Written Assignment - Consequence Management

Terrorism_the_Basics_The_Basics_----_2._What_do_terrorists_want_.pdf

Home >Social Science homework help >Sociology homework help >Written Assignment - Consequence Management

wHat do terrorists want?

Groups that resort to terrorism want to accomplish a wide variety of goals. These goals are often specific to a country, the target audience, the time period – in a word the political environment in which the groups operate. This chapter will first consider some suggestions about the root causes of terrorism that lead groups that seek change to rely on violence. There are a number of ways in which terrorist groups can be classified. First, they can be put into categories on the basis of what part of the political system they are trying to change – policies, political leadership, the structure of the political system, or the boundaries of the state. Second, they can be classified on the basis of their cause – religious issues, ethnic concerns, or ideological beliefs. It is also possible for governments to engage in terrorism against their citizens as noted in Chapter 1. Although the objectives for this kind of terrorism will be somewhat different, it is often undertaken or tolerated as part of an effort to achieve similar types of goals. Finally, it is worthwhile to discuss some of the distinctions between domestic terrorism and international terrorism.

cAuses of TeRRoRIsm Any discussion of the goals and objectives of terrorist groups needs to include some consideration of the possible underlying causes of terrorism. The question of causes, however, is a very complex one. Ultimately, there is no single cause or even a very small group of causes that would explain the level of terrorist activity. This lack of a single cause is in part due to the fact that terrorism is a technique that is available to all kinds of political groups that are disgruntled with the way things are in the current political environment. Groups unhappy with the current political circumstances will use other techniques (elections, military takeovers, bribery, etc.) if they

Lutz, James, and Brenda J. Lutz. Terrorism: the Basics : The Basics, Taylor & Francis Group, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=668578. Created from apus on 2021-09-13 23:47:57.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 1 . T

a yl

o r

& F

ra n ci

s G

ro u p . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

WhaT do TerrorisTs WanT? 17

are able to do so, but they will resort to terrorism if they lack these or other alternatives. Although there is no single cause of terrorism, there are a number of factors that appear to contribute to this type of violence in at least some cases.

Poverty has often been considered a basic cause of terrorism. It has been assumed that individuals are driven to engage in political violence because of their economic circumstances or because of the economic circumstances of the group they belong to. The poverty theory is an appealing one, and many terrorist groups cite social and economic injustices as justifications for their violence. While some studies have found a connection between poverty and terrorism, most have failed to find any direct connection (Maleckova 2005). It is not the poorest individuals who routinely join terrorist groups although some organizations may attract the poorer elements in society. Other groups tend to attract a more middle-class following, and other terrorist groups frequently draw upon cross-sections of the population in terms of economic well-being. Terrorist activity has not occurred in the poorest countries of the world or the ones with the greatest differences between rich and poor. While poverty may have a connection with terrorism, it is indirect and complex.

Another factor that has contributed to outbreaks of terrorism involves the strains associated with modernization and globalization. Globalization, like terrorism has been defined in many different ways. Most definitions agree on the key characteristic that it involves increasing connections among societies and cultures in terms of economic, social, political, and communications linkages. Ongoing changes in the world increasingly create problems for all societies, both rich and poor. Economic changes bring greater wealth and status to some groups, while other groups lose. Societies face the appearance of outside religions that threaten the existing domestic practices or the appearance of secular ideas that threaten the more religious elements in all countries. New ideas can also upset cultural or societal norms and patterns. Globalization also brings increased migration, and societies often react negatively to the presence of outsiders. The immigration debates in the United States and Europe in the first decade of the twenty-first century are just a recent example of the negative reactions to immigrants that can occur. With all these changes those who have lost as a

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 1 . T

a yl

o r

& F

ra n ci

s G

ro u p . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Terrorism: The Basics18

consequence of the new circumstances may be tempted to resort to violence, including terrorism, to try to turn back the clock and to try to keep these changes from continuing.

A lack of opportunity for political participation has frequently been considered a cause of terrorism. Citizens become violent when other opportunities for political involvement are not available. While a lack of political participation has generated violence, including terrorism, truly repressive states with very limited participation (or none) have usually been able to prevent violence or have been able to quickly control it when it does occur. On the other hand democratic states with many opportunities for participation are often targets for terrorism. The civil liberties associated with democracies often provide advantages for terrorist groups. There are limits on the security forces and the techniques that can be used for dealing with suspected terrorists that are usually present. The use of the Guantanamo Bay base in Cuba by the United States to detain suspected terrorists is an obvious exception to such treatment. One of the reasons that the detention of suspects at the Guantanamo Bay facility has raised so much controversy is because it has been so contrary to democratic expectations. Freedom of movement facilitates attacks; freedom of press guarantees knowledge of their actions and influences the target audience, and the right to a fair trial means they may escape punishment even if they are caught. In democratic states the suspects in trials would even have the opportunity during the course of criminal proceedings to further publicize their cause. Of course, critics of democratic states, including those in some terrorist organizations, argue that democratic states do not provide real participation and equality or argue that the system is rigged against certain groups in society. It is also true that sometimes the rights that accused individuals are supposed to have are not honored as much as they should be. Even so, democracies do provide greater opportunities for terrorists precisely because they are more open.

Authoritarian states usually have been able to maintain control of actual and potential dissidents. The authorities and security forces do not have to worry about civil liberties or protecting the rights of persons suspected of terrorism. Surveillance methods and interrogation techniques can be virtually unrestricted in such

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 1 . T

a yl

o r

& F

ra n ci

s G

ro u p . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

WhaT do TerrorisTs WanT? 19

systems. Even though such strategies of control can be harmful in the long term, not only to individual citizens but to state stability, they can prevent terrorism from occurring, or anyone engaging in terrorism can be quickly captured. Authoritarian states often are able to control to at least some extent how the media cover terrorist actions. In some cases they can even prevent any information about the terrorism from being publicized. During the existence of the Soviet Union, there were very few dissidents and virtually no terrorist episodes. The successor states to the Soviet Union, however, have faced many more difficulties and violent incidents. The most obvious example has been the problems that the Russian government has had with dissidents in Chechnya in the southern part of the country. The discontent in the region did not begin with the breakup of the Soviet Union; it was already present. The weaker Russian state that came into being, however has presented opportunities for Chechen dissidents that had not previously existed.

Another factor that has been suggested as contributing to outbreaks of terrorism has been the presence of relatively weak states that cannot effectively control their own territory. The lack of effective security forces whether in a democracy or a more authoritarian state provides opportunities for groups to organize and to launch attacks. Domestic groups can target weak states, or they can provide a safe base for groups from other countries that want to attack their home government. Lebanon in the 1970s and the 1980s and Somalia in the 1990s and the 2000s have sheltered a variety of terrorist organizations that used the lack of central authority to their own advantage. A factor that is related to weak states is the aftermath of wars (especially for the defeated countries) and economic deterioration. The breakup of empires or states can leave new countries weaker as well. It is no

Democratic systems and weak governments can contribute to the rise of terrorism. “Inefficiency or leniency can be found in a broad range of all but the most brutally efficient dictatorships, including incompetent authoritarian states . . . as well as modern liberal democratic states whose desire to protect civil liberties constrains security measures.” (Crenshaw 2003: 94)

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 1 . T

a yl

o r

& F

ra n ci

s G

ro u p . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Terrorism: The Basics20

surprise that many countries experienced political violence of all types in the aftermath of World War I and the Great Depression. Similarly, after World War II the weakened European colonial powers faced national liberation movements that they could no longer contain. The native populations in Cyprus, Aden, and Algeria, and the Jewish settler population in Palestine, for example, relied on terrorist attacks, usually in combination with other activities, to win their independence.

chAnGes In PolIcIes Some terrorist groups seek changes in the domestic policies of a government. The groups may want fairer treatment for a particular group in society or they may want the government to follow domestic policies more in line with either conservative, more left- wing, or other political views. Anti-abortion groups in the United States are an example of such a group that has used violence to dispute the effects of a domestic policy. These groups are attempting to reverse the current policy of the United States government that permits abortions in some circumstances. Terrorist groups have also attacked targets linked to foreign governments in attempts to bring about changes in foreign policies. Al Qaeda and groups influenced by it have as one of their objectives changes in the foreign policies of the United States and its allies. These groups want changes in policies towards the Middle East and Muslim states, including at least partial Western withdrawal from Muslim areas. Anti-Castro Cuban exile groups are another example. These groups attacked targets associated with foreign governments that had recognized or could be seen as supporting Cuba. Many other exile groups have launched attacks seeking to undermine foreign support for their home governments.

chAnGes In PolITIcAl leADeRshIP Sometimes groups seek not only changes in the policies of the government in power, but also changes in the associated group that is in power in the government. The objective of the group goes beyond the removal of just one leader. An assassination could remove a single individual to be replaced by another, but with terrorism, groups are seeking a change in the political elite. They

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 1 . T

a yl

o r

& F

ra n ci

s G

ro u p . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

WhaT do TerrorisTs WanT? 21

may be seeking to drive out a particular portion of the political elite to be replaced by another or to create conditions that are more likely to bring a new group (ethnic, religious, political beliefs) into power. There have been groups in the past that hoped to place different groups into power by using a campaign of terrorism. Some of the opposition groups in Iraq have sought to bring about changes in the groups that are in power in the new government of that country. Of course, there is usually an expectation in all of these cases that there will be changes in policy that come with changes in leadership. Groups may hope to bring about changes in the leadership of foreign governments as well if they see such an alteration as being likely to bring about the changes in policies that they prefer.

chAnGes In The PolITIcAl sysTem When groups are willing or feel compelled to resort to violence, they are frequently seeking more than policy changes or a different set of political leaders. They are more likely to want to bring about major changes in the political system itself. They may hope to replace a military regime or a one-party government with a democratic system. In other cases the groups may want to replace a monarchy with a republic or reestablish a monarchy to replace a republic. The Islamic Republic in Iran when it was first established had to deal with terrorist attacks from groups that wanted to establish a more secular system in that country. Groups from the left have sought to overthrow the existing government and to replace it with a government based on the principles expounded by Marx and Lenin. Groups from the right, on the other hand, have sought to overturn governments of the left. The ultimate objective of the anti-Castro exile groups that operated outside Cuba was a complete change in the nature of the Cuban government.

chAnGes In sTATe BounDARIes The final change in underlying political circumstances that terrorist groups may be seeking involves geographic goals. Anti-colonial movements seek to create independent states that are no longer parts of the empires that contained them. In other cases regional

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 1 . T

a yl

o r

& F

ra n ci

s G

ro u p . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Terrorism: The Basics22

groups will use terrorism in an attempt to break away from existing states and create new nations. In yet other situations a group may seek to have a portion of a country attached to a different state, as was the case when the Irish Republican Army (IRA) wanted to unite Northern Ireland with the Irish Republic after the two parts of the island were separated after World War I. The changes in boundaries may imply a change in the political system as well as a change in boundaries, although it is possible that those seeking the changes may not have issues with the form of government. They may be willing to establish the same form for the new state. Boundary changes would, of course, require a change in the political leadership and undoubtedly some policy changes as well.

RelIGIous GoAls Many of the terrorist groups that have appeared had objectives that have been based in their religious views. Al Qaeda has sought policy changes within Islamic countries and changes in their political systems and changes in the foreign policies of other countries. In some cases the religious group may have sought or may be seeking to reduce secular influences and to introduce more religious laws into the land. Extreme Islamic groups in a number of countries have sought to force the incorporation of more Islamic prescriptions into national legal codes. Other religious groups have sought to gain autonomy for their religion or greater rights for their group within a country where they might have been facing discrimination due to their minority position. Protestants in New Guinea and Indonesia, Muslims in southern Thailand, Sikhs in India, and Christians and followers of traditional religions in the southern Sudan have all, at times, relied on violent attacks and terrorism in what they perceived as efforts to protect their religious groups. Anti-abortion groups in the United States have also been motivated by religious beliefs.

It is also possible for members of the dominant religious group to use violence against minority religious groups, often in efforts to drive them out of the country or out of a given area. Extreme Hindu groups in India have launched attacks against members of other religions as part of their efforts to incorporate more elements of Hinduism into national laws and culture and to drive out what

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 1 . T

a yl

o r

& F

ra n ci

s G

ro u p . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

WhaT do TerrorisTs WanT? 23

they see as intrusive and contaminating foreign influences. Muslims in Indonesia have attacked the Christian minorities in some areas of the country since they are seen as obstacles to creating a more Islamic state. The Mormons in the United States before the Civil War were driven out of New York, Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois in succession by the dominant Christian communities because they were different and considered even potentially subversive.

eThnIc oR nATIonAlIsT GoAls Terrorist groups also can be motivated by ethnic or nationalist concerns. Minority ethnic groups may become dissatisfied with their position in particular states, and some members may turn to terrorism as part of an effort to gain autonomy or independence. Groups could also have more limited goals. They might want policy changes such as the ending of discrimination or they might desire guarantees of greater representation in the ruling circles. Any of these desired changes could require some changes in the political system to accommodate such guarantees or inclusion of previously excluded groups.

The majority group may also engage in terrorism targeting ethnic minorities because they are feared or disliked. The majority may wish to repress the minority, or they could attempt to prevent the minority from creating an independent state or having a particular region joined to a neighboring country. The actions by the majority group may eventually reach the level of ethnic cleansing where there is an effort to drive out those that are “different”. Such efforts will invariably rely on spreading terrorism among the members of the targeted group. Genocide is the ultimate form of ethnic cleansing, but it is not terrorism since it seeks to eliminate the target population rather than spread terror among the members. Most other forms of ethnic cleansing, however, simply seek the removal of the targeted group. Fear is an important part of the motivation to drive them away, and the members of the groups are, in fact, permitted to leave.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 1 . T

a yl

o r

& F

ra n ci

s G

ro u p . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Terrorism: The Basics24

IDeoloGIcAl GoAls Ideologies are frequently referred to as left and right or left-wing and right-wing. Although there are many variations, left-wing ideologies seek to promote greater equality for individuals in society. They are opposed to hierarchy and opposed to great differences in economic wealth. Ideologies of the left include communism and its variations, socialism, anarchism, and labor (and in the United States liberalism). Right-wing ideologies accept greater inequalities as natural and expected in society, support existing institutions, often have connections to more religious elements in society, and favor the status quo. Right-wing ideologies include conservatism, Christian democracy, and monarchism. Most left-wing and right- wing ideologies, of course, do not promote a reliance on violence, but the more extreme versions of both groups often do support the use of violence as a means of obtaining objectives. Any of these ideologies and others could serve as a basis for violent activities under the right circumstances, such as might occur when battling against an authoritarian, repressive government that espoused different political views.

Terrorist groups whose reason for existence is rooted in ideology seldom seek to change state boundaries whether they are of the right or the left. What they often seek to change is the nature of the political system. Even when they do not want to change the system, they want changes in the political leadership so that it would be more inclusive of elements of the society that they see as unfairly excluded. They also inevitably want to bring about policy changes. Extreme left-wing groups in the past, such as the anarchists, attacked the class structure and the privileges of the existing system. Violent leftists that appeared in Latin America, Western Europe, and elsewhere in the 1960s and later were opposed to the inequities of domestic and international capitalism. More recently environmental and animal rights groups have appeared to fight the ecological damage done by capitalism. Extreme right-wing groups have fought against changes in society. The various fascist parties (including the Nazis in Germany as an extreme case) sought to prevent socialism and other new political views from gaining strength. Violent groups on the right more recently have targeted migrants because of the

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 1 . T

a yl

o r

& F

ra n ci

s G

ro u p . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

WhaT do TerrorisTs WanT? 25

groups’ opposition to foreign religions, foreign cultures, different races, and different ideas.

comBInATIons of oBjecTIves While many of the groups that resort to terrorism can be seen as primarily ethnic, religious, or ideological, some groups are more difficult to place in just one category, and, of course, it is not necessary to do so. These groups have mixed motives and objectives. In many areas of the world, for example, terrorist groups have formed alliances of convenience with criminal organizations, especially those involved in drug trafficking. Both the criminal groups and the political dissidents opposed to the government in power benefit when the government is weak. The long-term goals of the criminals and political opponents may not be in agreement, but cooperation is in their mutual interests in the short term. The alliance between the drug cartels and leftist groups in Colombia has been one of the most obvious cases of such cooperation. The government of Colombia has yet to come up with an effective way of combating this alliance, and the drug producers and leftists continue to control significant portions of the country.

In other cases, religion and ethnicity overlap and reinforce each other. While the rebels in Chechnya in Russia are often portrayed as Islamic radicals, their battle really began as a national struggle for independence. The Chechens are overwhelmingly Islamic in culture (and often in practice as well), and they eventually began to receive assistance from external Islamic organizations. This support in turn has led to greater emphasis on Islamic themes among the rebel groups that are fighting the Russians. In Northern Ireland, the violence was often seen to be a consequence of religious differences between Protestants and Catholics. In reality the conflict is also between those inhabitants who see themselves as British (overwhelmingly affiliated with Protestantism even if loosely) and those who consider themselves Irish (overwhelmingly Catholic). The struggle at times has even involved elements of ideology since the dissident groups have emphasized the differences between the economic status of the Catholic Irish (much more likely to be working class and with a lower standard of living) and the

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 1 . T

a yl

o r

& F

ra n ci

s G

ro u p . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Terrorism: The Basics26

Protestant British (much more likely to be middle class and with a higher average standard of living).

Another factor that makes it difficult to classify some terrorist groups in terms of underlying objectives is due to the fact that the multiple characteristics reflect changes over time. A group may attach ideological components to their ethnic or religious goals or see ethnic or religious implications of their ideologies. Anti-colonial groups in the old European empires could see their struggle as both nationalist and as part of an effort to resist domination and exploitation by capitalist groups in the colonizing power. The basis of support in the population may also change over time, requiring a re-orientation of the propaganda of the dissident group. Most terrorist leaders are, after all, politicians, even if of an unusual type, and they may shift their appeals and goals to keep popular support or generate additional support.

GoveRnmenT TeRRoRIsm As was mentioned in Chapter 1 and as will be discussed in some detail in Chapter 6, governments will support or permit the use of terrorism against their own citizens. Governments have some of the same types of objectives as dissident groups. They are unlikely, however, to be supporters of terrorism to bring about changes in political leadership, policy changes, or changes in the political system. Just the opposite is true – the government is using the violence as part of attempts to preserve policies, the system, and especially the leadership. The terrorism is likely to be directed against opposition groups that are seeking changes in these areas. If a government is too weak to use repression against the political opposition it may rely on terror.

When governments attack domestic opponents it will frequently be on ideological grounds since the disagreements on policy changes and the political system will often have an ideological component. Governments may seek to expand the borders of a state, but they are unlikely to attack their own citizens to achieve any changes in national boundaries. They may, however, seek to deal with domestic groups that they fear to avoid threats to the integrity of the state. The suspect groups inside the borders could be ethnic or religious

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 1 . T

a yl

o r

& F

ra n ci

s G

ro u p . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

WhaT do TerrorisTs WanT? 27

minorities. If the government cannot rely on open repression or expulsion, it may employ less direct means to dominate the group. In other cases, the government could reflect a majority view towards ethnic or religious minorities where they are disliked because of their differences and become targets for that reason. A weak government may find it convenient to overlook such attacks since they might deflect attention from the governmental shortcomings or because the unpopular minority provides a convenient target. The monarchy in Russia prior to World War I, for example, acquiesced in attacks against its own Jewish citizens since they absorbed some of the blame for the failures of the government.

DomesTIc veRsus InTeRnATIonAl TeRRoRIsm Frequently, a distinction has been made in the past between foreign and domestic terrorism. Domestic terrorists attack targets in their own country and avoid foreign property and personnel. International terrorists (1) attack foreign targets in their own country, (2) attack foreign targets abroad, or (3) attack targets associated with their home governments such as an embassy or a government company in a foreign country. The last possibility is clearly international since it crosses state boundaries, but it is really an extension of the dissident group’s problems with their own government.

To the extent that the distinction between domestic and international terrorism is valid, domestic terrorists seek to bring about changes in the policies of their government, in the political leadership, or in the political system. If they are a regional or ethnic group seeking to create a new state or join themselves to a neighboring state, then they may also be seeking to change state boundaries. International terrorists can have the same aims in some cases as when they target symbols of the government abroad. They may also target a foreign country if the government of that country is aiding their own government. They are hoping to change the foreign policy of the external government to give themselves a better chance of bringing about the domestic changes they desire. The more international terrorist groups may attack a foreign government in efforts to bring about other policy changes. Al Qaeda wants to lessen US involvement in the Middle East and

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 1 . T

a yl

o r

& F

ra n ci

s G

ro u p . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

Terrorism: The Basics28

other Islamic areas. The Madrid train attacks in 2004 and the attacks in the London transport bombings in 2005 by militants identifying with al Qaeda were intended to convince the Spanish and British governments to withdraw their support for the United States in the Middle East. It also seeks to stop Western support of the repressive governments in power in Middle Eastern countries. These repressive governments are also seen as being too secular and not following religious law closely enough. Some of the leftist groups that operated in the latter part of the twentieth century regarded international capitalism and capitalist states as their enemies and sought to undermine the effects that capitalism was having.

It is indeed becoming more difficult to distinguish between domestic and international terrorism. Domestic terrorism increasingly has international implications in a more interconnected world. International terrorism has implications for a government in the country where the attack takes place, in the country where the terrorists originated, and sometimes for other countries as well. While it has become more difficult to separate domestic from international terrorism in any precise way, it is important to note that the vast majority of terrorist actions that do occur are primarily domestic in terms of the objectives they are seeking. It is the international terrorist acts, however, that attract more attention since they involve more than one country. These attacks, therefore, often generate greater publicity, which may be an important aim for the terrorist group itself. Attacks in democratic countries with freedom of press coverage can be especially important in this regard. While the international incidents are still only a small portion of the attacks that occur, it is the international incidents that are likely to be more deadly on average than the domestic attacks (Enders and Sandler 2000: 327–8).

conclusIons Terrorist groups pursue a wide variety of objectives. They may seek to have domestic governments or foreign governments (or both) change policies; they seek changes in domestic leadership or government systems; they attempt to change state boundaries. Many groups have goals that are linked to ethnic ideals for autonomy or independence,

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 1 . T

a yl

o r

& F

ra n ci

s G

ro u p . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

WhaT do TerrorisTs WanT? 29

while others have goals imbedded in religious beliefs or ideological convictions. Some groups reflect combinations of these motivations. Further, governments may resort to terrorist actions against their own citizens with the same types of motivations as dissident groups. Ultimately, many different groups with many different goals have operated and continue to operate using terrorism as a technique in efforts to achieve these different objectives because terrorism as a technique is available to all the groups.

key TeRms ethnic cleansing, genocide, globalization, government terrorism, left-wing ideology, right-wing ideology