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Annual Theme 2011 / 323

Implications for Teacher Education

Elizabeth Wadlington is Professor, Teaching and Learning, Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond. Patrick Wadlington is Director of Research and Development, Birkman International.One theme revealed consistently through teacher education literature is that the quality of the classroom teacher is a critical factor in determining if a student receives a meaningful education

(National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2002; National Reading Panel, 2000; Sanders & Horn, 1998; Wright, Horn, & Sanders, 1997). Moreover, the values and principles that guide professional conduct and development (i.e., dispositions) are just as critical to effective teaching as skills and knowledge. Dispositions are shaped by one’s attitudes and beliefs, which are deeply affected by individual personality traits or characteristics (Damon, 2005). In this article, we provide an overview of research regarding the effect that teachers’ dispositions have upon their teaching effectiveness, teaching style, job satisfaction, and other factors. We then describe our own research regarding the effects of dispositions upon teachers’ professional lives. Finally, we discuss implications for teacher education.

Effects of Dispositions Teachers’ dispositions directly affect their effectiveness as educators. Rushton, Morgan, and Richard (2007) found that teachers who are extroverted, intuitive, feeling, and perceiving are more likely to be successful. These teachers tend to have energy, enthusiasm, creativity, and imagination, and students often feel that these teachers can help them deal with personal issues (Fairhurst & Fairhurst, 1995). An extroverted personality also may help teachers have healthy interactions with parents and administrators. Intuitive, empathic traits encourage a collaborative working environment with students in their classes. Additionally, perceiving characteristics encourage openness and flexibility. Often, these teachers are innovative problem- solvers (Rushton, Morgan, & Richard, 2007). Teaching style is also affected by teacher disposition. According to Heimlich and Norland (2002), teaching style is the interface between teachers’ beliefs and values and the behaviors that they incorporate in the teaching-learning exchange. Brown (2003) and Mills (2003) claim that students are usually more motivated and achieve higher goals if teachers’ styles are compatible with their learning styles (i.e., the way that individual students learn best). Therefore, it is important that teachers are aware of their teaching styles in order to make any necessary adjustments to their styles to fit the individual needs of their diverse student population. A growing body of evidence indicates that a correlation exists between dispositions and job satisfaction (Kokkinos, 2007; Teven, 2007; Thornton, Peltier, & Hill, 2005). Mood instability is a trait of teachers who experience emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of personal accomplishment, often resulting in burnout (Cano-Garcia, Padilla-Munoz, &

by Elizabeth Wadlington and Patrick Wadlington

Teacher Dispositions

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Carrasco-Ortiz, 2005; Kokkinos, 2007). On the other hand, teachers who are highly conscientious and extroverted and who consistently exhibit a positive outlook and stable mood are more likely to experience personal satisfaction and less burnout (Kokkinos, 2007). Undeniably, possessing a positive sense of effectiveness is critical to overall job satisfaction (Day, Kington,

Stobart, & Sammons, 2006; Teven, 2007). Finally, dispositions affect various other factors, such as grade level and vocational choice. Elementary teachers are apt to be nurturing and responsible, as well as concrete thinkers who trust their feelings. Those attracted to secondary education tend to be theoretical and investigative, as well as enthusiastic about innovation and change (Sears & Kennedy, 2001; Willing, Guest, & Morford, 2001). Individuals seeking K-12 certifications in such areas as music, art, and physical education are likely to be standard problem-solvers and status quo-oriented, yet open- minded and flexible (Sears & Kennedy, 2001). Music student teachers are also more likely to have artistic, social, and investigative dispositions (Teachout, 2001).

Our Research The purpose of our research was to further investigate the impact of teachers’ dispositions upon their professional lives. Participants in our study were 150 teachers currently enrolled in professional graduate courses. Each participant completed The Birkman Method® questionnaire (a measure of personality, social perceptions, and

occupational interests) (Birkman, Elizando, Lee, Wadlington, & Zamzov, 2008), a teacher temperament and style survey, and an assessment measuring work burnout. The analyses used on the collected data include an ANOVA with post hoc pair- wise mean difference comparisons (i.e., Tukey), as well as effect size calculations (i.e., Cohen’s d, 1988) for significant mean

differences found. Additional analyses included Pearson Product Moment correlations and stepwise multiple regressions. The results were exciting! All interpretations described below are based on significant mean differences (p < .01) with medium- to-large effect sizes (d’s) ranging from 0.5 to 1.6. To support and add to the existing literature, we found that teacher dispositions and teaching styles are significantly related. For example, teachers who are not inclined to work collaboratively with others and are more authoritarian in nature are likely to

be teacher-centered in their instructional approach. That is, these teachers desire to be in control of their classrooms, and overtly persuade students to see their point of view. On the other hand, teachers who are more outgoing, collaborative, and appreciative of a team approach are more likely to demonstrate a student-centered teaching style. These more outgoing teachers perceive their students as part of the “class team” and prefer an interactive style. They value student input to make team decisions. We also found that confident teachers are more likely to differentiate their instruction for diverse learners as well as teach for higher levels of learning. In addition, they are more collaborative and likely to listen to others. Again, these teachers consider the students to be part of the “class team” and can diversify their instruction and questioning levels without a fear of losing control (Wadlington, Wadlington, & Hancock, 2009). We found that teachers who stifle strong emotions are more likely to feel stress and burnout. They are often interested in maintaining their image of competence and are not willing to ask for help; they believe that they do not have the power to change the things that bother them. On the other hand, those who are constantly trying to improve themselves and their images report less burnout. They have high expectations for themselves and others; they collaborate with others and believe they can make a difference. We found that teachers who reflect when making decisions but are not overly anxious about making the wrong decision are likely to stay in the teaching profession. Furthermore, teachers with direct, extroverted communication styles seem to stay in the teaching profession longer. These individuals are more likely to get their needs met and settle conflicts before they fester. Finally, teachers who are more structure-oriented report job satisfaction and less burnout. They are apt to plan more meticulously, and thus avoid classroom management issues that can cause stress (Wadlington, Wadlington, & Elizondo, 2009). Our preliminary research also revealed that, generally speaking, dispositions influence teachers’ preferences as follows. Teachers who choose special education prefer a teaching environment in which they can teach individual students or small groups. Teachers who choose regular education prefer to teach in an environment in which they can engage with many students at once. Teachers who choose special education prefer a slower-paced, collaborative environment, while teachers who choose regular education prefer a lively, competitive environment. Regarding grade

We found that teacher dispositions

and teaching styles are

significantly related.

Generally speaking,

dispositions influence teachers’

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level, pre-kindergarten/kindergarten teachers and middle school teachers tend to be more verbally dominant and controlling of their classrooms. This appears to make sense, because both sets of students are in transitional periods (i.e., home to school, elementary to high school) in which they must meet new academic expectations and higher standards of conduct. On the other hand, elementary and secondary teachers are more focused on student engagement and collaboration with students. This is logical; students in these grades are already familiar with expectations and boundaries, allowing teachers to emphasize other goals. While the sample size of our research was more than adequate, it should be noted that it was a homogeneous sample. Therefore, we plan to extend our research to ascertain whether generalizations can be made across diverse populations of teachers, students, and districts. Also, it will be interesting to see if other factors (e.g., autonomy, culture, socioeconomics) play a role in the effects of dispositions upon teachers’ professional lives.

Implications for Teacher Education Our investigation makes clear that teacher educators must facilitate a learning environment that encourages teacher candidates to become more aware of their own dispositions. This should be systematically conducted throughout programs, beginning with the first professional courses and continuing through student teaching. To do this, teacher educators should use self-awareness activities (e.g., attitude inventories, reflective journals) applied to increasingly complex situations. Teacher educators must educate teacher candidates regarding the effect of dispositions on various aspects of the teaching profession (e.g., grade level fit, content specialist vs. generalist, regular vs. special education, likelihood of burn-out). Moreover, teacher educators can be instrumental in guiding teacher candidates toward a deeper understanding of the dispositional demands of diverse teaching positions. This should begin early in professional programs with observations and field interviews, and continue with multiple, diverse field placements (e.g., culture, socio- economic level, grade level) until program completion. In this way, candidates will be better prepared to make informed decisions regarding their place in the teaching profession. Teacher candidates also should reflect upon their dispositions and how they affect their own teaching styles. Using informal means (e.g., journaling, checklists, anecdotal notes), candidates should be given opportunities to study their own

teaching styles. In addition, formal instruments (e.g., the Birkman Method) can be used to help candidates pinpoint their individual traits as well as how these traits affect their lives. Furthermore, teacher educators must keep in mind that their own expectations may stifle or encourage candidates’ innate teaching styles. In other words, field experience expectations should be flexible enough to allow for expressing creativity and individuality. Teacher educators should emphasize the idea that a wide range of dispositions is acceptable and that desirability often is only a matter of degree. Teacher candidates also should be helped to understand the role of dispositions in group interactions (e.g., between teachers and students, between teachers and administrators, and between teachers within schools). Using observational checklists and rubrics, they should be given opportunities to study the dispositions of their university professors, cooperating teachers, and others in the field. They should be asked to analyze how interactions between those with different dispositions affect cooperation and problem solving. Such venues as modeling, role-playing, vignettes, case studies, and honest discussion often help in this process. Ultimately, the goal is to choose strategies for interacting with others in an informed, rather than random, manner. As teacher candidates self-reflect, they often express a desire to change some of their inherent dispositions that they consider undesirable. They should be encouraged to develop concrete action plans. This can be done through such avenues as conferences with university professors, voluntary self-help groups, professional reading, workshops, and journaling. If profound changes are desired, individual professional counseling can prove to be helpful. Teacher educators must realize that candidates often are forced to make far-reaching decisions too early in their programs before really understanding themselves or the requirements of specific teaching jobs. Therefore, it is imperative that teacher education programs investigate ways to allow students more time before choosing their specific grade levels (e.g., early childhood, elementary, middle school, secondary) and content areas (e.g., music, math, reading). If candidates later question their decisions, they should be encouraged and helped to change their career paths with a minimal loss of time and effort. Early on, they should be helped to see the wastefulness of spending a lifetime in a job that is a mismatch for their dispositions,

Teacher educators must facilitate a learning environment that encourages teacher candidates to become more aware of their own dispositions.

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just because they did not want to lose university credits in their initial teacher preparation program. Hence, teacher educators should necessarily work closely with teacher candidates, developing meaningful networks in their university programs and with educators already in the field. In fact, advanced students in teacher education programs can be encouraged to mentor beginning students. Ultimately, teacher candidates should be encouraged to see effective teaching as a reflective journey toward progressive goals, rather than as an arrival point.

Conclusion In conclusion, these key findings are fundamental to the understanding of teacher dispositions, yet they are only a starting point. Our desire is to stimulate more research and discussion among teacher educators, candidates, and others in the teaching profession. Although the significance of teacher dispositions cannot be denied, the discussion of how these findings can and should be used is in its infancy. We stress the fact that teacher educators should be careful not to encourage stereotypes and biases. Rather, through careful thought, self-reflection, observation, and scholarly inquiry, teacher educators should continue to investigate the effects of dispositions, as well as appropriate ways to use new knowledge to make a positive impact on teachers and their students.

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