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Detailed Contents

List of Illustrations xii Preface xiv Acknowledgments xvi About the Author xviii

1 Introduction: The Terrorist Threat 1

Terrorism Trends over the Last Decades 7

PART I Terrorism 15

2 The Perennial Debate: What Is Terrorism? 17

The Meaning of Terrorism over Time 20 The Definitional Potpourri 22 Downplaying and Emphasizing the “T”-Word 32

State Terror(ism) 35 The Meaning of Terrorism in this Volume 37 Is Terrorism Ever Justified? 37 Terrorism Studies, a Field in Search of Theory and

Methodology 39

3 Terrorism in the Global Context 45

Different Types of Groups 46 The Roots of Modern Terrorism 47 The Post-World War II Wave 49 1968: The Advent of Modern-Day Terrorism 52 Groups that Transcend the Average Life Span

of Terrorist Groups 54

Nacos, B. L. (2019). Terrorism and counterterrorism : International student edition. Taylor & Francis Group. Created from apus on 2023-08-25 12:03:24.

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viii Detailed Contents

The Decline of Left-Wing Terrorism 57 The Rise of Catastrophic Terrorism 60

Unrestrained Terrorism and Counterterrorism after the Cold War 61

The Disintegration of the Communist Bloc 62 Modernization, Globalization, and the Proliferation

of Religious Violence 64

4 Terrorism in the American Context 72

Right-Wing Terrorism 73 The Ku Klux Klan 74 Christian Identity and Neo-Nazi Groups 78 The Patriot and Militia Movement 82 The Sovereign Citizens Movement 85

Left-Wing Terrorism 87 The First Anarchists in the United States 87 Modern-Day Anarchists as Part of the

Antifa Movement 89 The Weather Underground 90 The Black Panther Party 91 The Symbionese Liberation Army 92

Single-Issue Terrorism 93 Antiabortion Violence 94 The Animal and Earth Liberation Fronts 96 The Jewish Defense League 97 Puerto Rican Nationalist Groups 98

Ideological Waves 99

5 Religious Terrorism: Political Violence in the Name of God 105

Defending the Faith in “Cosmic Wars” 111 The Proliferation of Religious Violence 113 Alienation, Humiliation, and Fear 114 The Jihadi Movement and Political Violence 117

Muslims 118 Islamists 118 Salafis and Wahhabis 119 Jihadis 120 Jihadi Ideology 121

Homegrown Jihadis in the West—Including the United States 126

Nacos, B. L. (2019). Terrorism and counterterrorism : International student edition. Taylor & Francis Group. Created from apus on 2023-08-25 12:03:24.

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Detailed Contents ix

6 The Making of Terrorists: Causes, Conditions, Influences 135

Terrorism as a Result of Rational Choice 139 Terrorism as a Result of Personal Traits and

Experiences 141 Terrorism as a Result of Social Interaction 143 Differences between Leaders and Followers 145

The Lone Wolf Phenomenon 146 The Lack of a Universal Terrorist Profile 148 The Stages Leading to Terrorism 148 The Roots of Terrorism: No Simple Answers 151

7 Women, Children, and Terrorism 155

For the Sake of Love 162 Demonstration of Gender Equality 162 Can Real Women Become Terrorists? 164 Tactical Advantages of Female Terrorists 165

The Making of Child Terrorists 168

8 Common Threads: Goals, Targets, and Tactics 174

Do Terrorists Achieve Their Goals? 175 The Selection of Targets 176 Terrorist Methods: From Primitive Bombs

to WMD 179 Most Common Methods of Terrorist

Attacks 180 Most Likely CBRN Weapons in the Hands

of Terrorists 199

9 Organizational Structures and the Financing of Terror 205

ISIS: Organized Like a Police State 212 How Terrorist Groups Decline or End 215 Terrorist Groups’ Big Helpers: State Sponsors 217 The Case of Saudi Arabia 221 Failed and Failing States and “Brown Areas” 223 Involuntary Host Countries 224 Financing Terrorism 225 Narco-Terrorism or Narco-Funded Terrorism? 229

Nacos, B. L. (2019). Terrorism and counterterrorism : International student edition. Taylor & Francis Group. Created from apus on 2023-08-25 12:03:24.

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x Detailed Contents

PART II Counterterrorism 233

10 Terrorism and America’s Post-9/11 National Security Strategy 235

President Bush’s National Security Strategy 240 I. Making the World Safer and Better 240 II. Preemption before Threats Become Imminent 241 III. Unilateral Use of Force 242

President Obama’s National Security Strategy 243 President Trump's National Security Strategy 245 America’s Controversial “Drone War” 246

11 The Utility of Hard and Soft Power in Counterterrorism 252

Military Hard Power 255 Military Retaliation/Reprisal 256 Military Preemption 259 Commando Raids 261 Assassinations 262 Hostage Rescue Missions 264

Nonmilitary Hard Power: Economic Sanctions 266 Drying Up Financial Resources 267

Soft Power and Counterterrorism 268 Deterrence 268 Diplomacy 269 Talking to Terrorist Groups 271 Public Diplomacy 274 Conciliation and Peace 275

12 Balancing Security, Liberty, and Human Rights 281

U.S. Anti- and Counterterrorism Laws 285 Edward Snowden: Hero or Villain? 290 The Rights of “Enemy Combatants” 294 Torture: Leaders and Followers 298 Obama on Torture and Rendition 302 The Drone War and Human Rights Violations 303

13 The Crucial Role of Intelligence 308

The U.S. Intelligence Community 311 Post-9/11 Changes 316

Nacos, B. L. (2019). Terrorism and counterterrorism : International student edition. Taylor & Francis Group. Created from apus on 2023-08-25 12:03:24.

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Detailed Contents xi

Domestic Intelligence in Post-9/11 America 318 Congress and the Lack of Effective Oversight 322 International Cooperation Needed 323 Preparedness for Man-Made and Natural Disasters 325

PART III Terrorism in the News Media and on the Internet 329

14 Terrorist Propaganda and the Mainstream Media 331

Publicity: The Universal Terrorist Goal 336 An Alternative View: Contemporary Terrorists Do

Not Need Publicity 337 Terrorism and the Triangle of Communication 339 Media-Related Goals 340

The Attention-Getting Goal 340 The Recognition Goal 343 The Respectability/Legitimacy Goal 345

Bedfellows in a Marriage of Convenience 347 Media and Terrorist Contagion 348 Defending the Media 350 Treason or Public Service? 352

15 Terror and Hate in Cyberspace 356

Social Media as an Ideal Alternative to Mainstream News Media 363

Radicalization, Recruitment, and Incitement 364 Preaching Hate and Violence 366 Self-Reporting of Violence 368 Planning and Executing Terrorist Operations 369 Retrieving Valuable Information 372 Raising Funds 373

16 Conclusion: Living with Terrorist Threats 377

Appendix: Major Terrorist Incidents since the Late 1970s 386

Bibliography 402 Index 414

Nacos, B. L. (2019). Terrorism and counterterrorism : International student edition. Taylor & Francis Group. Created from apus on 2023-08-25 12:03:24.

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