For brilliant answers

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ISSN1814-6627 (print) 1753-5921 (online) DOI: 10.1080/18146627.2012.722389 University of South Africa Press

Africa Education Review 9 (2)

pp. 380 – 394

Sustaining change in a learning organization

K. Steenekamp University of Johannesburg [email protected]

G. Botha University of Johannesburg [email protected]

K. C. Moloi Vaal University of Technology [email protected].

Abstract This article looks at how the application of the concept of a ‘learning organisation’ can be used at a specific organisation in South Africa to change the work performance of its employees. We do this by exploring different theories, models and definitions of organisational learning, learning organisation, organisational knowledge and knowl- edge management in the field, and against this background examine the perceptions of employees at a South African Organisation. The article underpins this approach by uniquely balancing conceptual rigour with practical experiences of employees at this institution. The view is taken that organisations are living systems that have the capacity to renew themselves by continuously reflecting on their practices and thereby create new knowledge, share and leverage it. Knowledge acquisition and sharing is closely linked to the core values of the organisation in order to achieve business competitive- ness, set goals, efficiency, and overall strategic success. The purpose of this article is to understand how an organisation’s training department could use the concept of a learning organisation within the South African context to sustain change. To achieve this objective we (the researchers) used a qualitative research paradigm. A phenomenologi- cal design presented the research with opportunities to analyse, interpret, and describe the perceptions, feelings and experiences of the participants at the organisation. Eight semi-structured individual interviews provided data for the purposes of this research. The data was analysed to identify categories, themes and sub-themes. The five main themes discussed are organisational learning, organisational culture, organisational change, globalisation and knowledge management and these were linked to the theory of learning organisations and were based on the findings.

Keywords: knowledge management, globalisation, organisational change, learning organisation, organisational culture, collaboration

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Introduction

The specific organisation, which forms the context of this article, is one that provides a wide range of services to its customers in the aeronautical industry. This organisation is one of the service providers in South Africa that provide airline services to clients and partners. Following the discontinuities created by a growing level of globalisation, heightened volatility, hyper-competition, demographic changes and the explosion of knowledge, the organisation has had to review its strategy for competitive advantage (Easterby-Smith, Burgoyne & Arujo (1999:23). Further, technological advances in the aeronautical industry combined with the transition to a democratic government in South Africa urged the organisation to engage in a change strategy that would assist in improving processes and employee practices with the view to enhancing efficiency and business competitiveness for entry into the global business arena. One way of staying ahead of the game at the organisation was to adapt to the vision of a learning organisation (Tomassini, 2002:3). We believe that using different theories of a learning organisation and organisational learning, and particularly drawing from Senge’s (1990), theory will provide useful insights to inform how the organisation can improve to sustain change. A study was conducted to investigate how a training department within this specific organisation could contribute to organisational change towards a learning organisation.

In developing this account, the article is structured as follows. Initially, we provide a sketch of the organisation and the political changes that have occurred within South Africa. Embedded within the discourse of learning organisation and knowledge management is a political character of the process through which learning becomes an acceptable feature of organisational life (Scarbrough & Swan, 2003:496). Often ‘learning organisation’ and ‘organisational learning’ are used interchangeably to epitomize the view that organisations are living systems. Following this discussion, we then explicate the theoretical underpinnings of the concepts of organisational learning, learning organisations, organisational knowledge and knowledge management; and problematise learning organisation to expose the divergent views of various authors in the field. Thereafter a discussion of the design of the inquiry, the themes and categories, with salient extracts from the raw data and a discussion of the findings and conclusions is presented. We argue that organisation learning and organisational knowledge will enhance the organisation’s capacity to learn (learning organisation) and its ability to acquire, create and leverage knowledge (knowledge management).

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The context: How an organisation is challenged to change

This study was concluded in a particular kind of organisation in South Africa. The organisation provides a wide range of services to its customers in the national and international aeronautical arena, which includes airline services and maintenance.

The political changes brought about in South Africa by its transition to a democratic government has not only placed huge demands for economic, political and social transformation, but it has also pressurized organisations to improve the learning capabilities of their employees so that they are able compete locally and globally. This organisation was introduced into the global industry in order to tap into the new international market to improve its facilities and services to ensure growth and expansion. This initiative proposes to make inroads into the huge African market which is presently dominated by Europe. Further, this organisation intends to investigate some of the European major projects which they outsource during their off-peak seasons when it has a full maintenance programme (Tabane, 2005:6-9). This will enable the organisation to procure lucrative projects for its workforce. In response to change it is reasoned in this study that the learning organisation is the latest organisational transformation- or response strategy for guiding organisational change, learning and development (Loughlin, 1992:3 & Moloi, 1999:78).

From the above background it can be seen that organisational change, and therefore the vision of a learning organisation, is inevitable at the specific organisation under investigation. It is under pressure to increase its market share, so coping with the effects of globalisation remains a challenge. Its training department faces an immediate challenge to align with the organisation’s business goals. In this research it was reasoned that the vision of a learning organisation is essential during times of change in the global context and that the training department needs to understand how it could contribute to this vision and to organisational change towards a learning organisation.

Theoretical underpinnings towards building a learning organisation

Recent theoretical work on learning organisations has emphasized the importance of understanding that different definitions, models and theories that underpin organisational learning exist and that none is widely accepted (Coetsee, 2003:6; Mitki, Shani and Meiri; 1997 Easterby-Smith,1990; Fenwik, 1996; Garvin 1999; Bierema & Berdish, 1996). The conceptualisations and

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perspectives of these definitions, models and theories vary both in discipline and focus, but they do bear some commonalities (Coetsee, 2003:6). Some theorists emphasize knowledge acquisition or development of knowledge base (McKenzie & Winkelen 2004) while others see learning organisations as adaption (Hodgson, 1995), skill learning and institutional know-how (Espejo, et. al, 1997:24). Noteworthy are three perspectives on ‘learning organisations.’

Firsty, the normative perspective, suggests that organisational learning takes place under certain conditions (Coetsee, 2003:6). Published work from Senge (1990) and Watkins & Marsick (1993) serve as examples in this regard. Secondly, the developmental perspective views the learning organisation as representing a later stage of organisational development (Argyris & Schon, 1978). Thirdly, the capability perspective proposes that all organisations have the inherent ability to learn and that there are different ways in which they can learn (Yeung, Ulrich, Nason & Von Glinow, 1999).

Furthermore, Kim (1998) and Schein (1997) see learning organisation as increasing an organisation’s capability to take effective action, while Dixon (1999) focuses on the intentional use of learning processes at the individual, group and system level to continuously transform the organisation in order to increasingly satisfy its stakeholders by turning knowledge into real value (McKenzie & Winkelen, 2004). Relatedly, Senge et. al (1996:3) observe that a learning organisation is a place where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning how to learn together. Pedler, Burgoyne and Boydell (1991) as well as Watkins and Marsick (1993) lay emphasis on the facilitation of learning by all the members with the view to continuous transformation, while Garvin (1994) emphasises skill at creating, acquiring and transferring knowledge and at modifying behaviour to reflect new knowledge and insights. Schein (1997) suggests a continuous strategic process that is integrated with work and that results in changes in knowledge, beliefs and behaviours.

Notwithstanding the diverse views on what constitutes a “learning organisation” the contrast is not sharp. There is consensus that if individuals in the organisation are prepared to learn they will fundamentally improve the level of individual and organisational efficiency and effectiveness (Torres, Preskill & Piontek, 1996:1). Further, the multiple perspectives imply that the slant or angle taken in the discussion about organisational learning is determined by the subject paradigm of the author or reader and should thus be interpreted accordingly (Coetsee, 2003). Although different characteristics of what a learning organisation is and

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what it does are expressed, a clear thread that points towards the acquisition of useful knowledge through learning to improve what individuals do on behalf of the organisation emerges. It could also be argued that the diversity of perspectives on “organisational learning” or “learning organisation” stimulate continuous debate on what is required to build a “true learning organisation”, how to do it and what processes are used to learn, and who is responsible for learning in the organisation within the South African context.

Achieving the status of a learning organisation is a difficult and complex issue that requires not only individual commitment but is hinged on collaborative practices by all members of the organisation (Moloi, Gravett & Grobler; 1999). Given the varying nature of the contexts under which organisations in South Africa function, ascending to the status of a learning organisation may not necessarily take the same form. Each learning organisation will be designed in a unique way depending upon what the individuals and teams within the organisation want to achieve. Nevertheless, building a learning organisation requires commitment, courage, patience and focus to achieve what is best for the whole organisation (Swanepoel & Slabbert, 2003:6). Senge et. al (1996) propose that to be able to move themselves into learning organisations, they need to be skilled at applying five learning disciplines namely, personal mastery, mental models, shared vision, team learning and systems thinking together as a system of transformation. The assumption that human resources are the sources of an organisation’s capabilities and that capabilities are the main sources of its competitive advantage implies that the employees’ capabilities i.e. what the organisation can do and achieve as a result of manipulating of mobilising clusters of resources to learn and work together is a competitive advantage (Swanepoel & Slabbert, 2003:9; Swanepoel & Slabbert, 2003:9; Senge et. al, 1996).

The theoretical orientation of organisational learning, and more specifically, the work of Peter Senge (1996), guided our data collection and analysis. Other theoretical frameworks influenced several other aspects of the research, and will be later explained in this article. Three learning organisation theorists focus on how individuals, teams and organisations use knowledge to improve their everyday practice (Senge; 1996), and they perceive that knowledge resides in the head of people than in the material phenomena of the system (Anfara & Merts; 2006:8). Peter Senge, one of the recent leadership scholars of organisational learning, took five learning tools (personal mastery, mental models, shared vision, team learning & systems teaching) as his point of departure. Senge’s view of a learning organisation includes not only the focus on learning with

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the organisation, but also allows for individuals, teams and the community to engage in this process. Senge’s model of leadership organisation accounts for gradual, transformative change and the ability to anticipate and respond to the environmental change. Making Senge’s model of learning organisation the organising framework for our research was to include the complex changes taking place in South African and within the global business arena.

Against this background, we assert that the issue of improving organisations generally needs to be addressed within the context of identified requirements and the specific experiences of individual organisations (Moloi, et. al, 2005:81). In our view, the process of learning and knowledge development towards building learning organisations, are at the heart of any change strategy to survive in a globalised and competitive world (Cranwell-Ward, 1995:681; Espejo, Schuhmann, Schwaninger Bilello, 1997:298; Rondenelli, Middelton & Verspoor, 1990:1-3; Bierma & Berdish, 1996:3). Using Peter Senge’s (1990) five learning disciplines, we ventured into exploring the perceptions of employees at an organisation in South Africa about the concept of learning organisations and how the institution could use this knowledge to improve their work process (Moloi, 1999: Garvin, 1999:27-28).

In modern life, technology is not only advancing at an enormous pace, it also influences the way people think and learn about their work. Considering that this organisation operates in a highly competitive global market, we argue that in order to be competitive and to enhance its effectiveness, the employees are required to adopt a set of attitudes, values and practices that support the process of continuous learning, development and change. Thus, we believe that the understanding, internalisation and application of theory of a learning organisation in the organisation is one strategy that can assist it to grow and be responsive to the changing demands of a highly competitive external environment (Barrow & Loughlin, 1992:3). In view of the above, we argue that a key ingredient for competitive advantage is the ability to create an organisational culture for learning that enables employees to work productively by learning faster than their competitors (Rothwell, 2002:198).

Problematising the learning organisation

While many organisations that are future-seeking view the learning organisation as a change strategy for organisational learning to increase employee knowledge in order to enhance their performance at work, Coopey (1995: 193-213) is of the opinion that the concept itself is flawed because of its proponents’ apolitical assumptions. He claims that the apolitical stance by the proponents of a learning

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organisation tend to neglect the political activity likely to be encountered in a learning organisation, activity which tends to frustrate the learning aims. We agree with Scarbrough and Swan (2003:497) who argue that the emergence of knowledge management (KM) and learning organisation (LO) can be readily linked to the acceptance of a world-view or hegemonic ideology which sees knowledge and learning as the defining characteristics of a new epoch. Secondly Scarbrough and Swan (2003:497) argue that a common feature of the discourses of KM and LO is their shared affiliation with management authority and control, and also that while the model of a learning organisation allows for greater employee empowerment, the amount will probably be modest in real terms (Coopey, 1995:193). Coopey claims that the power of managers, especially those that are at the apex of the organisation, likely to be enhanced by their privileged access to any extra information and symbolic resources that are created by individual and collective learning processes.

The third argument that Coopey (1995) presents is that the potentially most damning criticism of a learning organisation is that it is done in ways that provide raw material for managerial ideology, potentially constraining the meanings and actions of other employees so that they support the interest of the dominant coalition. Fireman (2003:561) corroborates this view and argues that because learning is located in the socially constructed organisation, it is thus produced, culturally defined, politically formed, contested, and changed through a communal process rather than being atomized and individualized. It follows from this argument that, in constructing the ‘real and good’ meaning and morality becomes a matter of implicit and explicit negotiations and the ‘trading’ of interpretations, all of which are mediated by power relations and political interests.

Fineman (2003:561) further makes the argument that while a socio-political frame markedly enriches our understanding of organisational learning, the emotional is often overlooked. Moreover, it is argued that learning organisations fail to account descriptively or analytically, for the way learning and meaning- making also involves emotion as part of the socio-political process. In particular, Fineman (2003:561) points out, ‘we get little emotion work, emotional labour and strategic deployment of emotion that attends to learning and organisational socialisation’.

We are in agreement with Szulanski & Cappetta (2005:531) who bring to the debate a different dimension which is the ‘stickiness’ of transference of knowledge. They purport that the notion of sticky transfers denotes transfers where vigilance and effort are required to detect and overcome difficulty. Thus,

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knowledge transfer is by nature sticky because it involves numerous actors and as such it is fraught with difficulty and if things go wrong in the process new problems emerge (p. 517). In line with this thought, Easterby-Smith, Burgoyne & Araujo (1999:10) observe that the difficulty of becoming a learning organisation has concerned many writers in the field. Easterby-Smith and Lyles (2003:1) accord this difficulty to the increasing diversity and specialisation of the field. Taking these criticisms and arguments into consideration we conducted a research study to explore how a training department in a specific organisation could contribute to organisational change towards a learning organisation.

Method

Underpinned by the theoretical framework provided in the previous section, the specific problem that faced us in this research was to explore how a training department in a specific organisation could contribute to organisational change towards a learning organisation.

The research aimed to:

• Describe what a learning organisation is.

• Understand how change could be sustained in a learning organisation in order to change the work performance.

• Suggest practices that could enhance work performance in the selected organisation for this study.

• Explore how a training department could facilitate organisational learning.

• Understand how a training department could facilitate learning needed in the global context.

• Investigate how a training department could facilitate knowledge management.

• Make recommendations to the training department based on the findings of this research.

Research design and methodology

In an attempt to understand how a training department could use the learning organisation principles in changing work performance, a qualitative research design, guided by core principles of a phenomenological design was adopted.

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The phenomenological design presented the study with opportunities to collect, analyse, interpret and describe the perceptions, feelings and experiences of the selected participants (Groenewald, 2004:9; Bentz & Shapiro, 1998:96). As was the case in this study, phenomenology attempts to understand the participants’ perceptions and views of social realities (Leedy 1997:161).

To elicit the participants’ perceptions and views, eight individual semi- structured interviews were conducted with trainers and trainees within the organisation. The main purpose of the interviews was to gain a detailed picture from the voices of trainers and trainees on how they could use the principles of a learning organisation to change the work performance of employees in a learning organization. The trainers and trainees were purposefully selected as participants, as we believed that the had insight into the daily practices within the organisation. They could thus provide first hand information on what we sought to understand (Merriam & Simpson, 2000:57).

An interview guide, consisting of a set of pre-determined open-ended questions, was used to guide the semi-structured interviews. The interview guide assisted us to focus conversations on work practices within the organisation. The views of the participants were captured as data on recordings, whereafter they were transcribed and then later analysed and interpreted meaning making (Patton, 2002:432). The findings of this research were reached through real-life settings, where the phenomena under investigation unfolded naturally (Merriam & Simpson, 2000:97).

The theory on ‘learning organisations’ and specifically the work of Senge, informed the data categorisation process. A three-step coding strategy, which included open, axial as well as selective coding, guided the analysis of the data. The raw data captured in the transcriptions was firstly coded, and then placed under relevant and relating categories. From the categories main themes and sub-themes emerged. These main themes and sub-themes led to the broad findings of the research project as they provided some answers to the research question directing the research. Five main themes related to (1) organisational learning, (2) - culture (3) - change, (4) globalisation and (5) knowledge management emerged. Within each of these five themes, sub-themes emerged from the data. The themes and sub-themes are summarised as follows:

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Themes Sub-themes Organisational learning Motivation to learn

Barriers that prevent learning Overcoming barriers to learning Learning within the organisation Learning from other organisations

Organisational culture Experiencing culture Beliefs Values Traditions Work practices

Organisational change Types of changes encountered Experiencing change Coping with change Facilitating change

Globalisation Position in the global market Contributing towards competitiveness

Knowledge management The influence of knowledge Keeping knowledge current Knowledge retention Managing knowledge

Results and discussion

We created sub-themes based on the data that seem to support learning within an organization towards organizational learning. These factors included motivation to learn, barriers that could prevent learning and how to overcome these barriers, learning from others within the organisation as well as learning from other organizations.

The first theme highlighted that management has a large contribution to make toward the learning that occurs within an organization. Based on this theme it is claimed that management could influence motivation to learn as well as contribute toward eliminating or at least reducing barriers to learning within an organization. The participants were of the opinion that they are motivated by external factors, such as money, promotion, advances in technology, but also by a safer learning environment. In contrast some participants were of the opinion that internal factors also motivated them to learn. These included

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goal setting and work effectiveness. Management were seen to often create barriers toward learning as they were often not focused on training but merely on output and productivity.

Management and its role in creating an organizational culture also seemed to emerge in the second theme related to the culture of the organization during times of change. Furthermore, we argued that a lack of leadership and support during times of change could negatively influence organizational culture. Participants were of the opinion that employees are often disempowered and unmotivated due to a lack of information or knowledge from management. The distribution of information and sharing of knowledge could be facilitated by the training department within an organization. Furthermore such a training department could assist before and during times of change by disseminating relevant information staff may need and also providing support programmes to aid in the preparation to the change process (Van Schoor, 2003:5). In this way the training department could be contributing to organizational change toward a learning organization.

Another contribution the training department could make to facilitate organizational change would be to be responsive to change and thereby assist employees to be prepared and cope with change. Examples of this could be to include management in the process by sharing their vision of change with employees (Senge, 1990:344). It is argued that a shared vision plays an important role in winning employees over to commit to organizational change. Further examples include the provision of relevant training that is focused on the organizational and also individual needs. Training should be adapted to align with the new vision and change priorities. Thus, by sharing the new vision and also disseminating relevant knowledge and information, the training department will emphasize learning in the organization and thereby encourage life long learning at all levels of the organization.

How participants related to experiencing organisational culture in the global arena was varied. On the one hand some participants showed passion and dedication to the global industry by expression their role and contribution as valuable in the organisation. Whilst, on the other hand other participants expressed that due to initial isolation from the global markets, and now being included in the global industry required a mindset change in order for the organisation to get a step ahead of its competitors, especially on the global front. Some of the most significant influences on the organisation that had to be accounted for was new global requirements and regulations laid down by

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global regulating bodies. This information had to be shared and disseminated to all departments.

In sharing new knowledge and information it is also important for organizations to recognize knowledge as corporate asset, and that they need strategies, policies and tools to effectively manage these assets (Barclay & Murray, 1997:2). The training department could contribute toward knowledge management through the promotion of a knowledge management agenda and the development of a framework. Some aspects that could be included in such a framework might include:

• Make use of a knowledge leader, who can promote and develop a knowledge management framework.

• Build knowledge teams to help develop methods and skills to manage knowledge.

• Develop knowledge bases to investigate best practices, relevant market intelligence and form an expertise information bank.

• Establish knowledge centres to facilitate the flow of knowledge and skills.

• Introduce knowledge sharing mechanisms, such as facilitated events that encourage greater sharing of knowledge than would normally take place.

• Engage in knowledge asset management methods to identify and account for intellectual capital (Dixon, 1999: 217–220).

From the analysis and interpretation of the findings in this study, it became clear that management of an organisation plays an important role in creating the conditions that are necessary to facilitate learning and change within the organisation. Management contributes towards learning and change by firstly providing motivation for employees to learn and secondly by reducing any possible barriers to learning they may have in the organisation. The study further highlighted that change within an organisation should be managed through leadership support, thereby contributing towards a positive organisational culture. The above-mentioned responsibilities of management led to the role that the training department could play in supporting them in their initiatives towards change.

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Conclusion

The study showed that a training department could contribute to change toward a learning organisation by being responsive to organisational change. In doing so, it was argued that this department could assist management to facilitate the change towards building a learning organisation. Training departments could contribute by being aware of and keeping up with situations that influence change within the organisation as well as globally. Furthermore they should share the management’s vision of change and work together with other role players to support their achievement of the vision. In this study it was found that this could be facilitated by a sound knowledge management framework and agenda. It can thus be concluded from this study that the training department indeed could contribute toward a learning organisation and change by forging partnerships and supporting management in their endeavours to facilitate a positive learning culture.

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