Written Assignment - Consequence Management

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wHo Becomes a terrorist?

A great deal of effort has been made to determine who is likely to become a terrorist or who is likely to be successfully recruited by an existing group. These efforts are particularly important to security forces or anyone else involved in counterterrorism efforts since the ability to identify persons likely to join such groups would be quite valuable. There are, however, relatively few predictors available, although there are some patterns that can be discerned. As noted in Chapter 2, poverty is not a very good predictor of who will join a group, but there are some characteristics related to age, gender, psychological characteristics, and motivations that have been considered as relevant. These characteristics also vary somewhat for religious, ethnic, and ideological groups.

PsycholoGIcAl PRofIle It has often been assumed that many terrorists have psychological problems – that they are even crazy. These psychological problems are then assumed to lead them to participate in attacks in which innocent individuals are killed more or less indiscriminately. We do not have anything approaching a detailed or complete sample of terrorists since they keep their identities hidden as much as possible. There has been enough information gathered on those involved in many groups to know that very few of the individuals have any significant psychological problems. There is no evidence

Frederick J. Hacker (1976), an American psychologist, once classified terrorists as crusaders, criminals, or crazies, a view that much of the public would probably accept as accurate.

Lutz, James, and Brenda J. Lutz. Terrorism: the Basics : The Basics, Taylor & Francis Group, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=668578. Created from apus on 2021-09-13 23:48:13.

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that persons suffering from mental disorders are overrepresented in the ranks of terrorists, even though there may be individuals with problems in some groups. It is possible that some groups are willing to use individuals with psychological problems at times, but they cannot rely on them because their mental disorders make them potentially unstable and poor security risks for the organization. As a consequence, in psychological terms individuals who join terrorist groups are disturbingly normal.

Not even suicide terrorists display backgrounds that would suggest any prevalence of psychological problems. Suicide attackers and would-be suicide attackers have not displayed suicidal tendencies as individuals. They appear to volunteer for suicide missions in order to advance the cause of the group. There is no evidence that they have deep-seated death wishes or any other psychological characteristics that pre-dispose them as a group towards participating in these attacks. Involvement in suicide attacks has also not been confined to individuals who are particularly religious. The Tamil Tigers, a dissident ethnic group in Sri Lanka, was for a long time the group that most frequently used suicide attacks. Many of the suicide attacks in Lebanon as well as Israel and the Occupied Territories have been by members of secular political groups, not by members of religious organizations. It is true that more recently suicide attacks have become the trademark of Islamic extremists, but it is important to note that the dominant use of this technique by religious groups is actually a rather new phenomenon.

It has also been suggested that terrorists can be criminals. Just as persons with psychological problems are unlikely to be part of terrorist groups, criminals – or more appropriately opportunists – are also unlikely to join a violent organization with political objectives. By definition, criminals usually seek financial gain, and terrorist groups provide few opportunities in this area since most terrorist groups are weak and are likely to fail. The groups that have a chance of success, however slim, can attract some opportunistic adherents when a group is on the upswing. When criminal organizations have cooperated with terrorist groups, the ultimate goal of the criminal groups has been to improve their opportunities for financial gain by weakening the government or police. It is possible for some individuals with limited prospects in their society

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to join because there is an opportunity for food, shelter, and support that might not otherwise exist.

Opportunism can take many forms beyond direct involvement in a group. Merchants or professionals might find it expedient to support a group in order to continue to conduct their business or practice their trade since the lack of support could lead to losses in the business sector. Participation in a group might also provide status in other ways that could be useful in a conventional political career or in business. In the southern states in the United States, many people joined the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), a group that frequently practiced terrorism, since it provided useful personal contacts in business and other areas. In other situations where members of terrorist groups are seen as heroes or defenders of a particular portion of the population, individuals might gain status from membership. While individuals who join or support a group for these reasons might be important for the organization, they are unlikely to be a large element in most cases. Opportunists, like criminals, will weigh the costs and benefits of participating, and quite often they are likely to conclude that the costs will outweigh any potential benefits.

A particular group of individuals who qualify as criminals that has been attracted to dissident causes have been individuals from prison populations. When activists from ideological struggles have been caught and imprisoned for their activities, they have often been able to attract followers in prison. Leftists have been able to argue convincingly that the criminal justice system unfairly targets the poor or discriminates against workers and peasants. Right-wing groups, such as the Aryan Nations in the United States, have also had some successes with white prison populations by arguing that the political and social systems have been changed to devalue the worth and contributions of those holding true conservative (or even reactionary) views and values and that they have devalued the white race. Extreme religious groups have frequently been able to recruit new members as well. Religions and ideologies provide guiding principles and social structures that support the individuals while they are in prison. A significant number of prisoners in Europe have converted to Islam and have become involved in more radical and violent groups in some cases. The ones who are recruited in these

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situations are not normally the professional criminals; they are much more likely to be petty criminals who have had economic problems or difficulties in terms of fitting in with their societies. These recruits, however, do not join the terrorist groups for financial gain, so they are not the criminal element that Hacker referred to in this threefold typology of terrorists as noted in the Box at the beginning of this chapter, nor are these individuals obviously opportunists.

Terrorist groups can at times provide a sense of belonging for members and give individuals support that they might otherwise not have. The provision of a support structure is a necessary component for most groups, but there is no evidence that terrorist groups in general disproportionately attract rootless individuals seeking a group identity. Analyses have found that over time, members of many groups do become very dependent on the group for a social network and emotional support since they often become increasingly isolated from the broader society. Solidarity with the group becomes increasingly important for the members, and as a consequence, it is often difficult for long-standing members to exit the group and re-integrate into society. Isolation within the group may create psychological problems for members, but these problems appear after individuals have joined, not as a cause for joining.

Crusader was the last category noted by Hacker. This term refers to those who are committed to the cause that the organization is pursuing. Most members of virtually all terrorist groups would be believers in the cause. Opportunists are unlikely to join a group with small chances of success. Believers in the cause in contrast would display above average dedication to the political objectives of the violent group. The willingness to use violence would also seem to require a higher level of commitment or belief. Thus, the one

“Prisons form a primary ground for both radicalization and recruitment … In terms of radicalization, prisons are in themselves environments conducive to the radicalization of alienated individuals who have dismissed society and are in search of a new or higher purpose in life.” (Korteweg et al. 2010: 32)

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characteristic of individuals who join terrorist groups is their level of commitment, and this characteristic clearly dominates when compared to those who are opportunists – including criminals – and those with psychological problems. Unfortunately, in the efforts to profile likely members of groups, there are neither key predictors of commitment nor predictors as to which individuals with the appropriate level of dedication are likely to join a group and which individuals are not likely to do so.

oTheR chARAcTeRIsTIcs

While persons involved in terrorist groups do not fit a psychological profile, there are some other tendencies that have been observed. One societal situation that has been linked to circumstances that can attract individuals to extreme causes involves the condition known as anomie. A person in this situation, and “an anomic individual”, is someone who has been displaced from a comfortable or supporting social structure into new circumstances that are unstructured for them and may even be chaotic. Persons who move from rural villages with a clear social and economic structure to urban areas may find themselves without a solid base. Immigrants moving to a new country can face even greater adjustment problems. Prison populations would also include many individuals who would be considered anomic, even though prison itself will usually provide some structure. The disruption that comes with major wars can also create the potential for an increase in the number of anomic individuals. Persons who find themselves in this situation can be veterans, people displaced by the fighting, or other civilians who find their social and economic structures disrupted. The dislocations that come with the economic, social, and cultural changes associated with globalization and modernization can also create anomie. All of the individuals in anomic situations can be attracted to a variety of organizations, including radical and violent ones. The individuals provide a potential pool of recruits for dissident terrorist groups or even for organizations using violence on behalf of governments or groups in power. Even though anomic individuals may be more susceptible to the appeals of radical groups, most of them do not join.

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The terrorist groups can provide a sense of belonging for its members, including those from anomic situations, and give individuals support groups that they might otherwise lack. The provision of a support structure is a necessary component for most groups, but there is no evidence that terrorist groups in general disproportionately attract rootless individuals seeking a group identity. Analyses have found that over time, members of many groups do become very dependent on the group for a social network and emotional support since they often become increasingly isolated from the broader society. Solidarity within the group becomes increasingly important for the members, and as a consequence, it is often difficult for long-standing members to exit from the group and re-integrate into society. Isolation within the group may create psychological problems for members, but these problems appear after the individuals have joined, they are not a cause for joining.

It would appear that to some extent terrorist groups involve teens and younger adults and older adults (as well as the very young, of course) are underrepresented. This tendency is hardly surprising since the demands of active involvement are more easily met by younger individuals. The active terrorists are similar to the rank and file of the regular military in regard to their age. The leadership cadres of terrorist groups, however, often involve older, and perhaps less physically fit, individuals. The older age of the leader is not surprising, especially for groups that have survived for a number of years. The age difference for the leadership that is often present corresponds in some ways to the higher ranks of the regular military or police where experience is valued. Older individuals are also less likely to be active in terrorist groups, at least in terms of carrying out attacks for other reasons, since they are more likely to have family or other responsibilities that limit opportunities for involvement. While activists involved in groups may be younger on average, an organization rooted in a particular portion of the population may be supported by people of all ages in terms of safe house, food, clothing, money and information. In such cases, the age of the activists would simply reflect a pragmatic concern over strength and other physical factors rather than any special appeal that the organization would have for the young.

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As was discussed in the previous chapter, members of terrorist groups are not particularly poor or deprived. Similarly, they are not noteworthy for low levels of education. They do not fit the stereotype as poor and uneducated individuals. Many groups attract individuals who are representative of a more general population in terms of education, or in some cases persons who are even better educated on average than the general population. While there are some variations among types of terrorist organizations and even among groups in the same category, neither a lack of education nor advanced education consistently explains why people choose to join a terrorist group.

Active members of terrorist groups are much more likely to be males, just as the regular military is a predominately male organization. Women typically have not often been in the “front lines,” for social, cultural, or religious reasons, but they have often been valuable in support roles and in gathering intelligence. Women, however, have become more important in many organizations, and they have increasingly become involved in attacks themselves. Women have some advantages when they undertake operations. They often have easier access to target areas because security forces may consider them to be less suspicious. It will often be awkward, for example, for security personnel to search women at checkpoints. Groups have also been willing to use women in suicide attacks for similar practical reasons. While the active ranks of terrorist groups are still largely male, female activists have begun to be more involved in a much wider range of activities.

nATIonAlIsT/eThnIc GRouPs Terrorist groups based in an ethnic or national movement or seeking ethnic or nationalist goals, of course, tend to attract members from that ethnic group or nationality. Even though there may be sympathetic and dedicated outsiders or opportunists from other segments of the population, the goals of the organization will pretty well define the available membership. If an organization is seeking autonomy or independence, they may have at least the tacit support of a portion or almost all the ethnic population. The population or large portions of it may disagree with the terrorist

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tactics of the group, but they may still identify with the overall objectives. This situation may make it more difficult for security or police forces to gather intelligence from informants or to isolate the violent group from the rest of the population, at least in cases where the ethnic population has real or perceived grievances with the government in power.

While ethnic terrorist groups reflect the tendency towards younger and male activists, they often incorporate broader elements of the population, and support for the organizations may often be a reflection of this base population in terms of age and education. Groups like the Tamil Tigers and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) have been willing to use women in at least some of their operations. During the terror campaign against the French authorities and the European settlers in colonial Algeria in the late 1950s, the Algerian National Liberation Front cells frequently used women who could pass for French to penetrate into European areas and plant bombs. The Tamil Tigers have used women in suicide attacks with some regularity. Violent Chechen groups, which were initially clearly nationalist but which also later incorporated religious elements, have also been representative of the broader population. These Chechen groups also relied on women, even as suicide bombers. These “black widows” suicide bombers were women who had lost husbands or sometimes other family members to Russian forces. Their attacks represented an effort to gain vengeance against the enemy. Women suicide bombers have been used against Russian troops in Chechnya itself, and there were at least two suicide attacks in which women destroyed Russian airliners.

The fact that Chechen groups have been willing to use women as suicide attackers is one indication that many of the dissident organizations in the region are more nationalist than religious. Islamic groups have been very reluctant to use women in this fashion, and some Islamic groups continue to refuse to let women serve as martyrs in suicide attacks.

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RelIGIous GRouPs Religious organizations sometimes are seen as being composed of especially committed individuals who are driven by their spiritual values. Obviously, some of the members of religious groups are extremely dedicated, but it has yet to be proven that religious groups consistently have more committed members than other types of organizations. It has also not just been religious groups that have been able to find volunteers for suicide attacks as noted. What does seem to be true for terrorist groups based in religion is that they are often willing to inflict casualties on outsiders, since those who believe differently (including those with secular beliefs) have placed themselves in opposition to God by their failure to adhere to the appropriate beliefs. The actions of the outsiders (or their inaction if they are not following prescribed patterns) place them within the target population. In many cases, however, the targets are not members of other religions but members of the same religious community who either follow somewhat different practices or who do not follow the more extreme or fundamentalist version of the same religion. Conflicts among Sunni and Shia in the Muslim world or between Protestants and Catholics in the Christian community are obvious examples of this phenomenon.

Members of terrorist groups rooted in religion often are representative of broader populations in terms of membership as are ethnic groups, but there are some important differences. While activists tend to be young, at least some religious groups involve older activists as well. Religious groups have also often attracted educated individuals. It was assumed that exposure to more education would weaken religious ties, but that has not always happened. It is possible that some of the more educated members have joined religious groups when they have difficulty finding employment commensurate with their education in job markets in those instances where the supply of graduates exceeds the available positions. There are a number of Islamic groups that have been quite successful in attracting college graduates. Sikhs in India involved in a terrorist and guerrilla campaign against the government have included individuals with all levels of education. Similarly, the Muslim groups that fought a terrorist and guerrilla war against the government of Algeria in the 1990s involved a number of persons

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with university educations. More recently, young men who see themselves as part of al Qaeda and participants in the global jihad have included individuals who are in economically marginal jobs and who are less well educated than similar activists have been in the past. These activists are also frequently members of small, close-knit groups whose attitudes reinforce each other (Atran 2008). Some of these recent activists are different from some of the other groups linked with Al Qaeda. The diversity of supporters, however, has indicated that Islamic religious activists have come from many different sectors of society.

Many religious groups have been less likely to involve women as activists. In part, this reluctance is due to the fact that a number of religions in their more fundamentalist versions have been interpreted to place women in secondary roles. Religious groups that are reacting to changes that occur with globalization and modernization are more likely to adhere to such views. Islamic groups have been male dominated as well, but at least some of these groups have shown an increasing willingness to involve women in the actual terrorist actions. The disparate collection of American Christian religious groups that have used occasional terrorist violence have almost always been male dominated or exclusively male. On the whole, religious organizations would appear to be much less likely on average to involve women in actual attacks than some other types of groups.

There are two distinct types of religious individuals who may be more likely to join a terrorist group. The first group consists of recent converts who often are the most adamant in their belief patterns. A second group with a similar potential has been the offspring of immigrants in societies where the majority religion is different. These individuals frequently find themselves isolated in their new communities. They do not or cannot integrate into the

The Aum Shinrikyo cult in Japan was able to attract educated individuals with advanced degrees to its ranks. Many of these individuals with scientific training were involved in the efforts to develop weapons of mass destruction.

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majority society, and they turn to religious communities instead for a social or support network. These two groups in Western Europe have been seen as a source of members for violent Islamic groups. The London transport attacks were launched by second generation Muslims who identified with global jihad. Richard Reid, the man who tried to use a shoe bomb on a flight from France to the United States and many of the individuals in the United States who have been arrested for involvement in terrorist conspiracies have been converts.

IDeoloGIcAl GRouPs Left-wing and right-wing ideological groups tend to be different in many ways in terms of the characteristics of the activists. They are similar to each other and to other terrorist organizations in that they attract younger individuals. The leadership may be older, but some of the extreme left-wing groups such as the Red Army Faction in Germany the Red Brigades in Italy, and groups in Argentina had relatively youthful leaders, in part because the groups attracted and were largely composed of students. Right-wing groups, on the other hand seem to usually have older leaders even if many of the activists are young.

The two types of groups have often differed in terms of the education of the members. Left-wing groups have frequently included large numbers of university students or recent graduates. Organizations in Europe, Latin America, and the Weathermen in the United States drew heavily upon such students. The middle class and secular groups that launched attacks against the Islamic Republic in Iran in its first two years of its existence also had a large number of students in their ranks. Environmental activists involved in property attacks against targets considered to be doing ecological damage seem to have attracted such individuals as well. It is clear that more mainstream environmental groups have had greater appeal to those with more education. Right-wing groups, on the other hand, appear to attract individuals with lower levels of education on average. Many of the activists in these groups face limited economic prospects, and they often blame their situation on competition from migrant communities. They can also be victims

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of modernization and thus susceptible to political views that tout a return to the ideas of a better past and join conservative groups as a response. Not all right-wing groups have the characteristic of appealing to the uneducated or undereducated. In the past, European fascist parties, which often relied on terror tactics, did include more educated individuals. In part these organization attracted middle- class individuals who feared the victory of communism or socialism and greater power for the working classes. Thus, the educational characteristics of the right-wing organizations have varied in different periods of time. This variation seems to have been dependent at least in part on which groups have felt threatened by impending changes occurring from broader currents or events.

There are also differences between the left and the right in terms of the involvement of women in the groups. Women have played a more prominent role in left-wing terrorist groups. They were part of the anarchist groups in Russia in the late 1800s and early 1900s, and they were even members of plots to kill the czar. Women were often involved in the student groups that were active in Western Europe, Latin America, and the United States. Ulrike Mienhof was the co-founder with Andreas Baader of the Red Army Faction (better known as the Baader-Meinhof Gang). Activists in environmental groups have also included women. It is more difficult to find examples of women playing similarly important roles in right-wing groups. The activists are almost always men although women have joined and supported their male counterparts. They have perhaps been most active in Scandinavian countries (where in general women have achieved greater equality with men than most areas of the world), although there is little evidence that they have been involved in direct attacks.

Members of left-wing and right-wing groups do differ from ethnic and religious groups in one important respect. Membership of an ethnic group is often predetermined, and individuals may not support a terrorist group, but they still remain linked to it by a common heritage. While individuals can, and do, change religious affiliations, in many contexts religious identification is relatively fixed as well. Only cults such as Aum Shinriyko have an element of conscious choice for the members. The decision to identify with an ideology, however, is more fluid and subject to choice. Similarly,

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there is more flexibility in deciding to join the terrorist fringe of either ideological camp that is chosen. This circumstance makes it more difficult for the terrorist group to develop a support base or recruit activists in a population because the natural linkage present with ethnicity and often with religion is absent. It may also explain why ideological terrorist organizations on average usually lack the longevity of religious or ethnic groups (Tan 2000: 268).

GoveRnmenT RePRessIon There is one group of individuals who do appear to be much more likely to join violent dissident groups. This tendency is true for ethnic, religious, and ideological groups. Individuals who have lost family members or close friends to the military, police, or security forces often join violent opposition groups to avenge the death of individuals close to them (Silke 2005: 245). Similarly, individuals with no link to terrorist groups are likely to join such groups if they have been vigorously questioned by the police or security forces and mistreated or tortured in the process. They seek vengeance for what was inflicted upon them. As mentioned above, the Chechen black widow suicide bombers are examples of individuals who fit into this category. Members of Palestinian groups, whether secular or religious, often include persons who have suffered at the hands of the security forces or lost loved ones. Government efforts to uncover and deal with terrorist groups often unintentionally serve as an aid to recruitment. Even successful actions against known terrorists can lead to new recruits joining the organization. A vicious circle starts in which government repression leads to individuals joining terrorist groups which launch more attacks that generate more repression, etc. Government security forces and police face the dilemma of taking insufficient action, thereby permitting terrorist groups to continue to operate, or if they become too vigorous in their efforts to find terrorists, they risk turning suspects into recruits. Of course, heavy-handed repression has sometimes defeated terrorist groups, but often action within the rule of law involving fair trials and respect for the rights of defendants and suspects can often eliminate or at least reduce the dangers of government actions creating new terrorists.

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conclusIons Terrorist groups have attracted a wide variety of individuals. For the most part, they do not suffer from psychological problems nor are they opportunists or criminals. They are almost always individuals who are committed to the cause that the group espouses. The one category of individuals likely to join a violent group is those who have lost a loved one to government forces or suffered some other major personal loss or indignity. Beyond this group, those who join terrorist organizations are more likely to be male, and they are frequently young. Other than these rather basic attributes, there are few commonalities. There are some differences among various kinds of terrorist organizations, although not all the groups in the same category are similar. Members of leftist groups often include more educated individuals; members of ethnic or religious groups are often cross-sections of the broader populations; members of right-wing groups in many cases are less well-educated. Women generally appear to play a greater role in left-wing groups and at least some ethnic groups. Recent converts to a religion or second generation migrants in religiously different societies may be more susceptible to extremist appeals. Ultimately, these generalizations, while important, are not especially helpful since most members of any category (age, gender, education or not, occupation, recent convert, or even those who have suffered losses) will not become members of violent groups, even if they sympathize with them. Thus, it remains quite difficult to identify or to predict which individuals are terrorists or are likely to become terrorists.

key TeRms Aum Shinrikyo, black widows, Red Army Faction, Red Brigades, Tamil Tigers