Wk Fi;nal
Copyright
Dave L. Edyburn
Inclusive Technologies: Tools for Helping Diverse Learners Achieve Academic Success, Second Edition
Vice President, Learning Resources: Steve Wainwright
Associate Director, Sponsoring Editor: Greer Lleuad
Development Editors: Shannon LeMay-Finn, Dan Moneypenny
Assistant Editor: Taylor Holmes
Production Editor: Catherine Morris
Media Editor: Jaime LeClair
Copy Editor: LSF Editorial
Cover Design: Tara Mayberry
Printer: Lightning Source
Production Service: Lachina Creative
ePub Development: Lachina Creative
Permissions Editor: Kristle Maglunob
Cover Image: top: Sturti/E+/Getty Images middle: Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Getty Images Plus/Getty Images bottom: FatCamera/E+/Getty Images
ISBN-13: 978-1-62178-529-3
© 2019, 2013 Bridgepoint Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
GRANT OF PERMISSION TO PRINT: The copyright owner of this material hereby grants the holder of this publication the right to print these materials for personal use. The holder of this material may print the materials herein for personal use only. Any print, reprint, reproduction or distribution of these materials for commercial use without the express written consent of the copyright owner constitutes a violation of the U.S. Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. §§ 101-810, as amended.
About the Author
Dave L. Edyburn, PhD, is associate dean for research in the College of Community Innovation and Education and professor of exceptional education at the University of Central Florida, Orlando. Edyburn’s teaching and research interests focus on the use of technology to enhance teaching, learning, and performance. He has authored over 175 articles, book chapters, and several books on the use of technology in special education. He is a past president of the Special Education Technology Special Interest Group in the International Society for Technology in Education, past president of the Technology and Media Division of the Council for Exceptional Children, and past chair of the Online Teaching and Learning SIG in the American Education Research Association. Edyburn has served as editor of several journals, including Teaching Exceptional Children, Special Education Technology Practice, Remedial and Special Education, Learning Disability Quarterly, and the Journal of Research on Technology in Education. He is a frequent conference presenter and national workshop leader.
Acknowledgments
The editorial team and author would like to thank the following peer reviewers for their feedback and guidance:
Susan Cherup, Hope College
Carolina Cowan, Ashford University
Renee Gugel, Ashford University
Kimberly Hall, Ashford University
Kathy Hoover, Ashford University
Jacki Kryger, Ashford University
Stephanie Kurts, University of North Carolina, Greensboro
Kelly Olson Stewart, Ashford University
Adriane Wheat, Ashford University
The editorial staff would also like to thank Shannon LeMay-Finn for her assistance in developing resource guide material.
· Notebook
Preface
The objective of Inclusive Technologies: Tools for Helping Diverse Learners Achieve Academic Success is to provide you with the opportunity to learn about selecting and using appropriate technologies in your classroom. The emphasis is on the application of technology that supports the inclusion, participation, and academic success of all types of diverse learners.
As educators, our goal is to encourage the growth of learners who are digitally literate, capable of thinking critically and creatively, and prepared to contribute meaningfully to society in the 21st century. This book provides you with the technology tools to achieve that goal. Students come to our classrooms with various backgrounds, skills, and motivations, and the tools provided in this book are designed to help you value and respect those differences. As you read, you will be challenged to evaluate your own beliefs and perspectives about technology and education. Upon completion of this book, you will have compiled a technology tool kit that not only reflects your personal beliefs but engages and promotes the success of all your learners.
Textbook Features
Inclusive Technologies includes a number of features to help you understand key concepts, think critically, and apply technology in a meaningful way:
Visual Aids: Images and figures help illustrate the concepts presented, and tables provide information about valuable resources. All visual aids in the text are organized in an easy-to-read manner.
Study Resources: These resources are designed to help you organize information and study the text; learning outcomes, bolded key terms, and summaries of key ideas appear in each chapter.
Pause to Reflect Questions: Interspersed throughout the text, these questions are designed to help you monitor your own learning and reflect on your personal beliefs about technology and education.
Critical-Thinking Questions: Questions on intriguing topics are placed at the end of each chapter to promote deeper analysis and discussion.
Pretests and Posttests: Each chapter contains multiple-choice questions that you can answer to get real-time feedback on how well you have mastered the content.
Relevant Web Links: Placed throughout each chapter, numerous web links offer you the opportunity to explore additional resources, examples, and applications related to the text.
Accessible Anywhere. Anytime.
With Constellation, faculty and students have full access to eTextbooks at their fingertips. The eTextbooks are instantly accessible on web, mobile, and tablet.
iPhone
To download the Constellation iPhone or iPad app, go to the App Store on your device, search for "Constellation for Ashford University," and download the free application. You may log in to the application with the same username and password used to access Constellation on the web.
Android Tablet and Phone
To download the Constellation Android app, go to the Google Play Store on your Android Device, search for "Constellation for Ashford University," and download the free application. You may log in to the Android application with the same username and password used to access Constellation on the web.
Troubleshooting
While every effort has been made to ensure that the links remain viable, you may periodically encounter a broken link or an error message (404 Not Found). In these situations, it is advisable to copy and paste the website name into Google as a new search. Often this will solve the problem caused when an organization reorganizes its website.
A specific web page may no longer be available when an organization goes out of business. In this case, paste the URL into the Wayback Machine ( http://archive.org/web/web.php ) to view an archive version of the web page.
Chapter 4
Principles of Universal Design for Learning
·
4.1 The Importance of Accessible Design
· 4.2 Foundations of Universal Design for Learning
· 4.3 Universal Access to Text
·
4.4 Universal Access to Media
·
4.5 Developing a Personal Plan to Implement UDL
AP Photo/Janet Hostetter
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
· Describe the consequences of lesson planning that focuses on the average student.
· Summarize the conceptual foundations of universal design for learning.
· Demonstrate three methods for improving the accessibility of text.
· Identify the accessibility barriers found in audio files and video files, and describe practical features that can be used in these types of media to make them universally accessible.
· Demonstrate how you could implement universal design for learning in your classroom using the principles of multiple means of representation or multiple means of expression.
Introduction
Schools have a long tradition of standardizing the format and function of education that has led to an expectation that the one-size-fits-all classroom will benefit everyone. However, diversity is a characteristic of the human condition that needs to be valued and celebrated. When the needs of diverse learners are not anticipated, there is a relentless need for curriculum accommodations and modifications to retroactively try to meet their needs.
The goal of universal design for learning (UDL) is to proactively value diversity such that supports are embedded in instructional materials before a student needs them. Not only does this help facilitate the academic performance of students with disabilities, who may be considered the primary beneficiary of accessible design interventions, it also supports secondary groups of diverse learners for whom we may not be able to identify such a need in advance.
The design of curriculum and instruction is fundamentally different than the design of physical structures and environments. As a result, teachers and instructional designers must be aware of the accessibility of the different containers they select for the instructional materials they provide to diverse students. In this chapter, we will introduce methods that enhance the accessibility and usability of text and media.
UDL is a discipline that is nearly 20 years old. Despite its short history, the potential of UDL has captured the imagination of federal policy makers, administrators, teachers, and parents. This chapter will examine how UDL is being incorporated into federal legislation, policies, and laws, as well as suggest new directions that are needed to ensure the widespread implementation of this important initiative to build flexible and engaging instructional materials to meet the needs of diverse learners.
Field Trip: Meet Dr. David Rose, One of the Founders of UDL
Watch this video to learn about the historical foundations of UDL.
Introduction to UDL
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MbGkL06EU90
4.1 The Importance of Accessible Design
When designers create a new product, they are seeking to solve a problem through innovative design. Perhaps you have heard the phrase, “Build a better mousetrap, and the world will beat a path to your door.” This statement speaks to the value of innovative design for solving practical problems. However, design and invention are always contextualized within a time period and a specific culture, and they are subject to the limitations of contemporary technologies and materials.
As a result of recent advances in technology, it is now possible to design tools, products, and information resources in ways that make them accessible to diverse individuals. In this section, we will introduce principles from the field known as accessible design. You will learn how designs that focus on the special needs of individuals with disabilities can improve the user experience for these individuals while also having secondary benefits for everyone.
Design for the Mean
One common design strategy is known as “design for the mean.” As shown in Figure 4.1, using this approach, the designer is focused on creating a product that will reach the largest number of people to ensure that it is commercially successful. When this happens, the needs of people at the ends of the bell curve are not fully considered, because they are perceived as small segments of the market. For example, consider the design of a wooden kitchen chair for an adult who is of average height and weight. Ignoring the segments of the population that fall outside of the middle of the bell curve, in the margins, results in a chair that is not comfortable for people who are very short or very tall. In a business sense, the manufacturer made a deliberate decision to focus on the segment of the population where they could make the most money.
Figure 4.1: Design for the mean
A product that is designed for the mean seeks to achieve commercial success by reaching a large percentage of people in the mainstream. The blue line represents the standard bell curve. The shaded area below the peak indicates the target mass market of the average user.
In education, design for the mean takes on the form of a textbook that is written, purchased, and distributed to every student at a specific grade level regardless of their reading ability or native language. Similarly, design for the mean is the key instructional principle when a teacher decides that all students will write a three-page book report to demonstrate that they have read and understood a specific book. The problems associated with design for the mean are perpetuated on a daily basis when teachers use a traditional lesson plan book (see Figure 1.4 in Chapter 1) to develop their lesson plans, because they restrict their thinking to the abilities and needs of the average student.
When teachers and instructional designers assume that everyone is like them (e.g., of average height and weight, able to read at grade level), the product they create will inevitably meet the needs of only a limited range of users. Without an appreciation for the fundamental ways that people are different (Hughes & Talbott, 2017), it is unlikely that teachers will be able to design products that meet the accessibility and usability needs of all learners, because they will not understand the special needs of some. Rose (2016) makes a compelling argument that we are living in an age in which mass customization and personalization has rendered the notion of “average” irrelevant. However, there is clearly much more to learn about how to meet the instructional needs of diverse learners. Edyburn (2010) has argued that the development of “diversity blueprints” which describe the salient nature of learner variance, are critical to the design process of products that meet the needs of all learners (see Table 4.1).
Table 4.1: Diversity and instructional design
|
Student performance variable |
Range of diversity |
|
Memory |
Students develop increased capacity in short- and long-term memory as they grow. Some disabilities interfere with information storage and retrieval and therefore may require explicit strategy instruction. |
|
Motivation |
Students display varying levels of persistence in completing a task that may be related to their success with completing similar previous tasks. Therefore, choice of challenge and dependency on adults are important aspects to monitor. Over time, learners develop intrinsic motivation for completing challenging tasks. |
|
Sustained attention span |
Ranges from 8 seconds for 2-year-olds to 40 minutes for young adults. Attention-deficit disorder may affect attention span. Over time, learners develop expanded attention spans that allow them to focus on complex cognitive tasks. |
|
Speech and language |
Speech and language begins developing in very young children and provides a foundation for accelerated development once children become school age. Some disabilities will impair a child’s oral communication skills and therefore may require other methods of communication, such as a communication board or augmentative communication system. |
|
Fine motor skills |
Fine motor tasks require a level of hand–eye coordination and fluency that is first learned as a preschooler and evolves over time. Some disabilities will cause impaired fine motor skills, which has implications for student work that may involve handwriting, keyboarding, manipulating objects such as turning pages in a book or using a computer mouse, etc. |
|
Reading |
Children’s early learning experiences frequently prepare them for formal reading instruction. Reading skills are measured by grade levels and Lexiles. The goal is to match the difficulty of a text with the student’s independent or instructional reading level. It is common to find a range of reading levels at every grade level (some students will be reading at several levels below grade level, and some will be reading at levels above grade level). |
|
Problem solving |
As in each of the other areas, children’s mathematical and problem-solving skills will vary considerably at each grade level. Young children and students who have difficulty with the conceptual processes of problem solving benefit from the use of manipulatives. Older students learn how to support their problem-solving skills by using tools such as graphing calculators and spreadsheets. |
At this point, it is important to understand two related concepts: accessibility and usability. Accessibility refers to the inclusive goal of designing tools, products, and information resources to be usable by all people regardless of their skills or abilities. Usability, in turn, refers to how easy it is to learn and use a product. When considering any tool, product, or information resource, it is necessary to evaluate both its accessibility and usability (Langdon, Lazar, Heylighen, & Dong, 2014). A key principle of accessible design involves understanding that the special needs of individuals with disabilities can produce solutions that benefit other groups.
For example, knowing that some people have a vision impairment can translate into a design principle that all text should be adjustable, if necessary, by users so that they can enlarge the text to a size sufficient for comfortable viewing. Microsoft Word allows users to change the size of the text on the screen by simply dragging a slider to make the text larger or smaller. Although vision impairments are a specific disability, the same text enlargement intervention can benefit most adults who experience decreased visual acuity as they age. This is a practical example of universal design. That is, knowing that people have different levels of visual acuity, product designers provide users with the opportunity to adjust the size of the text to a level that they find “just right” for their needs.
In summary, the fundamental problem of the design for the mean approach is that the resulting tool, product, or information may be inaccessible for many individuals. That is, because the designer focused on meeting the needs of only a specific segment of the population, the product may not be accessible or usable by many others (Carvalho, Dias, Reis, & Freire, 2018; Juárez-Ramírez, 2017; Lidwell, Holden, & Butler, 2010). Again, consider what happens with a printed textbook that is written with the assumption that all students read at grade level. Quite readily we can identify at least three groups of students whose needs will not be met: students who are blind will not be able to access the printed textbook; students with reading disabilities will not be able to independently read the information; and while gifted students will be able to read the information, they may not be sufficiently challenged to learn at a level commensurate with their ability. As a result, design for the mean involves assumptions about the average student and therefore fails to meet the needs of each student whose skills and abilities fall outside that range.
The printed textbook had many positive attributes in the early 20th century. Clearly, the technical advances that allowed printing costs to be reduced such that each student could study from his or her own textbook were an important development in education. However, the historical one-size-fits-all textbook is a poor match for the needs of diverse learners in the 21st century because of the fixed layout, font size, reading level, and language characteristic of printed text. This situation creates the need for accommodations and modifications to make the textbook accessible to diverse individuals by converting it to a digital format that permits students who are blind to access the text through refreshable Braille, students with reading disabilities to listen to the text with a text-to-speech tool, and gifted students to pursue more advanced topics through hyperlinks.
One characteristic of innovation is the ongoing development of new technologies. Therefore, if we consider the achievement gap to be a result of the limitations of traditional instructional design in education, it is necessary to explore instructional designs that are more inclusive (Coyne, Kameenui, & Simmons, 2004; Edyburn, 2010; Westwood, 2018).
Design for More Types
The principles of universal design have emerged from our understanding of the design of physical environments for individuals with disabilities. As a result, the term universal design is most commonly associated with architecture (Preiser & Ostroff, 2011; Steinfeld & Maisel, 2012). These developments have provided important insights regarding the need to prepare architects and designers to understand special needs to ensure that their designs are accessible from the outset, rather than requiring costly building modifications later.
Perhaps the best example of the success of universal design principles is curb cuts. Originally designed to improve mobility for people with disabilities within our communities, curb cuts not only accomplished that goal, they also improved access for people navigating their community with baby strollers, bicycles, skateboards, and more.
Another well-known example of accessible design in the built environment is what is known as the zero-entry swimming pool. This type of pool was created to provide access for individuals in wheelchairs but has proved to be excellent for anyone seeking to enjoy the water without becoming completely submerged.
MichaelAngeloBoy/iStock/Getty Images Plus
Curb cuts addressed the special needs of people in wheelchairs by providing better accessibility.
Readers may also encounter the term universal design in the context of the home remodeling industry if they are caring for an aging parent. Home remodelers have discovered that specific types of changes to the living space (e.g., kitchen, bathroom, bedroom) make a home more accessible and safer for aging adults. Many families explore universal design home remodeling options—such as changing doorknobs, altering countertop heights, and modifying toilets and showers—as a cost-effective alternative to nursing homes. Indeed, many of the universal design interventions for individuals with disabilities are the same interventions that facilitate the independence of older adults.
Another application of universal design concepts was created in the 1990s as the underlying principles were applied to computers. Gregg Vanderheiden at the Trace Center at the University of Wisconsin–Madison spearheaded conversations among the disability community and technology developers concerning initiatives to include disability access-ibility software as part of the operating system. At the time, a person with a disability needed to seek out the services and assistance of an assistive technology specialist to be able to independently use a computer. Vanderheiden argued that many accessibility needs could be addressed, not only for individuals with disabilities but also for older adults, by installing the specialized accessibility software on each computer when it was shipped, rather than being added later as an accommodation.
Over time, the computer manufacturing industry found Vanderheiden’s argument persuasive and agreed to install an accessibility folder within the operation system. As a result, since the mid-1990s, every computer shipped in the United States has an accessibility control panel that allows users to customize the operation of the computer to accommodate physical, sensory, and to a limited extent, cognitive disabilities. Thus, accessibility control panels on computers represent a powerful example of universal design that moves the construct from simply focusing on the built environment to one that illustrates the importance of making tools and information accessible.
The historical lessons learned through these cases have led to a statement that serves as a mantra for universal design: “Good design for people with disabilities can benefit everyone.” While universal design is often advocated as “design for all,” in practice this has been difficult to achieve. A more practical way to think about universal design is “design for more types” (see Figure 4.2). This means that we seek to understand the accessibility and usability barriers that individuals encounter and create new tools, products, and information resources that are inclusive to more individuals than would be the case with ordinary design for the mean approaches.
Figure 4.2: Design for more types
Design for more types reflects the goal of universal design by expanding the zone of accessibility and usability beyond a small segment of the population (as contrasted with Figure 4.1) in order to include as many individuals as possible.
Recognizing and Responding to Differences
As discussed in Chapter 2, over a lifetime each of us or someone we know will encounter limitations due to aging, disease, accident, and/or disability that may impair basic life functions such as hearing, seeing, self-care, mobility, working, and learning. While some of us may be born with a disability or disease that will require us to overcome limitations throughout our lives, others will need to learn how to respond to challenges that arise from an accident or simply as a result of growing older.
In other words, we must learn to recognize that differences and limitations are fundamentally part of the human condition. In the classroom, it is important to think about learner differences as part of the instructional planning process. For example, shouldn’t we expect to find great variation in students’ knowledge and skills? When we walk into any classroom, we should anticipate differences among students relative to the following:
· attention span
· persistence
· reading ability
· handwriting legibility
· number sense and problem-solving skills
· oral communication skills
Diverse students encounter a variety of barriers in school, both obvious and hidden, as summarized in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Access barriers can be visible or hidden
|
|
Access barriers |
|
Obvious barriers |
· Stairs for a person in a wheelchair or on crutches · Print for a person who is blind · Audio for a person who is deaf · Video for a person who is blind |
|
Hidden barriers |
· Attitudes · One-size-fits-all approaches · Text that is fixed · Poor design · Time limits |
Often learner differences are viewed as a negative, outside of a range that we think we can manage (e.g., “Oh, I can’t teach that student; he’s blind.”). When we fail to recognize the range of diversity found in the population, there will be a need for an accommodation (e.g., “We’ll see if we can get a copy of the textbook in Braille.”).
Contrary to this narrow and often negative approach to diversity, the goal of universal design is to proactively value differences—that is, to anticipate learners’ differences before they enter the classroom so that we can support their academic performance before they fail. This is consistent with McLeskey and Waldron’s (2007) description of the goal of special education as “making differences ordinary.” As a result, we need not only to recognize diverse learners in our classrooms but also to respond to their needs before they fail. Universal design for learning is a specialized application of universal design and is an approach that holds considerable promise for meeting the needs of diverse learners.
Pause to Reflect
Locate the accessibility controls on your computer, tablet, or smartphone. What adjustments can you now make with these tools to improve the accessibility and usability of your device? Do you know anyone else who could benefit from knowing about and using these tools?
4.2 Foundations of Universal Design for Learning
The origin of the phrase “universal design for learning” is generally attributed to David Rose, Anne Meyer, and their colleagues at the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) (Edyburn & Gardner, 2009). However, an often overlooked fact is that the principles of UDL were developed during the period before and after the 1997 reauthorization of the IDEA. During that time, both general and special educators were preoccupied with issues associated with implementing inclusion. Although students with disabilities had gained physical access to the general education classroom through inclusion, concerns were being raised about how students would gain “access to the general curriculum.” An interpretive document about universal design for learning (Orkwis & McLane, 1998) was disseminated extensively and served to generate the first wave of national attention to the construct.
McLaughlin (1999) reported that IDEA reauthorization contained several specific mandates relative to making the general curriculum accessible for students with disabilities.
· statements of a child’s current level of educational performance to specify how his or her disability affects involvement and progress in the general curriculum
· IEP teams to design measurable annual goals, including short-term objectives or new benchmarks, to enable the child to be involved—and progress—in the general curriculum
· a statement of the special education and related services and supplementary aids and services to be provided to the child
· a description of any program modifications or supports for school personnel necessary for the child to advance appropriately toward the annual goals, to progress in the general curriculum, and to be educated and participate with other children both with and without disabilities
· IEP team members to document an explanation of the extent, if any, to which the child will not participate with children without disabilities in the general class and activities (p. 9)
Readers interested in a legal analysis of the issues associated with access to the curriculum are encouraged to review Karger and Hitchcock (2004). These issues were at the forefront of CAST’s work, and in 1999 CAST received a federal grant to establish the National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum, which became instrumental in garnering national attention for the potential of UDL.
As CAST’s insights about UDL were taking shape, staff members presented their work at the annual Office of Special Education Project Directors’ Conference in 2000. CAST also used publication outlets to describe its ideas about how universal design could be applied within education (Meyer & Rose, 2000; Rose & Meyer, 2000).
The second wave of widespread attention to UDL came in 2002 when Rose and Meyer published a book called Teaching Every Student in the Digital Age, which became a classic work about UDL. The authors elaborated on the conceptual framework of UDL, pointing out that it is grounded in emerging insights about brain development, learning, and digital media. Rose and Meyer also called attention to the disconnect between an increasingly diverse student population and a one-size-fits-all curriculum, arguing that these conditions would not produce the desired academic achievement gains expected of 21st-century global citizens. Challenging educators to think of the curriculum, rather than the students, as disabled, their translation of the principles of universal design from architecture to education are nothing short of a major paradigm shift (Edyburn & Gardner, 2009).
CAST advanced the concept of universal design for learning as a means of focusing research, development, and educational practice on understanding diversity and applying technology to facilitate learning. CAST’s philosophy of UDL is embodied in a series of principles that serve as the core components of UDL:
· multiple means of representation to give learners various ways of acquiring information and knowledge;
· multiple means of expression to provide learners alternatives for demonstrating what they know; and
· multiple means of engagement to tap into learners’ interests, challenge them appropriately, and motivate them to learn.
Joesboy/iStock Unreleased/GettyImages
A teacher takes his class on a field trip to learn about ecosystems. What are some other ways teachers can present information to students without using a textbook?
Multiple means of representation may be understood as providing students with alternatives to learning information beyond solely using a textbook. Teachers today have many choices when it comes to presenting instructional content to students: Watch a YouTube video, listen to a podcast, read text on a web page, use Wikipedia to learn more about a topic, and so on. The key notion is to encourage teachers to use a wider palette of information containers to reach diverse students by breaking out of the one-size-fits-all model, which assumes that all students learn in the same way and need the same learning materials.
Multiple means of expression draws attention to the need to provide students with multiple options for demonstrating what they know. Some teachers recognize the value of this principle as they allow students a choice of writing a paper, preparing a slide show presentation, recording a video, and so on. The key notion is to provide students with choices in how they demonstrate what they have learned and the media they use to express themselves. Twenty-first-century educators will likely need to alter their instructional practices to place students in the role of Goldilocks: that is, allowing them to try multiple options to determine which option is “just right” for ensuring that their performance meets increasingly high standards. Principles of fairness dictate that equity is achieved when every student receives what he or she needs (Welch, 2000).
Of the three principles above, perhaps the most important is multiple means of engagement, which is based on the learning principle that deep learning is only accomplished through sustained engagement. Access to the curriculum is a prerequisite to engagement. However, sustained engagement is achieved by activities that are interesting, motivating, and at the right challenge level, what Vygotsky (1962) calls the zone of proximal development. Indeed, research has demonstrated the relationship between deep learning and high levels of performance and expertise (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Schlechty, 2002; Kaufman & Duckworth, 2017).
CAST (2011) elaborated on the core principles through the development of UDL Guidelines. As illustrated in Figure 4.3, each of the three core principles has been expanded to include three guidelines that speak to the instructional design features that are needed to implement each principle. Teachers and instructional designers can use these guidelines as they create instructional materials.
Figure 4.3: CAST’s UDL guidelines 2.0
By following the core guidelines for providing multiple means of representation, action and expression, and engagement, teachers can help shape more informed, goal-oriented, and determined learners.
The following interaction walks you through the UDL guidelines.
Policy Foundations
The impact of UDL can be traced through U.S. federal special education law. Thus, in the 2004 reauthorization of the IDEA, which governs special education, the term universal design was defined by its reference in a previous federal law:
The term “universal design” is defined in section 3001, item (19) of Public Law 105-394, the Assistive Technology Act of 1998, as “a concept or philosophy for designing and delivering products and services that are usable by people with the widest possible range of functional capabilities, which include products and services that are directly accessible (without requiring assistive technologies) and products and services that are interoperable with assistive technologies.” (U.S.C. § 3002)
Following the backward chain of legal reference, the definition of universal design as it was included in the Assistive Technology Act of 1998 is as follows:
The term “universal design” means a concept or philosophy for designing and delivering products and services that are usable by people with the widest possible range of functional capabilities, which include products and services that are directly usable (without requiring assistive technologies) and products and services that are made usable with assistive technologies. (U.S.C. § 3002)
Next, consider how the terms are defined in the Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008 (P.L. 110-315, § 103, a):
(23) UNIVERSAL DESIGN.—The term “universal design” as the meaning given the term in section 3 of the Assistive Technology Act of 1998 (29 U.S.C. 3002).
(24) UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING.—The term “universal design for learning” means a scientifically valid framework for guiding educational practice that—(A) provides flexibility in the ways information is presented, in the ways students respond or demonstrate knowledge and skills, and in the ways students are engaged; and
(B) reduces barriers in instruction, provides appropriate accommodations, supports, and challenges, and maintains high achievement expectations for all students, including students with disabilities and students who are limited English proficient.
As illustrated, the definition of UDL evolved from a concept or philosophy in 1998 to a scientifically validated framework in 2008. Evidently, the work CAST (2011) compiled to support various components of UDL design principles was mischaracterized by lobbyists and written into federal law (Edyburn, 2010). Whereas the body of knowledge concerning UDL has expanded in the past 10 years, researchers conclude that there is insufficient research evidence to support claims that UDL is a scientifically validated intervention (Capp, 2017; Crevecoeur, Sorenson, Mayorga, & Gonzalez, 2014; Edyburn, 2010; Kennedy et al., 2018; Ok, Rao, Bryant, & McDougall, 2017; Rao, Ok, & Bryant, 2014).
Over the past 20 years, UDL has captured the imagination of policy makers, researchers, administrators, and teachers. UDL provides a vision for breaking the one-size-fits-all mold and therefore expands the opportunities for learning for all students with learning differences. Recognizing and responding to diversity is a core motivation for engaging in UDL practices. Finally, in an era with increased expectations for educational outcomes, UDL is an important and timely strategy for enhancing student academic achievement. The mantra that evolved from our understanding of the value of curb cuts, “Good design for people with disabilities benefits everyone,” provides a powerful rationale for exploring large-scale application of UDL in education.
Translating UDL Theory Into Practice
Without seeing a class list, in a class of 30 middle school students, an experienced educator can reasonably anticipate that 5–7 students will have below grade-level reading skills, 3–5 will have learning disabilities, 1–2 will have vision or hearing difficulties, and 2–4 will have a primary language other than English. The current model of curriculum accommodations requires that these students first be identified as having special needs before special support services can be provided.
The promise of UDL suggests that instructional materials can be designed to provide adjustable instructional design controls. One way to think about these controls is to consider a volume control slider that is adjustable to be off or some level between low and high. Tomlinson (1999) speaks of this concept as equalizers. As illustrated in Figure 4.4, universal design control panels could be included in all instructional software and be accessed by students and teachers when an adjustment is needed. Just think of it: Do you need reading materials at a lower readability? Just go into the control panel and reset the slider, and the same information could be presented at a lower reading level.
Figure 4.4: Model of equalizers
The figure shows a model of equalizers that could be used to adjust the difficulty of curriculum and/or the type of supports that are activated to help diverse learners.
Many people find it difficult to visualize what universally designed curricula might look like. Table 4.3 identifies digital resources that can help us understand the potential of UDL. As you explore each resource, consider how the resource was designed to support the success of all learners by embedding supports that can be used by any learner as needed. Also consider the following questions:
· Would these instructional materials be helpful to a single student? (If so, it might be considered assistive technology.)
· Would these instructional materials be helpful to a small group of students? (If so, it might be useful as a response to intervention Tier 2 intervention.)
· Would these instructional materials be of value to the entire class in order to reach those who we know will struggle, as well as many other students whom we cannot identify in advance? (If so, it might be considered universal design for learning.)
Table 4.3: Instructional designs that proactively value differences
|
Instructional challenge |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Finally, consider the difference between traditional textbooks (created with a design for the mean perspective; see Figure 4.1) and digital learning materials that feature embedded supports that can be used by any learner (created with a design for more types perspective; see Figure 4.4).
Pause to Reflect
If we begin with the design premise that not all learners who enter a classroom will be reading at grade level, why might a website that (a) has curriculum content written at multiple reading levels, (b) has text-to-speech available, and (c) has second language translation available be more accessible and engaging than a traditional textbook? If such instructional materials were routinely available, what does this type of digital curriculum say about a school’s commitment to UDL as a strategy for meeting the needs of diverse learners?
4.3 Universal Access to Text
The text found in printed textbooks is fixed. That is, the font is a certain size. The leading (the space between lines) is fixed. The margins are fixed. The font color is usually black (to provide a striking contrast against the white paper). While the characteristics of print and books have changed little since the invention of the printing press, we now know that to some people the book is a difficult container in which to access information.
For example, consider a child who was born without arms. How does he turn the pages of the book or carry the book from his desk to his locker? What about a child who has a vision impairment and needs the text enlarged to be able to see the print? What about a child whose first language is not English—of what use is an English textbook to her? And what about the student who cannot read independently at grade level?
helenaak/iStock/Getty Images Plus/GettyImages
By converting printed text into digital format, you can make text more accessible to students. What are other advantages to students accessing text digitally?
Typically, the first step in making the information accessible is to scan the text into the computer to create a digital version of the text. Digital text is inherently flexible. That is, the size, font, and color of the text can be readily altered (e.g., consider how you can change the appearance of text in your word processor). In addition, digital text can be manipulated in ways that provide physical, sensory, and cognitive access.
To meet the needs of diverse learners, it is becoming increasingly clear that 21st-century curricula should be developed, stored, and used in a digital format. Print-on-demand tools can be made available and used as needed. However, notice how the traditional paradigm has been flipped. Rather than creating print books that have to be converted into digital format, books should be created and distributed in electronic formats and printed when the need arises.
This section outlines a series of design interventions that make text universally accessible. The goal is to present resources, strategies, and tools that you can use in your classroom to ensure that your students will have universal access to text-based information.
Text Creation
Today almost all information is created through the use of a keyboard and a computer. This means that most text is “born” digital. As you learned while mastering your word processor, it is easy to save, change, and print documents when the text is saved in a word processor. As a result, few people who have mastered the basic mechanics of a word processor want to go back to using a typewriter or writing entirely by hand.
One of the simplest strategies that teachers can use to make text accessible to their students is to provide digital copies (e.g., .docx, .pdf, or Google Docs) of their handouts. In fact, many school districts support this strategy by providing teachers with an online work space on a local area network (i.e., intranet) or a content management system (e.g., Blackboard, Canvas, Google Classroom, Weebly). These types of tools allow teachers to post documents online. Students learn to retrieve documents from the server that they can open and view in their own word processor or web browser.
Alter the View
Students who need to alter the view of a document can use the zoom feature in their word processor (click on View menu, click on Zoom, select appropriate size) or web browser (Command + or Command -) to increase the font size. This is another excellent example of universal design. That is, while zoom was originally developed for people with visual disabilities, nearly everyone periodically discovers the need to enlarge text in order to see information more comfortably.
A key design principle for making text accessible on web pages uses a web development technique known as Cascading Style Sheets (CSS). CSS is a preferred web development practice because it separates content from the display of information. This is really a significant development for accessibility because in the past all decisions about the appearance of text were made by the designer or publisher. By separating content from the characteristics of how information is displayed, control has shifted from the publisher to the reader, who determines what is the “just right” format. When you see web pages that have a series of boxes with the letter A or T, this is an indication that the web page has used CSS to build in text enlargement. Simply click on the letter to enlarge the text to a comfortable size.
Field Trip: CSS
Visit the following website to experience CSS.
CSS Zen Garden
What you will notice is that as you click on each link on the CSS Zen Garden site, the content of the pages stays exactly the same, but the graphic design, layout, text style, and so on, change. The point of this website is to illustrate that good design can be creative by saving the text in one file and saving the CSS variables that affect the appearance of the page in a second file.
The value of text enlargement has led to a number of new tools, some of which are designed to work within your web browser (e.g., browser plug-ins or bookmarklet). Increasingly common is the need for these same kinds of tools to work on smartphones, given the very small screen size and the need to remove the clutter found on many web pages (see Table 4.4). Hence, we are seeing another example of universal design, transforming what was originally an assistive technology intervention useful for some people into a feature that benefits everyone.
Table 4.4: Apps that alter readability features of text
Another important strategy for making text accessible involves styles. Perhaps you used style sheets when you learned to word process; unfortunately, most of us did not. The purpose of using a style sheet is that headings and text elements are consistently tagged regarding their function (e.g., Heading 1, body text). While visual users can see the difference in subheadings, blind users cannot. As a result, screen readers rely on style sheets to read the tagged elements of a document and provide the user with the opportunity to move around a document (i.e., using heading tags to jump from one section to another). Styles also offer authors the opportunity to view the headings that they have created in a document in an outline view to ensure that they are being consistent in their writing style.
Field Trip: Style Sheets
Visit the following website to learn more about making and using style sheets.
WebAIM
http://webaim.org/techniques/word
Saving the Text File
After you have created your text, you have many choices concerning the file format in which you save your document. Table 4.5 summarizes some of the common text file formats. Today most word processing programs and web browsers can easily open and view documents created in any of these common file formats.
Table 4.5: Common text file formats
In most environments, Microsoft Word files saved as .doc or .docx are universally accessible because Word has become the word processing standard. Be considerate of the needs of your students when selecting a file format in which to save the information. For example, if you create a document in WordPerfect or Pages, these specialized formats cannot be opened on most computers that do not have these specific programs installed. In this situation, the students may need to use an online conversion service (see Table 4.6) to convert the file to a format they can open and view. This issue of file format compatibility has become increasingly important as schools implement one-to-one programs and expand their online learning or virtual schools programs.
Table 4.6: File conversion tools
|
Instructional challenge |
Strategy |
Technology options |
Manipulating Digital Text
Once students have access to a digital text file, they are able to manipulate the information in a variety of ways to make it more accessible. Essentially, the only technology skills needed to do so involve copying and pasting.
One important strategy for many struggling readers involves altering the cognitive accessibility of the text. This can be accomplished by copying and pasting digital text into a specialized tool that offers summarization or vocabulary substitution (see Table 4.7). Search your favorite app store to find summarization products that work on your smartphone.
Table 4.7: Cognitive rescaling tools
|
Instructional challenge |
Strategy |
Technology options |
|
Students’ independent reading skills make it extremely difficult and tedious to complete grade-level reading assignments. |
Copy the desired text and paste it into Text Compactor. Use the slider to create a summary. Continue moving the slider until you get the right level of text length/difficulty. If further support is needed, copy the summarized text into a text-to-speech tool or a language translation tool (see below for specific products). |
Text Compactor http://www.textcompactor.com |
|
Students often struggle with grade-level texts because of the advanced vocabulary. |
Copy the desired text and paste it into Rewordify or paste in a web page URL. The tool replaces advanced vocabulary with easier words. |
Rewordify http://rewordify.com |
Cognitive rescaling tools offer an interesting application of UDL. Teachers might use them in a class because of a few struggling readers. However, to reach those targeted students, the teacher may wish to introduce the tools to the entire class. The potential of UDL indicates that the tool will help not only the small group of targeted students but also a larger number of students in the class—many of whom the teacher could not know in advance would need, want, or benefit from such supports.
This case illustrates that the outcomes of UDL should be considered in terms of primary and secondary beneficiaries. If only a small number of targeted users end up using the tool, it functions more like assistive technology. However, if the secondary beneficiaries are a larger group, it is likely we have discovered a UDL application in the same way that we notice the beneficiaries of the zero-entry swimming pool.
Once students have a summary of the text, they can choose to copy and paste it into a text-to-speech program. This allows them to listen to information that they may not be able to (or choose not to) read (see Table 4.8).
Table 4.8: Text-to-speech tools
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Finally, digital text affords the opportunity to convert text from English into another language. Some students whose first language is not English will struggle to extract meaning from text found in grade-level readings. Such students may benefit from translation tools that offer the text and audio formats in English and more than 100 languages.
Field Trip: Google Translate
Explore this site to learn how you can translate text from one language to a second language.
Google Translate
The purpose of this section has been to show how something as simple as making digital text available to students in turn allows students to manipulate information to enhance the physical, sensory, and cognitive accessibility of the information. Whereas some access-to-text interventions are essential for students with disabilities, there is considerable evidence that such tools and strategies can offer benefits to all students. Given the importance of learning from text in U.S. schools, the design of accessible text is a primary starting point for efforts to implement UDL.
Pause to Reflect
How would you explain the difference between digital text and traditional print to a parent of one of your students? Are these differences significant or relevant for 21st-century learners versus when the parent attended school?
4.4 Universal Access to Media
The accessibility of instructional media is another important consideration in UDL. Media often supplements text and adds meaning for struggling readers and students who are visual learners.
However, audio and video resources can pose significant barriers for students who have hearing or visual impairments if the media have not been properly prepared. Thus, we must remember that efforts to improve accessibility for one population may increase barriers for others. This means we must constantly be attentive to assumptions about our learners and the barriers associated with specific types of information containers selected to use in instruction. Because audio and video are routinely used for learning, clear guidelines exist on how to make multimedia content accessible.
Accessible Design of Audio
Audio files may contain music; a recorded conversation like a radio show, podcast, or interview; or spoken text that has been digitized from a human reader (digitized speech) or generated by a computer voice (synthesized speech). Although this content may enhance the learning experience for many learners, the audio format poses intrinsic barriers for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing. Therefore, the key design principle when including audio in instructional materials is to ensure that a transcript of the audio is available.
Transcripts are simply text files that contain the same information that is found in the audio file. For example, if the audio is a radio interview, the transcript would be formatted in script format so that the deaf reader can see who says what. Descriptions of sounds are also included in a transcript. For example, if the radio interview begins with soft jazz music, this is indicated in the script. Similarly, if there is background noise such as a firetruck siren, this is also noted. Transcripts may be saved in any convenient text format, such as .doc, .docx, .html, or .pdf, and the link should be available on the same page as the audio file. The goal is to provide equal access to the information for all learners so that they can choose their preferred media. When a transcript is not provided, students with hearing impairments are denied equal access to the opportunity to learn.
The most significant challenge for most educators is generating a transcript when all they have is an audio recording. The most tedious way to produce a transcript is to replay the audio and type up a transcript. However, a more effective approach is to pay a professional to transcribe the audio. A Google search for “transcription services” will help you identify local, regional, and state transcription services, and many organizations may have a negotiated contract with a school district to provide this service to teachers as needed. Increasingly, efforts are being devoted to automating the transcription process (more about this later in the section).
Accessible Design of Images
Adding images to text facilitates comprehension for most learners. However, for students who are blind, the information contained in an image is obviously inaccessible. For a blind person to have access to the visual information, instructional designers must prepare a text description that explains the information found in the graphic. Whereas captions are commonly used to provide a brief description of an image, a person who is blind will often need an extended description. The nature of the description depends on the purpose of the image (e.g., a simple graphic to make the design visually interesting versus a graph with data).
Extended descriptions may be included in a word processing document or a web page so that all may access the information, or it may be stored in a separate file to be accessed as needed. When inserting a graphic on a web page, most web authoring programs prompt the user to add information in what is known as an alt text tag to an image file. The alt tag directs screen readers and browsers that have turned off graphics to retrieve descriptions or text files that provide a text version of the information presented in visual format.
The alt tag signals the availability of a text description that can be read to the individual so that he or she can gain access to the visual information available to his or her sighted peers. If you would like to see an alt tag in action, and you are reading this textbook online, hover your mouse over any image or figure in the book. The text that was written for the alt tag will automatically appear. As you view the image and read or listen to the description, decide whether the description would be adequate for understanding the visual information if you could not see the image.
The universal design of images requires that designers include text descriptions of each image. This is not a difficult process, but it can be time consuming. The development of alt tags, captions, and extended descriptions requires the instructional designer to thoughtfully describe the information presented in an image in ways that are useful to someone who cannot see the image and needs additional information concerning factors that sighted individuals may take for granted (e.g., issues of graphic style or context of a photo).
Field Trip: Alt Text
To learn more about creating alt text, visit the following site.
WebAIM
http://webaim.org/techniques/alttext
Accessible Design of Video
The popularity of YouTube and Netflix has placed video at the center of social media, and therefore it is increasingly finding its way into the classroom for instructional purposes. However, the multimedia nature of video makes it problematic for individuals with sensory impairments (i.e., those who are deaf, hard of hearing, blind, or visually impaired). As a result, educators must ensure that all videos are appropriately captioned.
Captioning in the context of video and multimedia means that the information presented via audio is available through captions or a transcript and that the information presented via video is available through text descriptions (see Table 4.9). Creating captions is a bit more involved than creating a transcript because the text has to be linked to specific audio and video frames. As a result, this is one area of accessible design that it is difficult to expect teachers to be able to do on a daily basis. However, new tools are making the process easier, and commercial services provide a method for schools to contract for accessibility services if they are creating videos.
Table 4.9: Captioning tools for creating accessible media
|
|
|
Pause to Reflect
Why is it important to consider the accessibility of multimedia when planning for the unive
rsal design of instruction?
4.5 Developing a Personal Plan to Implement UDL
In the final section of this chapter, we will focus on how educators can plan for implementing UDL in their classrooms. The goal is to provide you with some practical strategies to enhance the accessibility of instruction, moving from design for the mean (Figure 4.1) to design for more types (Figure 4.2). We will also address issues that are likely to impact universal design in the near future.
The A3 Model
The transition from inaccessible design to universally accessible design involves awareness training, new technical development, and time for these new standards to be widely adopted. As a result, achieving universal accessibility will not happen quickly.
The A3 model (Schwanke, Smith, & Edyburn, 2001) illustrates the ebb and flow of concurrent interactions between advocacy, accommodation, and accessibility across a three-phase developmental cycle necessary to achieve universal accessibility (see Figure 4.5).
Figure 4.5: The A3 model
The figure shows how advocacy, accommodation, and accessibility shift across the developmental cycle.
Schwanke, Smith, & Edyburn, 2001.
Advocacy efforts raise awareness of inequity and highlight the need for system change to respond to the needs of individuals with disabilities. It is during this phase that advocates seek to spread the message about the benefits of UDL. Part of the message is intended to change the thinking of individuals and organizations about the need for equitable access to tools, products, and information resources.
Accommodations are the typical response to advocacy: Inaccessible environments and materials are modified and made available. Typically, accommodations are provided upon request. Although this represents a significant improvement over situations in the earlier phase, accommodations tend to maintain inequality because (a) there may be a delay (e.g., time needed to convert a handout from print to Braille); (b) it may require special efforts to obtain (e.g., call ahead to schedule); or (c) it may require going to a special location (e.g., the only computer in the school with text enlargement software is located in the library).
Accessibility describes an environment in which access is equitably provided to everyone at the same time. Often this is accomplished through outstanding design (e.g., ergonomic furniture, software with accessibility and performance supports built in). Thus, this third phase illustrates the goal of universal design in that the majority of instructional materials are universally designed, therefore drastically limiting the number of accommodations needed.
It is important to understand that all three factors are present in each phase. However, the waves across each phase suggest the differential impact of the three factors in terms of time, effort, and focus. As a result, individuals and organizations can use the model to assess how their time and effort is being allocated to determine which phase they are currently operating within.
CAST’s work on UDL paints a vision of the world in which instructional environments, materials, and strategies are universally designed (as found in the third phase). It has created an outstanding series of products—such as WiggleWorks (CAST, 1994), Thinking Reader (CAST, 2004), UDL Editions by CAST (CAST, 2008), CAST UDL Book Builder (CAST, 2009b), CAST Science Writer (CAST, 2009a)—that provide experiential evidence of what UDL principles could look like in practice. These products illustrate what might be possible if students had access to a large supply of UDL materials to support their learning across subjects, each and every day of the school year.
In the first 10 years of UDL implementation, the UDL message has been shared with substantial numbers of educators (phase 1). However, the reality is that once we understand the principles of UDL, we move from phase 1 (advocacy) to phase 2 (accommodation). This means that while we are waiting for the widespread availability of the promise of UDL (phase 3—accessibility), we are left to our own devices to try to apply the UDL principles to create more accessible accommodations (e.g., “Since the web page does not feature audio, let me show you how to copy the text and paste it into a text-to-speech tool.”). Thus, the A3 model illustrates why many early disciples of UDL find themselves struggling to achieve the potential of UDL within the current limitations of instructional design and product development.
Pause to Reflect
Given your understanding of the A3 model, which phase do you believe most accurately describes your personal knowledge and skills concerning UDL?
A fundamental question that has yet to be fully addressed in the UDL literature is whether the demands of daily instruction will allow teachers to function effectively as instructional designers. That is, is UDL a task for instructional designers and publishers who make instructional products? Or are teachers the principal stakeholders as they select and deliver instruction in accordance with UDL principles?
Given the difficulties the author has observed in trying to scale UDL implementation beyond single classrooms, he is of the opinion that UDL is an intervention that involves the design and creation of instructional materials (phase 3—accessibility). Hence, the work of teachers is more accurately represented by the description of phase 2—that is, advocating for UDL, selecting and using UDL materials when they are available, and facilitating accommodations (as illustrated in Section 4.3 for making text accessible). However, this perspective is controversial.
In the sections that follow, we explore tools and strategies for implementing universal design in the classroom with the goal of helping teachers design for more types (Figure 4.2).
Planning for Multiple Means of Representation
The UDL principle of multiple means of representation seeks to provide diverse students with alternatives to gaining information solely from a textbook. A sample plan, illustrated in Figure 4.6, provides an example of what such a multiple means of representation menu might look like for a middle school lesson on volcanoes.
Figure 4.6: Sample volcano lessons using the multiple means of representation planning template
This figure shows an example of how lessons can be planned using the multiple means of representation planning template.
Although this planning template does require extra time on the teacher’s part, it provides multiple pathways for all students to explore the content, since the teacher may select resources that provide a more basic presentation of the information as well as those that provide more advanced content. Because students will review each of the resources, just as Goldilocks does to determine what is “just right,” they are likely to accumulate more time on task than commonly found with traditional one-size-fits-all curricula.
When teachers seek to implement the UDL principle of multiple means of representation, they are valuing academic diversity by discarding the historical notion that any one information source is the only source needed. In reality, providing students with a menu of information sources is thought to enhance access, engagement, and learning outcomes both for targeted students (primary beneficiaries) who we know will struggle with the content and for a large number of other students (secondary beneficiaries) whom we cannot identify in advance.
Planning for Multiple Means of Expression
A second principle of universal design for learning focuses on providing students with choices on how they express what they have learned. In many classrooms, teachers expect students to make presentations to the class regarding a topic that they have studied.
In this case, the teacher would like each student to make a formal presentation, using one of the tools in Table 4.10. By giving students a choice in the presentation tool, students can opt to learn a new tool, use one that they are familiar with, or use one that supports specific features that they want to utilize in this particular context. Such specific features could include collaboration (e.g., Google Docs); visualization (e.g., Prezi); or cognitively simplified interface (e.g., Kid Pix 3D). Beyond formal presentations, teachers are increasingly allowing students to use other formats, such as short animated videos (Nawmal), comic strips (ComicLife), video shot on student’s smartphones (WeVideo) and other modes of storytelling and presentation. Because the teacher in this example is not an expert in each of the products, she directs students to use each other as resources for learning about the tools and to take advantage of online help and tutorials. This tactic frees the teacher to devote more time and energy to helping students learn about the content and performance standards. Once such a menu has been created, it may be reused frequently.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Planning for Multiple Means of Engagement
Access to information is not the same as access to learning (Boone & Higgins, 2005; Rose, Hasselbring, Stahl, & Zabala, 2005). Access to information is necessary but not sufficient for learning to take place. As a result, it is important to consider how technology and digital media engage students in meaningful learning activities. When UDL provides the opportunity for a student to access and engage in learning, as minutes of engaged learning accumulate (i.e., time on task), this fosters the opportunity for deep learning to occur. Deep learning, sustained over time, has been found to lead to significant gains in academic achievement. As we seek to reverse the effects of the achievement gap, we must keep this strategy in mind. That is, how do we engage students in meaningful learning activities such that they are able to experience the deep learning that is needed for the development of expertise?
One strategy for implementing the UDL principle of multiple means of engagement is to use an instructional planning template known as tic-tac-toe. You can implement this principle in your classroom by creating your own tic-tac-toe table by going into Microsoft Word and creating a table with three columns and three rows. When populating the nine cells, keep in mind the UDL principles to provide multiple means of representation, expression, and engagement. Students are expected to select three in a row (using the traditional rules of tic-tac-toe) to complete the assignment.
Naturally, the creation of tic-tac-toe activities will require a bit of time investment for teachers. However, as an instructional management tool, it is an excellent beginning step for applying the principles of universal design to the classroom. Teachers will reap the dividends of their time investment when they track the academic performance of students who have typically struggled to complete traditional assignments. Often, students will ask to do more tic-tac-toe projects. This is a powerful indicator of the instructional value of this intervention and one that operationalizes our values of proactively valuing diversity to support students before they fail.
Pause to Reflect
As you think about applying the principles of UDL in your classroom, which approach (multiple means of representation, expression, or engagement) seems most important or manageable for you to begin with?
Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
Universal design has its roots in the field of architecture, where it was discovered that it was preferable to consider disability access in the initial design of the building environment rather than try to achieve access by retrofitting and remodeling an existing structure. Universal design for learning represents a 21st-century intervention that seeks to utilize emerging insights gained from research in diverse fields such as neuroscience, learning sciences, instructional design, and technology. The three principles of UDL involve providing multiple means of representation, expression, and engagement. Understanding the potential of UDL is seductively easy. Its exponential growth indicates that clearly it is the right idea at the right time. However, it has proved far easier to help the various stakeholders understand the potential of UDL than it has been to implement UDL on a large scale and develop a sound research base supporting its efficacy.
· The foundations of UDL were created during a period when there was a need to move inclusion beyond physical access to the general education classroom to a level that offered access, engagement, and improved outcomes of learning by students with disabilities within the general curriculum.
· Efforts to design for the mean reflect a value of designing for a segment of the population that will achieve the best return on one-size-fits-all tools, products, and information resources. This approach creates a relentless demand for accommodations because all needs were not considered in the original design.
· Although universal design promotes the notion that everyone will benefit from a given design, in practice this has yet to be achieved. As a result, a more promising approach to consider is design for more types. That is, how can we improve our instructional designs to reach more learners today than we did yesterday?
· The accessible design of digital text allows users to manipulate text in ways that enhance the physical characteristics of print, as well as providing scaffolds such as text at multiple difficulty levels, audio, and language translations that provide cognitive access to the information. Media containers must be designed with accessibility in mind.
· Application of the principles of UDL in the classroom requires that teachers provide students with choices to foster access and engagement.
Reflection and Critical Thinking
1. Explore design interventions that were created explicitly for individuals with disabilities but subsequently had greater implications for mainstream populations. Using the following sources or others you find, select two cases that illustrate the UDL mantra, “Good design for individuals with disabilities can benefit everyone.” What about each case appeals to you? History of Technological Advances Inspired by Disability http://www.infinitec.org/history-of-tech-advances The Evolution of Assistive Technology Into Everyday Products http://incl.ca/the-evolution-of-assistive-technology-into-everyday-products
2. Conduct a Google search to locate information on how to open the accessibility control panels on your computer, tablet, or smartphone. Consider how these features could be used by a student in your classroom or an older adult that you know. What is the value of having such control panels on every device, rather than installing them on individual computers as needed?
3. Review the following links concerning UDL resources. Identify three to five resources that you would share with a colleague to introduce him or her to the concept of UDL. Why would you choose to share these resources? Teaching Every Student Blog http://teachingeverystudent.blogspot.com Free Technology Toolkit for UDL in All Classrooms http://sites.google.com/view/freeudltechtoolkit/home CAST UDL Studio http://udlstudio.cast.org
4. Explore the following link. As you think of each recommendation, how would you describe the primary beneficiary (i.e., a person with a special need that is known in advance) and the secondary beneficiary (i.e., people who would also benefit from the intervention but are not known in advance)? 5 Ways Universal Design Makes Products More Accessible https://www.section508.gov/blog/5-Ways-Universal-Design-Makes-Products-More-Accessible
5. Download a copy of the latest National Education Technology Plan from the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Educational Technology: National Education Technology Plan http://tech.ed.gov/netp Use the Find feature within your word processor or PDF viewer to locate the phrase “universal design for learning” in the National Education Technology Plan.
5. In which contexts is the use of UDL in technology planning advocated for?
5. Based on your reading about UDL in this federal educational document, what would you tell a school district administrator regarding the importance of UDL and the need to create a local plan for implementing it?
Additional Resources
Recommendations for Your Professional Bookshelf
Lidwell, W., Holden, K., & Butler, J. (2010). Universal principles of design: 125 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach through design (2nd ed.). Gloucester, MA: Rockport.
A comprehensive introduction to design interventions for maximizing accessibility and usability of tools, products, and information resources.
Rose, D., & Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching every student in the digital age. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
A classic book outlining the principles of UDL.
Web Watch
The Universal Design for Learning Implementation and Research Network is a new independent professional organization devoted to the implementation of UDL.
The UDL Center is an authoritative resource concerning UDL research, policy, and practice.
Key Terms
accessibility
accessibility control panel
alt text tag
captions
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
digitized speech
multiple means of engagement
multiple means of expression
multiple means of representation
synthesized speech
text description
universal design
universal design for learning (UDL)
usability
Chapter 1
Diverse Students and Academic Performance
·
1.1 The Importance of Education
·
1.2 Higher Expectations in Our Classrooms
Chapter 5
Managing Digital Technology in the Classroom
·
5.2 Classrooms With Limited Technology
·
5.3 Ubiquitous Technology (One-to-One Classrooms)
·
5.4 Preparing Students to Use Technology Routinely
AP Photo/Matt Rourke
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
· Describe strategies for managing instruction when students use computers in computer labs.
· Describe strategies for managing instruction when students use computers in the classroom.
· Outline practical strategies for managing instruction when each student routinely has access to a computer, tablet, or handheld device.
· Design a plan for the classroom that fosters the access and exchange of digital resources and assignments.
Introduction
With a few exceptions, most adults today have not experienced classrooms in which technology is ubiquitous. As a result, the education profession has been slow to recognize the need to prepare teachers to manage technology-intensive learning environments.
Schools use many different approaches to provide technology. Some are legacy behaviors and systems from years past, when technology was expensive and had to be housed in a central location. The adoption of tablets and handheld devices offers increased access to technology for learning while at the same time presenting new challenges for managing the learning environment. As a result, we will explore a variety of management strategies that you can use if you teach in a technology lab, a classroom with limited technology, or an environment in which technology is ubiquitous. The purpose of this chapter is to help you develop plans for managing technology tools so that they effectively enhance student learning.
Many teachers believe teaching in classrooms in which technology is ubiquitous is easier than in more traditional settings. Although it is true that some tasks are easier, effective use of technology requires that teachers attend to a variety of classroom management issues that they may not have encountered before. As a result, you will be introduced to strategies that you may want to adopt concerning digital work flow. That is, how does a teacher’s work change when the curriculum and student learning activities are all stored and managed online?
Field Trip: Meet Eight Technology-Using Educators
Visit this link to learn more about how and why teachers choose to use technology in their classroom. Do any of these stories resonate with your goals?
“Teachers’ Views on Technology in the Classroom”
5.1 Technology Labs
When computer technology first appeared in schools in the 1980s, computers were placed in converted classrooms that were designated as computer labs. There were several reasons for this arrangement. First, courses on how to use computers were developed, requiring that students come to a particular classroom to learn how to use these new tools. Second, computers were expensive. Therefore, it was not unreasonable to expect that students would come to a special classroom, much the same way that they changed classrooms for physical education, art, home economics, or industrial arts. Third, the electrical demands of operating multiple computers meant that the classroom housing the computer lab often had to be rewired to provide sufficient electrical capabilities. Sometimes this also meant adding air-conditioning to help reduce the heat buildup in the room that was common when many computers were running. During the 1980s it simply did not seem viable to place computers in each classroom. If you teach in a technology lab today, it is likely that it was the first computer lab space developed by your school.
The Evolving Use of Technology Labs
Computer labs support whole-class instruction. Much of the curriculum in early computer classes focused on computer literacy; that is, learning how to operate a computer; identifying the components, such as the keyboard, screen, and disk drive; and learning to write simple programs using languages such as BASIC and Logo (Lock & Carlson, 2000). During this time, technology integration meant acquiring enough computers so that computer literacy classes could be taught—first as an elective course and subsequently as a required course. However, as schools expanded their computer labs, the computer literacy curriculum began to evolve beyond word processing. This change in the curriculum was related to changes in the marketplace that merged word processors with other productivity software—most notably, databases and spreadsheets. Software programs that integrate several productivity programs are known as productivity suites or integrated software packages. One example is Microsoft Office.
Today many schools maintain computer labs to support required computer course work. Typically, in such courses, students are required to master a suite of productivity tools such as Office 365 or Google Classroom. In much the same way that a lab of typewriters was required to teach typing in high school in years past, technology labs are viewed as necessary infrastructure for helping students master the tools of the 21st century. In many schools the term computer lab has been updated with the term technology lab to reflect the addition of other technological resources. As a result of such innovations, today’s technology labs are also home to elective classes in digital art, digital photography, digital music, and web design. Sometimes large departments have their own specialized technology lab (e.g., a digital design lab, a geographic information system lab, or makerspace) where they provide specialized software like Photoshop or Google Earth that requires more computing power than may be available on laptops or tablet computers or that requires interfaces with specialized peripherals (e.g., MIDI controllers).
Table 5.1 summarizes software applications commonly found in K–12 technology labs. Over time collections of instructional software have diminished as more schools use web-based apps and resources. Increasingly, desktop productivity suites, such as Google Classroom and Office 365, are housed in the cloud such that users can access their information from anywhere and across their devices (i.e., from their phone, tablet, or computer).
Teachers who take their students to a technology lab do so for several reasons. One is to teach them how to use a new software program or app. These types of large-group training sessions are more effective than show-and-tell presentations in the classroom because each student can follow along to learn the mechanics of using a new software program. A second reason that teachers reserve technology labs is to provide students with time to conduct web research or write a report. Whereas some educators frown on using class time for this type of work, it is important to remember that the digital divide still exists and that all students do not have routine access to high-speed Internet or a computer to write their papers. Finally, teachers may schedule a technology lab for their class to gain access to software that has a limited number of licenses for use or to take advantage of other technology resources not easily accessible outside of the lab (e.g., a scanner with optical character recognition software).
The Decline of Technology Labs
In the early 21st century, some schools have closed their technology labs. The decisions are often justified by any one of several reasons.
AP Photo/The Messenger-Inquirer/Jenny Sevcik
If every student had their own laptop or mobile device to use in class, what measures would you need to take to ensure your students remained on task?
First, changing demographics have put pressure on some schools to add classrooms to reduce class size. Under such circumstances, the space allocated to a technology lab is viewed as a luxury that can no longer be afforded. Second, in keeping with the emphasis on integrating technology into the curriculum, some administrators have justified closing technology labs based on the increased number of computers available in classrooms. The decision is justified by arguing that it is important to place technology in the classroom where it can be used more routinely because it will have greater impact than is possible with only periodic visits to a computer lab. Finally, the ubiquitous nature of wireless Internet and mobile computing has changed how we think about technology usage. Although computers were special when they first entered schools in the 1980s, it now seems quaint to think that we have to go to a special room to use technology.
Whether your school has a technology lab or not may be the result of any of the reasons mentioned earlier. Looking ahead, there will continue to be a need for specialized technology labs in the short term if the curriculum involves software applications that require significant computing power (e.g., iMovie, Photoshop) or the technology requirements are such that all students must complete one or more technology courses. However, as we grow more accustomed to mobile computing, we will likely see the need for technology labs diminish as we seek to use technology closer to routine teaching and learning contexts.
Pause to Reflect
As you think about your experience learning about technology, have the majority of your formal learning experiences occurred in computer labs? Or have you ever attended a professional development workshop in which you were expected to bring your own device so that you could interact with resources as the presenter demonstrated them?
5.2 Classrooms With Limited Technology
In the 1990s educational leaders began to recognize the value of technology in education. That is, they saw that the computer literacy curriculum was based on the notion that the computer was the object of instruction, whereas the more interesting applications of technology involved what you could do with technology. This led to language suggesting that the technology should be transparent (Siegel & Davis, 1986).
The change in focus from computer literacy, in which the computer was deemed to be the important topic of study, to technology integration, in which the computer was a transparent tool for exploring important educational outcomes, was a profound philosophical shift that contributed to the deployment of computers in classrooms.
The One-Computer Classroom
Much like the historical nostalgia for one-room schoolhouses, some teachers fondly recall the days of the one-computer classroom. Initial efforts to place computers in the classroom typically began with providing a single computer, often on the teacher’s desk. This action was justified by the prevailing thought that the teacher was the most valuable resource in the classroom, based on the argument that a scarce resource like a single computer would not make significant contributions to student learning as a result of each student touching the keys for a few minutes each week (Dockterman, 1991). However, because efforts to provide more computers were often advanced through fund-raising by parent–teacher organizations, in many schools it was expected that computers were being placed in the classroom for student use and not teacher productivity. You may observe similar arguments in schools today that have been trying to move beyond initiatives that sought to provide iPads to teachers but are still struggling to find the funding to provide tablet computers to each student.
One of the benefits of the one-computer classroom era was that it helped educators think about the creative uses of technology in the classroom (Gimotty, 2004). In one of the most popular books on early technology use in education, Great Teaching in the One-Computer Classroom, Dockterman (1991) suggested five possible management approaches for the one-computer classroom:
· with large group instruction,
· with small collaborative groups,
· as a lecture/presentation tool,
· within a learning center, and
· as a tool to support teacher productivity.
AP Photo/Franka Bruns
This student is working on an interactive whiteboard. Do you think the use of this kind of technology is beneficial to student learning? Why or why not?
Although teachers were comfortable with large-group (i.e., whole class) instruction, the major obstacle was the lack of a projection system so that the entire class could see what was on the computer screen. As a result, many teachers chose not to use technology in the classroom because their preferred form of instruction involved managing whole groups. Even today you may see teachers who only use technology when providing whole-group instruction by using an interactive whiteboard. Despite this obvious infrastructure requirement, it was not until the late 1990s and early 2000s that a majority of classrooms were equipped with a computer and projection system.
Using technology in small collaborative groups involves project-based learning, in which students work in groups, both on and off the computer. Each student has a role (e.g., project manager, secretary, researcher), which allows the teacher to break up an assignment into multiple parts as students act in their different roles within a project or across projects. These roles also serve to distinguish who does what when the team works at the computer.
An important insight about this approach is that it recognized that learning did not necessarily occur by touching the keys. Implementing this approach in the classroom meant that the teacher had to organize a group project, divide the students into groups, and schedule each group for an adequate amount of time at the computer to work on the project. Today we might think of a similar project that involves asking a group of students to make a poster using Glogster or produce a movie for YouTube.
Amornme/iStock/Getty Images Plus/GettyImages
More schools are moving to use of the smart projector rather than the traditional classroom projector. How will these tools impact learning for all students?
Use of the computer as a lecture/presentation tool became possible when projection systems and interactive whiteboards were added to the classroom. In many situations this was justified as an upgrade of the overhead projector typically found in each classroom. In fact, this often resulted from the computer being installed in the front center of the classroom and the projection system in the center of the room to display on the front wall. In other cases projection systems were equipped to work with both the computer and a VCR (and later a DVD player) to connect them to a television/monitor. In these situations, the setup was often mounted in a front corner of the classroom. Depending on the economic status of your school district, you may find that these types of infrastructures still exist.
Building a learning center around one to three computers is also a common tactic in many schools. This approach lends itself to thinking of the computer as simply another learning center within the classroom. This type of setup is easy for teachers to manage because it is a supplement to instruction. Unfortunately, in many cases it has led to the view that the computer is a place where students can play games as a reward for completing their work. However, when used appropriately, computer learning centers in the classroom offer teachers and students a great deal of flexibility for using technology to augment instruction.
Finally, the profession has long recognized the value of technology in the classroom to support teacher productivity. However, attempts to define a core technology tool kit that supports teacher productivity have been inconsistent. As a result, teachers are responsible for locating suitable tools beyond the typical office suite, web browser, e-mail system, and course management tools. Periodically, there is public outcry when technology purchases are perceived by a community as only benefiting adults (i.e., administrators, school board members, or teachers) instead of being accessible to students (Moore, 2013).
Pause to Reflect
In your current school, can you find any evidence of the five management approaches used in one-computer classrooms still in use? As you think about the five approaches to managing the one-computer classroom, which are compatible with your personal instructional philosophy?
Moving Beyond a Single Computer in the Classroom
The one-computer classroom represents a developmental milestone in the adoption of technology in education. Although the justification for providing a single computer in the classroom was largely related to the expense, this approach continues in many schools in areas with significant poverty, as well as many alternative and charter schools. Arguments for the absence of technology often use Dockterman’s (1991) insight that the most valuable resource in the classroom is the teacher. Nonetheless, there is clear evidence that society and educators are expecting 21st-century schools to become more technology intensive in order to better prepare students for a life outside of school that is increasingly technological.
One management strategy that has been developed to provide more technology in the classroom involves the use of computers on wheels (COWS). COWS are portable carts that store laptop computers, Chromebooks, or iPads. The cart can be shared within a department or group of teachers by simply pushing it from one classroom to another when curriculum activities require it. The cart has a charging system built in so that the devices are charged when they are not being used. And each evening the cart can be moved to a secure location for storage. COWS are an excellent strategy for schools with limited classroom space for a dedicated technology lab and provide considerable flexibility in making technology available to teachers and students when and where it is needed.
One of the key questions that emerged during efforts to place technology in schools where it would be used most effectively centered on the issue of instructional goals. That is, what was the learning outcome that teachers desired from student use of computers? This question often tripped up teachers, since the early rationale for using computers was to enable students to know more about computers. However, the notion of technology integration and transparency shifted the focus away from the technology itself to more important instructional goals and thereby supported efforts to integrate technology into education by asking educators to find engaging and motivating applications that contributed to content knowledge (Grabe & Grabe, 2007).
Once teachers were able to answer this question, it became easier to request, and to receive, additional technology resources. In some cases, this led to what has been called one-to-one initiatives—that is, pilot programs designed to provide each student with a computer to maximize the quality of the learning experience. We will now turn our attention to schools and classrooms in which access to technology is ubiquitous and routine.
5.3 Ubiquitous Technology (One-to-One Classrooms)
Ubiquitous technology refers to situations in which technology is readily available everywhere. Although computers have been a fixture in homes and schools for many years, it wasn’t until the early 2000s that large-scale projects began to provide each student with a computer and study its impact. As a result, one-to-one access, whereby each student has ready access to his or her own device (e.g., laptop, tablet, smartphone), is still considered a special initiative within a school district and a point of pride. To date there is little evidence to suggest that one-to-one classrooms are widespread; it appears that less than 50% of American classrooms feature one-to-one technologies. In this section, we explore several initiatives that have contributed to what we know about technology-intensive environments.
Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow
The earliest and most ambitious research to study the impact of ubiquitous technology was a project sponsored by Apple Computer beginning in 1985. The project, known as the Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow (ACOT), provided teachers and students in five schools with two computers each, one for use at home and one for use at school. This project received a great deal of attention because it inspired educators to think of educational possibilities that could be afforded when students had routine access to technology. To understand the context, remember that this project began in the early days of microcomputers, in classrooms using Apple IIc computers (the most portable computer of the day), and before the Internet as we know today existed!
The longitudinal study explored a variety of issues related to daily use, impact on teaching and learning, and a host of implementation factors. One of the most problematic issues was that student desk space was too small for both desk work and computer work, which led to some classroom management challenges (e.g., the computer would be set on the floor when completing desk work). The research continued in the early 1990s and provided some of the most important foundational evidence about the impact of ubiquitous technology on teaching and learning (Baker, Gearhart, & Herman, 1994; Dwyer, Ringstaff, & Haymore, 1994; Dwyer, Ringstaff, & Sandholtz, 1992). Much of what we know about technology integration, professional development for teachers, and planning for technology-based instruction can be traced to the ACOT research.
The visibility of the ACOT project served as a powerful incentive for the educational technology profession to consider the importance of not merely integrating technology into the curriculum but also using technology to foster the larger agenda of educational reform to improve student learning. In the late 1990s educational leaders were connecting the dots between new powerful laptop computers and possibilities afforded by the Internet. This led to new efforts to replicate the ACOT research by issuing students laptop computers via one-to-one initiatives, whereby students could use a school district–issued laptop computer at school and take it home as needed.
One-to-One Laptop Initiatives
AP Photo/The Herald-Palladium/Don Campbell
These students are part of the One-to-One Computer Initiative. If your school could take part in the initiative, how would you ensure that your students were meeting the desired learning outcomes?
Innovators have called attention to the profound implications mobile learning technologies have for education (Bjerede, Atkins, & Dede, 2010; Breck, 2007). One of the most notable large-scale efforts was directed by Nicholas Negroponte, a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, whose vision involved creating a $100 laptop for education ( http://one.laptop.org ). Although Negroponte failed to meet the $100 threshold, when his computer did become available, users could buy two for $400, with one computer being donated to schools in developing countries. School districts like that in Birmingham, Alabama, purchased 15,000 devices in an effort to address the achievement gap by creating technology-intensive learning environments (Warschauer, Choen, & Ames, 2012). In 2012 Google offered its Chromebook for $99, in effect achieving Negroponte’s vision (Dawson, Cavanaugh, & Ritzhaupt, 2009; Muir, Knezek, & Christiansen, 2004). These projects typically involved providing each student in an entire grade with a laptop computer and expanding the project each year by adding additional grade levels. These projects were notable for their partnerships with computer manufacturers and their commitment to extensive teacher professional development before the laptops were deployed.
Based on the lessons learned from ACOT, administrators recognized that enhanced learning outcomes would not be achieved by simply dispensing technology. Rather, technology provided a context for rethinking teaching and learning. Further, teachers needed ongoing support and assistance to deal with concerns (Donovan, Hartley, & Strudler, 2007) and implementation issues that arose (Clausen, Britten, & Ring, 2008; Grignano, Poftak, & Rockman, 2004; Levin, 2004).
To date, the research evidence concerning the educational outcomes of one-to-one initiatives is mixed. Some studies have shown very positive learning gains (Lowther, Ross, & Morrison, 2003; Murphy, King, & Brown, 2007), while others have pointed to very modest gains that raise questions about the investment (Dunleavy & Heinecke, 2007). And some studies have shown negative outcomes or no significant difference between the laptop and control classrooms (Grimes & Warschauer, 2008). Some studies have discovered other benefits such as gender equalization in technology skills (Kay, 2006) and significant gains in student engagement that suggest promise for improving student achievement (Russell, Bebell, & Higgins, 2004; Swan, van’t Hooft, Kratcoski, & Unger, 2005). To date, most studies indicate the potential of one-to-one initiatives that need additional attention to the quality of implementation and the need for more research. However, there is little evidence concerning the impact for urban low–socioeconomic status (SES) students (Grimes & Warschauer, 2008; Mouza, 2008); this therefore illustrates that the digital divide is still operating. Despite the mixed research support for one-to-one initiatives, schools continue to make significant investments in mobile technologies.
Bring Your Own Device
One of the latest developments in managing technology in schools relates to the persistent failure of educational systems to fund technology at a level sufficient to provide each student with a personal computing device. As a result, schools have used initiatives known as bring your own device (BYOD) to encourage students to bring their own mobile device to school (Alberta Education, 2012). The rationale for these initiatives is found in the statement that “21st-century learners need to be learning with 21st-century tools.” Readers interested in a practical guide to BYOD are encouraged to download the following document.
Field Trip: BYOD
Visit this site to explore a guide book for educators on implementing a BYOD initiative in your school. As you explore, are there issues that need to be considered that you had not previously thought about?
Bring Your Own Device: A Guide for Schools
https://open.alberta.ca/publications/9781460103388
Not surprisingly, BYOD is appealing to school districts, since it moves the cost for purchasing technology from school budgets to family budgets. However, other concerns are also driving these decisions. First, schools are trying to take advantage of devices students already own, such as smartphones and tablets. This trend is an extension of the ubiquitous computing initiatives that began with the ACOT research. Second, educators believe that students are more likely to be responsible for technology if it is their own personal device. As a result, in the short term you are likely to hear much more about BYOD initiatives in your school district and state.
Despite the excitement about the potential of BYOD, there are several drawbacks. First, schools will have to develop policy and procedures to assist families who cannot afford to purchase and maintain the technology. To date, this has not been addressed on a large scale in low-SES districts. Second, districts need to develop better access and security systems to support the wide variety of devices and operating systems that students may bring to school. Typically, this is not a problem for districts that have installed new networks, but such efforts can require a considerable investment in infrastructure. Additionally, school districts may need to change existing school board policies, which in most school districts ban student use of cell phones during school. And, finally, teachers may need additional professional development about how to manage personal technology devices and develop meaningful instructional activities for using mobile technologies (Kolb, 2011; Schrock, 2013; Swan, Kratcoski, & van’t Hooft, 2007).
Pause to Reflect
Would you like to teach in a classroom in which each student has his or her own device? Would it make a difference if the device was a computer or a smartphone? What implications might ubiquitous technology have for teachers when planning and delivering instruction? How would you feel about being asked to help a student with a device you have never used before?
5.4 Preparing Students to Use Technology Routinely
Regardless of the type of computer configuration found in a school, teachers will need to prepare students before they can begin using technology routinely in the classroom. Only after students master the basic operations of the technology and software can attention shift to focus on the issues of learning and performance. In this section, we will examine several issues in order to help you think about how to effectively manage digital technology in the classroom.
Student Training
It is extremely difficult and frustrating to try to learn a new tool while also trying to meet a deadline. Therefore, it is essential that teachers teach students how to operate software and apps before beginning an assignment.
Just as teachers spend considerable time in the early part of the school year teaching students the operating principles of the school and various classroom routines, they must also teach students how to operate the technology found in the school. For example, when visiting the computer lab, should students turn on the computers at the beginning of the class period? Or are the computers turned on during the first hour and turned off during the final class period of the day? Likewise, does each student have to sign in using a user name and password, or are the machines open access for anyone? How does a new student obtain a user name and password? What happens when students forget their password? What happens when a BYOD device won’t connect to the network?
Teachers must be trained on the answers to these and similar questions to effectively use technology. Student teachers often encounter barriers in this area when they enter a school midyear, since many of the operating procedures are reviewed with new faculty at the beginning of the year. Log-in procedures can be particularly challenging to manage as schools implement more online learning initiatives and need to provide students with remote access to school servers and software.
Most schools require that students and families sign a document agreeing to the school’s acceptable use policy (see Figure 5.1 for an example). As the name suggests, these policies outline acceptable and unacceptable use of school technology and the consequences for violating the policy. Teachers are required discuss these documents with students and parents and expand on topics such as security, privacy, and more.
Figure 5.1: Sample acceptable use policy
The sample acceptable use policy shown here can be adapted for classroom use, based on teacher and even student preferences.
Click through the four slides in the following interaction to see a sample acceptable use policy.
Strategies for Introducing a New Technology Tool
When teachers are introducing a new technology tool, they may need to use a variety of resources to learn how to use it effectively. For example, they may find materials created by the publisher to be useful. This may involve a text- or video-based product demonstration. Online tutorials like Lynda ( https://www.lynda.com ) are another common resource, which require the user to read some information and click as directed to simulate the software use experience. Finally, teachers may create their own learning guides that provide students with guidance about how to complete certain activities within their software program.
Quick start guides are an example of a learning support tool commonly provided for commercial software. They summarize key commands and tasks that users might complete. See Figure 5.2 for a teacher-created quick start guide about how to use a specific website tool to create web pages. Notice that these types of guides can be made within a word processor and can include graphics made from screen captures. When appropriate, it is an excellent idea to have students make these types of tools as a way to help other students learn a new tool. Students with disabilities may require specific step-by-step instruction guides like these to help them remember how to complete a task.
Figure 5.2: Example of a quick start guide
An example of a teacher-made quick start guide for a web app that students will use.
The fundamental goal of ensuring that students and teachers can independently use technology tools is to maximize time on task engaged in learning. This goal applies to apps as well as specific websites. Thus, when it is time to use a technology tool, no time is wasted trying to figure out where it is or how to get it started.
Help Seeking Within the Technology Classroom
Another management issue that teachers will need to consider when using technology in the classroom involves thinking about what provisions will be available for help seeking. That is, when students forget how to save a file, how to apply a specific formatting feature, and so on, what should they do first? When every student encounters multiple such problems, the number of questions can quickly overwhelm a teacher. As a result, it is important to teach and model help-seeking behaviors to prevent students from becoming dependent on the teacher as the sole information source.
For example, you might suggest that students access the online help system found within a program. Or they might search for a YouTube video to guide them through a step-by-step process. If that fails, they may want to turn to a peer for advice. Some schools have training programs for peer technology experts. These are students who receive advanced training in all the features of a product like Microsoft Office and are shown how to effectively offer technical assistance to others (rather than just taking control of the keyboard and doing the task themselves). Having a peer expert in the classroom can be very helpful. Students with disabilities have especially benefited from serving as “experts,” which can foster a sense of self-esteem from recognizing that they know more about a topic than most others and are able to offer assistance to others when needed. Finally, some technology labs have implemented a system of placing plastic cups on top of the computer monitors. The cup is routinely face down, but students turn it face up to signal to the teacher that they have a question. Since the sight lines are often impaired in technology labs, this signaling device is a useful classroom management feature.
Managing Assistive Technology in the Classroom
The management of assistive technology in the classroom has received considerably less attention than general technology management issues. As a result, little is known about the attitudes, concerns, and interventions of general education teachers concerning the students in their classroom who use assistive technology. Among the existing research, Banda, Grimmett, and Hart (2009) provide strategies for students with autism spectrum disorder and explain how activity schedules can facilitate transitions. Similarly, Mechling (2007) has studied the use of assistive technology for self-prompting students with intellectual disabilities to complete daily tasks. Further, Fitzgerald and colleagues have created a system known as KidTools ( http://kidtools.cepel.org ), which provides behavioral supports for students and teachers (Miller, Fitzgerald, Koury, Mitchem, & Hollingsead, 2007). Unfortunately, because most teachers have little knowledge or direct experience using assistive technology, students are left to troubleshoot on their own or to seek the assistance of an assistive technology specialist.
Troubleshooting
Despite a teacher’s best preparation, there will be times when a technology malfunction creates a need for a Plan B. This may come about because the bulb on the computer projection system has burned out, a computer is broken so that each student does not have his or her own computer, a network is down so that a teacher cannot access a required document or web page, or a power outage has unexpectedly shut down the computers and caused students to lose their work. In each of these cases, there will be some disruption in the instructional lesson plan. As a result, it is necessary to plan some alternative strategies.
Pause to Reflect
Has a technology failure ever disrupted your teaching? What went wrong? What did you do as a Plan B? Ultimately, how did you resolve the problem?
What happens when a teacher was planning on using a PowerPoint for the day’s lecture but the server is down? Is there a chance that the presentation was saved on a USB drive? Do you remember the lecture well enough to provide the information without the PowerPoint? Do you create a new schedule and hope that the server comes up later in the day? Or do you tell students you will e-mail them the PowerPoint later in the day? Although we cannot anticipate the exact nature of these kinds of disruptions, we should always have a Plan B in case we encounter a problem. Here are some ideas to consider when troubleshooting.
When Technology Disrupts Your Teaching
Motortion/iStock/Getty Images Plus/GettyImages
1. First, don’t panic.
2. Determine if the problem is the computer, keyboard, mouse, software, power supply, or connection to the Internet. This helps determine where to focus problem solving.
3. Is there a problem getting the computer to start up? If so, check the power connections and cables. Is everything plugged in? Is the power strip turned on? Can you try a different outlet? Are other computers in the room working properly?
4. Does the computer power on correctly but the keyboard or mouse do not appear to be working? Check the cable connections and try again. Or swap out a keyboard and mouse from another computer to determine whether there is a problem.
5. Are you able to connect to a local area network or the Internet? If not, use the network diagnostic control panel to see if you are receiving an Internet signal. Could the local server be down? Or could the disruption be from your Internet service provider?
6. Were you working one moment and then everything just froze up? Can you save your current work before proceeding? If yes, this will provide a measure of safety. Can you quit the current application you are in and restart the program? Then, check to see if the autosave feature of the software saved a temporary version of your file before it shut down. At this point, you may need to restart the computer to clear the memory and reset everything to its proper working state.
7. Is there a problem with the audio? If so, check the volume control settings.
8. Is there a problem with the printer? If so, check to see that the cables are connected properly and that there is paper in the tray. Also access the print monitor to determine if there are any print jobs on hold that are creating an issue and blocking all new print jobs. Finally, if there is still a problem, turn off the printer power and restart it before trying to print again.
For additional troubleshooting tips, visit http://webpage.pace.edu/ms16182p/troubleshooting .
Pause to Reflect
Given your experience, what suggestions would you offer to other teachers about managing technology in the classroom? What procedures and structures do you find most useful for ensuring that students are on task? What recommendations would you make regarding what to do when technology goes awry?
5.5 Digital Work Flow
Most adults grew up in an era when professional productivity involved moving paper around. However, it is now increasingly important to learn how to work digitally. Beyond the initial thought that technology would make us more environmentally friendly by using less paper, digital work flow also provides a retrieval mechanism that was not previously available. Consider the example of airline boarding passes. At one time we needed to go to the airport in person and check in to receive a piece of paper that was used to provide admission to the appropriate terminal and then entrance onto the appropriate airplane. Now we can forgo printing altogether by checking in online and sending a digital boarding pass to our smartphone that can be scanned at the airport. The digital boarding pass has been readily adopted by frequent flyers because it eliminates the problem of finding a printer while traveling between hotels and client work sites. However, in education we have not seriously examined the teaching and learning work flow in the classroom.
Knowledge Management
Productivity experts (Allen, 2002; Sparks, 2012) have a variety of suggestions for helping 21st-century citizens deal with the ever-increasing amounts of information. In particular, the problem of managing an ever-expanding e-mail inbox has been a significant vexation for productivity. While the notion of sharing information via e-mail was initially viewed as desirable, most young people avoid e-mail in favor of sharing information via texting and social media. Nevertheless, the fundamental issue remains: How do we manage an ever-increasing amount of information?
Within education, the Council for Exceptional Children Presidential Commission on the Conditions of Special Education Teaching and Learning (2000) drew attention to the urgent need to address the quality of special education work life by reducing the paperwork demands of the profession. Despite this attention, the IEP process continues to be an overwhelming paper-based task for special education teachers to manage each year.
Knowledge management for teachers is largely an underdeveloped field (Caroll et al., 2003; Saba & McDowell, 2007). As a result, we mostly rely on general strategies that have been found to be useful in other professions. One of the foundational issues related to knowledge management centers on the creation and management of digital information. Once text has been created in a word processor, it can be shared with others via e-mail and posted on a server for downloading or archiving. Moreover, as people rely more on cloud-based tools such as Google Drive and Office 365, information is accessible from each of their devices from any location. This is a profound transformation in knowledge management that has yet to be fully embraced by educators.
The goal of creating and managing information in a digital format is to ensure that it can be accessed and manipulated as needed. Unfortunately, some people use their e-mail box as a permanent storage folder for every message and attachment they have ever received. Although this system may work for some, it is largely ineffective. Productivity experts indicate that we should act immediately on tasks that take less than 2 minutes and allocate regularly timed periods to take action on tasks that take 2–10 minutes to complete in order to minimize the number of messages in our e-mail inboxes with action pending.
One way that teachers can use this principle is to create an inbox in the online content management system or use a service such as Dropbox ( https://www.dropbox.com ) through which students can submit their assignments. Then teachers can provide feedback on the assignments by using Track Changes within Microsoft Word. After they have recorded the student’s grades in an electronic grade book, they can return the assignment to the student via e-mail. Notice how this sample assignment has converted a paper process to a transaction that has been completed entirely in an electronic format. And because of the nature of server backups, information is seldom lost, and documents can be retrieved from the system as needed in the future.
Naturally, this process takes some getting used to, and teachers will need to prepare students to operate within a digital work flow process (e.g., file naming conventions, where to upload assignments). One frequent problem that some teachers encounter is that students may save files in a noncompatible format that prevents teachers from opening the file. Therefore, it is important to teach students which file formats will be accepted and direct them to online file conversion services like Zamzar ( https://www.zamzar.com ) if needed.
Practical Strategies for Digital Work
The goal of modifying traditional classroom work into a digital work flow requires an appreciation of the value of working electronically, and clearly the transition process is painful for some. Perhaps you recall hearing of professionals who had an assistant print out e-mails so that they could read them and then direct the assistant on how to respond! Our students are increasingly familiar with working in a digital environment and are comfortable completing forms online, submitting documents, and completing e-commerce transactions without any need for paper printouts.
A good place for teachers to begin implementing a digital work flow system in the classroom is by creating and using templates. Think about a field trip permission form that you might create and send home. Because the form is basically the same each time, creating a file that serves as a template for this correspondence saves a great deal of time, since you can go in and simply change the location and dates. Most productivity tools like word processors, databases, and spreadsheets come with templates you can use immediately for managing digital information.
Teachers have also found the use of digital logs helpful in keeping track of events, materials, and more. Once you become disciplined to record the entry, a log will show you a day-by-day listing of the events (e.g., absences, behavioral outbursts, etc.). Although logs are ideal for tracking basic information, if the goal is to do extensive searching, it might be better to store the information in a database. A practical tool for teachers who need to track information involves using a database like FileMaker Pro ( http://filemaker.com ) that allows you to create custom databases that function as an app. A practical tool for storing miscellaneous information is Evernote ( http://evernote.com ). In both cases the goal is to store information in an accessible digital format, rather than trying to keep track of notes and random scraps of paper.
Once teachers become comfortable with digital work, they often find themselves accumulating an excellent collection of quizzes, exams, and study materials. Such documents are extremely helpful when it comes time to make a study guide or design new quizzes. Simply open old documents and copy and paste selected items into a new file. Distributing them via the class website allows students to know where they can find these study resources when they need them. All of this is part of the typical process of helping students understand how to work effectively in the classroom.
Finally, let’s consider an example using Google Sheets. A teacher is interested in creating a survey that students will complete to provide information for an upcoming social science lesson. By using the Google Forms tool (see Figure 5.3), the teacher creates a simple survey. The app generates a URL that the teacher can send via e-mail to all of the students in the class. Students click on the link and complete the survey. The teacher can go into Google and view the results of the survey as the raw data are captured in a spreadsheet and responses are graphed for visual analysis .
Notice that the entire process has been completed electronically. If you have past experience in conducting survey research, you will readily appreciate the time saved by not having to enter the data from paper into the computer for analysis. This example illustrates the value of reconceptualizing educational practices that have traditionally been paper-based into a digital work flow process.
Figure 5.3: Survey results
Pause to Reflect
Think about recent transactions you have been involved in (such as online shopping) that have been completely electronic. Is it reasonable to think about how teaching and learning may be facilitated through a digital work flow model? If so, why? If not, why not?
Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
As more technology enters the classroom, the learning environment is changing. Although some schools have limited classroom technology that requires teachers to take their classes to labs, others have placed presentation technology (e.g., computer projection systems, interactive whiteboards) in the classroom to support teacher-directed instruction. However, the availability of low-cost tablet computers and handheld devices is fueling a trend to place technology in the hands of students. As districts move toward implementing ubiquitous technologies, the classroom is subject to a variety of new considerations about how to store, manage, and use technology when each child has access to digital tools. This means that teachers need support to design instruction that will take advantage of the power and potential of technology, as well as assistance in troubleshooting when technology disrupts their teaching.
· Technology labs are artifacts of the early days of educational technology when computers were expensive and needed to be kept in a central location where students would go to use computers.
· In classrooms where there is only one computer, teachers often use the computer for group instruction or professional productivity. However, creative management strategies can be used to set up three learning stations from one computer.
· In one-to-one classrooms, technology is ubiquitous. To maximize the impact of this technology infrastructure, teachers must integrate technology into teaching and learning by developing meaningful learning activities that engage students and contribute to enhanced learning outcomes.
· In classrooms in which technology is integrated and used routinely, the technology becomes transparent. That is, the technology is seldom noticed because the attention is focused on what students are able to do with it. Technology failures are an inconvenience, but the teacher and students can be well versed in how to address such problems and move forward.
· One important skill teachers may wish to acquire involves implementing digital work flow procedures in the classroom. That is, it is possible to create procedures whereby teachers distribute assignments electronically, students prepare and submit their work electronically, and teachers evaluate student work and provide feedback to students in an electronic format. Although some teachers are motivated to move in this direction because of its environmentally sensitive means of conserving paper, others recognize the efficiencies found in digital work flow.
Reflection and Critical Thinking
1. You have been given the role of technology coordinator for your school. How will you go about supporting teachers’ use of technology? Review the following three-article series, which provides some suggestions for technology leaders:
· Hall, D. (2003). Power strategy tool kit, part 1: Managing the vision. Learning and Leading With Technology, 31(1), 46–50.
· Hall, D. (2003). Power strategy tool kit, part 2: Managing the performance. Learning and Leading With Technology, 31(2), 36–39.
· Hall, D. (2003). Power strategy tool kit, part 3: Managing the operations. Learning and Leading With Technology, 31(3), 50–53.
2. Why does the configuration of technology in the classroom have an impact on the management plan that teachers must use?
3. Conduct a search to identify videos that may be used to introduce students to how to use a new piece of software or app.
4. Select a software program or app and create a quick start guide.
5. Download and browse the following e-book:
The MacSparky Paperless Field Guide, by David Sparks ( http://www.macsparky.com/paperless ). What ideas could you implement in your classroom to begin implementing the principle of digital work flow? What are the pros and cons of such a system?
Recommendations for Your Professional Bookshelf
Frasier, M., & Hearrington, D. (2017). Technology coordinator’s handbook (3rd ed.). Eugene, OR: International Society of Technology in Education.
An overview of the responsibilities of a school-based technology leader who manages not only technology but people and systems.
Schrum, L. M., & Levin, B. B. (2009). Leading 21st-century schools: Harnessing technology for engagement and achievement. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Describes the importance and practical strategies for moving schools to become 21st-century learning organizations in which technology is used routinely and effectively to enhance student learning.
Web Watch
Classroom Management Technology Tools is a comprehensive collection of tools and resources for managing technology in the classroom.
http://ncsucedmetrc.weebly.com/classroom-management-tech.html
The State Educational Technology Directors Association is a professional association of state directors of educational technology that provides a means of staying up-to-date on a variety of policy and implementation issues.
Key Terms
acceptable use policy
bring your own device (BYOD)
computers on wheels (COWS)
digital work flow
one-to-one initiatives
technology lab
ubiquitous technology
Chapter 4
Principles of Universal Design for Learning
·
4.1 The Importance of Accessible Design
· 4.2 Foundations of Universal Design for Learning
· 4.3 Universal Access to Text
·
4.4 Universal Access to Media
·
4.5 Developing a Personal Plan to Implement UDL
AP Photo/Janet Hostetter
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
· Describe the consequences of lesson planning that focuses on the average student.
· Summarize the conceptual foundations of universal design for learning.
· Demonstrate three methods for improving the accessibility of text.
· Identify the accessibility barriers found in audio files and video files, and describe practical features that can be used in these types of media to make them universally accessible.
· Demonstrate how you could implement universal design for learning in your classroom using the principles of multiple means of representation or multiple means of expression.
Introduction
Schools have a long tradition of standardizing the format and function of education that has led to an expectation that the one-size-fits-all classroom will benefit everyone. However, diversity is a characteristic of the human condition that needs to be valued and celebrated. When the needs of diverse learners are not anticipated, there is a relentless need for curriculum accommodations and modifications to retroactively try to meet their needs.
The goal of universal design for learning (UDL) is to proactively value diversity such that supports are embedded in instructional materials before a student needs them. Not only does this help facilitate the academic performance of students with disabilities, who may be considered the primary beneficiary of accessible design interventions, it also supports secondary groups of diverse learners for whom we may not be able to identify such a need in advance.
The design of curriculum and instruction is fundamentally different than the design of physical structures and environments. As a result, teachers and instructional designers must be aware of the accessibility of the different containers they select for the instructional materials they provide to diverse students. In this chapter, we will introduce methods that enhance the accessibility and usability of text and media.
UDL is a discipline that is nearly 20 years old. Despite its short history, the potential of UDL has captured the imagination of federal policy makers, administrators, teachers, and parents. This chapter will examine how UDL is being incorporated into federal legislation, policies, and laws, as well as suggest new directions that are needed to ensure the widespread implementation of this important initiative to build flexible and engaging instructional materials to meet the needs of diverse learners.
Field Trip: Meet Dr. David Rose, One of the Founders of UDL
Watch this video to learn about the historical foundations of UDL.
Introduction to UDL
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MbGkL06EU90
4.1 The Importance of Accessible Design
When designers create a new product, they are seeking to solve a problem through innovative design. Perhaps you have heard the phrase, “Build a better mousetrap, and the world will beat a path to your door.” This statement speaks to the value of innovative design for solving practical problems. However, design and invention are always contextualized within a time period and a specific culture, and they are subject to the limitations of contemporary technologies and materials.
As a result of recent advances in technology, it is now possible to design tools, products, and information resources in ways that make them accessible to diverse individuals. In this section, we will introduce principles from the field known as accessible design. You will learn how designs that focus on the special needs of individuals with disabilities can improve the user experience for these individuals while also having secondary benefits for everyone.
Design for the Mean
One common design strategy is known as “design for the mean.” As shown in Figure 4.1, using this approach, the designer is focused on creating a product that will reach the largest number of people to ensure that it is commercially successful. When this happens, the needs of people at the ends of the bell curve are not fully considered, because they are perceived as small segments of the market. For example, consider the design of a wooden kitchen chair for an adult who is of average height and weight. Ignoring the segments of the population that fall outside of the middle of the bell curve, in the margins, results in a chair that is not comfortable for people who are very short or very tall. In a business sense, the manufacturer made a deliberate decision to focus on the segment of the population where they could make the most money.
Figure 4.1: Design for the mean
A product that is designed for the mean seeks to achieve commercial success by reaching a large percentage of people in the mainstream. The blue line represents the standard bell curve. The shaded area below the peak indicates the target mass market of the average user.
In education, design for the mean takes on the form of a textbook that is written, purchased, and distributed to every student at a specific grade level regardless of their reading ability or native language. Similarly, design for the mean is the key instructional principle when a teacher decides that all students will write a three-page book report to demonstrate that they have read and understood a specific book. The problems associated with design for the mean are perpetuated on a daily basis when teachers use a traditional lesson plan book (see Figure 1.4 in Chapter 1) to develop their lesson plans, because they restrict their thinking to the abilities and needs of the average student.
When teachers and instructional designers assume that everyone is like them (e.g., of average height and weight, able to read at grade level), the product they create will inevitably meet the needs of only a limited range of users. Without an appreciation for the fundamental ways that people are different (Hughes & Talbott, 2017), it is unlikely that teachers will be able to design products that meet the accessibility and usability needs of all learners, because they will not understand the special needs of some. Rose (2016) makes a compelling argument that we are living in an age in which mass customization and personalization has rendered the notion of “average” irrelevant. However, there is clearly much more to learn about how to meet the instructional needs of diverse learners. Edyburn (2010) has argued that the development of “diversity blueprints” which describe the salient nature of learner variance, are critical to the design process of products that meet the needs of all learners (see Table 4.1).
Table 4.1: Diversity and instructional design
|
Student performance variable |
Range of diversity |
|
Memory |
Students develop increased capacity in short- and long-term memory as they grow. Some disabilities interfere with information storage and retrieval and therefore may require explicit strategy instruction. |
|
Motivation |
Students display varying levels of persistence in completing a task that may be related to their success with completing similar previous tasks. Therefore, choice of challenge and dependency on adults are important aspects to monitor. Over time, learners develop intrinsic motivation for completing challenging tasks. |
|
Sustained attention span |
Ranges from 8 seconds for 2-year-olds to 40 minutes for young adults. Attention-deficit disorder may affect attention span. Over time, learners develop expanded attention spans that allow them to focus on complex cognitive tasks. |
|
Speech and language |
Speech and language begins developing in very young children and provides a foundation for accelerated development once children become school age. Some disabilities will impair a child’s oral communication skills and therefore may require other methods of communication, such as a communication board or augmentative communication system. |
|
Fine motor skills |
Fine motor tasks require a level of hand–eye coordination and fluency that is first learned as a preschooler and evolves over time. Some disabilities will cause impaired fine motor skills, which has implications for student work that may involve handwriting, keyboarding, manipulating objects such as turning pages in a book or using a computer mouse, etc. |
|
Reading |
Children’s early learning experiences frequently prepare them for formal reading instruction. Reading skills are measured by grade levels and Lexiles. The goal is to match the difficulty of a text with the student’s independent or instructional reading level. It is common to find a range of reading levels at every grade level (some students will be reading at several levels below grade level, and some will be reading at levels above grade level). |
|
Problem solving |
As in each of the other areas, children’s mathematical and problem-solving skills will vary considerably at each grade level. Young children and students who have difficulty with the conceptual processes of problem solving benefit from the use of manipulatives. Older students learn how to support their problem-solving skills by using tools such as graphing calculators and spreadsheets. |
At this point, it is important to understand two related concepts: accessibility and usability. Accessibility refers to the inclusive goal of designing tools, products, and information resources to be usable by all people regardless of their skills or abilities. Usability, in turn, refers to how easy it is to learn and use a product. When considering any tool, product, or information resource, it is necessary to evaluate both its accessibility and usability (Langdon, Lazar, Heylighen, & Dong, 2014). A key principle of accessible design involves understanding that the special needs of individuals with disabilities can produce solutions that benefit other groups.
For example, knowing that some people have a vision impairment can translate into a design principle that all text should be adjustable, if necessary, by users so that they can enlarge the text to a size sufficient for comfortable viewing. Microsoft Word allows users to change the size of the text on the screen by simply dragging a slider to make the text larger or smaller. Although vision impairments are a specific disability, the same text enlargement intervention can benefit most adults who experience decreased visual acuity as they age. This is a practical example of universal design. That is, knowing that people have different levels of visual acuity, product designers provide users with the opportunity to adjust the size of the text to a level that they find “just right” for their needs.
In summary, the fundamental problem of the design for the mean approach is that the resulting tool, product, or information may be inaccessible for many individuals. That is, because the designer focused on meeting the needs of only a specific segment of the population, the product may not be accessible or usable by many others (Carvalho, Dias, Reis, & Freire, 2018; Juárez-Ramírez, 2017; Lidwell, Holden, & Butler, 2010). Again, consider what happens with a printed textbook that is written with the assumption that all students read at grade level. Quite readily we can identify at least three groups of students whose needs will not be met: students who are blind will not be able to access the printed textbook; students with reading disabilities will not be able to independently read the information; and while gifted students will be able to read the information, they may not be sufficiently challenged to learn at a level commensurate with their ability. As a result, design for the mean involves assumptions about the average student and therefore fails to meet the needs of each student whose skills and abilities fall outside that range.
The printed textbook had many positive attributes in the early 20th century. Clearly, the technical advances that allowed printing costs to be reduced such that each student could study from his or her own textbook were an important development in education. However, the historical one-size-fits-all textbook is a poor match for the needs of diverse learners in the 21st century because of the fixed layout, font size, reading level, and language characteristic of printed text. This situation creates the need for accommodations and modifications to make the textbook accessible to diverse individuals by converting it to a digital format that permits students who are blind to access the text through refreshable Braille, students with reading disabilities to listen to the text with a text-to-speech tool, and gifted students to pursue more advanced topics through hyperlinks.
One characteristic of innovation is the ongoing development of new technologies. Therefore, if we consider the achievement gap to be a result of the limitations of traditional instructional design in education, it is necessary to explore instructional designs that are more inclusive (Coyne, Kameenui, & Simmons, 2004; Edyburn, 2010; Westwood, 2018).
Design for More Types
The principles of universal design have emerged from our understanding of the design of physical environments for individuals with disabilities. As a result, the term universal design is most commonly associated with architecture (Preiser & Ostroff, 2011; Steinfeld & Maisel, 2012). These developments have provided important insights regarding the need to prepare architects and designers to understand special needs to ensure that their designs are accessible from the outset, rather than requiring costly building modifications later.
Perhaps the best example of the success of universal design principles is curb cuts. Originally designed to improve mobility for people with disabilities within our communities, curb cuts not only accomplished that goal, they also improved access for people navigating their community with baby strollers, bicycles, skateboards, and more.
Another well-known example of accessible design in the built environment is what is known as the zero-entry swimming pool. This type of pool was created to provide access for individuals in wheelchairs but has proved to be excellent for anyone seeking to enjoy the water without becoming completely submerged.
MichaelAngeloBoy/iStock/Getty Images Plus
Curb cuts addressed the special needs of people in wheelchairs by providing better accessibility.
Readers may also encounter the term universal design in the context of the home remodeling industry if they are caring for an aging parent. Home remodelers have discovered that specific types of changes to the living space (e.g., kitchen, bathroom, bedroom) make a home more accessible and safer for aging adults. Many families explore universal design home remodeling options—such as changing doorknobs, altering countertop heights, and modifying toilets and showers—as a cost-effective alternative to nursing homes. Indeed, many of the universal design interventions for individuals with disabilities are the same interventions that facilitate the independence of older adults.
Another application of universal design concepts was created in the 1990s as the underlying principles were applied to computers. Gregg Vanderheiden at the Trace Center at the University of Wisconsin–Madison spearheaded conversations among the disability community and technology developers concerning initiatives to include disability access-ibility software as part of the operating system. At the time, a person with a disability needed to seek out the services and assistance of an assistive technology specialist to be able to independently use a computer. Vanderheiden argued that many accessibility needs could be addressed, not only for individuals with disabilities but also for older adults, by installing the specialized accessibility software on each computer when it was shipped, rather than being added later as an accommodation.
Over time, the computer manufacturing industry found Vanderheiden’s argument persuasive and agreed to install an accessibility folder within the operation system. As a result, since the mid-1990s, every computer shipped in the United States has an accessibility control panel that allows users to customize the operation of the computer to accommodate physical, sensory, and to a limited extent, cognitive disabilities. Thus, accessibility control panels on computers represent a powerful example of universal design that moves the construct from simply focusing on the built environment to one that illustrates the importance of making tools and information accessible.
The historical lessons learned through these cases have led to a statement that serves as a mantra for universal design: “Good design for people with disabilities can benefit everyone.” While universal design is often advocated as “design for all,” in practice this has been difficult to achieve. A more practical way to think about universal design is “design for more types” (see Figure 4.2). This means that we seek to understand the accessibility and usability barriers that individuals encounter and create new tools, products, and information resources that are inclusive to more individuals than would be the case with ordinary design for the mean approaches.
Figure 4.2: Design for more types
Design for more types reflects the goal of universal design by expanding the zone of accessibility and usability beyond a small segment of the population (as contrasted with Figure 4.1) in order to include as many individuals as possible.
Recognizing and Responding to Differences
As discussed in Chapter 2, over a lifetime each of us or someone we know will encounter limitations due to aging, disease, accident, and/or disability that may impair basic life functions such as hearing, seeing, self-care, mobility, working, and learning. While some of us may be born with a disability or disease that will require us to overcome limitations throughout our lives, others will need to learn how to respond to challenges that arise from an accident or simply as a result of growing older.
In other words, we must learn to recognize that differences and limitations are fundamentally part of the human condition. In the classroom, it is important to think about learner differences as part of the instructional planning process. For example, shouldn’t we expect to find great variation in students’ knowledge and skills? When we walk into any classroom, we should anticipate differences among students relative to the following:
· attention span
· persistence
· reading ability
· handwriting legibility
· number sense and problem-solving skills
· oral communication skills
Diverse students encounter a variety of barriers in school, both obvious and hidden, as summarized in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Access barriers can be visible or hidden
|
|
Access barriers |
|
Obvious barriers |
· Stairs for a person in a wheelchair or on crutches · Print for a person who is blind · Audio for a person who is deaf · Video for a person who is blind |
|
Hidden barriers |
· Attitudes · One-size-fits-all approaches · Text that is fixed · Poor design · Time limits |
Often learner differences are viewed as a negative, outside of a range that we think we can manage (e.g., “Oh, I can’t teach that student; he’s blind.”). When we fail to recognize the range of diversity found in the population, there will be a need for an accommodation (e.g., “We’ll see if we can get a copy of the textbook in Braille.”).
Contrary to this narrow and often negative approach to diversity, the goal of universal design is to proactively value differences—that is, to anticipate learners’ differences before they enter the classroom so that we can support their academic performance before they fail. This is consistent with McLeskey and Waldron’s (2007) description of the goal of special education as “making differences ordinary.” As a result, we need not only to recognize diverse learners in our classrooms but also to respond to their needs before they fail. Universal design for learning is a specialized application of universal design and is an approach that holds considerable promise for meeting the needs of diverse learners.
Pause to Reflect
Locate the accessibility controls on your computer, tablet, or smartphone. What adjustments can you now make with these tools to improve the accessibility and usability of your device? Do you know anyone else who could benefit from knowing about and using these tools?
4.2 Foundations of Universal Design for Learning
The origin of the phrase “universal design for learning” is generally attributed to David Rose, Anne Meyer, and their colleagues at the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) (Edyburn & Gardner, 2009). However, an often overlooked fact is that the principles of UDL were developed during the period before and after the 1997 reauthorization of the IDEA. During that time, both general and special educators were preoccupied with issues associated with implementing inclusion. Although students with disabilities had gained physical access to the general education classroom through inclusion, concerns were being raised about how students would gain “access to the general curriculum.” An interpretive document about universal design for learning (Orkwis & McLane, 1998) was disseminated extensively and served to generate the first wave of national attention to the construct.
McLaughlin (1999) reported that IDEA reauthorization contained several specific mandates relative to making the general curriculum accessible for students with disabilities.
· statements of a child’s current level of educational performance to specify how his or her disability affects involvement and progress in the general curriculum
· IEP teams to design measurable annual goals, including short-term objectives or new benchmarks, to enable the child to be involved—and progress—in the general curriculum
· a statement of the special education and related services and supplementary aids and services to be provided to the child
· a description of any program modifications or supports for school personnel necessary for the child to advance appropriately toward the annual goals, to progress in the general curriculum, and to be educated and participate with other children both with and without disabilities
· IEP team members to document an explanation of the extent, if any, to which the child will not participate with children without disabilities in the general class and activities (p. 9)
Readers interested in a legal analysis of the issues associated with access to the curriculum are encouraged to review Karger and Hitchcock (2004). These issues were at the forefront of CAST’s work, and in 1999 CAST received a federal grant to establish the National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum, which became instrumental in garnering national attention for the potential of UDL.
As CAST’s insights about UDL were taking shape, staff members presented their work at the annual Office of Special Education Project Directors’ Conference in 2000. CAST also used publication outlets to describe its ideas about how universal design could be applied within education (Meyer & Rose, 2000; Rose & Meyer, 2000).
The second wave of widespread attention to UDL came in 2002 when Rose and Meyer published a book called Teaching Every Student in the Digital Age, which became a classic work about UDL. The authors elaborated on the conceptual framework of UDL, pointing out that it is grounded in emerging insights about brain development, learning, and digital media. Rose and Meyer also called attention to the disconnect between an increasingly diverse student population and a one-size-fits-all curriculum, arguing that these conditions would not produce the desired academic achievement gains expected of 21st-century global citizens. Challenging educators to think of the curriculum, rather than the students, as disabled, their translation of the principles of universal design from architecture to education are nothing short of a major paradigm shift (Edyburn & Gardner, 2009).
CAST advanced the concept of universal design for learning as a means of focusing research, development, and educational practice on understanding diversity and applying technology to facilitate learning. CAST’s philosophy of UDL is embodied in a series of principles that serve as the core components of UDL:
· multiple means of representation to give learners various ways of acquiring information and knowledge;
· multiple means of expression to provide learners alternatives for demonstrating what they know; and
· multiple means of engagement to tap into learners’ interests, challenge them appropriately, and motivate them to learn.
Joesboy/iStock Unreleased/GettyImages
A teacher takes his class on a field trip to learn about ecosystems. What are some other ways teachers can present information to students without using a textbook?
Multiple means of representation may be understood as providing students with alternatives to learning information beyond solely using a textbook. Teachers today have many choices when it comes to presenting instructional content to students: Watch a YouTube video, listen to a podcast, read text on a web page, use Wikipedia to learn more about a topic, and so on. The key notion is to encourage teachers to use a wider palette of information containers to reach diverse students by breaking out of the one-size-fits-all model, which assumes that all students learn in the same way and need the same learning materials.
Multiple means of expression draws attention to the need to provide students with multiple options for demonstrating what they know. Some teachers recognize the value of this principle as they allow students a choice of writing a paper, preparing a slide show presentation, recording a video, and so on. The key notion is to provide students with choices in how they demonstrate what they have learned and the media they use to express themselves. Twenty-first-century educators will likely need to alter their instructional practices to place students in the role of Goldilocks: that is, allowing them to try multiple options to determine which option is “just right” for ensuring that their performance meets increasingly high standards. Principles of fairness dictate that equity is achieved when every student receives what he or she needs (Welch, 2000).
Of the three principles above, perhaps the most important is multiple means of engagement, which is based on the learning principle that deep learning is only accomplished through sustained engagement. Access to the curriculum is a prerequisite to engagement. However, sustained engagement is achieved by activities that are interesting, motivating, and at the right challenge level, what Vygotsky (1962) calls the zone of proximal development. Indeed, research has demonstrated the relationship between deep learning and high levels of performance and expertise (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Schlechty, 2002; Kaufman & Duckworth, 2017).
CAST (2011) elaborated on the core principles through the development of UDL Guidelines. As illustrated in Figure 4.3, each of the three core principles has been expanded to include three guidelines that speak to the instructional design features that are needed to implement each principle. Teachers and instructional designers can use these guidelines as they create instructional materials.
Figure 4.3: CAST’s UDL guidelines 2.0
By following the core guidelines for providing multiple means of representation, action and expression, and engagement, teachers can help shape more informed, goal-oriented, and determined learners.
The following interaction walks you through the UDL guidelines.
Policy Foundations
The impact of UDL can be traced through U.S. federal special education law. Thus, in the 2004 reauthorization of the IDEA, which governs special education, the term universal design was defined by its reference in a previous federal law:
The term “universal design” is defined in section 3001, item (19) of Public Law 105-394, the Assistive Technology Act of 1998, as “a concept or philosophy for designing and delivering products and services that are usable by people with the widest possible range of functional capabilities, which include products and services that are directly accessible (without requiring assistive technologies) and products and services that are interoperable with assistive technologies.” (U.S.C. § 3002)
Following the backward chain of legal reference, the definition of universal design as it was included in the Assistive Technology Act of 1998 is as follows:
The term “universal design” means a concept or philosophy for designing and delivering products and services that are usable by people with the widest possible range of functional capabilities, which include products and services that are directly usable (without requiring assistive technologies) and products and services that are made usable with assistive technologies. (U.S.C. § 3002)
Next, consider how the terms are defined in the Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008 (P.L. 110-315, § 103, a):
(23) UNIVERSAL DESIGN.—The term “universal design” as the meaning given the term in section 3 of the Assistive Technology Act of 1998 (29 U.S.C. 3002).
(24) UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING.—The term “universal design for learning” means a scientifically valid framework for guiding educational practice that—(A) provides flexibility in the ways information is presented, in the ways students respond or demonstrate knowledge and skills, and in the ways students are engaged; and
(B) reduces barriers in instruction, provides appropriate accommodations, supports, and challenges, and maintains high achievement expectations for all students, including students with disabilities and students who are limited English proficient.
As illustrated, the definition of UDL evolved from a concept or philosophy in 1998 to a scientifically validated framework in 2008. Evidently, the work CAST (2011) compiled to support various components of UDL design principles was mischaracterized by lobbyists and written into federal law (Edyburn, 2010). Whereas the body of knowledge concerning UDL has expanded in the past 10 years, researchers conclude that there is insufficient research evidence to support claims that UDL is a scientifically validated intervention (Capp, 2017; Crevecoeur, Sorenson, Mayorga, & Gonzalez, 2014; Edyburn, 2010; Kennedy et al., 2018; Ok, Rao, Bryant, & McDougall, 2017; Rao, Ok, & Bryant, 2014).
Over the past 20 years, UDL has captured the imagination of policy makers, researchers, administrators, and teachers. UDL provides a vision for breaking the one-size-fits-all mold and therefore expands the opportunities for learning for all students with learning differences. Recognizing and responding to diversity is a core motivation for engaging in UDL practices. Finally, in an era with increased expectations for educational outcomes, UDL is an important and timely strategy for enhancing student academic achievement. The mantra that evolved from our understanding of the value of curb cuts, “Good design for people with disabilities benefits everyone,” provides a powerful rationale for exploring large-scale application of UDL in education.
Translating UDL Theory Into Practice
Without seeing a class list, in a class of 30 middle school students, an experienced educator can reasonably anticipate that 5–7 students will have below grade-level reading skills, 3–5 will have learning disabilities, 1–2 will have vision or hearing difficulties, and 2–4 will have a primary language other than English. The current model of curriculum accommodations requires that these students first be identified as having special needs before special support services can be provided.
The promise of UDL suggests that instructional materials can be designed to provide adjustable instructional design controls. One way to think about these controls is to consider a volume control slider that is adjustable to be off or some level between low and high. Tomlinson (1999) speaks of this concept as equalizers. As illustrated in Figure 4.4, universal design control panels could be included in all instructional software and be accessed by students and teachers when an adjustment is needed. Just think of it: Do you need reading materials at a lower readability? Just go into the control panel and reset the slider, and the same information could be presented at a lower reading level.
Figure 4.4: Model of equalizers
The figure shows a model of equalizers that could be used to adjust the difficulty of curriculum and/or the type of supports that are activated to help diverse learners.
Many people find it difficult to visualize what universally designed curricula might look like. Table 4.3 identifies digital resources that can help us understand the potential of UDL. As you explore each resource, consider how the resource was designed to support the success of all learners by embedding supports that can be used by any learner as needed. Also consider the following questions:
· Would these instructional materials be helpful to a single student? (If so, it might be considered assistive technology.)
· Would these instructional materials be helpful to a small group of students? (If so, it might be useful as a response to intervention Tier 2 intervention.)
· Would these instructional materials be of value to the entire class in order to reach those who we know will struggle, as well as many other students whom we cannot identify in advance? (If so, it might be considered universal design for learning.)
Table 4.3: Instructional designs that proactively value differences
|
Instructional challenge |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Finally, consider the difference between traditional textbooks (created with a design for the mean perspective; see Figure 4.1) and digital learning materials that feature embedded supports that can be used by any learner (created with a design for more types perspective; see Figure 4.4).
Pause to Reflect
If we begin with the design premise that not all learners who enter a classroom will be reading at grade level, why might a website that (a) has curriculum content written at multiple reading levels, (b) has text-to-speech available, and (c) has second language translation available be more accessible and engaging than a traditional textbook? If such instructional materials were routinely available, what does this type of digital curriculum say about a school’s commitment to UDL as a strategy for meeting the needs of diverse learners?
4.3 Universal Access to Text
The text found in printed textbooks is fixed. That is, the font is a certain size. The leading (the space between lines) is fixed. The margins are fixed. The font color is usually black (to provide a striking contrast against the white paper). While the characteristics of print and books have changed little since the invention of the printing press, we now know that to some people the book is a difficult container in which to access information.
For example, consider a child who was born without arms. How does he turn the pages of the book or carry the book from his desk to his locker? What about a child who has a vision impairment and needs the text enlarged to be able to see the print? What about a child whose first language is not English—of what use is an English textbook to her? And what about the student who cannot read independently at grade level?
helenaak/iStock/Getty Images Plus/GettyImages
By converting printed text into digital format, you can make text more accessible to students. What are other advantages to students accessing text digitally?
Typically, the first step in making the information accessible is to scan the text into the computer to create a digital version of the text. Digital text is inherently flexible. That is, the size, font, and color of the text can be readily altered (e.g., consider how you can change the appearance of text in your word processor). In addition, digital text can be manipulated in ways that provide physical, sensory, and cognitive access.
To meet the needs of diverse learners, it is becoming increasingly clear that 21st-century curricula should be developed, stored, and used in a digital format. Print-on-demand tools can be made available and used as needed. However, notice how the traditional paradigm has been flipped. Rather than creating print books that have to be converted into digital format, books should be created and distributed in electronic formats and printed when the need arises.
This section outlines a series of design interventions that make text universally accessible. The goal is to present resources, strategies, and tools that you can use in your classroom to ensure that your students will have universal access to text-based information.
Text Creation
Today almost all information is created through the use of a keyboard and a computer. This means that most text is “born” digital. As you learned while mastering your word processor, it is easy to save, change, and print documents when the text is saved in a word processor. As a result, few people who have mastered the basic mechanics of a word processor want to go back to using a typewriter or writing entirely by hand.
One of the simplest strategies that teachers can use to make text accessible to their students is to provide digital copies (e.g., .docx, .pdf, or Google Docs) of their handouts. In fact, many school districts support this strategy by providing teachers with an online work space on a local area network (i.e., intranet) or a content management system (e.g., Blackboard, Canvas, Google Classroom, Weebly). These types of tools allow teachers to post documents online. Students learn to retrieve documents from the server that they can open and view in their own word processor or web browser.
Alter the View
Students who need to alter the view of a document can use the zoom feature in their word processor (click on View menu, click on Zoom, select appropriate size) or web browser (Command + or Command -) to increase the font size. This is another excellent example of universal design. That is, while zoom was originally developed for people with visual disabilities, nearly everyone periodically discovers the need to enlarge text in order to see information more comfortably.
A key design principle for making text accessible on web pages uses a web development technique known as Cascading Style Sheets (CSS). CSS is a preferred web development practice because it separates content from the display of information. This is really a significant development for accessibility because in the past all decisions about the appearance of text were made by the designer or publisher. By separating content from the characteristics of how information is displayed, control has shifted from the publisher to the reader, who determines what is the “just right” format. When you see web pages that have a series of boxes with the letter A or T, this is an indication that the web page has used CSS to build in text enlargement. Simply click on the letter to enlarge the text to a comfortable size.
Field Trip: CSS
Visit the following website to experience CSS.
CSS Zen Garden
What you will notice is that as you click on each link on the CSS Zen Garden site, the content of the pages stays exactly the same, but the graphic design, layout, text style, and so on, change. The point of this website is to illustrate that good design can be creative by saving the text in one file and saving the CSS variables that affect the appearance of the page in a second file.
The value of text enlargement has led to a number of new tools, some of which are designed to work within your web browser (e.g., browser plug-ins or bookmarklet). Increasingly common is the need for these same kinds of tools to work on smartphones, given the very small screen size and the need to remove the clutter found on many web pages (see Table 4.4). Hence, we are seeing another example of universal design, transforming what was originally an assistive technology intervention useful for some people into a feature that benefits everyone.
Table 4.4: Apps that alter readability features of text
Another important strategy for making text accessible involves styles. Perhaps you used style sheets when you learned to word process; unfortunately, most of us did not. The purpose of using a style sheet is that headings and text elements are consistently tagged regarding their function (e.g., Heading 1, body text). While visual users can see the difference in subheadings, blind users cannot. As a result, screen readers rely on style sheets to read the tagged elements of a document and provide the user with the opportunity to move around a document (i.e., using heading tags to jump from one section to another). Styles also offer authors the opportunity to view the headings that they have created in a document in an outline view to ensure that they are being consistent in their writing style.
Field Trip: Style Sheets
Visit the following website to learn more about making and using style sheets.
WebAIM
http://webaim.org/techniques/word
Saving the Text File
After you have created your text, you have many choices concerning the file format in which you save your document. Table 4.5 summarizes some of the common text file formats. Today most word processing programs and web browsers can easily open and view documents created in any of these common file formats.
Table 4.5: Common text file formats
In most environments, Microsoft Word files saved as .doc or .docx are universally accessible because Word has become the word processing standard. Be considerate of the needs of your students when selecting a file format in which to save the information. For example, if you create a document in WordPerfect or Pages, these specialized formats cannot be opened on most computers that do not have these specific programs installed. In this situation, the students may need to use an online conversion service (see Table 4.6) to convert the file to a format they can open and view. This issue of file format compatibility has become increasingly important as schools implement one-to-one programs and expand their online learning or virtual schools programs.
Table 4.6: File conversion tools
|
Instructional challenge |
Strategy |
Technology options |
Manipulating Digital Text
Once students have access to a digital text file, they are able to manipulate the information in a variety of ways to make it more accessible. Essentially, the only technology skills needed to do so involve copying and pasting.
One important strategy for many struggling readers involves altering the cognitive accessibility of the text. This can be accomplished by copying and pasting digital text into a specialized tool that offers summarization or vocabulary substitution (see Table 4.7). Search your favorite app store to find summarization products that work on your smartphone.
Table 4.7: Cognitive rescaling tools
|
Instructional challenge |
Strategy |
Technology options |
|
Students’ independent reading skills make it extremely difficult and tedious to complete grade-level reading assignments. |
Copy the desired text and paste it into Text Compactor. Use the slider to create a summary. Continue moving the slider until you get the right level of text length/difficulty. If further support is needed, copy the summarized text into a text-to-speech tool or a language translation tool (see below for specific products). |
Text Compactor http://www.textcompactor.com |
|
Students often struggle with grade-level texts because of the advanced vocabulary. |
Copy the desired text and paste it into Rewordify or paste in a web page URL. The tool replaces advanced vocabulary with easier words. |
Rewordify http://rewordify.com |
Cognitive rescaling tools offer an interesting application of UDL. Teachers might use them in a class because of a few struggling readers. However, to reach those targeted students, the teacher may wish to introduce the tools to the entire class. The potential of UDL indicates that the tool will help not only the small group of targeted students but also a larger number of students in the class—many of whom the teacher could not know in advance would need, want, or benefit from such supports.
This case illustrates that the outcomes of UDL should be considered in terms of primary and secondary beneficiaries. If only a small number of targeted users end up using the tool, it functions more like assistive technology. However, if the secondary beneficiaries are a larger group, it is likely we have discovered a UDL application in the same way that we notice the beneficiaries of the zero-entry swimming pool.
Once students have a summary of the text, they can choose to copy and paste it into a text-to-speech program. This allows them to listen to information that they may not be able to (or choose not to) read (see Table 4.8).
Table 4.8: Text-to-speech tools
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Finally, digital text affords the opportunity to convert text from English into another language. Some students whose first language is not English will struggle to extract meaning from text found in grade-level readings. Such students may benefit from translation tools that offer the text and audio formats in English and more than 100 languages.
Field Trip: Google Translate
Explore this site to learn how you can translate text from one language to a second language.
Google Translate
The purpose of this section has been to show how something as simple as making digital text available to students in turn allows students to manipulate information to enhance the physical, sensory, and cognitive accessibility of the information. Whereas some access-to-text interventions are essential for students with disabilities, there is considerable evidence that such tools and strategies can offer benefits to all students. Given the importance of learning from text in U.S. schools, the design of accessible text is a primary starting point for efforts to implement UDL.
Pause to Reflect
How would you explain the difference between digital text and traditional print to a parent of one of your students? Are these differences significant or relevant for 21st-century learners versus when the parent attended school?
4.4 Universal Access to Media
The accessibility of instructional media is another important consideration in UDL. Media often supplements text and adds meaning for struggling readers and students who are visual learners.
However, audio and video resources can pose significant barriers for students who have hearing or visual impairments if the media have not been properly prepared. Thus, we must remember that efforts to improve accessibility for one population may increase barriers for others. This means we must constantly be attentive to assumptions about our learners and the barriers associated with specific types of information containers selected to use in instruction. Because audio and video are routinely used for learning, clear guidelines exist on how to make multimedia content accessible.
Accessible Design of Audio
Audio files may contain music; a recorded conversation like a radio show, podcast, or interview; or spoken text that has been digitized from a human reader (digitized speech) or generated by a computer voice (synthesized speech). Although this content may enhance the learning experience for many learners, the audio format poses intrinsic barriers for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing. Therefore, the key design principle when including audio in instructional materials is to ensure that a transcript of the audio is available.
Transcripts are simply text files that contain the same information that is found in the audio file. For example, if the audio is a radio interview, the transcript would be formatted in script format so that the deaf reader can see who says what. Descriptions of sounds are also included in a transcript. For example, if the radio interview begins with soft jazz music, this is indicated in the script. Similarly, if there is background noise such as a firetruck siren, this is also noted. Transcripts may be saved in any convenient text format, such as .doc, .docx, .html, or .pdf, and the link should be available on the same page as the audio file. The goal is to provide equal access to the information for all learners so that they can choose their preferred media. When a transcript is not provided, students with hearing impairments are denied equal access to the opportunity to learn.
The most significant challenge for most educators is generating a transcript when all they have is an audio recording. The most tedious way to produce a transcript is to replay the audio and type up a transcript. However, a more effective approach is to pay a professional to transcribe the audio. A Google search for “transcription services” will help you identify local, regional, and state transcription services, and many organizations may have a negotiated contract with a school district to provide this service to teachers as needed. Increasingly, efforts are being devoted to automating the transcription process (more about this later in the section).
Accessible Design of Images
Adding images to text facilitates comprehension for most learners. However, for students who are blind, the information contained in an image is obviously inaccessible. For a blind person to have access to the visual information, instructional designers must prepare a text description that explains the information found in the graphic. Whereas captions are commonly used to provide a brief description of an image, a person who is blind will often need an extended description. The nature of the description depends on the purpose of the image (e.g., a simple graphic to make the design visually interesting versus a graph with data).
Extended descriptions may be included in a word processing document or a web page so that all may access the information, or it may be stored in a separate file to be accessed as needed. When inserting a graphic on a web page, most web authoring programs prompt the user to add information in what is known as an alt text tag to an image file. The alt tag directs screen readers and browsers that have turned off graphics to retrieve descriptions or text files that provide a text version of the information presented in visual format.
The alt tag signals the availability of a text description that can be read to the individual so that he or she can gain access to the visual information available to his or her sighted peers. If you would like to see an alt tag in action, and you are reading this textbook online, hover your mouse over any image or figure in the book. The text that was written for the alt tag will automatically appear. As you view the image and read or listen to the description, decide whether the description would be adequate for understanding the visual information if you could not see the image.
The universal design of images requires that designers include text descriptions of each image. This is not a difficult process, but it can be time consuming. The development of alt tags, captions, and extended descriptions requires the instructional designer to thoughtfully describe the information presented in an image in ways that are useful to someone who cannot see the image and needs additional information concerning factors that sighted individuals may take for granted (e.g., issues of graphic style or context of a photo).
Field Trip: Alt Text
To learn more about creating alt text, visit the following site.
WebAIM
http://webaim.org/techniques/alttext
Accessible Design of Video
The popularity of YouTube and Netflix has placed video at the center of social media, and therefore it is increasingly finding its way into the classroom for instructional purposes. However, the multimedia nature of video makes it problematic for individuals with sensory impairments (i.e., those who are deaf, hard of hearing, blind, or visually impaired). As a result, educators must ensure that all videos are appropriately captioned.
Captioning in the context of video and multimedia means that the information presented via audio is available through captions or a transcript and that the information presented via video is available through text descriptions (see Table 4.9). Creating captions is a bit more involved than creating a transcript because the text has to be linked to specific audio and video frames. As a result, this is one area of accessible design that it is difficult to expect teachers to be able to do on a daily basis. However, new tools are making the process easier, and commercial services provide a method for schools to contract for accessibility services if they are creating videos.
Table 4.9: Captioning tools for creating accessible media
|
|
|
Pause to Reflect
Why is it important to consider the accessibility of multimedia when planning for the unive
rsal design of instruction?
4.5 Developing a Personal Plan to Implement UDL
In the final section of this chapter, we will focus on how educators can plan for implementing UDL in their classrooms. The goal is to provide you with some practical strategies to enhance the accessibility of instruction, moving from design for the mean (Figure 4.1) to design for more types (Figure 4.2). We will also address issues that are likely to impact universal design in the near future.
The A3 Model
The transition from inaccessible design to universally accessible design involves awareness training, new technical development, and time for these new standards to be widely adopted. As a result, achieving universal accessibility will not happen quickly.
The A3 model (Schwanke, Smith, & Edyburn, 2001) illustrates the ebb and flow of concurrent interactions between advocacy, accommodation, and accessibility across a three-phase developmental cycle necessary to achieve universal accessibility (see Figure 4.5).
Figure 4.5: The A3 model
The figure shows how advocacy, accommodation, and accessibility shift across the developmental cycle.
Schwanke, Smith, & Edyburn, 2001.
Advocacy efforts raise awareness of inequity and highlight the need for system change to respond to the needs of individuals with disabilities. It is during this phase that advocates seek to spread the message about the benefits of UDL. Part of the message is intended to change the thinking of individuals and organizations about the need for equitable access to tools, products, and information resources.
Accommodations are the typical response to advocacy: Inaccessible environments and materials are modified and made available. Typically, accommodations are provided upon request. Although this represents a significant improvement over situations in the earlier phase, accommodations tend to maintain inequality because (a) there may be a delay (e.g., time needed to convert a handout from print to Braille); (b) it may require special efforts to obtain (e.g., call ahead to schedule); or (c) it may require going to a special location (e.g., the only computer in the school with text enlargement software is located in the library).
Accessibility describes an environment in which access is equitably provided to everyone at the same time. Often this is accomplished through outstanding design (e.g., ergonomic furniture, software with accessibility and performance supports built in). Thus, this third phase illustrates the goal of universal design in that the majority of instructional materials are universally designed, therefore drastically limiting the number of accommodations needed.
It is important to understand that all three factors are present in each phase. However, the waves across each phase suggest the differential impact of the three factors in terms of time, effort, and focus. As a result, individuals and organizations can use the model to assess how their time and effort is being allocated to determine which phase they are currently operating within.
CAST’s work on UDL paints a vision of the world in which instructional environments, materials, and strategies are universally designed (as found in the third phase). It has created an outstanding series of products—such as WiggleWorks (CAST, 1994), Thinking Reader (CAST, 2004), UDL Editions by CAST (CAST, 2008), CAST UDL Book Builder (CAST, 2009b), CAST Science Writer (CAST, 2009a)—that provide experiential evidence of what UDL principles could look like in practice. These products illustrate what might be possible if students had access to a large supply of UDL materials to support their learning across subjects, each and every day of the school year.
In the first 10 years of UDL implementation, the UDL message has been shared with substantial numbers of educators (phase 1). However, the reality is that once we understand the principles of UDL, we move from phase 1 (advocacy) to phase 2 (accommodation). This means that while we are waiting for the widespread availability of the promise of UDL (phase 3—accessibility), we are left to our own devices to try to apply the UDL principles to create more accessible accommodations (e.g., “Since the web page does not feature audio, let me show you how to copy the text and paste it into a text-to-speech tool.”). Thus, the A3 model illustrates why many early disciples of UDL find themselves struggling to achieve the potential of UDL within the current limitations of instructional design and product development.
Pause to Reflect
Given your understanding of the A3 model, which phase do you believe most accurately describes your personal knowledge and skills concerning UDL?
A fundamental question that has yet to be fully addressed in the UDL literature is whether the demands of daily instruction will allow teachers to function effectively as instructional designers. That is, is UDL a task for instructional designers and publishers who make instructional products? Or are teachers the principal stakeholders as they select and deliver instruction in accordance with UDL principles?
Given the difficulties the author has observed in trying to scale UDL implementation beyond single classrooms, he is of the opinion that UDL is an intervention that involves the design and creation of instructional materials (phase 3—accessibility). Hence, the work of teachers is more accurately represented by the description of phase 2—that is, advocating for UDL, selecting and using UDL materials when they are available, and facilitating accommodations (as illustrated in Section 4.3 for making text accessible). However, this perspective is controversial.
In the sections that follow, we explore tools and strategies for implementing universal design in the classroom with the goal of helping teachers design for more types (Figure 4.2).
Planning for Multiple Means of Representation
The UDL principle of multiple means of representation seeks to provide diverse students with alternatives to gaining information solely from a textbook. A sample plan, illustrated in Figure 4.6, provides an example of what such a multiple means of representation menu might look like for a middle school lesson on volcanoes.
Figure 4.6: Sample volcano lessons using the multiple means of representation planning template
This figure shows an example of how lessons can be planned using the multiple means of representation planning template.
Although this planning template does require extra time on the teacher’s part, it provides multiple pathways for all students to explore the content, since the teacher may select resources that provide a more basic presentation of the information as well as those that provide more advanced content. Because students will review each of the resources, just as Goldilocks does to determine what is “just right,” they are likely to accumulate more time on task than commonly found with traditional one-size-fits-all curricula.
When teachers seek to implement the UDL principle of multiple means of representation, they are valuing academic diversity by discarding the historical notion that any one information source is the only source needed. In reality, providing students with a menu of information sources is thought to enhance access, engagement, and learning outcomes both for targeted students (primary beneficiaries) who we know will struggle with the content and for a large number of other students (secondary beneficiaries) whom we cannot identify in advance.
Planning for Multiple Means of Expression
A second principle of universal design for learning focuses on providing students with choices on how they express what they have learned. In many classrooms, teachers expect students to make presentations to the class regarding a topic that they have studied.
In this case, the teacher would like each student to make a formal presentation, using one of the tools in Table 4.10. By giving students a choice in the presentation tool, students can opt to learn a new tool, use one that they are familiar with, or use one that supports specific features that they want to utilize in this particular context. Such specific features could include collaboration (e.g., Google Docs); visualization (e.g., Prezi); or cognitively simplified interface (e.g., Kid Pix 3D). Beyond formal presentations, teachers are increasingly allowing students to use other formats, such as short animated videos (Nawmal), comic strips (ComicLife), video shot on student’s smartphones (WeVideo) and other modes of storytelling and presentation. Because the teacher in this example is not an expert in each of the products, she directs students to use each other as resources for learning about the tools and to take advantage of online help and tutorials. This tactic frees the teacher to devote more time and energy to helping students learn about the content and performance standards. Once such a menu has been created, it may be reused frequently.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Planning for Multiple Means of Engagement
Access to information is not the same as access to learning (Boone & Higgins, 2005; Rose, Hasselbring, Stahl, & Zabala, 2005). Access to information is necessary but not sufficient for learning to take place. As a result, it is important to consider how technology and digital media engage students in meaningful learning activities. When UDL provides the opportunity for a student to access and engage in learning, as minutes of engaged learning accumulate (i.e., time on task), this fosters the opportunity for deep learning to occur. Deep learning, sustained over time, has been found to lead to significant gains in academic achievement. As we seek to reverse the effects of the achievement gap, we must keep this strategy in mind. That is, how do we engage students in meaningful learning activities such that they are able to experience the deep learning that is needed for the development of expertise?
One strategy for implementing the UDL principle of multiple means of engagement is to use an instructional planning template known as tic-tac-toe. You can implement this principle in your classroom by creating your own tic-tac-toe table by going into Microsoft Word and creating a table with three columns and three rows. When populating the nine cells, keep in mind the UDL principles to provide multiple means of representation, expression, and engagement. Students are expected to select three in a row (using the traditional rules of tic-tac-toe) to complete the assignment.
Naturally, the creation of tic-tac-toe activities will require a bit of time investment for teachers. However, as an instructional management tool, it is an excellent beginning step for applying the principles of universal design to the classroom. Teachers will reap the dividends of their time investment when they track the academic performance of students who have typically struggled to complete traditional assignments. Often, students will ask to do more tic-tac-toe projects. This is a powerful indicator of the instructional value of this intervention and one that operationalizes our values of proactively valuing diversity to support students before they fail.
Pause to Reflect
As you think about applying the principles of UDL in your classroom, which approach (multiple means of representation, expression, or engagement) seems most important or manageable for you to begin with?
Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
Universal design has its roots in the field of architecture, where it was discovered that it was preferable to consider disability access in the initial design of the building environment rather than try to achieve access by retrofitting and remodeling an existing structure. Universal design for learning represents a 21st-century intervention that seeks to utilize emerging insights gained from research in diverse fields such as neuroscience, learning sciences, instructional design, and technology. The three principles of UDL involve providing multiple means of representation, expression, and engagement. Understanding the potential of UDL is seductively easy. Its exponential growth indicates that clearly it is the right idea at the right time. However, it has proved far easier to help the various stakeholders understand the potential of UDL than it has been to implement UDL on a large scale and develop a sound research base supporting its efficacy.
· The foundations of UDL were created during a period when there was a need to move inclusion beyond physical access to the general education classroom to a level that offered access, engagement, and improved outcomes of learning by students with disabilities within the general curriculum.
· Efforts to design for the mean reflect a value of designing for a segment of the population that will achieve the best return on one-size-fits-all tools, products, and information resources. This approach creates a relentless demand for accommodations because all needs were not considered in the original design.
· Although universal design promotes the notion that everyone will benefit from a given design, in practice this has yet to be achieved. As a result, a more promising approach to consider is design for more types. That is, how can we improve our instructional designs to reach more learners today than we did yesterday?
· The accessible design of digital text allows users to manipulate text in ways that enhance the physical characteristics of print, as well as providing scaffolds such as text at multiple difficulty levels, audio, and language translations that provide cognitive access to the information. Media containers must be designed with accessibility in mind.
· Application of the principles of UDL in the classroom requires that teachers provide students with choices to foster access and engagement.
Reflection and Critical Thinking
6. Explore design interventions that were created explicitly for individuals with disabilities but subsequently had greater implications for mainstream populations. Using the following sources or others you find, select two cases that illustrate the UDL mantra, “Good design for individuals with disabilities can benefit everyone.” What about each case appeals to you? History of Technological Advances Inspired by Disability http://www.infinitec.org/history-of-tech-advances The Evolution of Assistive Technology Into Everyday Products http://incl.ca/the-evolution-of-assistive-technology-into-everyday-products
7. Conduct a Google search to locate information on how to open the accessibility control panels on your computer, tablet, or smartphone. Consider how these features could be used by a student in your classroom or an older adult that you know. What is the value of having such control panels on every device, rather than installing them on individual computers as needed?
8. Review the following links concerning UDL resources. Identify three to five resources that you would share with a colleague to introduce him or her to the concept of UDL. Why would you choose to share these resources? Teaching Every Student Blog http://teachingeverystudent.blogspot.com Free Technology Toolkit for UDL in All Classrooms http://sites.google.com/view/freeudltechtoolkit/home CAST UDL Studio http://udlstudio.cast.org
9. Explore the following link. As you think of each recommendation, how would you describe the primary beneficiary (i.e., a person with a special need that is known in advance) and the secondary beneficiary (i.e., people who would also benefit from the intervention but are not known in advance)? 5 Ways Universal Design Makes Products More Accessible https://www.section508.gov/blog/5-Ways-Universal-Design-Makes-Products-More-Accessible
10. Download a copy of the latest National Education Technology Plan from the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Educational Technology: National Education Technology Plan http://tech.ed.gov/netp Use the Find feature within your word processor or PDF viewer to locate the phrase “universal design for learning” in the National Education Technology Plan.
10. In which contexts is the use of UDL in technology planning advocated for?
10. Based on your reading about UDL in this federal educational document, what would you tell a school district administrator regarding the importance of UDL and the need to create a local plan for implementing it?
Additional Resources
Recommendations for Your Professional Bookshelf
Lidwell, W., Holden, K., & Butler, J. (2010). Universal principles of design: 125 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach through design (2nd ed.). Gloucester, MA: Rockport.
A comprehensive introduction to design interventions for maximizing accessibility and usability of tools, products, and information resources.
Rose, D., & Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching every student in the digital age. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
A classic book outlining the principles of UDL.
Web Watch
The Universal Design for Learning Implementation and Research Network is a new independent professional organization devoted to the implementation of UDL.
The UDL Center is an authoritative resource concerning UDL research, policy, and practice.
Key Terms
accessibility
accessibility control panel
alt text tag
captions
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
digitized speech
multiple means of engagement
multiple means of expression
multiple means of representation
synthesized speech
text description
universal design
universal design for learning (UDL)
usability
Chapter 1
Diverse Students and Academic Performance
·
1.1 The Importance of Education
·
1.2 Higher Expectations in Our Classrooms
·
1.5 Inclusive Technologies for Academic Success
ERproductions Ltd/Blend Images/Getty Images
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
· Describe why all generations emphasize the importance of education but differ on their expectations of what’s worth knowing.
· Identify five major factors impacting educational reform over the past 40 years and highlight their influence on current professional practice.
· Draw a graph illustrating how achievement gaps develop and describe essential lessons that educators must understand in order to alter the trajectory of students at risk for school failure.
· Give three examples of how inclusive technologies could be used in the classroom by diverse students to enhance academic performance.
Introduction
When the Founding Fathers wrote the U.S. Constitution, they viewed education as a necessary institution for sustaining a democratic society. Likewise, parents place great importance on education as a means of helping their children achieve more than they themselves accomplished. As we will see in this text, educational attainment is increasingly viewed as an indicator of the economic viability of a country. As a result, there is increased attention on global measures of academic achievement and the impact of technology on workforce development, employment, and economic productivity.
Educational reform has been a consistent theme in the United States over the past 40 years. In this chapter you will learn how reform efforts are affecting classroom instructional practices. In particular, we will explore how educational reform efforts influence the use of technology in the classroom.
Finally, we will examine the concept of academic diversity as a means of understanding learner differences. Educators who view technology as a performance support tool will be strategically equipped to use inclusive technologies in the classroom to enhance accessibility, engagement, and learning outcomes of all students.
1.1 The Importance of Education
Historically, education has been prized by cultures around the world as a means of transmitting culture, values, and knowledge from one generation to the next. In the United States, however, it was not until the late 1800s that the government began to encourage local communities to establish compulsory education. Part of the motivation for these efforts may be viewed as a reaction to the industrial revolution, a time of significant social change, not unlike what we are experiencing in the early 21st century. By 1918 every state had compulsory attendance laws that required students to complete elementary school, and almost every family complied (Rauscher, 2014).
In the past 100 years, significant progress has been made toward increasing the level of educational attainment in the United States (see Figure 1.1). Whereas in the 1920s most Americans concluded their education at the end of elementary school, by the 1950s most youth graduated from high school. Indeed, parents routinely aspire to have their children achieve more than they did themselves. Today we see high school graduation levels at approximately 90% and college completion near 20% (U.S. Census Bureau, 2017b).
Figure 1.1: Population age 25 and over by educational attainment, 1940–2015
Based on data from U.S. Census Bureau (2017). Educational Attainment. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/educational-attainment/cps-historical-time-series.html .
Over the same period, the standard of living in the United States rose considerably, due largely to the gains made by the achievements of an increasingly educated society. Economists have come to view educational attainment as an important variable for assessing the economic vitality of countries around the world (Lutz, Butz, & Samir, 2017). There is considerable evidence to suggest that increased educational attainment leads to increased lifetime earnings (see Figure 1.2). However, it is equally clear that the rewards of the American Dream are not available to every student, since there are significant differences in educational attainment by race (Moore, Vitale, & Stawinoga, 2018; Ryan & Bauman, 2016).
We currently live during a period of transition from an economy based on manufacturing to an economy based on information (Perkins, 2014). A country’s educational system is viewed as the raw materials of economic growth in the current information age, in much the same way that agriculture, lumber, and minerals were the raw materials of industrial society in the 1800s. This shift has implications for what students need to learn to remain competitive in the global economy.
Figure 1.2: Educational attainment and lifetime earnings
In most fields, lifetime earning potential increases along with educational attainment.
Based on data from U.S. Census Bureau (2012). Pathways After a Bachelor’s Degree series. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/2012/comm/pathways-series.html .
What’s Worth Knowing in a Changing World?
As the world changes, each generation must come to terms with how the demands of an increasingly advanced society, as well as the technologies of the day, redefine what knowledge needs to be taught to young people in schools. Often, such conversations reveal generational differences, sometimes creating tensions around the teaching of basic literacies like reading, writing, and math (often referred to as the three Rs).
Consider, for example, the difference in teaching the three Rs in your grandparents’ day, when memorization and rote practice were the focus. In contrast, consider what is possible for students today, who have nearly ubiquitous access to smartphone technologies that feature web searching, point-to-point mapping and directions, and virtual assistants that provide information in response to one’s voice commands. In light of such advances, a critical question that must be periodically reevaluated by society and the educational community is, “What’s worth knowing?”
Pause to Reflect
In your opinion, do students need to memorize multiplication facts before being allowed to use a calculator? Or should we discontinue tasks that are primarily memory-based in order to focus on the use of tools that offer opportunities to engage students in higher level thinking and problem solving? Would your answer have been different in 1970? Do you think it will be different in 2030? Why?
It is essential that educators understand their personal perspective regarding the nature of learning and the role of technology in preparing students for college and career opportunities in a future that is not entirely clear. Educators are a critical community resource to help students and their parents engage in conversations about essential knowledge and skills needed for life in the 21st century. As we continue our studies, we’ll discover that technology sometimes replaces the need to memorize information because the information can be retrieved quickly and with greater accuracy. For example, you can ask your favorite virtual assistant (Alexa, Cortana, Google Assistant, or Siri) to multiply two numbers, name the capital of a country or state, or tell you when some historical event occurred. In contrast to these simple fact-retrieval tasks, we often spend the bulk of our waking hours solving problems that are more complex. As a result, society, policy makers, and educators are challenged to determine the role of technology in supporting learning in a future in which human–machine interactions are expected to expand considerably.
The debate about the role of technology in 21st-century learning has recently been rekindled, with some authors arguing that technologies have a particularly negative effect by undermining the rigors of memory and thinking (Hassan, 2017; Turkle, 2017). In particular, the article “Is Google Making Us Stupid?” by Nicholas Carr (2008) seems to have captured the imagination of those who want to argue that technology is being used to lower expectations in schools.
Despite these debates, there is a growing body of research evidence to suggest that use of technology and complex tools has been contributing to a rise in IQ scores around the world (Flynn, 2007). One explanation for this development is that using sophisticated tools, with a variety of interfaces, fosters the type of inquiry and problem solving that is essential for learning (Sternberg & Preiss, 2005). (This explanation has particular appeal if you have ever seen a very young child show his or her grandparents how to use an iPad!) While the explanations for rising IQ scores are varied and controversial (Bratsberg & Rogeberg, 2018), there is clear evidence that technology will continue to challenge conceptions of learning that equate knowing with memory (Perkins, 2014).
One technology trend that has important implications for the future of teaching and learning involves the evolution of machine learning and its application in devices such as robots that can take the place of a human. While such advances have already been deployed in manufacturing, we are beginning to see a future in which massive amounts of data are available for computers to begin combing through to discover patterns. Once a pattern of behavior can be codified in an algorithm (Cormen, Leiserson, Rivest, & Stein, 2009), computers can begin making connections to other patterns that may not be readily observable to humans. Over time, it is expected that these techniques will have practical application in education (Nelson, 2017) and dramatically alter the workplace (McCauley & Swabey, 2018).
Field Trip: Explore the Future of Work
Visit this link to read an article about automation and its implications for the future of work. After you read it, ask yourself: When will your job be replaced by a robot?
Where Machines Could Replace Humans—and Where They Can’t (Yet)
Exactostock/SuperStock
As opposed to manufacturing and physical labor jobs, those based on information and knowledge require greater levels of education. How do you think this shift will affect the culture and values of the next generation?
Education is the investment a society makes in each new generation of children and youth. Parents understand this as they encourage their children to do well in school. Policy makers understand this as they seek to reform education to foster the creativity and innovation necessary for a nation to be competitive in a global society. Despite the turbulence caused in the transformation of global economies, it is clear that strong educational systems are valued and that the importance of education cannot be underestimated.
1.2 Higher Expectations in Our Classrooms
One outcome of the technological advances that have occurred in the past century is that the world has become smaller due to improvements in transportation, communication, and the Internet (Friedman, 2005). As a result, world leaders can no longer simply focus on domestic issues. Because of increased connectivity, leaders must also be prepared to address an array of regional and global issues impacting a global society. One such issue is the quality of a country’s educational system. If countries wish to remain economically competitive, they must manage their education system with both an eye toward domestic issues and a global perspective. In this section, we examine factors that have led to a tacit understanding that schools need to be reformed in order to produce graduates of a higher quality than ever before (Trought, 2017).
International Comparisons of Education Performance
International educational performance is measured by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development using a biannual assessment known as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Scores on the PISA are reported in levels as a means of communicating a functional outcome. One international educational goal is to ensure that as many students as possible perform at least at Level 2, meaning students have acquired the skills essential to participate effectively and productively in society. Students functioning below this level tend to struggle in completing everyday tasks, including encountering challenges in the workplace. They are also unlikely to become lifelong learners—a prerequisite for success in the 21st century.
Countries seeking to gain a competitive advantage in the global knowledge economy are expected to educate an increasing number of students performing at Levels 5 and 6. To understand the performance expectations at the different levels of the PISA, go to the following web page to test your skills in answering five financial literacy questions posed on the PISA for 15-year-olds: https://www.usnews.com/news/slideshows/can-you-beat-a-15-year-old-on-the-pisa-financial-literacy-exam?onepage .
A considerable body of research on the PISA is emerging to inform international comparisons about educational systems (Hopfenbeck et al., 2018). When PISA test scores are released every 2 years, the event tends to provoke headlines in the United States about the quality of our education system. That is because the United States often finds itself in the top third of the rankings, rather than in the top three positions (like Americans often expect in terms of Olympic medals). For instance, on the 2015 PISA, the United States ranked 20th in reading, 24th in mathematics, and 19th in science. You can access the latest results here: http://www.oecd.org/pisa . As you view the rankings, consider how your impressions of various educational systems are supported or refuted by the rankings. Among the leading world educational systems, Singapore was number 1 in all three disciplines, and Canada, Estonia, Hong Kong, and Japan were ranked in the top 10 for all three disciplines.
Pause to Reflect
Read each of the following statements. Which would you ascribe to reading performance on the PISA at Level 2, and which reflect reading performance at Level 5? If these are the types of outcomes students in your class will be held accountable for, what do these statements suggest for the type of daily learning activities you select?
· locating straightforward information
· making low-level inferences of various types
· managing information that is difficult to find in unfamiliar texts
· showing detailed understanding of such texts and inferring which information in the text is relevant to the task
· working out what a well-defined part of a text means and using some outside knowledge to understand it
· evaluating critically and building hypotheses, drawing on specialized knowledge, and accommodating concepts that may be contrary to expectations
School Reform Efforts in the United States
Over the past decade, international comparisons of academic performance have fueled efforts in the United States for the federal government to exert more leadership in defining high academic standards and adopt more rigorous assessments of student learning. However, the arguments for school reform started more than 30 years ago (see summary in Table 1.1). The following discussion outlines some of the key issues and recurring themes in educational reform in the United States.
Table 1.1: Timeline of notable school reform initiatives in the United States
Most authorities trace the beginning of the current educational reform movement to a 1983 report titled A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform that was authored by the National Commission on Excellence in Education. The report used strong language to call attention to the shortcomings of K–12 education, such as “a rising tide of mediocrity that threatens our very future” (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983, p. 1). While the report did not have an immediate or significant impact on the educational community, it did serve as a wake-up call to policy makers and the business community about the need to evaluate America’s educational system.
In 1989 the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics released standards for the teaching of mathematics, making it the first professional organization to outline what students need to know and be able to do. This action would initiate the standards movement. Other professional organizations soon began similar standards development projects to define what all students needed to know and be able to do.
In 1994 President Bill Clinton signed the Educate America Act (also known as Goals 2000). He viewed the federal role in education as outlining the goals that states and local schools would reach by the year 2000. However, states and local school districts were to determine the best way to reach the goals by developing their own school improvement plans. This work significantly involved state governors and therefore represents a milestone in the political responsibility for educational improvement.
In 2002 President George W. Bush signed the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). This landmark federal education law created expectations for closing the achievement gap by 2013–2014 by holding schools, districts, and states accountable for annual achievement gains, reported as adequate yearly progress. This placed intense pressure on academic performance as measured by annual high-stakes tests and a series of sanctions for schools designated as failing and in need of improvement.
In 2009 the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act provided $4.35 billion for the Race to the Top fund. Nearly $400 million was allocated to two consortia (the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers and the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium) for the development of a new generation of computer-based high-stakes tests that would be designed to replace state-specific high-stakes tests. When implemented, the new generation of computer-based tests would measure the learning outcomes associated with the learning outcomes in the Common Core State Standards.
Shironosov/iStock/Getty Images Plus/Getty Images
Computer-based tests are becoming the new standard for assessment in schools. Do you think the transition from paper-based assessments will encounter any challenges?
On June 2, 2010, the Council of Chief State School Officers and the National Governors Association released national education standards in two areas: mathematics and English language arts. These standards have subsequently been adopted by 45 states and serve as the basis for recent curriculum reform efforts, known as the Common Core, focused on what students needed to know and be able to demonstrate that they can do.
Over time public outcry over NCLB (Houston, 2007; Popham, 2009) attracted the attention of policy makers. Their efforts to preserve components of NCLB that were working and address the problematic areas resulted in the passage of the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), signed into law in December 2015. ESSA is currently the federal education law, amending the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and replacing NCLB provisions.
Both Presidents Barack Obama and Donald Trump directed the U.S. Department of Education to develop a process to review proposals from states seeking waivers for flexibility in meeting NCLB goals as the country transitions its federal education policy. ESSA sought to return power back to the states relative to establishing their own student performance standards and creating state-based assessments to benchmark student performance.
A close reading of these American education reform efforts reveals a pattern of discourse that schools are failing and that significant reform is necessary, which in turn has created a context for increased federal and state legislation to mandate change. Even though most state constitutions place the responsibility for education at the local level, until recently there has been little resistance in local communities to the large-scale reform agenda. At the time this book went into production, a variety of issues are being examined in Washington, D.C., that may contribute to the next phase of educational reform. These issues include school safety, charter schools, vouchers, access to higher education, college affordability scorecards, and student loan debt (Ferguson, 2017).
1.3 Achievement Gaps
Schools routinely evaluate academic performance, and grading systems are found in nearly every classroom. Historically, many educators have argued that if a student fails to learn the content presented within the designated time, it is the student’s fault, and therefore, it is the educator’s responsibility to fail the student. This long-held attitude is now considered unacceptable. School reform efforts have succeeded in defining an expectation that schools will find ways to help all students achieve high-academic outcomes. In this section, we will explore the consequences of persistent academic failure that must be reversed.
The achievement gap—or the difference in academic achievement found between different groups of students (e.g., students of color vs. White students, students with disabilities vs. nonhandicapped peers, English language learners vs. native English speakers, students living in poverty vs. more affluent students)—is a well-documented problem in schools (Bradbury, Corak, Waldfogel, & Washbrook, 2015; Demie & Mclean, 2015; Jeynes, 2015). More than 50 years of educational research reports on the effect of the achievement gap, which in fact is not one single gap but a number of gaps that affect different groups.
Michael Feinberg: Personal Feelings about His 5th Grade Students
A fifth grade teacher at a low-income school discusses the urgency of addressing the achievement gap before students fall even farther behind. What measures do you think schools should take to reduce underachievement?
The issue can be illustrated in a graph as shown in Figure 1.3. The blue diagonal line illustrates expected achievement. That is, 1 year of academic achievement for each year in school. Students who are performing at grade level are expected to be on the diagonal line (naturally, some gifted and talented students will perform above their grade level). The lower beige line illustrates the pattern of achievement of many underperforming students. The area between the beige line of performance by low achievers and the diagonal line of expected grade-level performance represents the achievement gap.
Figure 1.3: The achievement gap
The achievement gap is the area between an underperforming student’s expected performance and actual achievement.
While it is admittedly a simplification of the problem, the graph in Figure 1.3 implies that (a) small delays in the lower grades can become big gaps in the later grades, and (b) once a student falls behind, it is exceedingly difficult to catch up. The impact of leaving school with below-average skills has significant costs. The true costs of the achievement gap can be measured for both the individual and society in terms of unemployment, underemployment, reduced earnings over a lifetime, encounters with the corrections system, and more (Bradbury et al., 2015).
For many observers, the lessons of the achievement gap are clear. First, contemporary schooling practices are not effective for all students. Second, continuing to do what we have always done, under the guise of high standards, may perpetuate, rather than eliminate, the achievement gap. Third, repeated failure over time creates an achievement gap that is exceedingly difficult to close (Edyburn, 2006b).
Field Trip: The Achievement Gap
Take a moment to explore the latest data concerning achievement gaps among various groups of students in your state.
Annie E. Casey Foundation’s Kids Count Data Center
https://datacenter.kidscount.org .
1.4 Academic Diversity
(from top to bottom) FatCamera/E+/GettyImages; Steve Debenport/E+/GettyImages; martin-dm/E+/GettyImages; Tomwang112/iStock/Getty Images Plus/GettyImages
There are many ways to engage diverse learners in learning. Why is it important to help each learner find an appropriate way to engage in learning about a topic?
American classrooms, at every level of education, are now more diverse than ever (Digital Promise, 2016). We often think about diversity in terms or race or ethnicity; sometimes we think of it in terms of the native language spoken. However, understanding academic diversity requires insight about learner differences that goes beyond race, ethnicity, and culture. Instead, we must begin to think more deeply about differences that have a profound impact on learning. For example, we know that students learn more when they are interested in a topic, have intrinsic motivation to learn about a topic, and choose to engage in meaningful learning activities (Hattie & Yates, 2014). We also know that all learners fall on a continuum, which on one end might be called “novice” and the other “expert.” Given any topic, each of us falls somewhere on the continuum. The goal of instruction is to provide the context for learners to move from where they are initially toward the side reflecting more expertise. Considering these differences is essential when designing instruction that allows diverse learners to be successful (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010).
One-Size-Fits-All Instructional Planning
Few teachers today are adequately prepared to effectively teach the array of diverse learners found in every classroom. As a result, we tend to play Mirror, Mirror on the Wall—Who Is the Best Teacher of Them All? That is, rather than looking at all our students, we tend to think about our best students and walk away from the mirror with great satisfaction. Since our teaching prowess was just verified, we believe that the chronic underachievement of students in the bottom 50th percentile is not our problem. “Those students should be in a special class or need to see a tutor. After all, I am a great teacher,” the reasoning often goes.
Historically, teacher planning has followed a one-size-fits-all model. There are two reasons for this. First, as illustrated in Figure 1.4, the format of the lesson plan book used by the majority of teachers in this country emphasizes content coverage. That is, teachers record the content they plan to cover during a given class period. There is no requirement to consider individual student needs when preparing one’s weekly lesson plans. Second, the technology of instruction in the late 20th century was shaped by the technology available at the time; that is, providing each student with the printed textbook and workbooks. It was not until the widespread adoption of copy machines in schools in the 1970s, laser printers in the 1990s, and collections of apps in the early 2000s that teachers were able to create and use supplementary instructional materials of their own creation. Nonetheless, the textbook remains the primary source of curriculum in most classrooms to this day.
The teacher lesson plan book, a key by-product of the current instructional planning model, has contributed to the achievement gap. Essentially, teaching planning often involves determining the scope of textbook coverage and recording such plans in a lesson plan book. Throughout this text, we will emphasize a variety of technology applications that support teaching and learning with an emphasis on making each learner successful.
Figure 1.4: Excerpt of traditional lesson plan book
Traditionally, teaching has followed a one-size-fits-all model. What are the benefits and drawbacks of this approach?
Pause to Reflect
What evidence have you observed that technology is altering instructional planning and helping teachers move beyond one-size-fits-all instructional planning?
Making Differences Ordinary in the Classroom
Differences are an ordinary part of the human condition. It should not come as a surprise to teachers that some children like reading and some do not; that some students are reading above grade level and some are reading many levels below grade level. When differences are ignored or undervalued, students with learning differences are likely to experience failure. Within education, curriculum accommodations and modifications are the direct result of a mismatch between a task and the capabilities of a learner. Unless teachers and administrators understand that academic diversity is a characteristic, not a flaw, of every classroom, there will be an endless need for curriculum accommodations and modifications.
Efforts to enhance the success of 21st-century learners will require a fundamental shift in thinking about and responding to learner differences. Gordon, Meyer, and Rose (2016) argue that we should not think of students as being disabled but rather consider the curriculum disabled since it poses barriers to access, engagement, and success. Tomlinson (2004) in turn suggests that we think about learning differences as a Möbius strip—a continuum of knowledge and skills with no clear demarcation on the journey from the starting point as novice and the end point as expert. In the same vein, McLeskey and Waldon (2007) noted that classrooms must be places where differences are ordinary. However, in most classrooms, the acceptable range of learner variance is very narrow, and differences outside of this band are considered to be a problem for someone else to deal with. We must break this cycle in order to close the achievement gap. Teachers must become skilled in teaching the students they have, not the students they wish they had (Hattie, 2009).
Cala Images/SuperStock
Technology such as tablet computers allows teachers additional resources to use in their classrooms. How would you decide if a new technology was more effective than a traditional instructional tool?
Throughout this text, you will be introduced to strategies and interventions that proactively value academic differences in order to use technology in ways that seek to mitigate historical achievement gaps. We must equip teachers with a tool kit that enables them to recognize and respond to academic differences in such a way that differences are viewed as ordinary. If we begin with the premise that every classroom is composed of diverse learners, we start from a different point than traditional instruction, in which content is the exclusive focus. That is, we begin to think about how we can support diverse learners before they have a chance to fail. This mind-set establishes the need for technology since digital media offers flexibility, tools, and supports not available in traditional instructional settings with whiteboard, textbook, paper, and pencil. The perspective of this author is that technology is absolutely essential for supporting the academic success of diverse learners.
In a traditional classroom that relies primarily on a printed textbook, diverse students may encounter a variety of problems in accessing and understanding the information presented and asked for. In this case they must seek assistance from friends, family, and teachers to understand the information that they cannot read independently. However, when the instructional needs of diverse students are considered as a design principle, course content can be created in a digital environment with a wide variety of built-in supports that can be used by all learners. Advances in technology afford new opportunities to abandon the mistaken assumption about curriculum design that one size fits all. Next, we examine the concept of inclusive technologies as a means of using technology in ways that enable diverse students to access, engage, and excel in challenging curriculum.
1.4 Academic Diversity
(from top to bottom) FatCamera/E+/GettyImages; Steve Debenport/E+/GettyImages; martin-dm/E+/GettyImages; Tomwang112/iStock/Getty Images Plus/GettyImages
There are many ways to engage diverse learners in learning. Why is it important to help each learner find an appropriate way to engage in learning about a topic?
American classrooms, at every level of education, are now more diverse than ever (Digital Promise, 2016). We often think about diversity in terms or race or ethnicity; sometimes we think of it in terms of the native language spoken. However, understanding academic diversity requires insight about learner differences that goes beyond race, ethnicity, and culture. Instead, we must begin to think more deeply about differences that have a profound impact on learning. For example, we know that students learn more when they are interested in a topic, have intrinsic motivation to learn about a topic, and choose to engage in meaningful learning activities (Hattie & Yates, 2014). We also know that all learners fall on a continuum, which on one end might be called “novice” and the other “expert.” Given any topic, each of us falls somewhere on the continuum. The goal of instruction is to provide the context for learners to move from where they are initially toward the side reflecting more expertise. Considering these differences is essential when designing instruction that allows diverse learners to be successful (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010).
One-Size-Fits-All Instructional Planning
Few teachers today are adequately prepared to effectively teach the array of diverse learners found in every classroom. As a result, we tend to play Mirror, Mirror on the Wall—Who Is the Best Teacher of Them All? That is, rather than looking at all our students, we tend to think about our best students and walk away from the mirror with great satisfaction. Since our teaching prowess was just verified, we believe that the chronic underachievement of students in the bottom 50th percentile is not our problem. “Those students should be in a special class or need to see a tutor. After all, I am a great teacher,” the reasoning often goes.
Historically, teacher planning has followed a one-size-fits-all model. There are two reasons for this. First, as illustrated in Figure 1.4, the format of the lesson plan book used by the majority of teachers in this country emphasizes content coverage. That is, teachers record the content they plan to cover during a given class period. There is no requirement to consider individual student needs when preparing one’s weekly lesson plans. Second, the technology of instruction in the late 20th century was shaped by the technology available at the time; that is, providing each student with the printed textbook and workbooks. It was not until the widespread adoption of copy machines in schools in the 1970s, laser printers in the 1990s, and collections of apps in the early 2000s that teachers were able to create and use supplementary instructional materials of their own creation. Nonetheless, the textbook remains the primary source of curriculum in most classrooms to this day.
The teacher lesson plan book, a key by-product of the current instructional planning model, has contributed to the achievement gap. Essentially, teaching planning often involves determining the scope of textbook coverage and recording such plans in a lesson plan book. Throughout this text, we will emphasize a variety of technology applications that support teaching and learning with an emphasis on making each learner successful.
Figure 1.4: Excerpt of traditional lesson plan book
Traditionally, teaching has followed a one-size-fits-all model. What are the benefits and drawbacks of this approach?
Pause to Reflect
What evidence have you observed that technology is altering instructional planning and helping teachers move beyond one-size-fits-all instructional planning?
Making Differences Ordinary in the Classroom
Differences are an ordinary part of the human condition. It should not come as a surprise to teachers that some children like reading and some do not; that some students are reading above grade level and some are reading many levels below grade level. When differences are ignored or undervalued, students with learning differences are likely to experience failure. Within education, curriculum accommodations and modifications are the direct result of a mismatch between a task and the capabilities of a learner. Unless teachers and administrators understand that academic diversity is a characteristic, not a flaw, of every classroom, there will be an endless need for curriculum accommodations and modifications.
Efforts to enhance the success of 21st-century learners will require a fundamental shift in thinking about and responding to learner differences. Gordon, Meyer, and Rose (2016) argue that we should not think of students as being disabled but rather consider the curriculum disabled since it poses barriers to access, engagement, and success. Tomlinson (2004) in turn suggests that we think about learning differences as a Möbius strip—a continuum of knowledge and skills with no clear demarcation on the journey from the starting point as novice and the end point as expert. In the same vein, McLeskey and Waldon (2007) noted that classrooms must be places where differences are ordinary. However, in most classrooms, the acceptable range of learner variance is very narrow, and differences outside of this band are considered to be a problem for someone else to deal with. We must break this cycle in order to close the achievement gap. Teachers must become skilled in teaching the students they have, not the students they wish they had (Hattie, 2009).
Cala Images/SuperStock
Technology such as tablet computers allows teachers additional resources to use in their classrooms. How would you decide if a new technology was more effective than a traditional instructional tool?
Throughout this text, you will be introduced to strategies and interventions that proactively value academic differences in order to use technology in ways that seek to mitigate historical achievement gaps. We must equip teachers with a tool kit that enables them to recognize and respond to academic differences in such a way that differences are viewed as ordinary. If we begin with the premise that every classroom is composed of diverse learners, we start from a different point than traditional instruction, in which content is the exclusive focus. That is, we begin to think about how we can support diverse learners before they have a chance to fail. This mind-set establishes the need for technology since digital media offers flexibility, tools, and supports not available in traditional instructional settings with whiteboard, textbook, paper, and pencil. The perspective of this author is that technology is absolutely essential for supporting the academic success of diverse learners.
In a traditional classroom that relies primarily on a printed textbook, diverse students may encounter a variety of problems in accessing and understanding the information presented and asked for. In this case they must seek assistance from friends, family, and teachers to understand the information that they cannot read independently. However, when the instructional needs of diverse students are considered as a design principle, course content can be created in a digital environment with a wide variety of built-in supports that can be used by all learners. Advances in technology afford new opportunities to abandon the mistaken assumption about curriculum design that one size fits all. Next, we examine the concept of inclusive technologies as a means of using technology in ways that enable diverse students to access, engage, and excel in challenging curriculum.
1.5 Inclusive Technologies for Academic Success
Many teachers believe it is their job to sort students based on the quality of their academic performance by using the full range of A through F grades. Teachers with this perspective visualize the bell curve as a means of sorting students in a manner similar to the distribution of IQ. While perhaps this was appropriate for the 20th century, it is not appropriate in the 21st century, when societal expectations are that all students will achieve high performance outcomes. Teachers are now being asked to take poor performers and, within a relatively short period of instruction, produce learners that have exceptional performance. The learning curve associated with this expectation is known as the J-curve (see Figure 1.5). The implications of these expectations are that (a) teachers need interventions that are effective in producing the desired achievement gains, and (b) the demands of the curriculum leave little time for remediation if a student fails to acquire the necessary skills.
Figure 1.5: Contrasting perspectives on student achievement
The bell curve seeks to sort students, whereas the J-curve seeks to get all students to levels of high performance after a short period of targeted instruction.
Academic Failure
When students fail at a given task or learning activity, it results in two unfortunate outcomes: (a) Students learn that they don’t like the subject matter, and (b) they internalize the failure in ways that reflect the idea that they are “no good” in the subject. Indeed, the emotional scarring of this process is so powerful that these negative outcomes are transmitted generationally. Most teachers have encountered a parent who explains a son’s or daughter’s academic failure as follows: “Well, I was never very good at that in school either.”
Academic failure has a lifelong effect of closing doors to learning and opportunity. The lessons of the achievement gap suggest that our historical decisions about when to intervene with performance supports are seriously flawed. In short, performance support interventions must be provided much sooner than in the past—that is, we cannot wait until the student fails.
Figure 1.6 illustrates the daily algebra homework scores of four ninth-grade students. Using the student performance data in the graph, can you identify the following?
· a student who is successfully achieving
· a student who is nonengaged
· a student with inconsistent performance
· a consistently low-performing student
Figure 1.6: Performance by four students
Graph comparing the performance of four students over 5 weeks in algebra. Which students have a performance problem?
Rather than addressing the causes of poor performance, educators often search for reasons to explain poor performance, become sidetracked, and fail to intervene with appropriate supports. However, without knowing all the reasons, perhaps we can agree that the performance profile of three of the four students above provides clear evidence of an academic performance problem.
Unfortunately, schools have been failing large numbers of students for many years. The problem is not about performance standards. Rather, it is whether educators are responsible for doing more than simply failing students who are not benefiting from the current models of one-size-fits-all instruction. If a child has repeatedly failed, how much failure data do we need before we have enough evidence that the he or she cannot perform the task? When do we intervene? And what do we do?
Evidence of an academic difficulty requires that we respond quickly and differently to signs of academic failure. Research on human performance technology illustrates the palette of interventions for overcoming performance problems.
Variables Impacting Human Performance
Researcher David Wiley (1996) produced a synthesis of the key factors that have been identified in the performance support literature (see Figure 1.7). Wiley’s analysis suggests that human performance is affected by the following seven variables.
1. organizational systems
2. incentives
3. cognitive support
4. tools
5. physical environment
6. skills/knowledge
7. inherent ability
In Wiley’s evaluation the variables are sequenced in terms of their ease of remediation. That is, performance problems related to (1) organizational systems are easier to modify than problems associated with (7) intrinsic abilities.
Figure 1.7: Wiley’s model of human performance technology
According to Wiley’s analysis, performance is impacted by these seven variables.
Republished with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., from Wiley, D. (1996). Why doers do. Performance and Instruction, 35(2), 30-35.Permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
When a student encounters difficulties in the academic environment, Wiley’s model illustrates why educators have had limited success in closing the achievement gap—they focus all their efforts on instructional strategies (6) and inherent abilities (7). The model also suggests other interventions for teachers to explore: Changes in the organizational structure (e.g., change classes/teachers), changes in settings, or various incentive/motivational strategies. Finally, if these interventions fail to produce the desired level of student performance, two additional variables deserve further investigation: cognitive support and tools.
The nature of most learning activities that students complete in school is indistinguishable from the way previous generations completed the same tasks. However, outside of schools, technology has fundamentally altered how some tasks are completed:
· the mortgage underwriter uses a spreadsheet to calculate the repayment schedule and costs
· the mechanic uses an engine diagnostic system to pinpoint the specific component that has failed or malfunctioned
· the priority delivery service agent uses a bar code scanner so that the whereabouts of a package can be tracked every step of the journey from sender to receiver
Unfortunately, we have more data about the priority shipping of a package than we do about the academic performance of students. The reality of this observation is part of the current attention being devoted to expanding computer-based curricula and using digital learning analytics to understand student performance data in new ways (Dede & Richards, 2012).
Technology and Performance
Recent educational innovations include differentiated instruction—differentiating content, process, or products and tailoring instruction to meet individual student needs (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010)—and universal design for learning—valuing student differences by providing multiple means of representation, expression, and engagement (Gordon et al., 2016). Such innovations offer ways to proactively plan instruction that embraces academic diversity. Recognizing the need for both physical and cognitive access to learning provides a rationale for far-ranging searches of existing technologies that fundamentally alter the way specific tasks can be completed.
Consider a few examples of technology tools that our grandparents didn’t have.
· For students who are unable to independently read their textbooks, digital text and text-to-speech software such as Natural Readers ( http://www.naturalreaders.com ) or Snap Reader ( http://www.donjohnston.com ) offer the means to listen to the information as it is read by the computer.
· For students who struggle with the physical and mechanical tasks of generating a first draft of a paper, a dictation service such as iDictate ( http://www.idictate.com ) prepares documents based on dictation provided over the telephone.
· For students with computational difficulties in math, web-based tools such as WebMath ( http://www.webmath.com ) and WolframAlpha ( http://www.wolframalpha.com ) provide calculating and instructional support for solving math problems from elementary through graduate school.
Let’s consider the impact of using one of these tools, WebMath, with a student who is struggling in math. Figure 1.8 illustrates Carmella’s performance in solving 20 algebra problems with and without technology. To assess whether WebMath contributes to Carmella’s enhanced performance, every other day the teacher assigns the homework to be completed in the typical paper-and-pencil format. On the other days, Carmella completes her homework using WebMath. After reviewing the data, do you think the difference between the two lines provides convincing evidence of the boost in performance that Carmella is able to achieve as a result of her use of appropriate technology tools? Indeed, this example of WebMath illustrates the potential value of cognitive supports and technology tools for enhancing academic performance. However, it also raises a number of provocative questions about whether she has really learned to complete the algebra problems. Indeed, some argue that the use of WebMath is cheating.
Figure 1.8: Carmella’s algebra performance
Carmella’s algebra performance with and without WebMath visually demonstrates the contribution, or boost, that technology provides to her functional academic performance. That is, she can successfully complete the problems when using the tool. However, when it is taken away, her unaided performance is unsatisfactory.
If all students are to achieve a given educational standard, then time and tools need to vary to allow for differences in learning. However, despite the current educational reform rhetoric about high academic standards, educational practice prefers to hold time constant (e.g., 1-day lessons, 2-week units), moving on to the next topic even when the performance of the students within a class varies greatly. When time is held constant and a single form of instruction or instructional materials are used, it is impossible to expect that all students will achieve high standards. The historical lessons of the achievement gap have already taught us this. The long-term consequences of academic failure must motivate the profession to intervene with carefully designed learning activities to ensure success from the outset. Technology tools and cognitive supports represent essential and underutilized interventions for enhancing the academic performance of struggling students.
Research on fairness indicates that most adults’ notions of fairness are arrested at the kindergarten level (Tierney, 2014; Welch, 2000; Wormeli, 2006). That is, fairness means everyone gets the same thing (e.g., “He got a blue M&M, so I need one too!”). However, the functional definition of fairness is that everyone gets what he or she needs (Welch, 2000). Much work remains to be done to provide every struggling student with the appropriate technology and tools he or she needs to be academically successful. The purpose of providing students with technology tools is to ensure that they can achieve the academic standards that have been established in a timely and efficient manner.
Pause to Reflect
How do you define fairness? Would your definition be different if we were talking about sports rather than academic performance?
Using Technology to Promote Success in All Students
Educational Consultant Kendra Grant discusses how technology can be used in the classroom to support students' success.
Inclusive technologies allow diverse individuals to complete a task in different ways. For example, when a teacher assigns a project that requires students to make a presentation to demonstrate what they learned, a classroom with inclusive technologies gives students choices about the specific type of presentation software they will use as well as the presen-tation format (e.g., use of the interactive whiteboard, a traditional stand and present, or an autoplay movie). Some tools may have simplified interfaces that are ideal for young children or individuals with emerging technology skills or cognitive impairments (e.g., Kid Pix Studio Deluxe), whereas other tools might support different hardware (e.g., Keynote on the Macintosh) or specialized features (e.g., Google Presentation to support collaborative design and development or Prezi, a web app that emphasizes engaging visual presentation).
In this text, we will advance the perspective that every form of technology has the potential to extend human abilities. As a result, we view technology as a performance support tool. That is, when used well, technology has the potential to make us more efficient and effective. In many cases technology also offers possibility for choice. Choice facilitates engagement that is a prerequisite for learning. The research is clear: Students learn more when they are given the opportunity to make choices about their learning activities (Erwin, 2004; Suarez, 2007). One important characteristic of the information age is that there are far more options than ever before. As a result, we will take the position that no single tool will meet the needs of all students: One size does not fit all. Our task is to explore how to harness the power of technology to engage students in meaningful learning in ways that promote high levels of academic achievement.
Rather than focusing on finding the “best” presentation software, this text will continually emphasize the needs of diverse learners and how teachers can provide a menu of tools and choices for students. Since the essence of learning involves optimal challenge—that is, not too easy, not too hard (Vygotsky, 1962)—we will offer students options and supports so they can discover which technology tool is just right for them. After all, if we continue to advocate that all students achieve the same outcome within the same allocated time period, it means that we have failed to learn the lessons of the achievement gap. It means that we really do want to assign students a place to stand on a line from 1 to 100 so that we can sort them. Instead, we are looking for the combination of tools and instructional strategies that will enable all students to achieve high academic standards in a short time (the J-curve). We will continue to elaborate on this philosophy in the following chapters as we learn how to differentiate technology tools.
Chapter Summary
· Schools serve a critical function in transmitting culture, values, and knowledge from one generation to the next. Advances in technology often pose questions about what is worth knowing that may result in different responses across generations.
· Whereas lifetime earnings are correlated with educational attainment, some groups, like students of color, students with disabilities, and students whose first language is not English, are underrepresented in postsecondary education attainment.
· The major issues in current educational reform efforts can be traced back over the past 40 years.
· No Child Left Behind focused critical attention on the achievement gap. However, to date, the gains have been modest in closing the achievement gap. As a result, much more remains to be done.
· New approaches to instructional planning are needed that recognize the importance of planning for the success of diverse learners.
Reflection and Critical Thinking
1. Think of the big ideas and important themes that you have been learning about in this chapter. Write a headline concerning diverse students and academic performance that captures a key aspect that you feel is significant and important.
2. Reflect on your experience in school and contrast this with the experiences of your parents and your grandparents. This offers a perspective across three generations. Consider how each generation might go about a task such as planning a trip. What types of tools might each generation use (e.g., paper map stored in the glove box of the car, Google Maps, GPS)? What does this example say about the role of tools as schools prepare students for a future that we cannot see?
3. Do you live in a highly educated part of the United States? Unfortunately, high levels of educational attainment are not equally distributed throughout the country. Visit the following website to explore tables and interactive maps that draw on census data to show the proportion of adults holding college degrees with breakdowns by gender, race, population density, wealth, poverty, and more. Determine if the (a) state and (b) county you live in are above, below, or the same as the national average for educational attainment. Educational Attainment in the United States: https://statisticalatlas.com/United-States/Educational-Attainment
4. Education reformers point to international rankings that reveal that the United States is not number one on tests of academic achievement. What other metrics would you suggest to measure the successful outcomes that are produced by American education?
5. What do you know about disability? If you are new to the field of special education, you might like to browse the following report as a means of gaining a general overview of disability. The intent is to begin to understand the impact various types of impairments may have on learning and the accessibility of learning materials. As you read, make note of any new insights you may gain. What would you like to know more about? World Report on Disability: http://www.who.int/disabilities/world_report/2011/en
6. Several national groups have made a commitment to collecting data to benchmark children’s well-being. Explore the following two resources to discover topics of personal interest that will allow you to gain statistical data about some aspect of children, disability, or well-being. As you read, consider the implications of the data presented. What does the data tell you about our society? Are there any actions you feel should be taken as a result of this data? If so, what? 2018 Kids Count Data Book: http://www.aecf.org/resources/2018-kids-count-data-book Child Trends DataBank: https://www.childtrends.org/databank-indicators
7. Why is it important to think about inclusive technologies as a strategy for enhancing academic performance?
8. The National Education Technology Plan is a blueprint for guiding federal and state agencies and school districts regarding the adoption and implementation of education technology. Download a copy of the plan from the following link or view components of the report online. What technology initiatives in your school or school district can you trace back to the priorities listed in the National Education Technology Plan? What evidence do you see in the plan concerning the use of technology to support the success of diverse learners? The National Education Technology Plan 2017: https://tech.ed.gov/netp
Additional Resources
Recommendations for Your Professional Bookshelf
Aoun, J. E. (2017). Robot-proof: Higher education in the age of artificial intelligence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Examines the argument about the types of jobs that will be replaced by robots and what types of educational experiences will prepare students to do work that robots cannot.
Carr, N. (2010). The shallows: What the Internet is doing to our brains. New York, NY: Norton.
A provocative argument that extensive use of the Internet is causing a rewiring of our brains as we seek information in short forms and are less able to comprehend complex text.
Mullainathan, S., & Shafir, E. (2013). Scarcity: Why having too little means so much. New York, NY: Macmillan.
Examines the influence poverty has on cognitive functioning and illustrates the subtle and not so subtle impact on attention, concentration, daily life, and more.
Web Watch
The United States Education Dashboard provides data about education in the United States.
The Disability Simulation allows you to experience what it is like to have a disability.
https://webaim.org/simulations
Key Terms
academic diversity
achievement gap
curriculum accommodations
educational attainment
inclusive technologies
The following interaction walks you through important school reform initiatives of the last 60 years.
.