plan: Practical Steps to More Successful Teaching and Learning.
The evocative title of this article indicates a new perspective on what happens after teachers provide feedback to individual students. Frey and Fisher propose that it is not enough to monitor at the individual level; rather, teachers need to look for patterns across students’ work in order to design interventions and targeted teaching approaches to address group needs.
Frey and Fisher make the connection between feedback, assessment, and “feeding forward” to inform instruction. In their view, any one of these practices is incomplete without the other two. The authors also discuss the issue of the focus of feedback, noting that feedback about the assigned task is the most familiar to teachers and students. Other types of feedback, from the work of Hattie and Timperley (2007) include feedback about the process, about self-regulation, and about “the self as a person” (p. 90).
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Frey, N., & Fisher, D. (2011). Feedback and feed forward. Principal Leadership, 11(9), 90–93.
Internet searches often yield surprising results. In preparation for writing this column, we searched one of our favorite sayings: “You can’t fatten sheep by weighing them.” One of the results was an article from the April 1908 issue of the Farm Journal on early spring lambs. Among the advice to sheep farmers was to take care in apportioning their rations so as not to overfeed, to provide healthy living conditions so they can grow, and to take careful measure of their progress—and this piece of wisdom: “Study your sheep and know them not only as a flock but separately, and remember that they have an individuality as surely as your horse or cow” (Brick, 1908, p. 154).
Students are not sheep, of course, but our role as cultivators of young people has much in common with that of livestock farmers. As educators, we recognize the importance of a healthy learning climate and seek to create one each day. In addition, we apportion information so that students can act upon their growing knowledge. And we measure their progress regularly to see whether they are making expected gains. As part of effective practice, teachers routinely check for understanding through the learning process. This is most commonly accomplished by asking questions, analyzing tasks, and administering low-stakes quizzes to measure the extent to which students are acquiring new information and skills. But it’s one thing to gather information (we’re good at that); it’s another thing to respond in meaningful ways and then plan for subsequent instruction.
Without processes to provide students with solid feedback that yields deeper understanding, checking for understanding devolves into a game of “guess what’s in the teacher’s brain.” And without ways to look for patterns across students, formative assessments become a frustrating academic exercise. Knowing both the flock and the individuals in it are essential practices for cultivating learning.
Knowing the Individual: Effective Feedback
Most of us have received poor feedback: The teacher who scrawled “rewrite this” in the margin of an essay we wrote. The coach who said, “No, you’re doing it wrong; keep practicing.” The coworker who took over a task and did it for us when our progress stalled. The frustration on the learner’s part matches that felt by the teacher, the coach, or the coworker: why can’t he or she get this? That shared vexation produces a mutual sense of defeat. On the part of the learner, the internal dialogue becomes, “I can’t do this.” The teacher thinks, “I can’t teach this.” Over time, blame sets in, and the student and the teacher begin to find fault with each other.
Hattie and Timperley (2007) wrote about feedback across four dimensions: “Feedback about the task (FT), about the processing of the task (FP), about self-regulation (FR), and about the self as a person (FS)” (p. 90). For example, “You need to put a semicolon in this sentence” (FT) has limited usefulness and is not usually generalized to other tasks. On the other hand, “Make sure that your sentences have noun-verb agreements because it’s going make it easier for the reader to understand your argument” (FP) gives feedback information about a writing convention necessary in all essays. The researchers go on to note that feedback that moves from information about the process to information about self-regulation is the best of all: “Try reading some of your sentences aloud so you can hear when you have and don’t have noun-verb agreement.” The researchers go on to say that FS (“You’re a good writer”) is the least useful, even when it is positive in nature, because it doesn’t add anything to one’s learning.
Done carefully, FT can have a modest amount of usefulness, as when editing a paper. Yet feedback about the task is by far the most common kind we offer. The problem is that the task offers only end-game analysis and leaves the learner with little direction on what to do, particularly when there isn’t any recourse to make changes. Most writing teachers will tell you that it is not uncommon for students to engage in limited revision, confined to the specific items listed in the teacher feedback—more recopying than revising. But feedback about the processes used in the task and further advice about one’s self-regulatory strategies to make revisions can leave the learner with a plan for next steps.
Consider the dialogue between English teacher John Goodwin and Alicia, a student in his class. Alicia has drafted an essay on bullying, and Goodwin is providing feedback about her work. Careful to frame his feedback so that it can result in a plan for revision, he draws her attention to her thesis statement and says, “It’s helpful for writers to go back to the main point of the essay and read to see if the evidence is there. I highlight in yellow so I can see if I’ve done that.” The two of them reread her first three paragraphs and highlight where she has provided national statistics and direct quotes from teachers she knows.
Goodwin goes on to say, “Now what I want you to do is look for ways you’ve provided supporting evidence, like citing sources. Let’s highlight those in green.” Alicia quickly notices that while she has made claims, she hasn’t capitalized on any authoritative sources. And by confining her direct quotes to teachers at her school, she has limited the impact of her essay by failing to quote more widely known sources. The little bit of green on her essay illustrates what she needs to do next: strengthen her sources. Goodwin ends the conversation by saying, “It sounds like you have a plan for revising the content. Let’s meet again on Wednesday and you can update me on your progress.”
Feedback of this kind takes only a few minutes, yet it can add up in a crowded classroom. For this reason, many teachers rely on written forms of feedback instead of direct conversations. Even in written form, the guidelines about feedback remain the same: focus on the processes needed for the task, move to information about behaviors within the student’s influence to make changes, and steer clear of comments that are either too global or too minute to be of much use. Wiggins (1998) advises constructing written feedback so that it meets four important criteria: first, it must be timely so that it is paired as closely as possible with the attempt; second, it should be specific in nature; third, it should be written in a manner that it understandable to the student; and fourth, it should be actionable so that the learner can make revisions.
Knowing the Flock: Feed Forward
Although feedback is primarily at the individual level, feed forward describes the process of making instructional decisions about what should happen next (Frey & Fisher, in press). Data about student progress is commonly gathered using common formative assessments—either commercially produced or made by the teacher. In addition, many school teams engage in consensus scoring with colleagues to calibrate practices, especially with tasks that have a significant qualitative component, such as writing (Fisher, Frey, Farnan, Fearn, & Petersen, 2004). Lack of time to work with other colleagues can limit these practices, however. The good news is that a teacher’s own classroom can serve as the unit of analysis as well.
With all the solid feedback provided to students, it seems natural to take it one step further by recording results and some pattern anaIysis. For example, mathematics teacher Ben Teichman keeps track of student progress across several dimensions of instruction. As he provides written or verbal feedback to his students, he notes which skills they have mastered and which ones are still proving difficult for them. His error analysis record sheet enables him to make decisions about who needs reteaching and when it needs to occur (see Figure 3.1). “All the feedback in the world isn’t going to do much good if what they really need is more instruction,” said Teichman, an insight Hattie and Timperley (2007) share.
Figure 3.1: Error analysis sheet in Algebra II: Introduction to complex numbers
Teachers can use an error analysis sheet to record the initials of students who have not mastered instructional goals.
Unlike a checklist to track mastery, Teichman’s error analysis sheet is used to identify the students who are struggling. He logs the initials of students in each period who are still having difficulty with major concepts after initial instruction, then makes decisions about follow up and reteaching. For example, the error analysis sheet shows that all of his classes are still having difficulty with understanding the relationship between different forms of representing imaginary numbers. That tells him that reteaching to the whole group is in order. On the other hand, smaller groups of students are having trouble with other concepts. “I need to pull those students into small groups, because the majority of the class is doing fine otherwise,” he said. Fourth period is another story. “I’ve got lots of students all across the board who are struggling with this whole unit,” he said. “Time for me to take a few steps back and revisit what they know already about radicals before we dive back into imaginary numbers.”
Conclusion
“To be successful, [the sheep farmer] must also be gentle, with a watchful eye for little things . . . and a hundred minor details upon which success depends,” wrote Brick (1908, p. 154) more than a century ago. Feedback and feed-forward processes in the classroom should be used to cultivate learning, and not just simply measure it. By providing students with feedback they can use to revise and by tracking student progress to determine who needs subsequent instruction and when it should occur, educators can ensure that they feed and not merely weigh.
References
Brick, H. (1908). Early spring lambs. The Farm Journal, 32(4), 153–154.
Frey, N., & Fisher, D. (in press). The formative assessment action plan: Practical steps to more successful teaching and learning. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Fisher, D., Frey, N., Farnan, N., Feam, L., & Petersen, F. (2004). Increasing writing achievement in an urban middle school. Middle School Journal, 36(2), 21–26.
Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77, 81–112.
Wiggins, G. (1998). Educative assessment: Designing assessments to inform and improve student performance. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Source: Frey, N. & Fisher, D. (2011). Feedback and feed forward. Principal Leadership, 11(9), 90–93. Copyright (2014) National Association of Secondary School Principals. For more information on NASSP products and services to promote excellence in middle level and high school leadership, visit www.nassp.org.
Summary
Frey and Fisher provide specifics on one type of data regarding feedback that teachers would find beneficial. They suggest that teachers keep checklists or error analysis sheets in order to determine the types of feedback they have provided to individual students as well as the types of errors that students make.
Collecting these data, however, is only the first step. Frey and Fisher challenge teachers to then use these data to determine their next steps in teaching, reteaching, or other follow-up steps. Although the article does not provide great detail in terms of the implications for planning, the authors claim that simply measuring learning without considering what those measurements mean for teaching will not lead to improved learning. Frey and Fisher note that these practices can work for individual teachers but would be even more effective if shared across class sections or schools. Finally, these authors remind readers of the value of verbal as well as written feedback.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. The notions of feedback and feed forward are unique in the literature on assessment. What are the implications for this concept for online teaching and learning? How can feedback (given and received) in an online environment contribute to instructional design?
2. What’s the difference between feedback concerning a task and feedback concerning the process of completing the task? Give an example from your own experience or subject context.
3. Research is beginning to emerge concerning the connections between assessment data (usually with respect to standardized test performance) and instruction, although there are few studies that demonstrate effective and intentional connections that teachers make between assessments and what they do in the classroom (Conderman & Hedin, 2012; Watts-Taffe et al., 2012). How might teachers explore these connections as a PLC or grade-level team? What might the evidence of follow-up and reteaching and use of assessment data look like?
4. Make the argument that teachers almost intuitively give this kind of verbal and written feedback followed by feeding forward to inform their teaching. Then, counter that argument and suggest, as Frey and Fisher do, that teachers in fact don’t do this enough and that they need to be taught to connect assessment and design of their instruction.
3.5 Four Steps in Grading Reform, by Thomas Guskey and Lee Ann Jung
Introduction
Thomas Guskey is a well-known professor and expert in the area of professional development for educators. Guskey and co-author Lee Ann Jung maintain a teacher-learning lens in this article that focuses on four proposals for meaningful grading.
Grading students’ performance is seldom written about or discussed, though it is usually the culmination of the assessment process in classrooms and schools. Educators and leaders in schools assume that teachers know how to determine the letter grades that appear on report cards each term. Guskey and Jung challenge that assumption. They call for reform and rethink grading practices at the school and classroom levels.
The authors note that there is great variety in the ways that teachers determine grades. Moreover, there is seldom a clearly stated purpose for the grades printed on the report card for parents and students to see. The article discusses an alternative to just one letter grade for a subject or content area and instead discusses the value of process, progress, and product grades to fully represent students’ learning during the term.
Finally, Guskey and Jung propose a means of grading students who are not currently on grade level, reminding us that the standards movement offers great potential for gain for students who are struggling and need feedback based on exactly where they are in their learning.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Guskey, T. R., & Jung, L. A. (2012). Four steps in grading reform. Principal Leadership, 13(4), 22–28.
The field of education is rapidly moving toward a standards-based approach to grading. School leaders have become increasingly aware of the tremendous variation that exists in grading practices, even among teachers of the same courses in the same department in the same school. Consequently, students’ grades often have little relation to their performance on state assessments—an issue that has education leaders and parents alike concerned. Such inconsistencies lead many to perceive grading as a distinctively idiosyncratic process that is highly subjective and often unfair to students.
Complicating reform efforts, however, is the fact that few school leaders have extensive knowledge of various grading methods, the advantages and shortcomings of those methods, and the effects that different grading policies have on students (Brookhart, 2011a; Brookhart & Nitko, 2008; Stiggins, 1993; Stiggins & Chappuis, 2011). As a result, attempts at grading reform often lack direction and coherence and rarely bring about significant improvement in the accuracy or relevance of the grades students receive.
Effective grading reform requires four steps. Although each step addresses a different aspect of grading and reporting, all of the steps are related. Together, the four steps are the foundation of grading policies and practices that are fair, meaningful, educationally sound, and beneficial to students.
Be Clear About the Purpose
One of the major reasons that school leaders run into difficulties in their attempts to reform grading and reporting is that they fail to identify the purpose of grading. Enamored of the promise of new online grade books and reporting software, they charge ahead without giving serious thought to the function of grades as communication tools. In particular, they fail to consider what information they want grades to communicate, who is the primary audience for that information, and what outcome they want to achieve. As a result, predictable problems arise that thwart even the most dedicated attempts at reform.
Compounding the problem, parents, teachers, students, and school leaders typically see report cards serving quite different purposes. Some suggest that those differences stem from the conflicting opinions about the report cards’ intended audience. Are they designed to communicate information primarily to parents, students, or school personnel?
Although a variety of purposes for grades and report cards may be considered legitimate, educators seldom agree on the primary purpose. This lack of consensus leads to attempts to develop a reporting device that addresses multiple purposes but ends up addressing no purpose very well (Austin & McCann, 1992; Brookhart, 1991, 2011a; Cross & Frary, 1999).
The simple truth is that no single reporting device can serve all purposes well. In fact, some purposes are actually counter to others.
For example, suppose that nearly all students in a particular school attain high levels of achievement and earn high grades. Those results pose no problem if the purpose of the report cards is to communicate information about students’ achievement to parents or to provide information to students for the purpose of self-evaluation. But that same result poses major problems, if the purpose of the report cards is to select students for special educational paths or to evaluate the effectiveness of instructional programs.
To use grades for selection or evaluation purposes requires variation in the grades—and the more variation, the better! For those purposes, grades should be dispersed across all possible categories to maximize the differences among students and programs. How else can appropriate selection take place or one program be judged as being better than another if all students receive the same high grades? Determining differences under such conditions is impossible.
The first decision that must be made in any reform effort, therefore, is determining the purpose of the grades and report card. The struggles that most school leaders experience in reforming grading policies and practices stem from changing their grading methods before they reach consensus about the purpose of grades and report cards (Brookhart, 2011b). All changes in grading policy and practice must build from a clearly articulated purpose statement, which should be printed on the report card itself so that all who look at the report card understand its intent. When a clear purpose is defined, decisions about the most appropriate policies and practices are much easier to make.
Use Multiple Grades
Another issue that poses a significant obstacle to grading and reporting reform is the insistence that students receive a single grade for each subject area or course. The simplest logic reveals that this practice makes little sense. If someone proposed combining measures of height, weight, diet, and exercise into a single number or mark to represent a person’s physical condition, we would consider it ridiculous. How could the combination of such diverse measures yield anything meaningful? Yet every day, teachers combine evidence of student achievement, attitude, responsibility, effort, and behavior into a single grade, and no one questions it.
In determining students’ grades, teachers frequently merge scores from major exams, compositions, quizzes, projects, and reports with evidence from homework, punctuality in turning in assignments, class participation, work habits, and effort. Computerized grading programs help teachers apply different weights to each of those categories (Guskey, 2002a), which they then combine in widely varied ways (see McMillan, 2001; McMillan, Myran, & Workman, 2002). The result is what researchers refer to as a “hodgepodge grade” (Cross & Frary, 1999).
Another more meaningful approach is to offer separate grades for product, process, and progress learning criteria (Guskey, 2006; Guskey & Bailey, 2010).
Product criteria reflect what students know and are able to do at a specific point in time. In other words, they reflect students’ current level of achievement. Evidence of meeting product criteria comes from culminating or “summative” evaluations of student performance (O’Connor, 2009). Teachers who use product criteria typically base grades on final examination scores; final reports, projects, or exhibits; overall assessments; and other culminating demonstrations of learning.
Process criteria are emphasized by educators who believe that product criteria do not provide a complete picture of student learning. They contend that grades should reflect not only the final results but also how students got there. Teachers who consider responsibility, effort, or work habits when assigning grades use process criteria. So do those who count classroom quizzes, formative assessments, homework, punctuality turning in assignments, class participation, or attendance.
Progress criteria are based on how much students have gained from their learning experiences. Other names for progress criteria include learning gain, improvement scoring, value-added learning, and educational growth. Teachers who use progress criteria look at how much improvement students have made over a particular period of time, rather than just where they are at a given moment. As a result, scoring criteria may be highly individualized among students. For example, grades might be based on the number of skills or standards in a learning progression that students mastered and on the adequacy of that level of progress for each student. Most of the research evidence on progress criteria comes from studies of individualized instruction (Esty & Teppo, 1992) and special education programs (Gersten, Vaughn, & Brengelman, 1996; Jung & Guskey, 2012).
After establishing specific indicators of product, process, and progress learning criteria, teachers then assign separate grades to each set of indicators. In this way, they keep grades for achievement separate from grades for responsibility, learning skills, effort, work habits, or learning progress (Guskey, 2002b; Stiggins, 2008). This allows a more accurate and comprehensive picture of what students accomplish in school.
Reporting separate grades for product, process, and progress criteria also makes grading more meaningful. Grades for academic achievement reflect precisely that—academic achievement—and not some confusing amalgamation that’s impossible to interpret and that rarely presents a true picture of students’ proficiency (Guskey, 2002a). Teachers also indicate that students take process elements, such as homework, more seriously when it’s reported separately. Parents favor the practice because it provides a more comprehensive profile of their children’s performance in school (Guskey, Swan, & Jung, 2011). The key to success in reporting multiple grades, however, rests in the clear specification of the indicators that relate to product, process, and progress criteria. Teachers must be able to describe how they plan to evaluate students’ achievement, attitude, effort, behavior, and progress. Then they must clearly communicate those criteria to students, parents, and others.
Change Procedures for Selecting the Class Valedictorian and Eliminate Class Rank
The third step involves challenging a long-held tradition in education. Most school leaders today understand the negative consequences of grading on the curve. They recognize that when grades are based on students’ relative standing among classmates, rather than on what students actually achieve, it’s impossible to tell if anyone learned anything.
Most school leaders also see that grading on the curve makes learning highly competitive for students who must battle one another for the few scarce rewards (high grades) awarded by the teacher. Such competition discourages students from cooperating or helping one another because doing so might hurt the helper’s chance at success (Krumboltz & Yeh, 1996). Similarly, teachers may refrain from helping individual students under those conditions because some students might construe this as showing favoritism and biasing the competition (Gray, 1993). School leaders may fail to recognize that other common school policies yield similar negative consequences, such as calculating students’ class rank on the basis of weighted GPAs and selecting the top student as the class valedictorian.
There is nothing wrong with recognizing excellence in academic performance. But when calculating class rank, the focus is on sorting and selecting talent, rather than on developing talent. The struggle to be on top of the sorting process and then chosen as class valedictorian leads to serious and sometimes bitter competition among high-achieving students. Early in their high school careers, top students analyze the selection procedures and then, often with the help of their parents, find ingenious ways to improve their standing. Gaining that honor requires not simply high achievement; it requires outdoing everyone else. And sometimes the difference among top-achieving students is as little as one-thousandth of a decimal point in a weighted GPA.
Ironically, the term valedictorian has nothing to do with achievement. It comes from the Latin, vale dicere, which means “to say farewell.” The first reference to the term appeared in the diary of the Reverend Edward Holyoke, president of Harvard College in 1759, who noted that “Officers of the Sophisters chose a Valedictorian.” Lacking any established criteria, the Sophisters (senior class members) arbitrarily selected the classmate with the highest academic standing to deliver the commencement address.
Within a few years, most colleges and universities moved away from competitive ranking procedures to identify honor students and, instead, adopted the criterion-based Latin system, graduating students cum laude, magna cum laude, and summa cum laude. Most also altered their procedures for selecting a commencement speaker, using such means as student votes and appointments made by faculty members on the basis of not only grades but also involvement in service projects and participation in extracurricular activities.
More and more high schools today are moving away from competitive ranking systems and adopting criterion-based systems similar to those used in colleges and universities. Rigorous academic criteria are established for attaining the high honor categories, but no limit is set on the number of students who might attain that level of achievement. Schools that establish such policies generally find that student achievement rises as more students strive to attain the honor. In addition, students begin helping each other gain the honor because helping a classmate can actually help, rather than hinder the helper’s chance of success. Instead of pitting students against each other, such a system unites students and teachers in efforts to master the curriculum and meet rigorous academic standards.
Recognizing excellence in academic performance is a vital aspect of any learning community. But such recognition need not be based on arbitrary criteria and deleterious competition. Instead, it can and should be based on clear models of excellence that exemplify the highest standards and goals for students. (See Guskey & Bailey, 2010.) Educators can then take pride in helping the largest number of students possible meet those rigorous criteria and high standards of excellence.
Give Honest, Accurate, and Meaningful Grades
The fourth step in effective reform of grading and reporting is to ensure honest, accurate, and meaningful grades for exceptional and struggling learners. Of all of the students in a school’s population, those who have disabilities or who are struggling learners have the most to gain from a standards-based approach. For those students, intervention decisions depend on having clear and complete information on their performance.
But moving to standards-based grading presents a serious challenge. By removing non-achievement factors from grades, all of the common grading adaptations that teachers typically make for such students are no longer available. Teachers cannot add points for effort, weight assignments differently, or use a different grading scale. Teachers no longer report on a student’s overall performance in a subject area, but on how the student performed on a specific skill or strand of skills. For many struggling or exceptional learners, this change could result in a failing grade. But receiving a failing grade on a standard that the team has already agreed is unachievable provides no information about how that student is progressing.
In response to this challenge, we developed an inclusive grading model (see Jung & Guskey, 2007, 2010, 2012) that educational teams use to modify the skill or standard being measured. Teachers then use the same grading practices for all students, but for those who are significantly behind grade-level expectations, teachers report students’ achievement on the level of work they are able to complete. This way, students and their families understand that the students’ achievement is not on grade level, but they also have specific information about how they are progressing toward the grade-level standard.
Consider, for example, an eighth-grade student who is reading on a fourth-grade level. Instead of assigning that student a failing grade on the eighth-grade language arts standards, the student is graded on a modified expectation (see Figure 3.2). The educational team identifies a plan for reducing this student’s gap between performance and the grade-level expectation. A part of this plan involves determining modified standards for this student, including appropriate objectives on the most important language arts skills. At the end of each reporting period, the language arts teacher grades and reports achievement on the modified expectations. If the student met the modified standard, then the grade that corresponds with meeting the standard is assigned.
Figure 3.2: Example of language arts section of a report card with modified standards
In grading on modified standards, it is absolutely necessary that the report card clearly communicates that the grade is based on modified expectations. Teachers should include additional detail with the report card that outlines what was measured, describes what interventions were used, and elaborates on the data collected. In determining language for transcripts, it is important from a legal perspective that nothing identifies a student as having a disability. Noting that grades are based on a modified expectation on a transcript is legal and good practice. Using words such as “special education” or “IEP,” however, is not legal notation (Office of Civil Rights, 2008).
For leaders in secondary education, implementing the inclusive grading model requires district and state-level support, because the model requires that schools note when students are not on grade level and that schools make modifications and offer interventions to any student needing them, not only students with disabilities. The inclusive grading model certainly does not lower expectations for students in any way. In fact, the opposite is true. By being transparent about where students are, schools make themselves accountable to employ evidence-based interventions and demonstrate progress toward grade-level standards. Every school has a percentage of students that is not achieving at grade level. But offering the level of transparency needed to address this issue will require courage on the part of key leadership.
Summary
Grading reform is a necessary piece of the move toward a standards-based orientation to education. The preceding four steps are vital to successfully revising grading and reporting systems. Although the numerous decisions that must be made when revising report cards may seem daunting, the four steps we’ve described will be vital to success. The shift to a standards based education is rapidly taking shape, and by taking those initial steps, education leaders can ensure that their grading and reporting systems do not lag behind the greater standards-based movement.
References
Austin, S., & McCann, R. (1992). “Here’s another arbitrary grade for your collection”: A statewide study of grading policies. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.
Brookhart, S. M. (1991). Grading practices and validity. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 10(1), 35–36.
Brookhart, S. M. (2011a). Grading and learning: Practices that support student achievement. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.
Brookhart, S. M. (2011b). Starting the conversation about grading. Educational Leadership, 69(3), 10–14.
Brookhart, S. M., & Nitko, A. J. (2008). Assessment and grading in classrooms. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Cross, L. H., & Frary, R. B. (1999). Hodgepodge grading: Endorsed by students and teachers alike. Applied Measurement in Education, 2(1), 53–72.
Esty, W. W., & Teppo, A. R. (1992). Grade assignment based on progressive improvement. Mathematics Teacher, 85(8), 616–618.
Gersten, R., Vaughn, S., & Brengelman, S. U. (1996). Grading and academic feedback for special education students and students with learning difficulties. In T. R. Guskey (Ed.), Communicating student learning: 1996 yearbook of the ASCD (pp. 47–57). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Gray, K. (1993). Why we will lose: Taylorism in America’s high schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 74(5), 370–374.
Guskey, T. R. (2002a). Computerized grade-books and the myth of objectivity. Phi Delta Kappan, 83(10), 775–780.
Guskey, T. R. (2002b). How’s my kid doing? A parents’ guide to grades, marks, and report cards. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Guskey, T. R. (2006). Making high school grades meaningful. Phi Delta Kappan, 87(9), 670–675.
Guskey, T R., & Bailey, J. M. (2010). Developing standards-based report cards. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Guskey, T. R., Swan, G. M., & Jung, L. A. (2011, April). Parents’ and teachers’ perceptions of standards based and traditional report cards. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.
Jung, L. A., & Guskey, T. R. (2012). Grading exceptional and struggling learners. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Jung, L. A., & Guskey, T. R. (2010). Grading exceptional learners. Educational Leadership, 67(5), 31–35.
Jung, L. A., & Guskey, T. R. (2007). Standards-based grading and reporting: A model for special education. Teaching Exceptional Children, 40(2), 48–53.
Krumboltz, J. D., & Yeh, C. J. (1996). Competitive grading sabotages good teaching. Phi Delta Kappan, 78(4), 324–326.
McMillan, J. H. (2001). Secondary teachers’ classroom assessment and grading practices. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 20(1), 20–32.
McMillan, J. H., Myran, S., & Workman, D. (2002). Elementary teachers’ classroom assessment and grading practices. Journal of Educational Research, 95(4), 203–213.
O’Connor, K. (2009). How to grade for learning K-12 (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Office of Civil Rights (2008, October 17). Dear colleague letter: Report cards and transcripts for students with disabilities. Available: www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/letters/colleague-20081017.html
Stiggins, R. J. (1993). Teacher training in assessment: Overcoming the neglect. In S. L. Wise (Ed.), Teacher training in measurement and assessment skills (pp. 27–40). Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.
Stiggins, R. J. (2008). Student-involved assessment for learning (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice.
Stiggins, R. J., & Chappuis, J. (2011). An introduction to student-involved assessment for learning (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Source: Guskey, T. R. & Jung, L. A. (2012). Four steps in grading reform. Principal Leadership, 13(4), 22–28. Copyright (2014) National Association of Secondary School Principals. For more information on NASSP products and services to promote excellence in middle level and high school leadership, visit www.nassp.org.
Summary
Guskey and Jung suggest that educators replace the final, single grade per subject that is typically seen on report cards for three grades per subject area with the following criteria for each:
1. a product grade that indicates what students know and are able to do at the end of the grading period,
2. a process grade that reflects formative assessments such as quizzes, as well as effort and homework, and
3. a progress grade that identifies improvement made during the grading period.
The article also discusses the hazards of class rank and suggests that high schools are moving away from a system that sorts students, replacing it with a model similar to universities in which there is no limit to the number of students who achieve “magna cum laude,” “summa cum laude,” or “cum laude.” Guskey and Jung note that in such a system, students are more likely to help each other achieve goals because they are no longer in competition with each other.
Guskey and Jung direct their suggestions for grading reform to school and teacher leaders, describing the need for adults in schools and districts to learn more about grading, about how grades affect student learning, and about how to communicate more clearly through the assignment of grades.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Provide a critique of the proposed three-grade system (product, process, progress) as opposed to the more common one grade per subject area on reports cards in most school systems today. What might be the stumbling blocks for converting to such a system? What might teachers have to learn to do with respect to assessment data that they may not do presently?
2. The authors comment on the possible impact of online grading and assessment software, claiming that teachers often assign grades without realizing their potential as communication tools. Is this true in your experience? Does the online environment change grading practices in substantial ways?
3. The reform of grading practices is directly related to the reform of assessment at the classroom level. To what extent should grading practices be systematic and regularized across a whole school or district? Conversely, to what extent should grading be a matter of individual teacher discretion?
4. Propose a plan for a PLC that explores grading reform in a school. What might be the topics for teachers and leaders to discuss? Where might such a discussion begin? What might be the outcomes for such a PLC after a series of meetings?
3.6 Self Assessment for Understanding, by Betty McDonald
Introduction
Betty McDonald is currently the coordinator of the Centre for Assessment and Learning at the University of Trinidad and Tobago. Her research interests include measurement, assessment, and problem-based learning. She is the author of the book, Self Assessment in Action, published by Common Ground.
In this article, McDonald reviews selected studies that explore the value of student self-assessment for learning. She uses Boud’s (1986) definition of self-assessment: “the involvement of students in identifying standards and/or criteria to apply to their work and making judgements about the extent to which they have met these criteria and standards” (p. 5).
Research indicates that self-assessment is an active process in which students can take personal responsibility for their achievement. The author reports that secondary teachers typically do not utilize self-assessment in their own assessment of students; students may, in most classrooms, rely on self-assessment as formative feedback.
McDonald makes the connection between self-assessment, authentic assessment and the use of portfolios. She also notes the importance of students learning how to distinguish between what is good and poor work. Finally, the author asserts that self-assessment is not a solitary process; rather, it relies on the interaction between student and teacher, as well as among the students themselves.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from McDonald, B. (2007). Self assessment for understanding. Journal of Education, 188(1), 25–40.
This present paper draws empirical evidence from a more comprehensive study on self assessment and academic achievement that provided undisputed evidence that high school students trained in self assessment skills outperformed their untrained counterparts in external examinations in all curriculum areas. This paper focuses on one aspect of self assessment: understanding, a key element for achievement. Self assessment has been defined as “the involvement of students in identifying standards and/or criteria to apply to their work and making judgements about the extent to which they have met these criteria and standards” (Boud, 1986, p. 5). This paper describes how self assessment training improves students’ understanding of concepts. Beginner teachers will find hands-on suggestions that they could use in their classrooms. It is hoped that the ideas shared here would provoke more research in this important area. Longitudinal studies on students exposed to self assessment training could address issues regarding the reduction of students’ zone of proximal development, where real learning takes place, and shed further light on how humans create meaning through understanding.
Introduction
The complexity of life offers boundless opportunities and also undermines our feeling of context and relatedness (Mazarr, 1999). Numerous people, and in particular, young students, feel that they are never understood. Clearly, we need a type of assessment that gives the learner a sense of belonging, achievement, autonomy, independence, empowerment, and mastery over his or her own destiny, while simultaneously affording the learner a clear understanding of what is being learned. In keeping with information about multiple intelligences, the knowledge era, massive globalization, and transformation of modern society, a climate of unprecedented organizational change, coupled with student migration—a broad-based approach to assessment incorporating self assessment—seems the natural progressive way forward. Furthermore, an argument could be made that this notion should be introduced to teachers very early in their teaching career in an effort to make it common practice in the classroom.
It had almost become traditional for assessment to be conceptualized as an activity originating from an external distant source, for example, an examiner, supervisor, adjudicator, referee or from an external close source, for example, a lecturer, teacher, tutor, facilitator, mentor, or coach. While some individuals had their own homespun ways of assessing themselves privately, in the public domain not much emphasis was placed on assessment originating from an internal source, namely the person himself or herself doing his or her own assessment. For this reason, it was not surprising that while the current literature was replete with empirical research about assessment from both external distant and external close sources, none could be found about assessment from the internal source or the self. Needless to say, there is continuous need for triangulation or for a multiplicity of views to provide a 360-degree assessment in order to validate, increase reliability, and enhance credibility of the final assessment decision made. Since the individual student is the person constantly exposed to all aspects of his or her course (textbooks, resource materials, course content, homework, teacher personality, and pedagogical methodology), he or she is more advantageously positioned to determine the effectiveness of those aspects of the course through self assessment. The individual can focus on himself or herself, cognizant of his or her idiosyncrasies, peculiarities, and individual differences.
The average high school student often has a myriad of activities that engage his or her attention to the exclusion of significant others. Oftentimes, a high school teacher who is normally responsible for a class of about 30 to 40 students of mixed abilities, coming from diverse socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds, cannot reasonably be expected, with any measure of success, to attend to most students’ issues and needs. Darwinian principles demand the natural acquisition of personal skills that would maximize academic achievement and sustain efforts over a prolonged period of time. Clearly, self assessment is a sine qua non for effective learning and the provision of quality feedback for personal improvement (Sadler, 1989). While several works have concentrated on providing empirical data in support of self assessment as it affects different aspects of the whole individual, this present paper will present a descriptive analysis of self assessment as it promotes understanding. It will also challenge the faculty of higher education to consider this within teacher education programs, where traditional assessment, much less self assessment, is infrequently an emphasis.
It is instructive to establish our working definition for self assessment. We shall choose Boud’s (1986, p. 5) definition of self assessment as “the involvement of students in identifying standards and/or criteria to apply to their work and making judgments about the extent to which they have met these criteria and standards.” To every assessment (whether conducted by teacher or learner), Boud (1995) insists that two key elements are essential: (1) development of knowledge and an appreciation of appropriate standards and criteria for meeting those standards; and (2) capacity to make judgments about whether or not the work involved does or does not meet those standards (which involves critical thinking). A desire for achievement and a clear understanding of what is involved in the process are two key elements involved. Clearly, the whole individual is deeply engrossed in the process.
Self assessment not only encompasses testing/grading one’s own skills/work but also involves an active process on the part of the individual of evaluating what is good, mediocre or poor work in any given situation. Self assessment represents a much-expanded role in assessment because the construct underscores provisions for strengthening personal accountability for academic achievement. Besides requiring setting appropriate criteria for meeting standards, self assessment seeks to offer a method for judging criteria effectiveness, establishes a schedule or timetable for ultimate progress of the individual, and also establishes a sequence for failure. Additionally, self assessment establishes a set of procedures that would link criteria over time, across subjects, and with an external assessment. Moreover, self assessment emphasizes directing assessment at important learning targets, using assessment to plan next steps in instruction, and communicating assessment results to others in ways that have positive consequences on the individual.
Conceived as an instructional tool or an aid to instruction and not as an assessment tool, the comprehensive study, from which this paper draws information, provides an analytic platform that would be transparent enough so that the procedures for self assessment can be better decoupled from general assessment. Generally, high school teachers do not use the assessments done by students as part of their reporting. Instead, students may use self assessment for their own formative evaluation. Good and poor practice in self assessment (Boud, 1995, 208-209) may assist in further clarifying the nature of the construct and offer a useful skill set of indicators of good self assessment practice.
Self assessment may be viewed as the act of evaluating or monitoring one’s own level of knowledge, performance, and understanding in a metacognitive framework, taking into account the contexts in which it occurs. Self assessment involves the individual making an informed assessment of his or her own work, with an appreciation for and the understanding of those concepts of quality upheld and practiced by the adjudicators of his or her work. Clearly, the honing of self assessment skills would not naturally be endowed upon an individual but requires formal training, like several other skills, incorporating the analytical, creative, and practical. It also requires formal training on the part of the teachers so that they may effectively integrate it into classroom teaching and learning.
Rudd and Gumstove (1993) reported a yearlong study conducted in 1991 that aimed to develop self assessment skills in a third-grade class in Australia. A class of 20 students (ages eight to nine years) was present for the entire school year (four 11-week terms). To make planning and post-teaching reflection more manageable for the teacher, a specific curriculum area (science and technology) was selected. Based on ideas that students had about the skills they needed in science and technology, a self assessment questionnaire was developed early in the year. Students were introduced to concept maps and learned to use them in their work. Further, the students also created self assessment graphs that allowed them to record additional self assessment concepts and techniques introduced during each term. Students accepted the self assessment tasks as teaching and learning strategies in their own right. Rudd and Gumstove (1993) found that student awareness and use of skills in these class activities were substantially enhanced and the teacher’s role changed from a dominating instructor to a delegator as students became more proficient at self assessment. No control group was used in this study as a means of comparison. With this apparent shortcoming, this researcher’s comprehensive study sought to improve on the methodology by using a randomized treatment group from a random stratified sample to determine differences in academic achievement between treatment groups as a result of formal self assessment training.
Self assessment affects the individual’s understanding as it emphasizes high levels of thinking—metacognitive, self-reflective, self-regulated—as well as goal-directed learning and preferred learning styles. Mercer et al. (2004) claim that “talk-based activities can have a useful function in scaffolding the development of reasoning and scientific understanding” (p. 370). As students discuss standards and/or criteria for making judgments, they are involved in talk-based activities that force them to reason one with another and with themselves. In a sense, self assessment is a component of metacognition that is applied more spontaneously, more deeply, and more automatically as students move through primary school. This developmental aspect of self assessment continues to influence the whole individual. This is particularly useful for beginning teachers because they are assured that students already have information upon which they could build.
Self assessment is an integral part of both portfolio and authentic assessment. It involves reflecting on past achievements, critically evaluating present performance, and planning future goals. It thus involves past, present, and future perspectives of the individual, thereby fostering understanding as situations from the past, present, and future are compared and contrasted. Personal goal setting and standards underscore the perspectives (McAlpine, 2000). Sekula, Buttery, and Guyton (1996) agree that self assessment is premised on realistic knowledge about the whole self in relation to educational goals. It asks “How am I doing?,” “How can I do better?” Students learn to compare and contrast their work with models and against a set of standards and/or criteria (Bourke & Poskitt, 1997). In this regard, it is important that students understand what they are attempting before they commence the task, and this is the process that teachers can facilitate. Further, the student needs to understand the standards of performance, know what he or she is trying to achieve, and be able to compare his or her own performance to that standard. Inherent is the notion that students need to have an understanding of competence that can be applied to them. These metacognitive issues associated with human assessment, and in particular self assessment, may present methodological challenges that must be addressed in its training and measurement. The lack of a common metric for its measurement may, to many, be a major roadblock to establishing a coherent system aimed at improving the acceptance of self assessment as a viable method of a standards-referenced approach to assessment to be incorporated into the overall assessment of an individual.
Throughout the literature, proponents of formative assessment (Black & William, 1998a,b; Ramaprasad, 1983) agree that the student must take an active, responsible part in assessment if sustained, meaningful learning is to occur. Sadler (1989) recommends that gap closure between a student’s state of knowledge revealed by feedback and the desired state must be undertaken by the student. A student who simply follows the instructions of the teacher blindly without understanding the purpose of the teacher’s comments would have difficulty in internalizing the work and improving in the future. Consequently, Sadler (1989) posits that teachers must share responsibility of assessment with students whose self assessment would contribute to their overall assessment.
Goodrich (1997) studied the effects of instructional rubrics and guided self assessment on students’ writing and understandings of good writing. Thirteen seventh- and eighth-grade classes in the same two urban schools formed the sample. Both the experimental and control groups wrote two essays: a historical fiction essay and a response to literature. All students in both groups in participating classes were given instructional rubrics. The two self assessment lessons focused on a formal process of guided self assessment designed by the researcher in collaboration with the participating teachers. Students used markers to color code the criteria on the rubric and the evidence in their essays that showed that they met the criteria. Only the experimental classes participated in a process of guided self assessment. Control classes received copies of the rubrics but did not formally assess their own work in class. The results of the study indicated that rubric-referenced self assessment could have a positive effect on females’ writing but no effect on males’ writing. This finding agrees with research on sex differences in the manner in which males and females respond to feedback (Hollander & Marcia, 1970; Dweck & Bush, 1976; Dweck, Davidson, Nelson, & Enna, 1978; Deci & Ryan, 1980). It must be pointed out here that the study did not examine students’ cognitive and emotional responses to self assessment, which means that the explanation offered for the differences between males and females may be speculative. The call for a better understanding of the different ways in which males and females respond to self assessment further fueled the flame for such an investigation in the holistic manner in which self assessment affects the individual. Further research in this area could be useful.
As explained earlier, in arriving at consensus, students must share their personal views with each other and mutually agree on standards and/or criteria before for making an evaluation through the vehicle of language. Mercer et al. (2004) provide support for a generally accepted sociocultural hypothesis that “intermental activity (social interaction) of using language as a tool for reasoning collectively can influence the development of individual thinking (intramental activity) and learning” (p. 369). Further, the multidisciplinary nature of the researcher-designed 12 self assessment modules and the training using eclectic approaches mandated students to think across conventional subject disciplines. The constant positive reinforcement from teachers other than those directly involved in the self assessment training program made students realize that self assessment was not subject-specific or task-specific but targeted at the whole individual. The skills the students learned enabled them to communicate better with understanding and make informed choices of routes to and from school, choices of friends and choices of careers, etc. To use the words of Mercer et al. (2004), the teachers created “talk-focused classrooms” (p. 375) as they facilitated exchange among students with a view at arriving at consensus while at the same time ensuring that the stipulated curriculum was adequately covered as expected. That richness in focus, depth in understanding, and breath of information clearly reflected the performance of the students of the experimental group as they outperformed their untrained counterparts in all curriculum areas of business studies, humanities, science, and technical studies. With a continually changing context for reference, students quickly learned that self assessment was all inclusive and definitely pervasive and transferable enough to accommodate the individual at school and elsewhere. Students also learned that making self assessment a habit supported Aristotle’s famous assertion that we are what we repeatedly do and that excellence is a habit.
Mercer et al. (2004) posit that the spoken language can be related to the learning of science in the context of teacher-led interactions with students and peer group interaction.
While the former pampers to:
. . . the sociocultural account of cognitive development that emphasizes the guiding role of more knowledgeable members of communities in the development of the learner’s knowledge and understanding and their induction into the discourses associated with the particular knowledge domain, the latter allows for interactions which are more ‘symmetrical’ than in teacher-led discourses and so present different kinds of opportunities for developing reasoned arguments, describing observed events, etc. (p. 366)
It is precisely for this reason that, self assessment is an interactive, collaborative process involving all of the self and others in relation to standards and/or criteria. That interaction with peers is undoubtedly beneficial to students’ learning and understanding. It is no small wonder that in the comprehensive study, high school students who received formal training in self assessment skills were encouraged to discuss with their neighbors and arrive at mutually agreed solutions to problems. That process then extended beyond that neighbor to others in the classroom and also to the group as a whole, with input from the teacher serving as facilitator. Collaboration is the key to its success. In a sense, the group functioned as a receptacle for “protecting” the thoughts and ideas of the group members, thereby affording them the privilege of expressing themselves freely and openly without fear of being belittled by peers, a fundamental right of the whole individual. This too explains why this researcher conducted group sessions throughout the three terms of the entire academic year of self assessment training. Teachers and students became partners in the process of assessment and self-directed learning. The questions that teachers asked a class served as models for questions that learners asked themselves in self assessment. Educational goals underpin the questions and students were led, at different levels, to a realization of these goals.
Discussion and Conclusions
Understanding is pivotal to the internalization of new concepts as these must in some way be hinged to already existing concepts if the learner is to make sense of new information. Accordingly, there seems to be an incremental developmental process in progress. Van Krayenoord and Paris (1997) reported developmental trends in self assessment that may suggest the development of understanding with time. Self assessment may initially commence at the lower levels of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. As time progresses and the learner internalizes self assessment skills, higher levels of those domains would replace lower levels. With time, the learner would embrace self assessment as a necessary and sufficient part of his or her daily activities. Despite the fact that children can start using self assessment to evaluate their achievements when quite young, older students are more effective at the process. According to their levels of ability and the “quality” of teaching practices in particular classrooms, there are differences within older students. Metacognitive abilities associated with reading determine the quality of self assessment done. Greater development in students’ metacognitive abilities manifested itself in an improved ability for self-reflection and self-regulation of learning (Van Krayenoord & Paris, 1997). The foregoing information is especially helpful to beginning teachers since they often tend to frustrate themselves by underestimating their students’ potential. Incorporating self assessment into one’s repertoire of teaching strategies would provide more frequent feedback from the learner, enabling teachers to more quickly identify problems and modify instruction, if necessary.
Paris and Cunningham (1996) and Van Krayenoord and Paris (1997) found that effectiveness of self assessment and self-management of learning improve with age, experience, intelligence, academic achievement, and the quality of instruction. Self assessment assists the whole student to “learn how to learn” and it encourages reflection to become second nature. As students develop, they rely less on the authority of grades and adults’ evaluations as the sole source of feedback about their performance, and self assessment tends to become a foundation to the development of intrinsic motivation and autonomous learning.
Van Krayenoord and Paris (1997), Blumenfeld, Pintrich, Meece, and Wessels (1982), and Stipek and Maclver (1989) posit that in judging their own achievements, as children grow up, they gradually change from equating achievement with “effort” and see it related more to “ability.” As the development process progresses, the learner takes initiative for assessing his or her own work. In a study on self appraisals using work sample interviews based on both portfolio and authentic assessments, Van Krayenoord and Paris (1997) observed that activities related to portfolio assessment mandate that the learner takes the first step in assessing his or her individual work. Such initiative could be achieved autonomously but more often in association with peers and teachers.
Van Krayenoord and Paris (1997) believe that one of the main purposes of authentic assessment is to encourage students to become involved more actively in monitoring and reviewing their own performance. This includes self assessment of the products as well as the process of daily learning so that students learn to reflect on their work and evaluate their effort, feelings, and accomplishments, not just their past grade. This kind of assessment develops feelings of ownership and responsibility for learning and assists students in becoming independent learners who develop control over their own learning. Beginning teachers especially will do well to observe that special ability students may gain enormously from self assessment training and seek to develop this practice early in their careers. Self assessment could arguably make a teacher’s job easier, as more information about the students becomes available.
Continuing in the developmental trend, Hill (1995) confirmed that:
using portfolios engages learners in self assessment as they reflect on how well they have achieved the standards and/or criteria they set out for themselves, and gather samples and artifacts with their teachers, peers, parents or other interested people. (p. 66)
Many high school students practice journaling and this, too, is part of self assessment. Journaling is easy to practice so beginning teachers could include this in their teaching methods. Journaling forces the whole individual to reflect on past experiences, make evaluative statements of those experiences, and compare those experiences with similar experiences on a judgmental basis. Finally, this researcher has observed that while self assessment may be taken seriously by older children, there may be some difficulty in getting younger students to appreciate its worth. Herein lies a significant role for the beginning teacher; if it were an integral component in teacher education, then it might follow that it would be implemented with students of all ages. As with most practices, the younger it is introduced, the greater the chance for fluency.
By its very nature, self assessment is also a social activity requiring understanding on the part of the individual. It occurs in situations that are social and collaborative and frequently with others who are more expert than the self assessor. Establishment and maintenance of mutually agreed ground rules—active listening, waiting on others, mutual respect, information sharing, appropriate discourse analysis, focused engaging discussion, critical questioning, decision negotiation, and accurate transcription skills—are essential ingredients of the self assessment process. Van Krayenoord and Paris (1997) noted that self assessment does not occur in isolation because the self has very little meaning unless it relates to others. This inevitably means that there must be relationship with peers and teachers. The reliability and validity of scores derived from self assessment is formulated not only in relation to standards and/or criteria but also in relation to social interactions with assessments of peers and teachers. Before students can decide on acceptable standards and/or criteria for their work, they must use some reliable and valid forms of reference by which they could be confident that the standards and/or criteria they intend to use to make judgments about their whole corpus of work are “universally” acceptable as far as they exist within their locus of control. This undoubtedly demands understanding. Self assessment may be the key to producing a common currency for evaluating an individual’s productivity. Much research in this area is recommended.
A considerable amount of time is required to implement and sustain self assessment as it influences understanding and this may present a major demand on beginning teachers as they are learning many other new skills. However, if the task is skillfully implemented and neatly interwoven into the normal curriculum as the comprehensive study was, the rewards are overwhelming. Teachers need to have dialogue with students during the course of their learning, as students have to be trained to develop sound self assessment skills with understanding. Some beginning teachers may feel that their authority is challenged if they allow student self assessments to count in assessment and learning. Further, since there is some degree of “disclosure” in some areas of self assessment, the procedure may be seen as a threat to privacy (McAlpine, 2000). There is also the danger of breech of confidentiality in sharing self assessment results with a wider audience especially with the school environment. Sometimes there might even be uncertainty as to who the real audience might be. Being aware of these issues, this researcher designed the comprehensive study to take account of these challenges, thereby minimizing as much as possible random or systematic experimental errors. In self assessment training, beginning teachers should take responses from students very seriously. Bourke and Poskitt (1997) believe it is important to avoid a tokenist “claim” or to pretend to empower students through self assessment but record one’s own assessment. Students are less likely to take self assessments seriously in an environment where school and national examinations are seen to be the main measure of performance. It is hoped that the ideas shared would be useful to beginning teachers. Longitudinal studies on students exposed to self assessment training could address issues regarding the reduction of students’ zone of proximal development, where real learning takes place, and shed further light on how humans create meaning through understanding.
References
Adams, C. & King, K. (1995). Towards a framework for student self-assessment. Innovations in Education and Training International, 32(4), 336–343.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998a). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education, 5(1), 7–74.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998b). Inside the Black Box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 139. Retrieved March 10, 2008 from http://faa-training.measuredprogress.org/documents/10157/15652/InsideBlackBox.pdf
Blumenfeld, P. C., Pintrich, P., Meece, I. & Wessels, K. (1982). The formation and role of self perceptions of ability in elementary classrooms. Elementary School Journal, 82, 401–420.
Boud, D. (1986). Implementing student self assessment. Sydney: HERDSA.
Boud, D. (1995). Enhancing learning through self assessment. London: Kogan Page.
Bourke, R., & Poskitt, J. (1997). Self assessment in the New Zealand classroom (Booklet). Wellington: Ministry of Education.
Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (1980). The empirical exploration of intrinsic motivational processes. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. New York: Academic Press, 13, 39–80.
Dweck, C., & Bush, E. (1976). Sex differences in learned helplessness: 1. Differential debilitation with peer and adult evaluators. Developmental Psychology, 12, 147–156.
Dweck, C., Davidson, W., Nelson, S. & Enna, B. (1978). Sex differences in learned helplessness: 2. Contingencies of evaluative feedback in the classroom and 3. An experimental analysis. Developmental Psychology 14(3), 268–276.
Goodrich, H. (1997). Thinking-centered assessment. In S. Veenema, L. Hetland, & K. Chalfen (Eds.), The Project Zero classroom: New approaches to thinking and understanding. Cambridge, MA: Project Zero, Harvard Graduate School of Education.
Hill, M. (1995). Self assessment in primary schools: A response to student teacher questions. Waikato Journal of Education, (1), 61–70.
Hollander, E. & Marcia, J. (1970). Parental determinants of peer orientation and self-orientation among preadolescents. Developmental Psychology, 2, 292–302.
Mazarr, M. J. (1999). Global trends 2005: An owner’s manual for the next decade. New York: Palgrave.
McAlpine, D. (2000). Assessment and the gifted. Tall Poppies, 25(1).
Mercer, N., Dawes, L., Wegerif, R. & Sama, G. (2O04). Reasoning as a scientist: Ways of helping children use language to learn science. British Educational Research Journal, 30(3), 359–377.
Paris, S. G., & Cunningham, A. (1996). Children becoming students. In D. Berliner and R. Galfee (Eds.), Handbook of Educational Psychology. New York: Macmillan, 17–147.
Ramaprasad, A. (1983). On the definition of feedback. Behavioral Science, 28, 4–13.
Rudd, T. J., & Gumstove, R. F. (1993). Developing self assessment skills in grade 3 science and technology: The importance of longitudinal studies of learning. Retrieved March 9, 2008, from ERIC NO. ED 358103, http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED358103.pdf
Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. Instructional Science, 18, 119–144.
Sekula, J., Buttery, T., & Guyton, E. (1996). Authentic assessment. In Handbook of Research on Teacher Education. New York: Prentice Hall International, 5–15.
Stipek, D. I., & Maclver, D. (1989). Developmental changes in children’s assessment of intellectual competence. Child Development, 60, 521–538.
Van Krayenoord, C. E., & Paris, S. G. (1997). Australian students’ self appraisal of their work samples and academic progress. Elementary School Journal, 97(5), 523–537.
Source: McDonald, B. (2007). Self assessment for understanding. Journal of Education, 188(1), 25–40.
Summary
McDonald provides a brief review of the empirical literature concerning self-assessment, particularly in middle and secondary classrooms, and its relationship to student achievement. She stresses the importance of collaboration and commitment to self-assessment in whole programs, schools, and grade levels in order for students to see its relevance for all learning and not specific to a particular subject or teacher.
The literature suggests that self-assessment must be taught and takes time to develop as a habit. McDonald also notes that research suggests that although younger children can learn to self assess, older students with metacognitive skills associated with literacy can apply self-assessment more readily. The literature also suggests that the quality of teaching as an accompaniment to self-assessment may determine how effective the practice is for students.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. McDonald notes that in most studies reviewed teachers do not use students’ self-assessments as contributors to their own assessments or subsequent grading systems. Discuss whether this practice is appropriate and how such assessments may in fact contribute to the general assessment plan in a course or program.
2. This article suggests that gender plays a role in how students learn and use self-assessment in the context of feedback more generally. Girls seem to respond to these practices and use them more often than boys. Comment on these findings. Are they consistent with your experience? Are there ways to plan self-assessment approaches that might be more helpful for boys?
3. How has self-assessment played a role in your own learning?
4. How might self-assessment be used in an online environment, considering the research that suggests it is most helpful when it is collaborative?
5. The starting point for self-assessment, according to research, is a clear set of standards or criteria in order for students to understand what constitutes good and poor work. What else might help students learn the difference between good and poor work in your subject area or content field of expertise?
3.7 What Is a Good School? by Klaus Zierer
Introduction
Klaus Zierer is a scholar at the Institute of Education, University of Oldenburg in Oldenburg, Germany. He provides a critical and international perspective on the issue of large-scale cross-national measurements of student learning such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), and the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS). These comparative tests are often publicized in the U.S. press as indicators of the country’s progress in K–12 student achievement.
Zierer uses a “quadrant model” (adapted in Figure 3.3), originally designed by Ken Wilber (2001), as a means of examining international measurements to answer the question, “What is a good school?” The quadrants represent four related dimensions:
1. Interior vs. exterior dimensions of good schools (i.e., what one experiences vs. what can be seen or measured),
2. Individual vs. collective dimensions of good schools,
3. Subjective vs. objective dimensions of good schools (i.e., the qualitative vs. the quantitative/measurable criteria), and
4. Specific criteria as dimensions: joyful, effective, culturally fitting (or responsive), and functionally fitting (or efficient).
Figure 3.3: Zierer’s quadrant model, adapted
Although the model can be complex, for the purposes of this chapter, it is important to focus on Zierer’s question of what is a good school and Zierer’s conclusion that the PISA, TIMSS, and PIRLS tests only address the question, What is an “effective school”? (top right quadrant) and virtually ignore the other 3 perspectives on what makes a good school. This is an important discussion in the current century of accountability in the context of different learning environments (bottom right quadrant), diversity of learners and learning (bottom left quadrant), and the engagement and creativity (top right quadrant).
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Zierer, K. (2013). What is a good school? Critical thoughts about curriculum assessments. Educational Forum, 77(3), 336–341.
Abstract
Within the educational field, measurements such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), and the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) suggest we are living in a time of competition. This article takes a critical view of the modern drive to measure, evaluate, and rank programs within the educational field. Using Ken Wilber’s epistemological quadrant-model, I analyze the question, “What is a good school?”
The Epistemological Quadrant-Model of Ken Wilber
The quadrant-model of Ken Wilber integrates different perspectives to approach a complex issue. Wilber’s model is epistemologically founded, interdisciplinarily constructed, systematic, extensive, and integral. Consequently, the model is innovative and provides a rubric for determining the elements of complex problems. Applying Wilbur’s quadrant-model to the complex question “What is a good school?” could be useful to discussing issues in the educational field.
The basis for Ken Wilber’s epistemological quadrant-model is the so-called “three-worlds theory” by Jürgen Habermas, which develops the theory of communicative action. The three-worlds theory distinguishes three different world-concepts regarding their areas and claims to validity.
First, Habermas identifies a “subjective” world, which includes “all experiences of a communicative actor” (Habermas, 1987, p. 149). He provides wishes and emotions as examples of the subjective world. The second “objective” world includes “all circumstances, which exist or can exist.” (Habermas, 1987, p. 130). Statements out of this second world can stress truth. The third, “social” world is based on “a normative context, which defines the justified and legitimate actions” (Habermas, 1987, p. 132). Hence, statements out of the third world can stress normative accuracy. Their validity claim is determined by a social group of communicative actors.
With a view to this three-worlds theory Wilber developed the epistemological quadrant-model shown in Figure 3.4 in which he distinguished four main approaches to knowledge and cited examples of researchers for each specific quadrant (Wilber, 2001).
Figure 3.4: Wilber’s quadrant model
* * *
Discussion of the Question “What Is a Good School?”
Upon examination of the question “What is a good school?” within the framework of Wilber’s quadrants, the complexity of the issue emerges.
· Upper-left quadrant: What is a “joyful school” from learners’ and teachers’ perspectives? How does the school engage the interests, wishes, and senses of its students and teachers? Minkowski (1971) believed that school should give pleasure and a lifetime of fulfillment. Von Hentig (1996) believed that school should create and activate “competence of happiness” for learners and teachers.
· Upper-right quadrant: What is an “effective school” from learners’ and teachers’ points of view? This question takes center stage in curriculum assessment and instructional research.
· Lower-left quadrant: What is a “cultural fitting school” from learners’ and teachers’ points of view? How are the curricular goals adequate for young people to address future problems and challenges?
· Lower-right quadrant: What is a “functional fitting school” from learners’ and teachers’ points of view? Do schools teach competencies that help young people to find jobs, enter the working world, and find a place in society? Do schools help to solve actual social problems, such as rising unemployment or the possible upcoming collapse of the healthcare system? Only schools that are meeting these social demands may be considered functional fitting.
Using this model, curriculum assessments, including Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS) scores and the resulting rankings, are predominately found in the upper-right quadrant, suggesting that a school which performs well in these tests is considered effective. However, rankings constructed from these and similar curriculum assessments neglect Wilber’s three other quadrants. Are these schools really the best schools? Can these schools really be considered good schools? Do learners and teachers like these schools? Do these schools really fit in with current cultural and functional needs?
Conclusions
What is missing from these curriculum assessments? What problems can arise in these curriculum assessments, and what can be done to mitigate them? The problem of a partial analysis of what constitutes a “good school” is obvious. The reduction, according to Wilber, can only deliver a half or, rather, a fourth of, a truth. Traditional assessments only look at this question from an empirical perspective, through the lens of effectiveness and based on a validity claim of propositional truth. The other domains of truthfulness, cultural fit and functional fit, are neglected in the majority of cases. Or in other words, striving for the maximum effectiveness, meanwhile ignoring the subjective, cultural fitting and functional fitting aspects of schooling, runs the risk of missing the mark of supporting a good school.
In the case of curriculum assessment, it is necessary to focus on and draw conclusions from all quadrants. According to Wilber, this is integral to a comprehensive assessment of a school. When these requirements are fulfilled, the question of a good school can be answered. When these requirements are not met, discussions remain on the level of what makes an effective school instead of what makes a good school. Not everything that is important can be measured. Not everything that is good can be evaluated. Hence, we run the risk of being preoccupied with measurement, ranking, and evaluation, and as a result also with reduction, constriction, and pursuit of effectiveness. It is time for an integral view in the case of curriculum assessment.
References
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1993). Die Selbstbestimmungstheorie der Motivation und ihre Bedeutung für die Pädagogik [Self-determination theory of motivation and its relevance for education.]. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 39(2), 223–238.
Habermas, J. (1987). Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns (Band 1) [Theory of communicative action (volume 1)]. Frankfurt, Germany: Suhrkamp.
Helmke, A. (2005). Unterrichtsqualität: Erfassen, bewerten, verbessern [Teaching quality]. Seelze, Germany: Kallmeyer.
Minkowski, E. (1971). Die gelebte Zeit (Band 1) [The lived time (volume 1)]. Salzburg, Germany: Otto Müller Verlag.
Von Hentig, H. (1996). Bildung: Ein Essay [Formation: An essay]. München, Germany: Hanser.
Wilber, K. (2001). The eye of spirit: An integral vision for a world gone slightly mad. Boston: Shambhala.
Source: Zierer, K. (2013). What is a good school? Critical thoughts about curriculum assessments. The Educational Forum, 77(3), 336–341. Taylor & Francis. © 2013 Routledge.
Summary
This article moves the reader beyond the familiar language of assessment to the larger question of what is a good school. The use of the quadrant invites a discussion of the other dimensions of teaching and learning that consider more intentionally the interests, needs, and perspectives of learners and teachers. Zierer invites critique of the large-scale assessments so commonly used and accepted, because they focus only on effectiveness of schools as measured by student test scores but ignore context, appropriate curriculum, and students’ point of view within a specific school or local (including online) environment.
Zierer stresses the importance of subjective assessments as well as the more objectively valid and reliable instruments such as the PISA, TIMSS, and PIRLS tests. He reminds readers that if we do not attend to these other possibilities for assessment, “discussions remain on the level of what makes an effective school instead of what makes a good school” (p. 341). Finally, the author asserts, “Not everything that is important can be measured. Not everything that is good can be evaluated” (p. 341). This caveat is important to consider in the arena of meaningful teaching and learning for the future.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. This article begins with a somewhat philosophical discussion of truth, which in a 21st century worldview tends to equate with objectivity or factual evidence. Zierer then proposes that other truths worthy of exploring may not be measurable but are nonetheless important for a “good school.” Think about a school, classroom, or learning environment you have encountered in which these nontangibles are evident and describe that setting. What is different about these learning settings in which we have no objective data or facts about learning, but we sense that this is a “good” school?
2. Zierer discusses “cultural fitting schools” as ones where the curricular goals help students face future problems and challenges. List some of the indicators that you might look for in a classroom or school that matches this description.
3. The author asks an interesting question for our consideration: “How does [a] school engage the interests, wishes, and senses of its students and teachers?” (p. 340).
4. Find two colleagues or peers and discuss Zierer’s comment: “Not everything that is important can be measured. Not everything that is good can be evaluated” (p. 341).
Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
This chapter proposes the following key considerations for assessment in the 21st century:
· Classroom assessment is crucial for student achievement, despite its lack of publicity, research, attention to teacher preparation and professional development (Stiggins, Popham).
· Teachers need to develop assessment literacy in order to fully participate in students’ learning for the 21st century (Popham).
· Classroom assessment involves careful and consistent high-quality feedback from teachers and peers (Wiggins and Frey/Fisher).
· Feedback and self-assessment are both elements of formative assessment that students can participate in and use to enhance their learning (Wiggins, Frey/Fisher, and McDonald).
· Students are both assessment users and instructional decision makers in schools and classrooms where multiple, meaningful assessment tools are in place (Stiggins).
· Grading practices need to be reformed to accommodate the documentation and evidence from classroom assessments; clear purposes for grades should be articulated and communicated to students, parents, and other stakeholders (Guskey and Jung).
· Grades should be multidimensional and indicate how students are doing with respect to final products, the process during learning, and progress or improvement toward goals (Guskey and Jung).
· Educators, policy makers and the general public must be cautioned against a general acceptance of effectiveness criteria based on large-scale standardized tests as the only means of judging a “good school.” Other indicators of good schools demonstrate that culture, joy, and, the context for learning are all valued and valuable, but not necessarily measurable (Zierer).
A Closer Look: Assessment
An instructor discusses digital formative and summative assessment techniques, such as online surveys, that he uses with his students.
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1. What do you think about this teacher's recommendation to use Google Forms for Formative Assessments with students? How might you use Google Forms as an Assessment tool?
2. This teacher comments that he doesn’t give many tests. Can a teacher adequately assess student learning and progress without giving many tests? What are the alternatives that he offers? What are other possibilities for assessments beyond teacher-made tests that you would suggest and/or have used?
Tying It All Together
This chapter looks forward, as other chapters in this volume do, to innovative and dynamic possibilities for curriculum and instruction in the 21st century. The focus on individual educator and leader innovation in local, classroom, and contextually based assessment is consistent with the call for action research, “teacherpreneurship” in technology, and cutting-edge approaches to standards in other chapters. The term literacy is used in this chapter to address the dearth of knowledge about assessment on the part of many graduates of teacher education programs.
Researchers are calling for assessment literacy, just as they are calling for digital literacy in the 21st century. Across the chapters, a clear theme emerges regarding the need for integration of pedagogy that requires collaboration and professional learning in communities. Readers of this text would benefit from seeing how this notion of integration of themes, ideas, concepts, and topics improves practice and provides opportunities for classroom, as well as large-scale, research. We need to know much more about how the components of quality contribute to “good schools.”
End of Chapter Critical Thinking Questions
1. The chapter began with an acknowledgment of the importance of standardized testing and accountability in the 21st century. Now that you have read the chapter, how would you describe the intersection of classroom assessment, including feedback, formative assessment, and large-scale standardized tests? Can classroom assessments, designed by teachers and students, affect the outcome of standardized tests?
2. Zierer’s article discusses international tests, including PISA, TIMSS, and PIRLS. Investigate how students in your state have done recently on these tests. What is your view of the value and use of these results for educators and students?
3. Describe three steps you might take to encourage or support more self-assessment among students in a class you teach or will teach in the future.
4. Make two columns on a page. On the left side, note the ways in which you provide or have provided feedback to students you have encountered in the past. In the right column, list feedback approaches that you would consider in the future. Use the Futher Reading list as needed.
5. Popham calls for all to develop assessment literacy. How literate are you in the vocabulary, practices, and research focused on assessment?
Further Reading
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998b). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139–148.
Brookhart, S. M. (2004). Classroom assessment: Tensions and intersections in theory and practice. Teachers College Record 106(3), 429–458.
Casey, G. (2013). Building a student-centered learning framework using social software in the middle years classroom: An action research study. Journal of Information Technology Education, 12, 159–189.
Fisher, N. & Fisher, D. (2011). The formative assessment action plan: Practical steps to more successful teaching and learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development.
Heritage, M., & Heritage, J. (2013). Teacher questioning: The epicenter of instruction and assessment. Applied Measurement in Education, 26, 176–190.
Lu, J., & Law, N. (2012). Online peer assessment: Effects of cognitive and affective feedback. Instructional Science, 40(2), 257–275.
Marzano, R. J. (2010). Formative assessment and standards-based grading. Bloomington, IN: Marzano Research Laboratory.
Marzano, R. J. (2012). The two purposes of teacher evaluation. Educational Leadership, 70(3), 14–19.
Popham, W. J. (2004). Curriculum, instruction, and assessment: Amiable allies or phony friends? Teachers College Record 106(3), 417–428.
Schneider, M., & Gowan, P. (2013). Investigating teachers’ skills in interpreting evidence of student learning. Applied Measurement In Education, 26(3), 191–204.
Waugh, C. K., & Gronlund, N. E. (2013). Assessment of student achievement (10th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Zahira, M., Goetz, E., Cifuentes, L., Keeney-Kennicutt, W., & Davis, T. J. (2014). Effectiveness of virtual reality-based instruction on students’ learning outcomes in K–12 and higher education: A meta-analysis, Computers & Education, 70, 29–40.
Key Terms
Please click on the key term to reveal the definition.
classroom assessment
feedback
formative assessment
process grading
product grading
progress grading
self-assessment
summative assessment
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Explain why differentiated and individualized instruction is important in meeting the needs of all learners.
2. Understand the significance of how cognitive functioning and development impact the learning process.
3. Identify the benefits of curriculum and instruction that are relevant to students’ experiences, interests, and learning styles.
4. Explain the importance of identifying and meeting the needs of English language learners and students who struggle with reading and writing.
5. Understand why schools should address students’ social and emotional needs, in addition to their academic needs.
Chapter Introduction
Three 7th grade mathematics teachers in a large, diverse middle school decided to work together to prepare their students for the standardized state test they would take the following year. In looking over the students’ data and work samples, they saw that the 7th graders had a wide range of mathematical competencies and understandings. They wondered how they could plan lessons that would address students’ very disparate learning needs.
The K–12 public school system was designed to educate large numbers of students in an efficient manner. As Tyack (1974) points out, as schools were brought together into a cohesive, K–12 public system in the industrial era, they were designed to emulate the efficiencies of factories. This design included strict adherence to schedules, compartmentalizing work into discrete activities, and creating groups in which everyone engaged in the same tasks at the same time.
Schofield and Davidson (2001) called this transition the “batch processing” of students, which they described as the practice of “handling [students] in relatively large groups and treating all in the group in roughly similar ways” (pp. 102–103). Throughout much of the history of K–12 schools, those students whose needs were not met through this process simply failed or dropped out; nonetheless, until fairly recently many of these students were able to find gainful employment in manufacturing and related industries.
As the U.S. economy and society began to shift towards information, technology, and service and thus required more formally educated citizens, school failure became a growing problem. A school system that did not meet the needs of individual students and historically underserved populations was no longer in the best interest of society.
In the mid-20th century, educational researchers, policymakers, and practitioners began to focus on how schools could respond to the learning needs of a diverse student population. This focus included not only particular cultural and socioeconomic groups but all students whose learning styles were not being addressed by conventional modes of instruction. Although the structure of K–12 public schools in the United States has remained notably consistent, there have been great efforts to attend to the individual needs of learners.
The articles in this chapter focus on a variety of ways that educators can understand and meet the instructional needs of diverse learners. Examples include drawing on the science of human development and brain functioning, differentiating instruction and assessment, and addressing students’ socioemotional and ethical development. Strategies for serving historically underserved groups—such as English learners (ELs), racial and ethnic minorities, and other at-risk students—include culturally and linguistically responsive teaching and targeted interventions for struggling students.
Although the trend in K–12 school reform has been toward further standardizing the curriculum, instruction, and assessment, the authors in this chapter argue, in a variety of ways, for individualizing education to meet the needs of all students.
Voices From the Field: Making Teaching Relevant
Ariel has been teaching for three years in a diverse, inclusive classroom that includes new immigrants and students with learning difficulties. Some of her students, who are struggling with reading and writing, have been reluctant to engage in ELA activities and reveal what they do not know and cannot do, especially in front of their peers. So Ariel, along with the special educator, designed a literacy activity in which students could demonstrate their strengths. She calls this activity, “I AM. . . I CAN. . . I WILL. . . I DID!” and describes it below.
In addition to developing literacy skills, this was confidence-building activity. To prepare, [the special educator] and I each created a short book about ourselves, called, “I Am, I Can, I Will, I Did!” Each page began with one of those phrases and we filled it in with words and pictures and read and described our books to the children. Then they created the first three pages of their own books (I Am . . . , I Can . . . , I Will . . . ), using pictures, phonetically spelled words, copying common words, etc., based on their current ability. The objective was for them to express who they were, describe what they did well, and set goals. They shared at least one page with the class. The books were all so different and creative that no one stood out as a better or worse writer. As students reached milestones throughout the school year, they added “I Did!” pages to their books. At the end of the school year, students shared and celebrated their accomplishments with classmates, family members, and friends.
2.1 Teaching with the Brain in Mind, by Eric Jensen
Introduction
Eric Jensen is a former classroom teacher whose work focuses on how knowledge about how the brain works can inform K–12 education. Jensen has published multiple books and articles that connect what has been learned through neuroscience to the processes of teaching and learning. He applies principles of how the human brain functions to teachers’ everyday practices. These principles include the human brain’s malleability and its predilection for automating behaviors, seeking positive feelings, creating understanding, developing schemas, and limiting new inputs. He argues that the most effective strategies for teaching and learning account for the ways in which children’s brains work.
The following except is taken from the chapter entitled, “Schools with the Brain in Mind,” published in 2005 in his book, Teaching with the Brain in Mind. Jensen prefaces this chapter by establishing that schooling should never be based solely on brain research, but what we know about the brain can be used to inform most aspects of schooling.
The chapter discusses four areas in which schools can make connections to brain research: curriculum, assessment, staff development, and teacher support. This excerpt focuses on the former two. Jensen encourages schools to consider how the brain works in order to make decisions that will lead to better outcomes for both students and staff.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Jensen, E. (2005). Teaching with the brain in mind. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Schools with the Brain in Mind
This chapter is about strengthening connections.
Attending school from kindergarten through grade 12 takes up more than 13,000 hours of the developing brain’s time. During that time, the brains of our students will be altered by the entire school experience. It’s not a “maybe,” it’s a fact: Schools change brains. Brains are being changed by the decisions educators make and by the policies we carry out. Ethically, morally, and opportunistically, we have to pay attention to how we ask students to spend time with us. Yes, this paradigm shift brings with it a whole new understanding of the elevated role of education and educators. I hope you’ve been “connecting the dots” throughout this book. In fact, you may have already thought of many new tie-ins that your colleagues have yet to make.
There is a caveat, however. I have never advocated running a school based solely on brain research, and I never will. Taking the brain into consideration for almost all of our decision making is a very good idea, but other factors deserve consideration, too. We must consider the interests of parents, districts, school boards, and staff. We must consider state standards. We must consider the safety, weather, and local culture. In short, I advocate schools with the brain in mind, not schools with nothing but the brain in mind. The latter just doesn’t make sense.
“Outside the Box” Thinking
Once you start thinking of schools with the brain in mind, a whole realm of possibility comes into view. Suddenly, you become more interested in making mind/brain connections with nutrition, violence prevention, curriculum development, stress management, technology infusion, special education programs, school design, parenting, school sports, assessment, field trips, standardized testing, arts programs, child abuse prevention and intercession, and even the effect of environmental toxins on student achievement. The fact is every one of these topics has some clear connections with brain function and performance. Earlier in this book you read about nutrition, stress, and parenting connections. There are several more connections that merit discussion, and instead of devoting an entire chapter to each new topic, I want to talk about three of the most significant here. They are curriculum connections, assessment connections, and staff development connections. My goal for this chapter is to provide an overview of the connection-making process and to ask some questions that may help you leverage these connections within your own school.
Curriculum Connections
Questions about how to explicitly connect brain research to school curriculum are more likely to lead to further questions than to definitive answers. For example, it’s a very relevant question to ask, “At what age is the brain mature enough for abstract reasoning?” But the answer is that there’s a wide range in human development; some children are capable of abstract reasoning at age 10, while others don’t develop the capacity until they are closer to 15. The wide range of developmental maturity makes it tough to develop a specific schedule for curricular mastery. Unfortunately, we see many schools enacting policies that try to do exactly that. We know too that the brain development necessary for reading also takes place along a multiyear continuum. Some children are reading by age 3 or 4, and others are not ready until they are 7 or 8. Likewise, geometry: Some are ready to grasp the abstract spatial relations of it at age 12, and others need until 14 or 15. Have you also seen these ranges in student performance? Are you subject to policies that are at odds with these realities (“We want every student to have mastered the material on page 50 by Wednesday.”)?
Research on brain maturation clearly indicates that the commonly mandated policy of “everybody on the same page on the same day” makes little sense. Until we have a better fix on the factors that contribute to certain kinds of development, we should continue to focus on accommodating all our learners. How does your school successfully accommodate your students’ variability in learning differences? How well do you support “learning at one’s own pace”? Do you support mastery learning? Can a student who has mastered a topic move ahead to new content? If not, you’re going to have frustrated students who will either lose interest or act out.
In light of what we now know about the brain, we also need to ask questions about curriculum content. The human brain is always concerned with survival. Why, then, have so many schools removed the parts of the curriculum that offer the greatest real-world survival value: creativity (the arts), health intelligence (physical education), and financial intelligence? It’s a mistake to remove what students care about the most, then grumble that they’re not motivated and they often drop out. What about how to develop and strengthen personal and parental relationships? Remember, there is a strong research base for the value of emotional intelligence and its impact on cognition (Maree & Ebersohn, 2002; Petrides, Frederickson, & Furnham, 2004). But this topic—although critical to our students’ survival—is usually absent from the curriculum; if it’s addressed at all in school, it’s usually due to the efforts of a caring teacher or school counselor.
Finally, the world has changed dramatically. With overworked parents having less time to invest in child rearing, today’s students have weaker social and emotional skills. Disruptive behaviors are on the rise. Schools ought to respond by offering more social and emotional skill-building, not less. These life skills are easier to teach earlier—in grades K through 5—than in later years. But the substantial pressure to have students succeed on high-stakes tests means that even elementary school teachers are dropping these skills in favor of test-prep skills.
We can all agree that students ought to be able to read and count by the time they take the national standard tests in 4th grade. But can we also agree that we’d like them to show empathy, fairness, and honesty as well? Many studies support the conclusion of Goleman (1995): that emotional IQ matters more than intellectual IQ. Have you come to this conclusion, too?
Assessment Connections
The problem of creating fair assessment is still challenging for even the best of minds. After all, assessment is essentially trying to “read” what’s in a student’s brain—quite a feat! Assessment has come a long way from the apple-sorting, paper testing of 50 years ago. But considering what we now know about the brain, it’s clear that we still have a long way to go. Here are some of the challenges we still have to solve:
1. Memories are highly malleable and need constant revising, meaning that students can learn something and then not remember it. Memory is also highly variable, affected by a range of factors including attention deficit disorders, brain injuries, learning delays, and poor nutrition. At the very least, this suggests that if a testing model is based on recall—as so many are—students must have more practice time.
2. Learning-to-learn strategies are far more essential to real-world success than are amassed facts. So where are the tests that give students opportunities to show these skills?
3. Much of what we ask students to learn is not behaviorally relevant, so how realistic is it to ask them to be vested in the test taking? As it turns out, “Will this be on the test?” is a very smart question to ask!
4. There is little evidence that better test takers do better in life or that the testing skills are transferable (Koretz, Linn, Dunbar, & Shepard,1991), so what is the incentive for students to get highly motivated about achieving high test scores?
5. Mental models are highly critical in thinking, yet schools never test for them. Why not? And why is it that that over 99 percent of schools never try to measure students’ love of learning, perhaps the most valuable thing they could gain from schooling? It would be easy to develop instruments to measure these factors, and the feedback from them would definitely be useful.
If learning is what we value, then we ought to value the process of learning as much as we value the result of it. A typical classroom narrows both thinking strategies and answer options. Educators who insist on singular approaches and the “right answer” are ignoring the history of our species: Human beings have thrived because we continually seek viable alternative solutions instead of being bound to a single path. The human brain survives on effectiveness, not efficiency. Limiting education to the search for the right answer—as we do when we focus on standardized testing—violates the law of the adaptability of the developing brain. Quality education encourages a wide-open, creative problem-solving approach, thereby exploring alternative thinking options, multiple right answers, and creative insights. These are not valued on standardized tests.
Having said all this, I believe things are getting better in some areas of assessment. For example, today, special education students are usually provided with special testing setups that give them more time, a quiet location, alternative test formats, and so on. (Of course, the huge population of students who don’t qualify for special education testing accommodations would also benefit from these things!) Another positive change is the increasing use of portfolio assessment—a much better way to measure student progress, because it measures a variety of skills over time. We have also come to understand the benefit of providing more choice in the assessment process, and we recognize the legitimacy of allowing students to show what they know in a variety of ways.
In the near future, I look forward to even better assessments that take on some of the challenges listed above. But until we start measuring what’s important to both teachers and students, we’ll continue to lose good teachers and to disenfranchise many students. My question to you is, “Can you address some of the assessment issues I’ve raised in your own work?”
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Teacher Support and Retention
To get the best from teachers, administrators need to remind themselves that the work teachers do is demanding and can be crazy-making, draining, and stressful. Although teacher salaries are often not what they should be, a bigger problem is working conditions. (After all, most educators choose the profession to make a difference, not to get rich.) Administrators, to keep your staff healthy and keep job performance high, provide the following:
· Quality professional development. It improves competency and satisfaction.
· Better career ladders. They enhance motivation.
· Time and structure for both collegial sharing and support. This keeps morale high and proficiency strong.
More support for teachers might include stress reduction tools, which contribute to better health and less absenteeism. Examples include quiet areas where teachers can de-stress while still at work; lounge-like areas separate from a lunchroom where teachers can share helpful professional practices; and even a space with a treadmill so that teachers can run off some of the daily stress. Most important, teachers need the time to use these facilities. For this reason, I’m a strong advocate for a restructured work week that gives teachers more time to think and plan. It makes sense for K–12 teachers to teach no more than four to four and a half days per week. Do you think that’s crazy? No one thinks it’s crazy for college professors, many of whom balance teaching time with office hours, department meetings, and writing and research. Imagine the rebellion if universities asked professors to teach five hours a day, five days a week.
Teachers need time for renewal and for restoring the physical and emotional soul that they are asked to give their students. Schools districts that say that they can’t afford to give staff one half or one full nonteaching day a week would do well to consider the math. It’s always cheaper to take care of the good people you have than to recruit (in some cases, internationally or with bonuses) to replace those that you chased away. In a nutshell, administrators need to take care of teachers so that the teachers will take care of the students.
It’s necessary to add a quick word about support for new teachers. Our brains are designed to respond to threat, and new teachers can perceive a great deal of threat in their environment. There is the pressure from students, pressure from other staff members, economic pressures associated with choosing teaching as a profession, and the realization that they are accountable for students’ performance on high stakes tests even though they may have limited influence over the many factors that determine how students will score. New teachers are often given the worst classrooms with the least lighting, most noise, and least access to resources (Heschong Mahone Group, 2003). They are frequently assigned the toughest multilevel classes with the least experienced help. The number-one reason teachers leave a school is for a better teaching assignment (Chandler, 2004). Why would any principal do this to a new teacher, knowing that too many new ones are more likely to quit within the first three years of teaching—simply out of frustration? New teachers need less of the “hazing” that goes on and the best conditions possible, not the worst.
References
Chandler, K. (2004). Teacher attrition and mobility: Results from the Teacher Follow-up Survey, 2000– 01. (NCES Report # 2004301). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books
Heschong, L., & Heschong Mahone Consulting Group. (1999). Daylighting in schools: An investigation into the relationship between daylighting and human performance. A study performed on behalf of the California Board for Energy Efficiency for the Third Party Program administered by Pacific Gas & Electric, as part of the PG & E contract 460–000. For a copy, e-mail Lisa Heschong at [email protected] .
Koretz, D. M., Linn, R. L., Dunbar, S. B., & Shepard, L. A. (1991, April 5). The effects of high-stakes testing on achievement: Preliminary findings about generalizations across tests. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, Chicago.
Copyright © 2005. Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development (ASCD). All rights reserved. Maree, J., & Ebersohn, L. (2002). Emotional intelligence and achievement: Redefining giftedness. Gifted Education International, 16 (3), 261– 273.
Petrides, K., Frederickson, N., & Furnham, A. (2004). The role of trait emotional intelligence in academic performance and deviant behavior at school. Personality & Individual Differences, 36 (2), 277– 293.
Source: Jensen, E. (2005). Teaching with the brain in mind. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Summary
In this excerpt, Jensen suggests changes that schools can make to better support student learning and teacher practice by designing curriculum, assessment, and support for teachers that respond to how the brain works. According to Jensen, one common mistake that schools make is to expect all students (e.g., those in a particular grade) to be able to demonstrate the same learning at the same time, which does not take into account the wide variability in brain development among children.
Further, Jensen contends that school curriculum has too little content that students enjoy—content that connects to the brain’s natural predilections for survival, creativity, and relationships. This argument echoes assertions made by authors in the previous chapter that effective curriculum is relevant to students’ needs, interests, and experiences.
Jensen expresses concern about the emphasis on testing over other forms of assessment. He suggests that the primary goal for students should be learning and, as such, schools should develop assessments that measure students’ abilities to learn rather than simply the outcomes of learning. The human brain seeks variety and alternative, viable ways of completing a task rather than being bound to single strategy. However, academic assessments often limit students to one “correct” way of completing a task or one “correct” response. Jensen suggests that allowing students to demonstrate what they know in a variety of ways expands their opportunities for learning.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. As Jensen points out, we know that children develop cognitively in different ways and at different rates. Despite this fact, K–12 education as been moving toward increasingly standardized curricula and assessments, in which students are expected to have the same skills and understand the same concepts at the same point in their lives. The result is that students who fall short of these expectations are deemed failures. Jensen asserts that schools must accommodate students’ different ways and rates of learning. In what ways do you see both standardization and accommodation reflected in your school or district? How can teachers ensure that individual learning differences do not impede academic success?
2. Jensen asserts that due to changes in society and family relations, children today have weaker social and emotional skills than they did in the past. At the same time, schools, under pressure to raise test scores, make little investment in helping students to develop these areas. Do you believe that schools should be responsible for students’ social and emotional development? Why or why not? In what ways might schools support this development in ways that are complementary to academic learning?
3. Standardized assessments, such as tests, measure the outcome of learning rather than assess how students learn, which Jensen believes should be the primary concern of schools. Further, he points out that there is no evidence that students who test well do better in life or that test-taking skills are transferable to other learning contexts. How might schools assess how students learn, rather than “facts” they have memorized?
2.2 Understanding How Young Children Learn: Bringing the Science of Child Development to the Classroom, by Wendy Ostroff
Introduction
Wendy Ostroff is a professor at Curry College in Massachusetts in the Program for the Advancement of Learning. Her work focuses on cognitive psychology, metacognition, and curriculum development. Ostroff draws on her expertise in these areas to understand children’s motivation, particularly in academic learning. With the fast pace of children’s lives and their use of new technologies—realities that are certain to accelerate in the future—academic motivation has become and will continue to be an important issue in the field of education.
The following excerpt is drawn from Ostroff’s book, Understanding How Young Children Learn: Bringing the Science of Child Development to the Classroom, published in 2012. In the excerpt, taken from the chapter “Understanding Children’s Motivation,” Ostroff draws on principles of cognitive and developmental science to explain motivation or readiness to learn. She discusses four brain-based proclivities that motivate young children to learn: the preference for novelty, confidence, play, and belonging to a community. In accounting for these factors, schools will be better able to develop curriculum and instruction that motivates students to learn.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Ostroff, W. (2012). Understanding how young children learn: Bringing the science of child development to the classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Understanding Children’s Motivation
Mo•ti•va•tion is the driving desire behind all action and is the precursor and cornerstone to learning. It is no exaggeration to say that children have boundless energy for living and learning. From an evolutionary perspective, behaviors that are important for survival (like eating or reproducing) must be pleasurable to do in and of themselves. Young children survive by exploring their world via manipulation, locomotion, language, and social interaction. But they also love doing these things. The immediate satisfaction of “being good at” something also has adaptive significance for cognitive growth. To motivate children and keep them primed for the best learning possible, we must understand how motivation to learn develops.
A Developmental Science Approach to Motivation
Motivation is a readiness (or a setup) to learn. Throughout life we learn incredibly complex skills without consciously trying at all. As the British developmental scientist John L. Locke (1995) notes, infants and children do not set out to learn any of the vast repertoire of skills that they gain in the first years. Instead, they study the faces, voices, and actions of others out of a deep biological need for emotional interaction with those who love and care for them. They simply find themselves in a social and cultural context that values certain skills and uses them constantly. Learning, then, is an unintended bonus. It is a byproduct of wanting to do other things, like receive a smile from your conversational partner or be soothed by your mother’s voice.
Across tens of thousands of years of human evolution, certain proclivities on the part of the infant and child have emerged. In the same way, social and cultural mannerisms have arisen around children and in support of their learning. When it comes to understanding where motivation comes from, we should consider both those things that children actively try to master and those things that they just pick up along the way. Children’s learning is dynamic and results from the interaction between inborn capacity and experience.
Desire to learn is present even before birth. As their world is suddenly filled with new things to see, hear, smell, taste, and touch, fetuses and new babies develop reflexive behaviors to organize that information and to make meaning from it. Reflexes have evolved to help the young of a species to adapt to its environment. The rooting and suckling reflexes, for example, guarantee that a helpless infant takes in the milk it needs to survive. Sometimes reflexes develop into more complex modes of behavior and set up learning. They are important clues to the development of motivation.
Motivation Propeller 1: Habituation and Novelty Preference
Within minutes of Mr. Frymer turning his back to the second-grade class and beginning to write multiplication problems on the board, Aaron begins to zone out. He fiddles with his pencil and rummages through his desk. It is not until he notices the back of Samantha’s neck in front of him that his interest is piqued again. With full engagement and vigor, Aaron begins tearing the comers off of his math worksheet and rolling spitballs.
Beginning in infancy and throughout the life span, humans are motivated by newness, change, and excitement. Habituation, the tendency to lose interest in a repeated event and gain interest in a new one, is one of the most fundamental human reflexes. If the thermostat were to suddenly turn the air conditioning on, you would hear the loud humming sound begin, but within minutes you couldn’t even hear it if you tried. Habituation, a fundamental property of the nervous system, provides mechanisms to ignore the environment when it presents no immediate threat or reward, and to focus attention on potentially important new input. Habituation is also an elementary form of inhibition, the complex cognitive maneuver that allows us to override urges. This reflects the function of the frontal lobes of the brain. Finally, habituation is considered to be the simplest form of learning. Habituation is important to understand in relation to children’s motivation, because if children are habituating to the learning situation of the classroom, their attention and interest will decline.
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Motivation Propeller 2: Confidence
Kelly remembers the exact year when she stopped drawing. At first, school allowed her endless time to play with art supplies and create wild, colorful pictures that jumped off the page. She drew hundreds of portraits of her house and her cats. But in the third grade her school began its “Artist of the Week” program, and because Kelly was never chosen, she came to see that her drawings were not so great. The children who won could color in the lines much better than her, and their cats looked more like real cats. Kelly’s art and love of learning gradually fell away.
Confidence helps children learn. As adults, we often have a fairly accurate idea of what we’re best at, what things come easily and naturally to us. Confidence in our own abilities becomes the first step toward success. On the other hand, if we have had a negative experience with learning, we may label ourselves as deficient in that subject. When we believe that we can’t do something no matter how hard we try, we’ll soon give up. I have worked with countless students who believed themselves to be “bad at” a particular subject and who stopped engaging long before. Even when situations change (and they would do well), these students lose the motivation to try, a condition called “learned helplessness.” Assessing potential success might be adaptive in that it can prevent us from making fools of ourselves, but it can also hinder us from trying and practicing new things.
It is critical that we protect and build children’s confidence. In a now-classic study conducted by a San Francisco educator and a University of California psychologist (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1966), elementary school teachers were told that 20 percent of their students showed unusual potential for academic success (called intellectual “bloomers”). What the teachers did not know was that these students were chosen at random. By the end of the school year, the children who were merely expected to perform better (but were no smarter) actually did show superior academic performance. This was especially true of the youngest students. But even more striking, children who were labeled “bloomers” scored higher on IQ tests, a lasting measure of intellectual potential! Clearly the teachers’ continued expectation that some students were destined for success imparted some level of confidence in the children themselves.
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Motivation Propeller 3: Play
Six-year-old Peter squeals with glee as the tribes of ants he has been drawing march toward their helicopters. These are rescue ants, in full gear, ready for any emergency that might come up. “Psheeeeeeeeeew!” he says, furiously scribbling the explosion that will cause an avalanche. In come the ants! “Look out below!” And Peter continues this way for almost an hour, his paper and pencil transformed from things to interactive places. He is not at all concerned with the finished product or what others might think. His imagination has transported him from his bedroom to the depths of the ants’ miniscule world.
Play is a wonderfully natural and spontaneous setup for learning. Children have an inclination to play as a means of exploring and being inventive, creative, and curious; it is their chief pastime, accounting for a substantial portion of their time and energy and is endlessly absorbing and exciting for them. The motivational forces of play cannot be overstated. Children and other primates play not because they know it will help them learn, but because they have fun doing it. When it stops being fun, children stop playing. Play is the quintessential feature of childhood, sometimes defined as “that behavior exhibited by juveniles.” It is also the central activity during the time in development when humans are at their most receptive to knowledge, making it the ideal vehicle for learning.
Play behavior is rooted in evolutionary adaptation; it is ubiquitous among mammals, seems to exist in birds and fish, and is most frequently found in species that have rich behavioral repertoires. Play is also observed in greater complexity among animals with higher cognitive capacities. In order for this distinct motivational system to have evolved, it must serve important biological functions. Peer play lets members of a species bond with each other and enables them to learn to identify one another, to learn acceptable and successful behavior, and to learn to communicate well. These are all crucial skills for the group’s survival. Scientists speculate that juvenile play is practice for adult behavior and even suggest that it represents a virtually irresistible drive to acquire the skills necessary for effective adult functioning. Time to play is perhaps the reason that our extended period of childhood exists at all.
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Motivation Propeller 4: Joining the Community
Ten-month-old Diego has been learning Spanish since his ears began hearing sounds, when his mother was only 6 months pregnant. Now he smiles when she smiles and follows the melody of her voice to know when it’s time to relax or to get excited. He is also learning to listen when she talks and to babble and coo when she’s quiet; they take turns and have little “conversations” all day long. He isn’t trying to learn language but just loves the soothing voice of his mother, and he will do any charming necessary to get one of her warm smiles.
Perhaps the greatest motivator and set-up for learning is the one we notice the least because it is so seamlessly embedded in our daily lives—our desire to join the community. Humans have been evolving for over two million years, and living in social groups has been paramount to our species’ survival. Like other primates, humans are inherently social, living in complex organizations such as tribes, families, and nations. Social interaction has allowed us to establish complex ways of being together—to develop rituals, value systems, social norms, and artistic expressions, to name a few. Humans have evolved within communities, and the desire to be part of those communities is among our most basic needs. In fact, many neuroscientists now consider the human brain to be primarily a “social tool,” meaning that our cognitive skills have adapted for and function in the service of social relationships.
* * *
The intense motivational pull of community joining can bootstrap infants and children into new forms of complex learning. For example, the development of walking is a complex motor milestone that involves having enough strength to hold one’s body weight on one leg (while the other leg moves forward) and having enough postural control to keep the body centered. This takes a lot of time and effort to learn! But the desire to join the walking community is enough motivation to speed up that learning curve. Research shows that children with older siblings walk significantly sooner than those without, regardless of their height, weight, or gender (Berger, 2006). Walking tends to start at about the same time that infants begin to understand and benefit from access to the social world.
Source: Ostroff, W. (2012). Understanding how young children learn: Bringing the science of child development to the classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Summary
In prefacing her assertions, Ostroff points out that young children are always ready to learn and are always learning. At times, they are actively trying to learn. At other times, learning occurs more indirectly or unconsciously. Educators are largely concerned with the former and how they can compel students to actively and intentionally engage in academic learning.
Ostroff examines four proclivities of the young child’s brain that can be used to motivate children to engage in such learning. The first is children’s preference for newness, change, and excitement. Habituation tends to dampen children’s motivation, and children tend to lose interest in habitual activities. Secondly, confidence has a positive effect on motivation to learn. When children feel that they can do something well, they are more apt to invest their efforts. On the other hand, when children believe that they will not be successful at a particular task, they are less likely to persist. As such, teachers must build students’ confidence and hold high expectations.
Young children are also motivated by play. The spontaneity and excitement of play connects to their preference for novelty. Play is a primary activity through which young children learn a wide variety of skills, such as risk taking, communication, and identifying acceptable behaviors.
Ostroff believes that it is vital for educators to create opportunities for children to bond with others while they play. According to Ostroff, the desire to be part of a community is innate and motivates children to learn. As part of a social group, children naturally develop cognitive and social skills that enable them build successful relationships. Ultimately, Ostroff, like Jenson, believes that in capitalizing on their innate, brain-based proclivities, educators will be better able to design educational experiences in which children are motivated to learn.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Although Ostroff stresses the importance of play in young children’s educational experiences, there has been increasing emphasis on structured, academic learning in the early grades. For example, in some schools, standardized, multiple choice tests are being administered to children in kindergarten and even in preschool. Rigorous assessments of schools and teachers have compelled educators to assess young children’s academic levels in order to identify learning difficulties as early as possible. Given the realities of accountability, how should schools balance the need for play with academic imperatives among young children? Are there ways in which schools can use the principles of play to develop their academic skills?
2. Some scholars have connected the lack of student motivation to their technology use. Many children have become accustomed to the fast paced and ever-changing environments as well as the instant gratification of video games and the internet, but instructional approaches to academic learning have not changed much over time. What have you seen as evidence of the impact of new technologies on students’ academic motivation? How might schools capitalize on technological advances that are engaging to children in order to design more motivating learning activities in school?
3. Ostroff highlights the importance of confidence in students’ motivation to learn and points out that educators can and should play a vital role in building students’ confidence. This suggestion connects to the notion of “self-efficacy”; when children believe that they are capable of achieving a desired outcome, they are much more likely to apply their efforts toward that goal. What school practices or policies might hinder students’ ability to develop academic confidence? What can educators do to build confidence, particularly among students who are struggling academically?
2.3 Differentiated Instruction: Can It Work? by Carol Ann Tomlinson
Introduction
Carol Ann Tomlinson is an expert in the area of differentiated instruction in K–12 education. Differentiated instruction is the practice of providing various forms of curriculum and instruction to meet the learning needs of individual students at different levels of ability and with different learning styles. Tomlinson was a classroom teacher for 21 years and a school administrator for 12 years, providing educational services for both advanced and struggling students. Currently, she is a professor at the University of Virginia’s Curry School of Education. Her work is focused on helping schools design learner-centered curriculum and instruction that is responsive to students in heterogeneous classrooms.
The following excerpted article focuses largely on the role of administrators in creating an environment in which teachers can effectively differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms. She points out that differentiating instruction is a complex process throughout which school leaders must provide a variety of opportunities for learning, and practice and support for teachers. To do this, leaders must understand the principles of differentiated instruction and the everyday work of implementation. They must use those principles to support the work of teachers who, like students, are at different levels of understanding and competency.
Tomlinson points out that differential instruction must be supported through multifaceted, schoolwide change and provides examples of schools and districts in which such changes have been made successfully. Ultimately, she argues, schools cannot be effective unless they are intentional about planning for the full range of learning needs among their students.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Tomlinson, C. A. (2000). Differentiated instruction: Can it work? Education Digest, 65(5), 25.
In differentiated instruction, classroom teachers make vigorous attempts to meet students where they are in the learning process and move them along as quickly and as far as possible in the context of a mixed-ability classroom. It promotes high-level and powerful curriculum for all students, but varies the level of teacher support, task complexity, pacing, and avenues to learning based on student readiness, interest, and learning profile.
Differentiation seems a common-sense approach to addressing the needs of a wide variety of learners, promoting equity and excellence and focusing on best-practice instruction in mixed-ability classrooms. This makes more sense than the timeworn method of aiming for students in the middle and hoping for the best for those on the upper and lower extremes.
For all its promise, however, effective differentiation is complex to use and thus difficult to promote in schools. Moving toward differentiation is a long-term change process which can be prepared for by drawing on insights from research about change as well as the experiences of others who have provided effective differentiated learning for students of varying abilities.
The Sheridan Public Schools, in Englewood, Colorado, began its journey toward differentiation by ensuring that the five-member board of education and central-office administrators and principals first understood the key concepts before moving on to teaching the staff. While not all district-level leaders need be experts on differentiation, they mustn’t ask teachers to undertake a significant change about which they themselves are vague or ill-prepared. Here are several areas of preparation that make good sense:
· Develop informed district leadership. Leaders must have a solid rationale for why differentiated learning makes sense for the district, understanding key definitions and principles of effective differentiation and appreciating what will be asked of teachers as they move toward more academically responsive classrooms. A central-office team that is expert, or becoming expert, in the theory and practices of differentiation can create an environment of focus, support, and persistence needed for complex change. Vision and management are rooted in district leadership that’s well informed.
· Provide committed building-level leadership. One can’t overstate the significant role of building-level leadership in promoting differentiation. Principals and their assistants are catalysts for ongoing conversations about differentiation. They prompt long-term sharing of successes and problem solving related to failures, insist on transfer of understanding into classroom practice, and link teacher practice with assessment of teacher effectiveness. Ideally, in each school that plans to differentiate instruction, the principal or assistant principal should be ready to serve as the on-site source of support.
· Nurture teacher models and coaches. One efficient way to start differentiation is to cultivate and support small cadres of teachers who pioneer differentiation in their classrooms. Providing early and generous training, time, materials, affirmation, and collaboration for a few teachers who have the skill and will to differentiate instruction will establish laboratories for progress, classrooms that can later be models, and teachers who become credible staff developers down the road.
In differentiated classrooms, teachers are leaders who establish learning goals for their learners. Always, however, because they understand their students’ individuality and trust their insights, they invite learners to participate in shaping classroom procedures, making choices that work best for them and thinking of ways to make the classroom more effective.
One thing is non-negotiable: Each learner works toward essential understandings and skills. How they do so is often highly negotiable.
In a district promoting differentiation, leaders have an opportunity to model the practices of differentiation they commend to teachers. That teachers move toward the goal of developing responsive classrooms ought to be non-negotiable. Understanding the individuality of teachers and trusting their insights, however, leaders should work with teachers to develop increasingly effective and varied ways to accomplish the goals of differentiation. It is unwise for educational leaders to ask schools and teachers to be vigorously sensitive to individual student differences while leaders function as though all schools or all teachers are alike.
How the Learner Works Toward Essential Skills Is Often Highly Negotiable
In Grosse Pointe, Michigan, district administrators initially invited each school to adopt a plan for moving toward differentiation based on a three-tiered proposal generated at the district level. Schools that opted for a tier three (the most comprehensive) commitment agreed to more rapid and multifaceted progress than those with a tier one commitment. While it was clear that all schools were expected to apply and hone skills of responsive instruction, faculties could make important decisions about pace and complexity of progress.
Differentiation can be modeled through: reflecting on the nature and needs of schools and teachers and being responsive to the variance that exists on those levels, just as it does in classrooms; establishing clear goals, but remaining open to varied ways of achieving them; providing support to teachers based on their particular needs; crafting staff development to respond to a wide range of levels of teacher comfort with differentiation; and basing teacher evaluation, at least largely, on the degree to which individual teachers set and achieve differentiation goals appropriate for their level of professional development.
The Hard Part
It is not as difficult for teachers to understand ideas from staff development opportunities as to translate them into consistent classroom practice. Calling for transfer asks teachers to shed comfortable classroom functioning for less predictable ways of working, while the world moves around them at a rapid pace. It asks for significant change in ways teachers think about learners, classroom organization, their own roles, and curriculum and instruction. Staff development that stops with “telling” teachers what to do will fall drastically short of effective transfer.
In the Amherst County, Virginia, Public Schools, a local staff developer joins individual principals on visits to classrooms where teachers are involved in early stages of differentiating their instruction. Providing teachers course-length staff development on differentiation helps ensure they have sufficient time and guidance to understand its basic elements. The staff development requires teachers to plan differentiated lessons and provides both coaching and feedback throughout the planning. Teachers notify the staff developer when they are ready to implement a differentiated lesson, and it is at this point that both the trainer and the principal go together to the classroom at teacher invitation.
During the lesson, they use an observation format designed around key vocabulary and principles from the staff development sessions. The observation is primarily to ensure that the staff developer and principal understand the ideas behind differentiation in similar ways. Thus, the observations are a means by which everyone involved grows in common understanding—not a teacher evaluation.
Creating staff development for transfer would likely include: providing substantial, ongoing staff development rather than one-shot wonders; ensuring multiple staff development options linked to teacher readiness, interest, and learning profile; making available time and coaching as teachers develop differentiated curriculum and instruction; encouraging peer collaboration among teachers for planning, carrying out, and assessing effectiveness of differentiated instruction; setting expectations for classroom implementation of ideas gained through staff development; ensuring that definitions, terms, principles, and practices of differentiation are spoken of in common language in all staff development options as well as observations; and establishing teacher-administrator understanding and collaboration for mutual growth through classroom observations.
* * *
Teaching is typically an isolating activity. It is not easy to forge effective partnerships among generalists and specialists. Partnerships that work best to meet the needs of diverse learners likely meet these conditions:
· They provide extended periods of time for a single specialist to work with several classroom teachers in a given span (e.g., a semester or a year) so the partners can talk and listen together, get to know the same students well, carve out classroom procedures, and succeed and fail together. This appears crucial in turning the vision of differentiation into classroom reality.
· They avoid ownership of students. That is, while the learning disabilities specialist clearly has important insights to share about differentiating instruction for students with learning disabilities, she is also present to help make learning more effective for high-end learners (who may or may not have learning problems), second-language students, and everyone else in the room. Both partners have the common goal of maximizing learning for everyone.
· They attend to the need for various specialists to learn from one another as well as to learn from classroom teachers. Again, while specialists in gifted education bring specialized knowledge about high-end learning to their work, they need also to learn about working effectively with emotionally volatile students and students who need reading support. In the end, all specialists should work toward becoming differentiation specialists as well as experts in their own fields.
Differentiated instruction is not a strategy. It is a total way of thinking about learners, teaching, and learning. It is, in essence, growth toward professional expertise. There is probably no such thing as an expert teacher who is insensitive to individual need and ineffective in adapting instruction in response to learner need. To develop a growing number of effectively differentiated classrooms is to foster development of a cadre of expert teachers.
If that is the goal of a district, planning for differentiation is forever. It cannot be the focus of a year—or even of five or 10 years. It must be a central, predominant, and lasting goal. Planning for the long haul means district leaders would:
· Develop board, district, and school goals that center on maximizing the learning capacity of each student who comes to school there;
· Develop steady and consistent long-term goals that are used for funding, staff development, hiring, teacher and administrator assessment, and policy making, as well as short-term goals that are revised on a regular basis to reflect growth and support continued attainment of the long-term goals; and
· Study our best understanding of the change process and plan for the various stages of change in regard to differentiation, including initiation, implementation, institutionalization, and renewal phases.
Public education that accepts all comers is a uniquely American vision. Cultivating schools that effectively, vigorously, and consistently address that full range of learning needs in the context of heterogeneity is the goal of differentiation.
It is ambitious in its scope, likely not fully possible, and confounding in its complexity—and yet no more worthwhile goal may exist for school leaders who believe in public education that provides equity of access and growth in individual excellence for all learners. Leaders who are consistent, insistent, and persistent in promoting effective differentiation should find both challenge and reward aplenty.
Source: Tomlinson, C. A. (2000). Differentiated instruction: Can it work? Education Digest, 65(5), 25.
Summary
This excerpt discussed the role and responsibilities of school leaders in promoting differentiated instruction schoolwide. As a first step, Tomlinson suggests that leaders educate themselves about the principles and practices of differentiated instruction, drawing on research and the experiences of others. She believes that school leaders cannot effectively support teachers if they do not understand exactly what they are expecting teachers to do. Secondly, they must take into account that, as learners themselves, teachers have different levels of ability and ways of working. Thus, although they must insist that all teachers move toward greater competency in differentiating curriculum and instruction, school leaders should allow individual teachers to make decisions about pacing and methods that meet their particular needs.
In addition to serving as sources of support, school leaders must put structures in place that promote differentiated instruction, structures that align the goal of differentiation with funding, policies, organization of the school day, and modes of assessment. School leaders should also promote the development of support teams in schools, which can consist of teachers and coaches. Tomlinson suggests that classrooms in which differentiation is successfully implemented can serve as “laboratories for progress,” from which others can learn. Of course, this means that school leaders must encourage and structure time for collaboration among school personnel.
Staff should also be provided with professional development opportunities. Given the complex and ongoing nature of differentiation, staff development should be sustained, rather than composed of singular workshops. Further, school leaders are responsible for assessing teachers’ progress, through observation and feedback. According to Tomlinson, assessments should not be evaluations but, rather, opportunities for teachers, coaches, and school leaders to develop a common understanding about successes, challenges, and steps for moving forward in effectively differentiating instruction to meet the needs of all students.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. In schools, reform mandates are often imposed on teachers by school or district leaders with little, if any, input from teachers. Further, experienced teachers, in particular, have developed modes of instruction that they are comfortable with and that they feel work in their classrooms; they can be skeptical of being asked to adopt yet another reform. What suggestions for school leaders, made by Tomlinson, seem particularly useful for getting teachers to buy into the idea of differentiating their instruction, and why? Which seem particularly useful in helping teachers to change their everyday practices?
2. Tomlinson makes claims about differentiated instruction that Nieto and Bode (2011), in Chapter 1, and Irvine, later in this chapter, make about multicultural education and culturally relevant pedagogy. All three of these approaches are purported to meet the individual needs of diverse learners and promote educational equity. How does differentiated instruction differ from the other two approaches from a theoretical perspective—the beliefs about knowledge and education upon which it is based? How might differentiated instruction look similar to and different from the other two approaches in practice, and why?
3. Tomlinson points out the imperative that school leaders be educated about the theories, principles, and practices of differentiated instruction before insisting that teachers change their practice in this way. However, she does not give explicit examples of how they can gain that knowledge. As a school superintendent, principal, or dean of instruction, what would you suggest as professional development for school administrative staff around this topic? What resources might you have and need in your district to support this?
2.4 The Coteaching Partnership, by Marilyn Friend
Introduction
Marilyn Friend is an experienced educator in the areas of general and special education, teacher education, and staff development. She is currently the chair of and a professor in the Department of Specialized Education Services at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Much of her work focuses on strategies for coteaching and teaching partnerships. Friend believes that effective teaching and learning environments are those in which teachers support and learn from each other.
The article below discusses the potential for coteaching as a means for improving the learning experience, particularly for students receiving special education services. Rather than two teachers combining their classes, this article discusses coteaching partnerships between teachers and special educators in a single classroom. Friend explains how such a partnership, which improves the student–teacher ratio and capitalizes on the strengths of both professionals, can create a more inclusive learning environment that benefits struggling learners and all students.
Friend argues that coteaching should be supported schoolwide and discusses challenges to coteaching related to logistics, student-body composition, educators’ skills and perceptions, and institutional support. Ultimately, Friend asserts that that coteaching can be an effective way to help special needs and struggling students to realize their academic potential.
Excerpt
The following excerpt is from Friend, M. (2007). The coteaching partnership. Educational Leadership, 64(5), 48–52.
In classrooms filled with students with a variety of learning needs, two teachers can be better than one.
Maria and Carol have been working with their 3rd graders on using adjectives in spoken and written language. One strategy they used was a fishbone diagram. Maria read a short story to the entire group. Then Carol asked the class to agree on a favorite character, and she wrote the character’s name on the head of the fish. Together, the teachers coached the students to use adjectives to describe that character and wrote these words on the bones of the fish. For additional practice, the two teachers gave each student a fishbone diagram and divided the class into two groups. Carol read one story with her group while Maria read a different story with hers. Each student chose a character, filled in his or her diagram with adjectives, and then shared the results with a partner from the group. What the students did not realize is that Maria’s group read a simpler story than Carol’s group did.
During a unit on the Industrial Revolution and urbanization in their block-scheduled U.S. History class, coteachers Mark and Celeste divided their students into three groups. One group worked with Mark to explore the effects of late-19th-century inventions on American society. Celeste led her group in a discussion of The Jungle by Upton Sinclair. The third group of students watched a short video on the era, examined materials from the local historical society, and wrote questions they wanted the class to discuss about what life was like at that time. Each 25 minutes, the groups rotated so that all students participated in all the activities during the class period. The teachers spent the last few minutes of class leading a whole-class discussion of what students had learned. As the bell rang, one student eagerly asked, “What are we going to learn about tomorrow?”
Coteaching arrangements like these are one promising option for meeting the learning needs of the many students who once spent a large part of the school day with special educators in separate classrooms. First described in the 1970s (Warwick, 1971), classroom partnerships specifically designed to reach students with disabilities became more commonplace in the 1980s (Bauwens, Hourcade, & Friend, 1989). Today’s mandates for inclusion have brought new appeal to this approach. In coteaching, two teachers of equivalent professional status, most often a classroom teacher and a special education teacher, share instructional responsibility for a diverse group of students that usually includes several with disabilities or other special needs.
Coteaching partnerships are unique for several reasons. First, unlike partnerships in which two educators blend two class groups—as when two 5th grade teachers open the movable wall between their classrooms—coteaching dramatically improves the student-teacher ratio. Instead of one teacher for 25 students or two teachers for 50, the ratio becomes two teachers for 25 (or possibly just a few more) students.
Second, the two professionals in cotaught classes bring unique areas of emphasis to the partnership (Dieker, 2001). The classroom teacher focuses on content and the curriculum. The special educator or specialist focuses on the learning process, helping students acquire, remember, and demonstrate knowledge and skills. When these two types of expertise are blended, students benefit (Murray, 2004).
Understanding the Challenges
If coteaching is so valuable, why isn’t it an option in every school? Consider these comments from teachers in schools implementing coteaching:
· The special educator I work with says she doesn’t really know the curriculum and is uncomfortable participating in instruction. I’m not sure what she’s supposed to do.
· The classroom teacher told me that I shouldn’t talk during instruction. He told me that after he finished, I could walk around to help “my” students. I feel like a teaching assistant.
· We never have a chance to plan, so it’s not a really a partnership.
These comments illustrate why some school leaders are reluctant to establish coteaching programs and why some coteaching arrangements are unsuccessful. This complex means of reaching struggling learners relies on careful planning, implementation, and maintenance. But with the proper planning and support, coteaching can benefit teachers and students alike.
Coteaching in Context
Coteaching is most effective when it is an integral component of a school’s efforts to provide all students with the education they are entitled to. Coteaching should be part of a school culture that encourages professionals to work together to achieve shared goals (Barth, 2006).
In addition, coteaching is a way to provide services to students within an inclusive school. Such a school welcomes all students, whatever their strengths and struggles, and commits to helping all students learn. All teachers, not just a few, contribute to an inclusive school culture. This dedication to student learning should translate into specific actions. For example, one high school principal decided to assign a cotaught class to any teacher assigned to an advanced placement class.
Professionals should keep in mind that coteaching is only one of several beneficial options for supporting students in an inclusive school. Some students with disabilities need the structure and intensity of small-group settings to raise achievement. Nothing about coteaching implies that schools should eliminate such approaches.
Teacher and Administrator Fears and Expectations
Administrators often rely on volunteers who agree to coteach. Although it seems that nearly all teachers would welcome the opportunity for this type of collaboration, some are reluctant. Classroom teachers may fear that special educators will judge their teaching. Special educators may worry that others will question the value of their work, or even that their jobs might be eliminated.
After several years, participating teachers may desire a break from coteaching but find that no one is willing to take over. Potential new coteachers may be reluctant to volunteer for fear that they could not coteach as well as those with more experience. Principals can eliminate some of these recruitment problems by gradually but firmly establishing the expectation that any teacher in the school might be asked to partner with a specialist, although not necessarily every year. Ideally, coteaching becomes a standard for practice that is integral to a school’s efforts to reach all students.
Professional Development and Preparation
Professional development is essential for creating and sustaining coteaching. All staff members should begin with a basic understanding of it, and partners should have the opportunity to learn about coteaching expectations and discuss essential topics. Teachers need to establish the roles and responsibilities each person will have in the cotaught classroom (Wasburn-Moses, 2005) by, for example, discussing how to ensure that they both assume active instructional roles that maximize each one’s contribution to teaching and learning. If the special educator does not have extensive experience with the subject matter, as might happen in middle or high school, the partners should outline what the special educator’s classroom role will be—and when that teacher might comfortably lead instruction. For example, the special educator might lead the class in completing a review, give directions, and demonstrate real-world applications of concepts. Most important, the coteachers should discuss how to make sure that the instruction appears seamless to students and that both teachers work with all students even while addressing individual needs.
Coteachers should also outline how they will address common classroom issues such as discipline and grading. They might discuss their priorities in terms of student behavior and clarify that both teachers will address any discipline problems they notice using their agreed-upon classroom expectations. For grading, the coteachers might begin by duplicating several students’ assignments and grading them independently to check that their judgments are consistent; they can then share this classroom task. They also should discuss how they will make decisions about report card grades for students, keeping in mind accommodations on students’ individualized education programs (IEPs).
Once they complete initial staff development, coteachers often benefit from visiting classrooms with model coteaching practices already in place or participating in peer observations to exchange feedback on their classroom practices. They also might create a professional learning community so that they can periodically meet with other coteachers to discuss their accomplishments and challenges and to trade ideas. This ongoing support helps teachers reflect on coteaching, resolve problems, and experiment with new approaches.
The structure of coteaching provides excellent support to students with disabilities or other special needs—as well as to students who struggle but have never been identified as having special needs. However, teachers in cotaught classes must be sure that their academic content, instructional strategies, and behavior management plans are research based and effectively implemented. The strength of coteaching comes from the many opportunities to use innovative practices that would be far less practical in a classroom with just one teacher. See Leadership Tips for Coteaching Programs for more ways to create and sustain an effective coteaching program.
Leadership Tips for Coteaching Programs
· Build professional relationships. Create opportunities for teachers to discuss their strengths and concerns, shared expectations for the cotaught class, and ways to address disagreements.
· Visit cotaught classrooms to observe how coteaching is being implemented. Your visits communicate commitment to the program’s success.
· Encourage teachers to experiment with many different grouping strategies and instructional techniques.
· Solve small problems before they grow. If either partner is dissatisfied with a lesson, a classroom procedure, or a situation that has occurred, encourage them to discuss it as soon as possible. If necessary, facilitate this problem-solving process.
· Celebrate successes. When the parent of a student with a disability calls to say her son has never had a better school year, congratulate the teachers. Share the successes with the entire faculty.
Logistical Concerns
When I ask teachers to list their concerns related to coteaching, the first item is almost always shared planning time. Most coteachers would like a planning session every day, or at least every week. If daily or weekly sessions aren’t feasible, administrators need to find creative ways to make at least periodic planning a reality. Some administrators arrange for coteachers to receive continuing education credits for participating in after-school planning sessions. Others offer coteachers a small monthly stipend that acknowledges the additional planning inherent in this model. If substitute teachers can fill in so that teachers can be released from classroom duties, teachers can occasionally plan during the school day.
The second logistics matter concerns scheduling. First, principals should group students in such a way that quality coteaching is feasible. For example, several 4th grade students with special needs might be placed in a single classroom instead of distributed across all 4th grade classrooms. Thus, more of these students will receive the support provided in a cotaught classroom. However, the number of students with special needs assigned to any single classroom should not be so high that the teachers find it impossible to maintain the pace and rigor of the required curriculum. If the percentage of students with disabilities is kept below one-quarter in elementary classes and one-third in middle and high school classes, coteachers can usually avoid serious problems. The belief that two teachers can handle an unlimited number of students with learning needs can undermine a coteaching program.
Teacher scheduling also is a consideration. Some special educators, especially at the elementary level, may spend the entire day with one classroom teacher. However, most specialists coteach with two, three, or even four colleagues. To avoid requiring too much of special educators, elementary schools might limit the number of grade levels any single special educator covers. In middle school, it is preferable for special educators to be assigned to just one team. In high school, special educators might coteach only in English classes instead of in math and science classes as well.
Some classroom teachers may find themselves working with more than one special educator. For example, students in an elementary classroom may not all be in the same specialist’s caseload. Core high school courses such as 9th grade English may be served by several different special educators, and a classroom teacher may coteach with one person in a morning class and someone else in an afternoon class. Such scheduling problems may be unavoidable, but these arrangements should be the exception.
Measuring Results
In this era of accountability, program evaluation is a significant component of coteaching (Wilson, 2005). Because student achievement outcomes depend so heavily on the quality of implementation, school leaders should establish criteria for judging the quality of the coteaching program (Salend, Gordon, & Lopez-Vona, 2002). Are both teachers actively engaged in the instructional process? Do both teachers contribute to discipline and classroom management? Are they grouping students in ways that will help them meet learning goals? Are they addressing student learning needs and making use of each teacher’s strengths?
Consider how two hypothetical classes might tackle a particular lesson. In one class, students work in one of three groups: Two are led by teachers, and one allows each student to work with a peer partner. The students rotate among the three stations during the class period so that all students participate in the three groups. In the other class, the classroom teacher leads large-group instruction while the special educator hovers toward the back of the classroom, only stepping in to help specific students for the final five minutes of the class period. Would the same student achievement results be likely from each of these arrangements?
Once the quality of implementation is established, leaders can measure outcomes. Student achievement scores are central to this effort; however, many principals and teachers find that after a single year of implementation, student achievement may be improving, but not rapidly enough to change the scores on high-stakes tests. For that reason, they should also use curriculum-based and other detailed measures of learning.
Student outcomes extend beyond achievement. School leaders can gather data on student discipline referrals, attendance, and similar outcomes. They can also interview students to gauge their reactions to two-teacher classrooms.
Other types of data can also contribute to evaluating coteaching (Mastropieri et al., 2005). For example, interviews of coteachers can explore their perceptions and observations. Parents of learners who struggle in school may offer their ideas about how coteaching is affecting their children, and parents of typical learners may report on their children’s experiences.
Tapping All Students’ Potential
We are only beginning to understand the potential of coteaching for accomplishing the goals of today’s schools. These teachers’ comments offer a glimpse of the possibilities coteaching offers:
· I knew this wasn’t going to work—after all, I don’t have special education training. But I have to admit, it’s the best thing we’ve ever done for our kids. I could never go back to the old system.
· I never realized how much potential these students have. They’re making more progress than I ever thought possible when I had them in my special education classroom.
· Why didn’t we do this years ago?
Most students with disabilities or other special needs can meet the high standards being set in today’s schools, but professionals have to find ways to tap their potential. Coteaching is one way to do this while bringing out the best in teachers and providing them with ongoing collaborative support as they meet the many challenges of contemporary public education.
References
Barth, R. (2006). Improving relationships within the school house. Educational Leadership, 63(6), 8–13.
Bauwens, J., Hourcade, J. J., & Friend, M. (1989). Cooperative teaching: A model for general and special education integration. Remedial and Special Education, 10(2), 17–22.
Dieker, L. A. (2001). What are the characteristics of “effective” middle and high school co-taught teams for students with disabilities? Preventing School Failure, 46(1), 14–23.
Mastropieri, M. A., Scruggs, T. E., Graetz, J., Norland, J., Gardizi, W., & McDuffie, K. (2005). Case studies in co-teaching in the content areas: Successes, failures, and challenges. Intervention in School and Clinic, 40, 260–270.
Murray, C. (2004). Clarifying collaborative roles in urban high schools. Teaching Exceptional Children, 36(5), 44–51.
Salend, S. J., Gordon, J., & Lopez-Vona, K. (2002). Evaluating cooperative teaching teams. Intervention in School and Clinic, 37, 195–200.
Warwick, D. (1971). Team teaching. London: University of London.
Wasburn-Moses, L. (2005). Roles and responsibilities of secondary special education teachers in an age of reform. Remedial and Special Education, 26, 151–158.
Wilson, G. L. (2005). This doesn’t look familiar: A supervisor’s guide for observing coteachers. Intervention in School and Clinic, 40, 271–275.
Source: Friend, M. (2007). The coteaching partnership. Educational Leadership, 64(5), 48–52. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Summary
Friend discusses how to create effective coteaching partnerships between classroom teachers and special educators as well as their challenges and benefits. The piece opened with an example of coteaching, using an inclusive approach to instruction to meet the needs of both mainstream and special education students. Note that special needs students were not singled out or pulled out of the classroom. The educators prepared a single, cohesive lesson that included smaller group work to differentiate curriculum. The classroom teacher and the special educator were positioned as equal partners, each drawing on individual strengths and areas of expertise. Friend presents this as the exemplar of the type of coteaching she discusses in the article.
Friend also discusses challenges to creating coteaching partnerships. Special educators and classroom teachers may be reluctant to coteach due to the special educator’s lack of content-area knowledge. Both may feel unprepared to coteach and be fearful about exposing lack of instructional or classroom management skills. Lastly, because effective coteaching requires great care in planning and implementation, lack of planning time can pose a significant barrier.
In addressing these concerns, Friend suggests that schools build common planning time into the school day or provide educators with incentives to plan collaboratively outside of school hours. In order to promote and nurture productive coteaching partnerships, professional development is vital. It is also important that partnering educators establish their roles and responsibilities, and align their goals and expectations as well as their approaches to assessment and classroom management.
Once coteaching is in place, school leaders must evaluate its quality and effectiveness. Although student test scores are important and should be considered, Friend points out that they may not be immediately affected by coteaching. She suggests that school leaders also include the daily experiences of students and teachers and the perceptions of parents in evaluations. Whole-school adoption and support of coteaching partnerships, which provides for instructional innovations not possible with one teacher, will improve the learning experiences and academic outcomes of all students, particularly for special needs and struggling students.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Most classroom teachers work in relative isolation where, as the sole “expert” in the classroom, they have control over everyday instruction, curriculum, and management. Further, they are often not accustomed to exposing their practices to others on a daily basis. Thus, coteaching requires a degree of vulnerability and power sharing that has not been traditionally expected of teachers. For these reasons, teachers may be reluctant to enter into a coteaching partnership with a special educator, coach, or other educational specialist. As a classroom teacher, what specific concerns might you have about coteaching? What would help you to overcome those concerns?
2. In the example provided, Friend explains how coteaching can facilitate differentiated instruction for students at different levels of ability without singling out or pulling out special needs students from the classroom. However, Friend warns that special needs students may still need some one-on-one instruction. Think of a specific example in a content area or realm of specialization where coteaching might be used in place of pulling a special needs student out of class. How might the student experience this, both academically and socially?
3. Friend says that even one year of coteaching may not result in a significant increase in students’ test scores. However, she also cites student, teacher, and parent satisfaction as important aspects of coteaching. If students or teachers prefer coteaching, even if it does not result in notable increases in test scores, do you believe it is worth the effort? Why or why not? Outside of increased test scores, what do you believe is the most important outcome of coteaching, and why?
2.5 Literacy Engagement, by Jim Cummins
Introduction
Jim Cummins is a professor at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto. He is a leading national scholar in the field of language and literacy development among those learning English as an additional language. He is particularly known for his work in Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) and Academic Language Proficiency, which pertains to how ELs acquire the English-language skills needed to successfully engage in higher order academic skills, such as reading comprehension and abstraction. Cummins argues that in order to be academically successful, ELs require more literacy engagement and instruction in English than most schools provide.
In this article, Cummins introduces the notion of literacy engagement, which he describes as active engagement in reading and writing in a rich literacy environment, with many and varied types of texts. He asserts that literacy engagement is vital to the academic success of ELs and that it can mitigate the effects of low socioeconomic status on achievement outcomes. Placing the topic within the contexts of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation, the elimination of bilingual education, and various literacy reform movements, Cummins argues that policies aimed at improving student achievement have not adequately accounted for research-based evidence showing differences in how ELs acquire conversational and academic language. Finally, he makes recommendations for how educators can increase students’ literacy engagement.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Cummins, J. (2011). Literacy engagement. Reading Teacher, 65(2), 142–146.
The construct of literacy engagement has not figured prominently in recent U.S. debates about educational policy in general or reading instruction in particular. My goal in this article is to present the case for considering literacy engagement as a primary determinant of literacy achievement for both English learners (EL) and underachieving students generally. More specifically, the research evidence suggests that schools can significantly reduce the negative effects of socioeconomic disadvantage by ensuring that students have access to a rich print environment and become actively engaged with literacy.
The case for literacy engagement as a primary determinant of achievement is both logical and empirical. Logic dictates that literacy engagement is crucial because academic language is found primarily in printed text rather than in everyday conversation. Thus EL students’ opportunities to broaden their vocabulary knowledge and develop strong reading comprehension skills are likely to be greatly enhanced when they have abundant access to printed texts and engage actively with these texts.
The empirical case derives from numerous research studies carried out over the past 30 years (reviewed by Krashen, 2004; Lindsay, 2010), together with findings produced more recently by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) coordinated by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). PISA data from largescale surveys of 15-year-old students in countries around the world show that (a) reading engagement is a stronger predictor of reading achievement than socioeconomic status (SES) (OECD, 2004), and (b) approximately one third of the relationship between reading achievement and SES is mediated by reading engagement (OECD, 2010a). Unfortunately, these data have been largely ignored by policymakers in the United States and elsewhere.
Recent Educational Policy Debates in the United States
According to U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan, in testimony delivered on March 9, 2011, before the House Education Committee, 82% of U.S. schools are unlikely to make Adequate Yearly Progress in 2011. These data added fuel to the flames of educational acrimony at a time when there is intense debate about the extent to which U.S. schools are “broken” and what should be done to fix them.
One view, most prominently expressed in the 2010 film Waiting for Superman, attributes the problems of U.S. education to the influence of “bad” teachers who cannot be held accountable (and fired) because they are protected by teacher unions. The proposed solutions involve eliminating unions’ right to collective bargaining, expanding nonunionized charter schools, and using high-stakes standardized tests to measure not only the progress of students, but also the effectiveness of teachers and the teacher education programs that certified them.
Opposing this perspective are a large majority of educational researchers (e.g., Berliner, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2010) who dispute the blanket generalization that U.S. schools are failing and highlight instead the fact that underachievement is concentrated in schools serving low-income and racially/culturally marginalized students.
Proponents of this view suggest that policies enacted during the past decade under the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation have done nothing to close the achievement gap between social groups because these policies have been largely evidence-free, despite proclaiming themselves “scientifically proven.” These researchers argue that school improvement will result from a greater focus on equity rather than the punitive use of high-stakes standardized tests. Their skepticism about the efficacy of intensive standardized testing to improve achievement is consistent with the OECD (2010b) finding that “PISA does not show the prevalence of standardized tests to be systematically related to performance” (p. 50).
The evidence-free nature of current educational debates is particularly obvious with respect to policies concerning EL students. These students pose an awkward dilemma for policymakers who envisage expansion of the use of standardized tests to enforce accountability.
Under NCLB, EL students have been exempted from testing only in their first year of learning English. After that period, their scores are interpreted, along with the scores of other students, as reflective of the quality of instruction in a particular school. As outlined in the next section, the expectation that all EL students should be performing at grade level after one year of learning English is totally without empirical foundation.
English Language Acquisition: What Are We Talking About?
Although we commonly talk about “learning English” as if “English proficiency” were a unitary construct, we can all intuitively recognize some clear distinctions within the notion of English proficiency. These distinctions are apparent regardless of whether we are talking about native speakers of a language or second-language learners.
Specifically, we know that conversational fluency is quite different from academic proficiency in a language. The fast talkers in our classes are not necessarily the best readers. We also know that there are major differences in the way we acquire decoding skills and the processes involved in acquiring the low-frequency vocabulary that is central to the growth of reading comprehension (Cummins, 2000).
Very different trajectories are involved for EL students to catch up to their peers in each of these dimensions of proficiency. Specifically, it usually takes only about one to two years for students to become reasonably fluent in conversational English, which is characterized by high-frequency vocabulary and common grammatical constructions.
The same time period is typically required for many EL students in the early grades to acquire basic decoding skills in English to a level similar to that of their English-speaking classmates (Lesaux & Geva, 2006). However, research studies conducted in several countries show clearly that second language learners usually require at least five years (and sometimes much longer) to catch up to native English speakers in academic English (Collier, 1987; Cummins, 1981; Hakuta, Butler, & Witt, 2000).
These trajectories have major implications for policy and classroom practice. For example, Proposition 227, passed in California in 1998, was premised on the assumption that one year of intensive English instruction would be sufficient to enable EL students to integrate into mainstream classrooms with minimal additional support. In fact, research on the effects of Proposition 227 found that after three years of instruction, only 12% of EL students in California had acquired sufficient academic English to be redesignated as English-proficient (Parrish et al., 2006).
These data illustrate the magical thinking underlying the provisions of NCLB in regard to EL students and some of the reasons why 82% of schools are supposedly failing to make Adequate Yearly Progress. However, they also raise a crucial question: To what extent might the implementation of evidence-based rather than evidence free policies accelerate the acquisition of academic English among EL students?
Literacy Engagement: Assessing the Evidence
The role of literacy engagement was not examined in depth in either The National Reading Panel (NRP; 2000) or the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth (August & Shanahan, 2006). However, other reviews of the research have highlighted its relevance (e.g., Guthrie, 2004; Krashen, 2004, in press; Lindsay, 2010). Guthrie (2004), for example, pointed out that the construct of literacy engagement incorporates notions of time on task (reading and writing extensively), affect (enthusiasm and enjoyment of literacy), depth of cognitive processing (strategies to deepen comprehension), and active pursuit of literacy activities (amount and diversity of literacy practices in and out of school). He cited the PISA data as showing that students
whose family background was characterized by low income and low education, but who were highly engaged readers, substantially outscored students who came from backgrounds with higher education and higher income, but who themselves were less engaged readers. Based on a massive sample, this finding suggests the stunning conclusion that engaged reading can overcome traditional barriers to reading achievement, including gender, parental education, and income. (p. 5)
The OECD (2004) authors were careful to point out that “engagement in reading can be a consequence, as well as a cause, of higher reading skill, but the evidence suggests that these two factors are mutually reinforcing” (p. 8).
Lindsay’s (2010) meta-analysis of 108 studies similarly concluded that print access plays a causal role in the development of reading skills. He summarized the findings as follows:
Separate meta-analytic procedures performed on just those effects produced by “rigorous” [(quasi)-experimental] studies suggest that children’s access to print materials plays a causal role in facilitating behavioral, educational, and psychological outcomes in children—especially attitudes toward reading, reading behavior, emergent literacy skills, and reading performance. (p. 85)
The more recent PISA findings (OECD, 2010a) confirm these trends. Engagement in reading was assessed through measures of time spent reading various materials, enjoyment of reading, and use of various learning strategies. Across OECD countries, reading engagement was significantly related to reading performance, and approximately one third of the association between reading performance and students’ socioeconomic background was mediated by reading engagement.
This latter finding can be attributed to the fact that students from lower income communities have significantly less access to print in their schools and homes than is the case for students from middle-income communities (Duke, 2000; Neuman & Celano, 2001). Without access to print, literacy engagement is unlikely.
Instructional Implications
The fact that academic language is found primarily in texts and that print access/literacy engagement is strongly related to the development of reading comprehension implies that schools must ensure that EL students (and underachieving students in general) are given ample opportunities and encouragement to read extensively across a range of genres.
Thus an administrative priority should be to ensure that school and classroom libraries are well stocked with engaging books (see Krashen, in press). Print materials (in either students’ home language or English) should be sent home on a regular basis for students to read with their parents (see Tizard, Schofield, & Hewison, 1982, for evidence of the significant impact of this strategy in multilingual school contexts).
From the day students walk into kindergarten, they should be given daily opportunities to listen to and discuss stories (e.g., from Big Books). In reading stories to students, teachers can also focus on developing the reading strategies that will later be highly functional as students interpret written texts. For example, the kindergarten teacher might pause her reading to ask students, “What do you think is going to happen next?” In this way, EL and other students who may have had only limited access to print in their homes can be socialized at a very early age into using interpretive strategies such as prediction that will support reading comprehension in later grades.
It is important for teachers to understand that sustained engagement derives at least as much from the social interactions around books and ideas as from the individual cognitive processes involved in isolated reading. Thus teachers should encourage parents to talk with their children about the books that they read together.
Similarly, within the classroom, animated discussions and debates about the social and moral issues embedded in both fictional and expository texts should be the norm rather than the exception.
These kinds of classroom discussions also fuel engaged writing. Students can upload their individual or collaborative book reviews to one of the many websites that host such reviews and compare the extent to which their reactions to and evaluation of books they have read are similar to or different from those of other students.
EL students are often implicitly or explicitly defined by what they lack (i.e., their limited English proficiency). This is why creative writing (in English and/or the home language) that is shared with multiple audiences (e.g., through school, community, or international websites) is particularly significant for students from EL and/or marginalized communities.
These identity texts (Cummins & Early, 2011) enable students to showcase their intellectual, literary, artistic, and multilingual talents in ways that challenge the devaluation of their cultures and identities in the school and wider society. Students invest their identities in the creation of these texts, which can be written, spoken, signed, visual, musical, dramatic, or combinations in multimodal form. The identity text then holds a mirror up to students in which their identities are reflected back in a positive light.
Madiha’s dual language identity text, written when she was in grade 8, is based on a folk tale she learned in her native Pakistan and expresses the importance of her religion to her identity.
In conclusion, in an era of widespread educational cutbacks, it is even more crucial to implement rational and evidence-based policies. There is overwhelming research evidence that literacy engagement is crucial to sustained growth in reading comprehension. Therefore, educators who are committed to promoting academic achievement for all students should ensure that EL and low-income students have the same opportunities and incentives to engage actively with literacy as their more economically advantaged peers.
References
August, D., & Shanahan, T. (Eds.). (2006). Developing literacy in second-language learners. Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Berliner, D. C. (2009). Poverty and potential: Out-of-school factors and school success. Retrieved March 5, 2010, from http://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/poverty-and-potential
Collier, V. P. (1987). Age and rate of acquisition of second language for academic purposes. TESOL Quarterly, 21(4), 617–641.
Cummins, J. (1981). Age on arrival and immigrant second language learning in Canada: A reassessment. Applied Linguistics, 2(2), 132–149.
Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Cummins, J., & Early, M. (2011). Identity texts: The collaborative creation of power in multilingual schools. Stoke-on-Trent, England: Trentham.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The flat world and education. How America’s commitment to equity will determine our future. New York: Teachers College Press.
Duke, N. (2000). For the rich it’s richer: Print experiences and environments offered to children in very low and very high socioeconomic status first-grade classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 37(2), 441–478.
Guthrie, J. T. (2004). Teaching for literacy engagement. Journal of Literacy Research, 36(1), 1–30.
Hakuta, K., Butler, Y. G., & Witt, D. (2000). How long does it take English learners to attain proficiency? Santa Barbara, CA: University of California Linguistic Minority Research Institute.
Krashen, S. D. (in press). Protecting students against the effects of poverty: Libraries. New England Reading Association Journal. Retrieved March 16, 2011, from http://www .sdkrashen.com/content/articles/protecting_students.pdf
Krashen, S. D. (2004). The power of reading: Insights from the research (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Lesaux, N. K., & Geva, E. (2006). Synthesis: Development of literacy in language minority students. In D. August & T. Shanahan (Eds.), Developing literacy in second-language learners. Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth (pp. 53–74). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Lindsay, J. (2010). Children’s access to print material and education-related outcomes: Findings from a meta-analytic review. Naperville, IL: Learning Point Associates.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health & Human Development.
Neuman, S. B., & Celano, D. (2001). Access to print in low-income and middle-income communities: An ecological study of four neighborhoods. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(1), 8–26.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. (2004). Messages from PISA 2000. Paris: Author.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. (2010a). PISA 2009 results: Learning to learn—Student engagement, strategies and practices (Vol. 3). Retrieved December 15, 2010, from http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/48852630.pdf
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. (2010b). Strong performers and successful reformers in education: Lessons from PISA for the United States. Retrieved on December 27, 2010, from http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/32/50/46623978.pdf
Parrish, T., Merickel, A., Perez, M., Linquanti, R., Socias, M., Spain, A., . . . DeLancey, D. (2006). Effects of the implementation of Proposition 227 on the education of English learners, K–12: Findings from a five-year evaluation (final report). Palo Alto, San Francisco, CA: American Institutes for Research and WestEd.
Tizard, J., Schofield, W. N., & Hewison, J. (1982). Collaboration between teachers and parents in assisting children’s reading. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 52(1), 1–15.
Source: Cummins, J. (2011). Literacy engagement. Reading Teacher, 65(2), 142–146. John Wiley and Sons. © 2011 International Reading Association.
Summary
Cummins asserts that ELs’ and struggling students’ achievements in literacy are determined, in large part, by their literacy engagement—the degree to which they have access to a wide variety of texts and are actively engaged in reading, writing, and thinking about texts. However, major literacy-based and more general educational reforms have failed to consider the notion of literacy engagement and research-based evidence on English language acquisition.
For example, NCLB mandates that ELs begin participating in standardized testing in their second year of learning English, and they are to be held to the same standards as native English speakers. However, research shows that although many ELs develop conversational fluency and basic decoding skills in one year, it takes at least five years for them to acquire academic English comparable to their native-speaking peers.
Cummins argues that ELs and struggling students, more generally, need increased levels of literacy engagement in order to be successful. Literacy engagement is multidimensional, composed of time on task, affect, depth of cognitive processing, and active pursuit of literacy activities. Research cited by Cummins shows that literacy engagement can mitigate the negative effects of low SES and low parental education on literacy achievement. It can also positively affect children’s behavioral and psychological outcomes and foster positive attitudes towards reading and writing.
Teachers should ensure that students have ample opportunities to engage with a variety of texts. Engagement includes reading, being read to, and analyzing ideas in texts. Cummins also encourages schools to send texts home, which parents can read with their children. Finally, educators should provide opportunities for ELs to produce “identity texts” that allow the expression of culture, home language, personal experiences, thoughts, and interests. Such texts capitalize on students’ strengths and enable them to make deeper connections to literacy. In conclusion, Cummins argues for greater attention to literacy engagement among ELs as well as low-income and struggling learners.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Cummins is an advocate of bilingual education. In states such as California and Massachusetts, bilingual education has been eliminated in favor of sheltered immersion. Instead of being instructed in academic topics in their native language as they learn English, students are instructed in English, using strategies aimed at promoting English-language acquisition. It is generally expected that students spend one year in a sheltered immersion program before they are moved into the mainstream student population. In what specific ways does Cummins’ article support bilingual education over sheltered immersion? What arguments might be used in favor of sheltered immersion? According to Cummins’ article, what might be an appropriate timeline for EL students to mainstream out of bilingual education, and why?
2. Cummins points out that educational reforms such as NCLB and efforts to eliminate bilingual education have failed to adequately consider research-based evidence on how ELs acquire academic English. What do you think accounts for these omissions? Why haven’t these reforms been aligned with this evidence?
3. Cummins’ article stresses the importance of providing students with opportunities to create “identity texts.” It may be easier to envision how such opportunities could be built into English Language Arts course content. In what ways might identity texts be used to promote learning in subjects such as science and mathematics
2.6 Culturally Relevant Pedagogy, by Jacqueline Jordan Irvine
Introduction
Jacqueline Jordan Irvine is a retired professor of urban education in the Division of Educational Studies at Emory University and a former elementary classroom teacher and mathematics coordinator. Irvine prepares educational practitioners to teach in diverse classrooms, and her scholarship focuses on culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP), the practice of capitalizing on students’ cultural experiences as a bridge to academic learning. She also works with the Southern Poverty Law Center’s Teaching Tolerance Program.
In the following article, Irvine challenges common misunderstandings about CRP, including those that frame it as lacking rigor and appropriate only for students of color. She describes and gives examples of how and why some attempts to implement CRP are successful and others are not. In doing so, she describes the nature of CRP and the actions, commitments, and dispositions of teachers who employ it effectively.
Irvine outlines the benefits of CRP for students, including enhanced understanding of and interest in academic content. She believes that many teachers want to use more culturally relevant strategies with their students and that, with training and support, they can be successful in doing so.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Irvine, J. J. (2010). Culturally relevant pedagogy. Education Digest, 75(8), 57–61.
Monica Edwards (not her real name) was frustrated. As a teacher in an urban elementary school, Edwards faced a class that was largely African American and Latino: she was neither. She often felt that she wasn’t effectively reaching them and was beginning to get discouraged.
After hearing a colleague mention her success in using culturally relevant instructional strategies, Edwards decided to try her hand at the same. She bought a CD called Multiplication Rap, which promised to teach mathematics based on repetition and rhyme, hand-clapping, and a hip-hop musical style. She was sure the CD would appeal to her students. In the classroom, however, things didn’t go as planned. Students focused on the music itself, paying little attention to the math objectives. Several were unimpressed with the CD, and commented on the poor audio quality and amateurish lyrics. Except for the musical debate, nothing much happened. The failure rate on Edwards’ weekly exam did not change.
Sadly, Edwards’ experience is not uncommon. Many teachers have only a cursory understanding of culturally relevant pedagogy, and their efforts to bridge the cultural gap often fall short.
Culturally relevant pedagogy is a term that describes effective teaching in culturally diverse classrooms. It can be a daunting idea to understand and implement. Yet people tend to appreciate culturally relevant pedagogy when they see it.
Think of the film Stand and Deliver, in which Edward James Olmos, as teacher Jaime Escalante, teaches his students about negative numbers using the example of digging and filling holes in the sand on a California beach. He tells his mostly Latino class that the Mayan civilization independently invented the concept of zero. When the students begin to catch on, the audience is inspired by this moment of epiphany.
This type of teaching engages and motivates students. Teachers want to be a Jaime Escalante for their own students and are eager to try new techniques or tools designed to bridge a cultural gap.
However, these well-meaning educators often assume that culturally relevant pedagogy means simply acknowledging ethnic holidays, including popular culture in the curriculum, or adopting colloquial speech. And many are afraid to take it further than that, largely because they believe the following myths:
· Only teachers of color can be culturally relevant.
· Culturally relevant pedagogy is not appropriate for white students.
· Caring teachers of diverse students have no classroom management skills.
· The purpose of culturally relevant pedagogy is to help diverse students “feel good” about themselves.
· Culturally relevant teachers attend to learning styles by addressing African American male students’ need for kinesthetic activities or by allowing Asian American students to work alone.
These myths and misperceptions often result in awkward classroom moments, ineffective instructional practices, and counterproductive teacher-student and teacher-parent relationships.
Let’s tackle the biggest myth first. Culturally relevant teaching may indeed boost your students’ self-esteem, but that’s not why you should adopt it. You should adopt it because it will maximize student learning.
A culturally relevant pedagogy builds on the premise that learning may differ across cultures and teachers can enhance students’ success by acquiring knowledge of their cultural backgrounds and translating this knowledge into instructional practice.
Culturally relevant pedagogy has theoretical roots in the notion that learning is a socially mediated process and related to students’ cultural experiences. Culture is an important survival strategy that is passed down from one generation to another through enculturalization and socialization, a type of road map that guides and shapes behavior. If new information is not relevant to those frameworks of culture and cognition, people will never remember it. If the information is relevant, they will never forget it.
March to the Mailbox
Following is an example of how culturally relevant pedagogy works, and why it works for all students.
A teacher in a low-income school was struggling with teaching students to write a business letter. Her textbook offered advice for making this task relevant to students: bring a toy catalog to class, it said, and let students write letters placing an order for a Game Boy.
The teacher tried to picture this working with her students. Most couldn’t afford a Game Boy, and who orders catalog items with a business letter these days? She decided that this exercise would seem pointless to her students so she found another, more appropriate task. She told her students to write letters to the mayor, asking for changes that would make life better in their neighborhood. She told them not to rely solely on their own perspectives: they should ask relatives, neighbors, and church leaders about problems in the community as well.
The students did their research and wrote their letters. The teacher then held a “march to the mailbox,” mailing their letters with great ceremony. Not long afterward, the mayor was on the phone with the principal, asking when he could visit the class and address their concerns in person.
Cultural norms and behaviors of schools are based on mainstream assumptions. When there is a cultural mismatch or cultural incompatibility between students and their school, certain negative outcomes might occur, such as miscommunication; confrontations among the student, the teacher, and the home; hostility; alienation; diminished self-esteem; and possibly school failure.
In the case above, someone assumed that all students could envision themselves ordering a Game Boy. The teacher’s solution to this problem was truly culturally relevant because it drew on students’ resources and experiences. It worked extremely well for this group of students, and would work well in other communities, too.
Multiple Representations
Culturally relevant teaching requires teachers to possess a thorough knowledge of the content and employ multiple representations of knowledge that use students’ lived experiences to connect new knowledge to home, community, and global settings.
Teachers need to find pertinent examples in students’ experience; they need to compare and contrast new concepts with concepts students already know; they need to bridge the gap between the known (students’ personal cultural knowledge) and the unknown (materials and concepts to be mastered). In Culturally Responsive Lesson Planning, my colleagues and I present culturally relevant and transformative lesson units in subject areas aligned with content area standards. Examples include:
· teaching weather and other scientific concepts by first helping students to understand the connections between their culture and weather as portrayed in myths, folklore, and family sayings;
· teaching social studies by helping students analyze and report voting patterns in their neighborhood and execute a voter education project.
There is a widespread myth that teachers who care about a culturally relevant classroom do not care about rigor. In reality, culturally relevant pedagogy is perfectly aligned with high standards in the content areas.
Culturally relevant teaching provides strong supports by approaching effective instruction through a cultural lens. In helping learners make sense of new concepts and ideas, culturally relevant teachers create learning opportunities in which students’ voices emerge and knowledge and meaning are constructed from the students’ perspectives.
Monica Edwards, the teacher mentioned in the beginning of this article, correctly identified the student/school cultural gap as a possible reason for her students’ lack of learning gains. She and her colleagues deserve support in the form of professional development that helps them to achieve their goals. Not one-day workshops on diversity or multiculturalism. Not a focus on programs honoring Black History Month or Cinco de Mayo. Teachers need to be encouraged to question the curriculum and the pedagogy.
Educated Guesses
Culturally relevant teachers form caring relationships with their students. I remember an incident that occurred while observing a pre-service teacher in a mostly black elementary school in the south. The topic was classification: students were supposed to sort out like and unlike objects and consonant sounds. When the teacher showed them a photo of a wrinkly, cabbage-like vegetable, she expected them to identify it as kale. Students were stumped, though some guessed it was collard greens. Later, the teacher showed the students a picture of broccoli, which they also could not identify.
The teacher was shocked that the students didn’t recognize this vegetable. The students, in turn, suspected they were being lured into a game they couldn’t win and started acting up. Then the teacher, upset, stormed out of the room.
I searched my mind for something to do. I recalled hearing students talk about cars they’d seen in the school parking lot that morning. I asked them if they could name the various types of cars they’d seen. As it turned out, they had extensive knowledge of makes of cars. We classified the information we collected, sorting the cars into vehicles driven by 1st-grade teachers, 2nd-grade teachers; and so on. We even did a little geography, with students using a map to point out where various cars came from. We talked about what a hypothesis was, and as homework, I asked them to look over their data about cars and make a hypothesis about the difference between principals and new teachers. The next day, many students hypothesized, based on the cars in the parking lot, that principals make more money than teachers.
If you have a true, caring relationship with your students, you will know what their interests are, what information they relate to. Culturally relevant teachers recognize that they do not instruct culturally homogenized, generic students in generic school settings. They are systemic reformers, members of caring communities, reflective practitioners and researchers, pedagogical content specialists, and anti-racist.
As systemic reformers, culturally relevant teachers must lead the call for whole school reform. Educating and mentoring peers is part of that. All teachers, not just novices, benefit from the expertise and guidance of master teachers who observe their classes and coach them regularly. In addition, teachers need release time to observe master teachers in their classes and periods for conferencing and planning.
They also need to reflect on their classroom experiences, which enables them to examine their actions, instructional goals, methods and materials in reference to their students’ cultural experiences and preferred learning environments. Reflection assists teachers in confronting their misunderstandings, prejudices, and beliefs about race that impede the development of caring classroom climates, positive relationships with students and families, and ultimately their students’ academic success.
Culturally relevant teachers as action researchers extend the reflection process. Action research is inquiry conducted by teachers for teachers for the purpose of higher student achievement. Action research requires teachers to identify an area of concern, develop a plan for improvement, implement the plan, observe its effects, and reflect on the procedures and consequences.
Finally, culturally relevant teachers must also assist students in changing our society. When teachers promote justice they directly confront inequities such as racism, sexism, and classism.
Source: Irvine, J. J. (2010). Culturally relevant pedagogy. Education Digest, 75(8), 57–61.
Summary
This article begins with an urban elementary school teacher’s unsuccessful attempt to use a culturally relevant approach to teach multiplication, which she thought would appeal to her students. However, it did not. As Irvine explains, this teacher, like many teachers, had only a cursory understanding of CRP and, thus, was not able to implement it in a way that was meaningful for the students.
According to Irvine, misguided attempts at and resistance to CPR are based on several myths. They include beliefs that White teachers cannot be culturally relevant, that CRP is only appropriate for students of color, that caring teachers are not effective classroom managers, and that CRP lacks academic rigor. On the contrary, Irvine believes that with willingness and adequate training and support, all teachers can be culturally relevant. Further, all students have cultures to which teachers can connect their instruction.
In addressing perceptions about lack of rigor and classroom management, Irvine gives examples of the practices, dispositions, and commitments of teachers who effectively implement CRP. Successful teachers acquire and use knowledge about their students’ cultural backgrounds to create engaging learning experiences that align with content area standards. Strong discipline-based knowledge allows teachers to translate students strengths’ and experiences into effective instruction. Culturally relevant teachers also have mutually respective and caring relationships with their students and reflect deeply on their practice.
Irvine suggests several supports that schools can provide to help teachers become culturally relevant. She recommends on-going professional development and opportunities to observe master teachers as well as time for planning and reflection. Irvine also suggests that teachers can use action research, through which they identify and address a problem of practice, to improve their efforts in becoming culturally relevant. In addition to raising student achievement, one of the fundamental goals of CRP, according to the author, is to confront educational and societal inequities.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. As Irvine points out, in order to be culturally relevant, teachers must first be familiar with their students’ cultural backgrounds and individual experiences. However, she does not provide details about how teachers might do this. Think of some specific strategies for how teachers might learn about students’ cultural backgrounds, both inside and outside of the classroom. How does this CRP connect to differentiated instruction? How might teachers collaborate in this learning?
2. Culturally relevant teachers design curriculum and instruction that connect to their students’ cultural backgrounds and experiences and capitalize on their knowledge and strengths. A single classroom can consist of students from many different backgrounds as shaped by culture, race, ethnicity, SES, geographic location, and so on. What strategies could a teacher in a diverse classroom use to ensure that his or her teaching is culturally relevant for all students? Think about your own grade and content area. Are there any skills or competences that you believe cannot or should be taught in a culturally relevant way? If so, what are they, and why?
3. One of the myths about CRP is that it does not promote rigorous teaching and learning. However, Irvine argues that CRP “is perfectly aligned with high standards in the content areas” (p. 60). What evidence, if any, does she give that suggests that this statement is true? According to the article, what do teachers need to know and be able to do to ensure that their teaching is both culturally relevant and rigorous within the content area?
2.7 What Does It Mean to Educate the Whole Child? by Nel Noddings
Introduction
Nel Noddings is an emeritus professor in the Graduate School of Education at Stanford University. Her fields of expertise include educational philosophy, educational theory, and the ethics of care. Noddings is arguably best known for her theory of care in educational contexts, which has four dimensions. First, educators must show students how to care and that they are cared about through modeling. Second, they must actively discuss care and its meaning with students. Third, educators must provide opportunities for students to better understand the nature of care through practice. Fourth, educators must confirm their students. That is, they must validate them as worthwhile and valued individuals. Noddings believes that caring and being cared for are basic human needs that must be addressed in schools in order to help students feel connected to schooling and to engender positive social development.
In the following excerpted article, Noddings argues that in addition to academics, educators must also address students’ social, moral, emotional, and spiritual development. She explains how NCLB, with its emphasis on academic content, testing, and accountability, works against holistic education that contributes to students’ total development.
Although Noddings acknowledges that other institutions contribute to children’s social and ethical education, she urges schools not to abdicate this responsibility, which is central to the purpose of education. She points out that since its inception, public schools have been charged with helping produce ethical, socially conscious, and civic-minded individuals who can contribute to the advancement of society, and this responsibility requires educating the whole child.
Excerpt
The following is an excerpt from Noddings, N. (2010). What does it mean to educate the whole child? In M. Scherer (Ed.), Keeping the whole child healthy and safe: Reflections on best practices in learning teaching, and leadership (pp. 3–11). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
In a democratic society, schools must go beyond teaching fundamental skills.
Public schools in the United States today are under enormous pressure to show—through improved test scores—that they are providing every student with a thorough and efficient education. The stated intention of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) is to accomplish this goal and reverse years of failure to educate many of our inner-city and minority children. But even if we accept that the motives behind NCLB are benign, the law seems fatally flawed.
Some critics have declared NCLB an unfunded mandate because it makes costly demands without providing the resources to meet them. Others point to its bureaucratic complexity; its unattainable main goal (100 percent of students proficient in reading and math by 2014); its motivationally undesirable methods (threats, punishments, and pernicious comparisons); its overdependence on standardized tests; its demoralizing effects; and its corrupting influences on administrators, teachers, and students.
All these criticisms are important, but NCLB has a more fundamental problem: its failure to address, or even ask, the basic questions raised in this issue of Educational Leadership: What are the proper aims of education? How do public schools serve a democratic society? What does it mean to educate the whole child?
The Aims of Education
Every flourishing society has debated the aims of education. This debate cannot produce final answers, good for all times and all places, because the aims of education are tied to the nature and ideals of a particular society. But the aims promoted by NCLB are clearly far too narrow. Surely, we should demand more from our schools than to educate people to be proficient in reading and mathematics. Too many highly proficient people commit fraud, pursue paths to success marked by greed, and care little about how their actions affect the lives of others.
Some people argue that schools are best organized to accomplish academic goals and that we should charge other institutions with the task of pursuing the physical, moral, social, emotional, spiritual, and aesthetic aims that we associate with the whole child. The schools would do a better job, these people maintain, if they were freed to focus on the job for which they were established.
Those who make this argument have not considered the history of education. Public schools in the United States—as well as schools across different societies and historical eras—were established as much for moral and social reasons as for academic instruction. In his 1818 Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia, for example, Thomas Jefferson included in the “objects of primary education” such qualities as morals, understanding of duties to neighbors and country, knowledge of rights, and intelligence and faithfulness in social relations.
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In insisting that schools and other social institutions share responsibility for nurturing the whole child, I recognize that different institutions will have different emphases. Obviously, schools will take greater responsibility for teaching reading and arithmetic; medical clinics for health checkups and vaccinations; families for housing and clothing; and places of worship for spiritual instruction.
But needs cannot be rigidly compartmentalized. The massive human problems of society demand holistic treatment. For example, leading medical clinics are now working with lawyers and social workers to improve housing conditions for children and to enhance early childhood learning (Shipler, 2004). We know that healthy families do much more than feed and clothe their children. Similarly, schools must be concerned with the total development of children.
Democracy and Schools
A productive discussion of education’s aims must acknowledge that schools are established to serve both individuals and the larger society. What does the society expect of its schools?
From the current policy debates about public education, one would think that U.S. society simply needs competent workers who will keep the nation competitive in the world market. But both history and common sense tell us that a democratic society expects much more: It wants graduates who exhibit sound character, have a social conscience, think critically, are willing to make commitments, and are aware of global problems (Soder, Goodlad, & McMannon, 2001).
In addition, a democratic society needs an education system that helps to sustain its democracy by developing thoughtful citizens who can make wise civic choices. By its very nature, as Dewey (1916) pointed out, a democratic society is continually changing—sometimes for the better, sometimes for the worse—and it requires citizens who are willing to participate and competent enough to distinguish between the better and the worse.
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Life in a healthy democracy requires participation, and students must begin to practice participation in our schools. Working together in small groups can furnish such practice, provided that the emphasis is consistently on working together—not on formal group processes or the final grade for a product. Similarly, students can participate in establishing the rules that will govern classroom conduct. It is not sufficient, and it may actually undermine our democracy, to concentrate on producing people who do well on standardized tests and who define success as getting a well-paid job. Democracy means more than voting and maintaining economic productivity, and life means more than making money and beating others to material goods.
The Whole Child
Most of us want to be treated as persons, not as the “sinus case in treatment room 3” or the “refund request on line 4.” But we live under the legacy of bureaucratic thought—the idea that every physical and social function should be assigned to its own institution. In the pursuit of efficiency, we have remade ourselves into a collection of discrete attributes and needs. This legacy is strong in medicine, law, social work, business, and education.
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The benefits of a more holistic perspective can also extend beyond the academic curriculum and apply to the school climate and the issue of safety and security. Schools often tackle this problem the way they tackle most problems, piece by piece: more surveillance cameras, more security guards, better metal detectors, more locks, shorter lunch periods, more rules. It seems like a dream to remember that most schools 40 years ago had no security guards, cameras, or metal detectors. And yet schools are not safer now than they were in the 1960s and 1970s. We need to ask why there has been a decline in security and how we should address the problem. Do we need more prisonlike measures, or is something fundamentally wrong with the entire school arrangement?
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We will not find the solution to problems of violence, alienation, ignorance, and unhappiness in increasing our security apparatus, imposing more tests, punishing schools for their failure to produce 100 percent proficiency, or demanding that teachers be knowledgeable in “the subjects they teach.” Instead, we must allow teachers and students to interact as whole persons, and we must develop policies that treat the school as a whole community. The future of both our children and our democracy depend on our moving in this direction.
References
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: Macmillan.
Jefferson, T. (1818). Report of the commissioners for the University of Virginia. Available at http://www.libertynet.org/edcivic/jefferva.html
Shipler, D. K. (2004). The working poor: Invisible in America. New York: Knopf.
Soder, R., Goodlad, J. I., & McMannon, T. J. (Eds.). (2001). Developing democratic character in the young. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Source: Noddings, N. (2005). What does it mean to educate the whole child? Educational Leadership 63(1), 8–13. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Summary
Noddings frames her argument for educating the whole child within the context of NCLB and what she sees as its failure to address fundamental questions about the purpose of education. She highlights the long-standing belief that U.S. public schools should serve a democratic society. In addition to preparing students for the workplace, schools should help them to act ethically, think critically, demonstrate knowledge about social issues, and make decisions that change society for the better. As Noddings points out, the problems facing the nation and the world require holistic solutions. Thus, holistic education is needed to prepare our children to address these challenges.
Like the authors in the previous chapter, Noddings views schools as vital sites for children to practice the competencies they will need for democratic participation. In working collaboratively around a common goal, students can learn how to develop their own ideas, consider other viewpoints, compromise, and arrive at solutions that work toward the common good.
Noddings also suggests that the emphasis on holistic education extend beyond academic learning to include attention to school climate and safety. Although NCLB focuses on the academic relationships between students and teachers, relationships through which students and teachers interact with each other as total persons should also be allowed. Noddings believes that a holistic approach to all aspects of schooling is necessary to prepare children to live and to advance a democratic society.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Since the advent of NCLB, schools and teachers have been under increasing pressure to produce higher student outcomes. As Noddings points out, failure to do so can lead to punishments and public shaming. Given these academic imperatives, within the context of teachers’ already busy days, is it reasonable to expect teachers (i.e., at the elementary, middle, and high school levels) to also attend to the social, ethical, and emotional development of their students? Why or why not? What opportunities can teachers, at all levels, make during the day to do this?
2. Although Noddings believes that K–12 schools in the United States have a responsibility to educate the whole child, colleges and workplaces are demanding increasingly higher academic outcomes. For example, Chapter 1 pointed out that in the past, individuals without a high school diploma could find stable employment. However, this is no longer the case. Given the growing emphasis on academic achievement and educational credentials, how much effort should schools devote to the social, emotional, and ethical development of students? How is such development connected to success in the workplace and in higher education?
3. Noddings, like McLaren (2005) in Chapter 1, believes that K–12 schools should prepare students for participation in a democratic society. These authors argue that this participation requires an understanding of ethics, the ability to collaborate, skills for thinking critically, and a knowledge about social problems. Aside from voting, what specific ways might students participate in democracy in the future that require these competencies and dispositions, and how can schools help to develop them?
Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
· Teachers can better meet the needs of all students in diverse classrooms by individualizing curriculum and instruction. The work of these authors strongly suggests that attention to the learning needs of individual students can improve academic outcomes for all students. Suggestions for individualizing curriculum and instruction include accommodating different learning styles and abilities and connecting to students’ cultural backgrounds and individual experiences.
· Classroom instruction should capitalize on what we know about brain functioning and cognitive development. Research shows that in drawing on evidence of brain and cognition functioning, educators can design instruction that is authentic to how children learn by capitalizing human proclivities for creativity, real-life problem-solving, becoming competent, and strengthening relationships.
· ELs and other students at risk for reading and writing difficulties need additional literacy supports. Although ELs can develop conversational fluency in one year, the academic English proficiency needed for higher level academic tasks takes much longer. To reach this level, ELs and other at-risk students need extensive English-language instruction, active and sustained engagement in literacy activities, and ample access to a variety of texts.
· In addition to academics, K–12 education should address social, emotional, and ethical development. Like those in the last chapter, authors in this chapter highlight the imperative that public schools prepare youth to be fully participating citizens who will have a positive impact on society. To do so, educators must provide students with a holistic education that attends to social, emotional, spiritual—as well as academic—development and needs.
A Closer Look: Differentiation
An instructor discusses factors teachers should consider in designing and implementing instructional strategies to meet the needs of diverse, individual learners.
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1. What are instructional strategies does this instructor suggest, and what particular learning needs do these strategies address and how?
2. According the video, in what ways can collaboration between the classroom teacher and the special educator benefit students with IEPs in the classroom?
Tying It All Together
This chapter provides vital information on how the classroom needs of individual learners are shaped by developmental, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes and learning styles. It offers a variety of strategies for meeting students’ individual learning needs in today’s increasingly diverse classrooms. Although discussions about K-12 education often focus on at-risk students, this chapter highlights how approaches to teaching and learning that are better tailored to individuals can help all students to succeed in and beyond K-12 schools.
A recurring theme in this chapter and the last is the drawback of standardizing curriculum, instruction, and assessment. The professed goals of standardization are to ensure that all students receive quality instruction and are held to high standards, and that schools and educators are held accountable for these goals. However, standardization can constrain the flexibility that teachers need to meet the widely diverse needs of their students. This tension between conformity and flexibility arises in subsequent chapters, which examine other aspects of teachers’ work. It is important for readers to continually consider the balance between common standards and the divergent needs of both students and teachers.
End of Chapter Critical Thinking Questions
1. Many of the authors in this chapter are critical of the increasing standardization of curriculum, instruction, and assessment in schools. They argue that schools should put more emphasis on individual learning styles, preferences, and needs, which will increase achievement outcomes, particularly among struggling students. However, through reforms such as NCLB and the Common Core Curriculum, policymakers increasingly emphasize standardization in K-12 education. What are the benefits of individualizing teaching and learning as the authors in this chapter suggest? Why do you think broad-based educational reforms might not account for the suggestions made by the authors in this chapter?
2. As evidenced by the articles in this chapter, much is known about how to meet the academic needs of students at different levels of ability and from diverse backgrounds. For example, aligning instruction with research on cognitive development and brain functioning can increase motivation and learning. Connecting to students’ cultural backgrounds and providing ample opportunities for literacy engagement can raise achievement among struggling and historically underserved students. Through coteaching partnerships, classroom teachers and special educators can create more inclusive and effective learning environments for special needs students. Given all that we know about how to meet the needs of diverse students, what accounts for the difficulties schools have in meeting the needs of particular groups of students? What are the challenges to implementing the practices suggested in this chapter on a broad scale? What political issues might hinder schools’ capacities to implement these practices?
3. This chapter discussed many strategies for meeting the needs of individual and diverse learners, including brain-based teaching, knowledge of what motivates children to learn, differentiated instruction, coteaching, CRP, increased literacy engagement, and holistic education. In what ways do these individual strategies converge? Considering content area and age level that is of interest to you, how would you prioritize the strategies suggested in this chapter? What are some ways that a teacher might implement multiple strategies, simultaneously, in a classroom?
Further Reading
Abedi, J. (Ed.). 2007. English language proficiency assessment in the nation: Current status and future practice. Davis, CA: University of California Press.
Anderson, K. T., Zuiker, S. J., Taasoobshirazi, G., & Hickey, D. T. (2007). Classroom discourse as a tool to enhance formative assessment and practise in science. International Journal of Science Education, 29(14), 1721–1744.
Balfanz, R., Bridgeland, J. M., Moore, L. A., & Horig Fox, J. 2010. Building a grad nation: Progress and challenge in ending the high school dropout epidemic. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University.
Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71–81). New York: Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental health. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998).
Bandura, A. 1986. Social foundation of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bedore, L. M., Peña, E. D., Joyner, D., & Macken, C. (2011). Parent and teacher rating of bilingual language proficiency and language development concerns. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 14, 489–511.
Black, P., & William, D. 2004. The formative purpose: Assessment must first promote learning. In M. Wilson (Ed.), Towards coherence between classroom assessment and accountability (pp. 20–50). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Bridgeland, J. M., DiIulio, J. J., & Burke Morison, K. (2006). The silent epidemic: Perspectives of high school dropouts. Washington DC: Civic Enterprises.
Brown, N. B., Howerter, C. S., & Morgan, J. J. (2013). Tools and strategies for making co-teaching Work. Intervention in School & Clinic, 49(2), 84–91.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7
Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. New York: Teachers College Press.
Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2), 106–116.
Gregory, G. H., & Chapman, C. M. (2006). Differentiated instructional strategies: One size doesn’t fit all. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Gutiérrez-Clellen, V. F., & Kreiter, J. (2003). Understanding child bilingual acquisition using parent and teacher reports. Applied Psycholinguistics, 24, 267–288.
Hammer, C. S., Komaroff, E., Rodriguez, B., Lopez, L. M., Scarpino, S. E., & Goldstein, B. (2012). Predicting Spanish–English bilingual children’s language abilities. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 55, 1251–1264.
Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, life, and work in communities and classrooms. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
McTighe, J., & O’Connor, K. (2009). Seven practices for effective learning. In K. Ryan & J. M. Cooper (Eds.), Kaleidoscope: Contemporary and classic readings in education. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Miller, John P. (2010). Whole child education. Toronto: University of Toronto Press
Nierengarten, G. (2013). Supporting co-teaching teams in high schools: Twenty research-based practices. American Secondary Education, 42(1), 73-83.
Neild, R., Curran, R. B., & L. Herzog. (2009). An early warning system. In M. Scherer (Ed.), Supporting the whole child: Reflections on best practices in learning, teaching, and leadership (pp. 49–58). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Parsons, S. A., Dodman, S. L., & Cohen Burrowbridge, S. (2013). Broadening the view of differentiated instruction. Phi Delta Kappan, 95(1), 38–42.
Rumberger, R. W. (2011). Dropping out: Why students drop out of high school and what can be done about it. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Sousa, D. A. (2011). How the brain learns. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1934/1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Weissman, Patricia. (2013). The whole child: Developmental education for the early years. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Key Terms
Please click on the key term to reveal the definition.
academic motivation
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) and Academic Language Proficiency
differentiated instruction
English learners (ELs)