Epic of Sundiata

I

Encounters

with

Islam

h e Prop het Muhammed a nd the e me rgence of Isla m united d ispa ra te Ara b tribes over t h e co urse of the seventh century, t u rn ing

them into a pote nt cu ltura l a nd politica l fo rce. Is la m initia lly spread as t he re ligion of a dynamic Arab sta te that took advan tage of t he weakness of the Byzan t ine and Persian Empires in the Middle East, a nd soon extende d its politica l bo unda ries even further, to Spa in, Central Asia, a nd Afgh a ni- stan. Once conquests s lowed dow n and poli tica l boundari es were co nsolidated , tra ders carri ed t h e re ligion even fu rthe r, to W est Africa and Chi na, as well as Sou th a nd So uth east Asia . Arab traders es ta blishe d an increasingly for- Rung netwo rk of c it- ies and trading posts, faci li tating an extraordi nary exc ha nge of good s . In Cordoba, th e cen ter of Mus- Ji m Spa in , one had access to goods coming fro m De lhi , t he S ultanate in northern India, and from w hat is now Bu lgaria in easte rn Europe to S udan. Alo ng with comm odities, w hat traveled a lon g t h ese t rad e routes were a rmies . Is la m beca me the re li- gion of t he ruli ng c lasses in the diffe re nt e mpires. However, un like C hrist ianity, Is la m did n ot see k

A n illustrati on of the O t toman fleet blockading the port of' i\ l arsc ille , from a 16t h-centur y O u oman manuscri pt that reco unt s th e mi litary campaigns of Siiley m a n the Mag nifi cent.

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converts, which meant that it often allowed local religious practices to exist alongside Islam, thus creating multicul- tural societies in which different reli- gions existed side by side. The Ottoman Empire and the Mughal rule in India, for all the tensions that existed between different groups, set a standard for reli- gious tolerance.

The same pattern held true of cul- ture. Far from seeking to export a homo- geneous notion of culture, the various Islamic empires were places of vibrant cultural exchange, in which art and ideas traveled as freely as goods and armies. Writing was especially enriched by the interchange; new literary forms that blended imported styles with existing local ones emerged throughout the Islamic world. Oral literature, such as the ones that fed into the Turkish epic Dede Karkut or the Mali epic Sunjata, continued to flourish, while incorporat- ing Islamic elements, much as the pre- Christian epic Beowulf had received a late Christian layer or veneer to make the traditional story compatible with the new dominant religion. The result was a fascinating encounter of cultures and religions, whose products are pre- sented here.

ISLAM AND PRE-ISLAMIC CULTURE IN NORTH AFRICA

Between 640 and 700 c.E., North Africa was occupied by Arab invaders seeking to expand the growing sphere of influence of an Arab world increas- ingly united by Islam. One far-reaching result of the Arab conquest was that it led to an economic revolution by com- bining the faltering economy of late Roman North Africa with the desert and savannah lands of West Africa into a vast commercial network that extended from the Atlantic to East Asia and from the equator throughout northern Europe. By the latter half of the eighth century,

INTRODUCTION 5

most of the native Berber peoples of the Maghreb (Northwest Africa) had been converted to Islam. Owing to increasingly dynamic market forces to the north of the desert and the spread of camel-herding in the desert itself, Mus- lim Berber merchants became engaged in the systematic development of trans- Saharan trade.

The ninth-century Arab occupation of southern Morocco gave rise to a string of oasis cities south of the High Atlas Mountains. These included the bustling market town of Sijilmasa, which became the northern counterpart of the com- mercial centers of Tadmekka and Awdaghust on the southern edge of the Sahara. By the end of the tenth century, the southern trading centers had been colonized by Muslim (mostly Berber) immigrants from the north. They were merchants eager to trade with the mar- kets of desert-edge kingdoms like Ghana, Takrur, and Gao, and especially to extract wealth from parts of the western Sudan described by Arab travelers as "the land of gold."

Thus, Islam arrived in West Africa via Muslim traders, and by 1068 the respected Arab geographer Al-Bakri was writing that there were significant Mus- lim populations occupying towns of the Mande peoples, which included the Maninka of the Upper Niger region who became founders of the Mali Empire in the thirteenth century.

But Islam was not only an economic force; it also reshaped the cultural landscape. By the thirteenth century Islam had become a common, though not universal, aspect of Mande cul- ture. Far from imposing onto North Africa, including the Mali Empire, its own conception of art, Islam was grad- ually integrated into Mande culture, with Mande bards (jeliw) assimilating elements of Islamic tradition. Some of the stories told by Muslim clerics and by pilgrims returning from Mecca were adapted to local narrative repertoires.

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The Prophet Muhammad a nd va rious c haracters from his life a nd times were borrowed by Mande bards a nd incor- porate d into the ir m ost importa nt o ra l traditions, incl uding the e pic S unjat:a, w hich te ll s the s tory o f the thirte enth- centu ry hero w ho is c re dite d with the founding of th e Mali Empire .

THE OTTOMAN EMP IRE

The beginnings of the Ottoman Em- pire can be traced to a small princ ipa l- ity estab lis he d aroun d 1300 c .E. by T urkoma n nomads in the little- controlled borderla nds of northwestern Asia J\ilino r be twee n th e Byzantine E mpire a nd the fragments of the Selj uk E mpire . The "Ottoma n e n terp rise," na med afte r Osman Beg (d. proba bly 13 24) was initia ll y one of m a n y simila r petty princ ipa lities, but it m a naged , within a century a nd a ha lf, to e liminate its Isla mic compe tito rs in Asia M ino r a nd conquer mu c h of southeastern Eu - rope. T he conquest of the c ity of Con- s tantinople in 14 5 3 fina lly establis hed it

as t he inherit o r of the eastern Roman Empire. O ve r time , Ottoman conquests exte nd ed furth er into Europe, including Hungary, a nd today's Romania. By 15 17, the Ottomans a lso cont ro lled Syria, Egypt, and the I-J o ly C ities of Ara- bia. Despite t h is eastern expa ns ion, the Ottoma n Empi re re mained a Medite rra- nean rathe r than a n Asiatic power.

In t his process of e mpire building, the nomadi c o rigins soon faded away to fond memories preserve d in c hro ni- cles and he roic e pics, s uc h as th e Booh of Dede Kor/mt, whi le the re m ai ning nomads were marginalized as a social g rou p and used as a military rese rve. The new poli t ical and m ili ta ry e lite largely cons iste d of carefull y selected and highl y educated slaves of t he s ul- tan , thus concentrating t he a dminis- tration of the e mpire in the impe rial h o u sehold. A second pill a r of Ottoman power was a feuda l a rm y, whic h never developed into a la n ded a ristocracy (as feudal armies did t h roughout E urope ) that could hold its own agains t the ce n t ral powe r o f t he s u lta n. While the Ottoman Dynasty was et hnically Turk-

ish, and the administrative language was Turkish as well, this elite was mostly recruited from Christian sub- jects, who were converted to Islam and culturally socialized into Ottoman- Turkish elite culture.

This elite culture found its classical expression in art, architecture, and lit- erature between the late fifteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth cen- tury. Ottoman literature used a lan- guage that is Turkish in principle, but had come to incorporate so many Ara- bic and Persian words, phrases, and even syntactic constructions that it is sometimes difficult to tell whether a poem is Turkish or Persian. This liter- ary Ottoman Turkish was worlds apart from the Turkish spoken on the street, the reserve of its erudite connoisseurs, who were all expected to be fluent in the "Three Languages"-Arabic, Persian, and Turkish-and their rich literary tra- ditions. Evliya Qelebi's Book of Travels is a powerful late homage to these ideals of classical Ottoman culture.

Strictly speaking, the term Ottoman should be used only for the members of the imperial household and every- body else who shared this culturally defined identity, but more generally it has come to include the numerous subcultures that were allowed to thrive alongside it. Within this multilingual and multi-religious empire, place and social status, as well as affiliation with religious and social institutions were more important than ethnic background or language. Lacking a concept of "Otto- man citizenship," the Ottoman state with its small elite had neither an interest nor the means to impose any kind of cultural or religious identity on its subjects, and did not interfere in the internal communal affairs of its populations. This policy has often been praised as Ottoman tolerance, but it is important to realize that tolerance did not mean equality: different religious groups were taxed differently and did

INTRODUCTION 9

not have the same access to power. Yet the sheer diversity of the Ottoman Empire continues to command respect and elicit fascination.

ISLAM AND HINDUISM IN SOUTH ASIA

Muslim armies from Iraq entered South Asia early in the eighth century, initially conquering what are now the southern and western regions of Paki- stan. Over the next three hundred years or so, immigrants from various parts of the Muslim world, together with local converts to Islam, gradually established distinctive settlements for themselves in the western and north- western parts of the Indian subconti- nent, from Sind and Gujarat to Punjab and Kashmir. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Muslim armies from Afghanistan and Central Asia ( which included Turkish slave-warriors) car- ried out a succession of raids, or short- lived invasions, on towns and cities in northern India. In 1206, a Turkish slave-warrior proclaimed himself the Sultan of Delhi, laying the foundation for a Muslim empire in northern India that lasted more than three centuries, and was ruled by five different dynasties of Turkish-Afghan descent.

In the early sixteenth century, the Delhi Sultanate, which controlled the greater portion of western, northern, eastern, and central India by then, lost power to the Mughals, a dynasty with origins in today's Uzbekistan. The Mughals ruled most of South Asia from 1526 to 18 5 7, creating a vast empire that, especially in the second half of the sixteenth century and in the seven- teenth century, was the richest and most powerful political formation in Asia. Over a period of more than six centuries, the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal empire, between them, provided a com- plex framework for the emergence of a

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unique Indo-Islamic civilization, which continues to shape the cultural life of South Asia to this day.

Before the arrival of Islam, the Indian i; sribcontinent was predominantly Hindu ~ . in religion· and culture, with 6uddhism

'.J·:i, ·aru:f .~Jainism practiced only ·by·~.-~~aU . ·J.;/,:pip?i:4ties_.._pf the population. For mu'eh i

of.'tlie firsf millennium of the Common Era, Hinduism in its classical form involved polytheism (belief in the exis- tence of many gods), worship in temples officiated by priests (belonging to the Brahmin caste), the worship of idols and the performance of numerous and intri- cate rituals (in accordance with elaborate scriptures, l~w books, and codes), and pilgrimages to designated holy plac:es.

When Islam settled into South Asia, it challenged many of these ideas and practices in Hinduism. Islam's uncom- promising monotheism (belief in a sin- gle, all-powerful God), as well as its

INTRODUCTION I . 11

attacks on idol-worship, compelle~.- many Hindus to reconsider their poly- · theism and their worship in temples ( which is centered around icf 9.ls, 'often representing gods in anthropomorphi~, - forms). Likewise, Islam's emphasis on .. SO(}ial. e,quality and a universal fraternity ·· persu~dea J-lindus to question the caste . hierarchy\ind its practice of discrimina- tion on the basis of birth. Moreover, Sufism-a mystical form of Islam cen- tered on the cultivation of music, dance, poetry, the visual arts, and techniques of ecstasy-offered forms of spiritualism that resonated with some Hindu con- ceptions of "union with God." The poets collected here, from different regions and religions of South Asia, all work through this productive tension between Islam and Hinduism, testifying to the fact that cross-cultural encounters are sometimes violent, but can also lead to artworks of stunning beauty.

~~ ·--

~SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC OF THE

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74~he West African epic named after one generation of jeliw to the next, i1 its central hero, Sunjata, is an essen- and the principal Mande clans frame

tial part of Mande culture. The heartland their identities in terms of descent of Mande territory is located in what is from the ancestors describe~jn epic now northeastern Guinea and southern tradition. · Mali, but the Mande peoples are found As specialists in maintaining the oral throughout a much larger portion of traditions of their culture, jeliw are sub-Saharan West Africa, speaking known to their people as guardians of various related languages and dialects. "The Word." In early times they served The Mande, also known as "the people as the spokespersons of chiefs (dugu- of Manden," who include the Bamana of tigiw) and kings (mansaw), and were Mali and the Maninka of Guinea, are thus responsible for their patrons' rep- heirs to a vibrant historical legacy, the utations in the community. Genera- high point of which was the Mali Empire tions of jeli families were permanently that flourished from the mid-thirteenth attached to leading households-. and to the early fifteenth century. The epic ruling dynasties, who supported the narrative of Sunjata and his contempo- bards in exchange for their services in raries illustrates the Mande peoples' own the verbal arts. The ieliw encouraged, view of this glorious past both before and their patrons to strive for ambitious after Islam began to influence their cul- goaJs by remmdmg them of the exam- ture, and it rightfully credits their ances- pies. set by their heroic ancestors, as tors with establishing one of the great described in the epic narratives.~ empires of the medieval world. ointed out mistakes through the use of

In Mande culture, oral tradition is prm·erbs, and admonis e t eir patrons the domain of bards popularly known _. \then they seemed likely to tail in their as griots, but as jeliw or jelilu (sing. dut1<;_S. At the same fame, the bards' own jeli) to their own people. They are the security depended on their rulers' politi- heredita oral artists responsible for cal power and social prestige, so the sto- relating the ---- ee s o t e ear y ries they told tended to be biased in ancestors, Reepmg them and the1r • favor of their patrons' own ancestors. exploits alive in the community's mem- In Mande soci~ties, all matters ~ For many centuries the jeliw have involving family, clan, arid ethnic kin- served as genealogists,_musicians, praise- ship are of supreme importance. Peo- singers, spokespersons, and .,diplomats.. pie are identified by their jamu-the As the principal narrators of oral tradi- " family name or patronymic associated tion, the bards have been responsible with famous ancestors remembered for ereserving narratives that express for important deeds alleged to have what peoples of the Mande cultural occurred around the beginning of the heartland believe to have happened thirteenth century. Thanks to regular in the distant past. For centuries, sto- exposure to live or locally taped perfor- ries of the ancestors have passed from mances by jeliw that are played privately

12

GuJ ;~ 4/)4 w;~ SUNJATA, A WEST AFRICAN EPIC 13 or heard regularly on local radio broad- casts, general awareness of the heroes and heroines of ancient times, like those in Sunjata, enters the people's consciou.sness in childhood and grJws there througlfout their lives~ Memories of the ancestors -¥e constantly evoked

• in praise songs ·and narrative episodes that are sung or recited by the bards on virtually any occasion that calls for entertainment. When elders meet in vil- lage council, the ancestral spirits are felt to be present because, according to tradition, it was they who established the relative status of everyone present, as well as the administrative protocols to be followed and the values underpin- ning every decision. The ancestors who are described in km~ koro 'or "ancient speech" define the id<;ntity of virtually everyone of Mande origin.

The performance of Sunjata would often be accompanied by musical instru- ments: a small lute (nkoni), a twenty- one-string calabash harp (lwra), or a Malian xylophone (bala). Even without music, Mande oral poetry incorporates a kind of. call-and-response rhythm through the repeated assent of the "naamu-sayer" (responding person) to each line sung by the jeli. The naamus of this secondary performer might be translated as "yes" or "We hear you"; they are preserved here in the original to give a flavor of the repetitive, almost incantatory quality of the response. The variant spellings of naamu reflect differ- ent pronunciations used for emphasis. Common interjections include tinye ("it's true") in the indigenous language, as well as terms borrowed from Arabic and reflecting the influence of Islam, such as walahi ("I swear") and amina ("amen"). In all cases, the community hears not only the poem but an enthusi- astic, repeated approbation of it. The jeli's own language when narrating the stories of the ancestors is also distinct from everyday speech, as he turns to kuma koro ("ancient speech'') for the

performance. Even the most central names in the story may vary according to the pronunciation of the individual jeliw and to regional differences, so that Sunjata, for ~xample, may appear as Son-Jara, So'olon Jara, or Sunjara.

Oral literature that has been passed down from generation to generation is difficult to date. The epic material feeding this version of the· Sunjata epic was narrated and recorded only in the late-_twentieth century, although it retells stories that· go back centuries. ·ojanka ·Tassey Conde_. the jeli who narrated this version, li,yed his entire life in the small village of Fadama near the Niaodao River in northeastern ~- Nominally a Muslim like most people in today's Mande society, Tassey was descended from a lineage of Conde bards who trace their ances- try to forebears who lived before the arrival of Islam in the land of Do ni Kiri as it is described in the Mande ~- Even among other bardic Man- den families, the Conde of Fadama are respected for their vast kn9wledge of Mande epic tradition. In the 1970s and 1980s, Tassey's brother Mamadi Conde was belentigi (chief bard) of Fadama, and one of the best-known Manden orators, distinguished for his depth of knowledge:·· when Mamadi died 'in I 994, his brother Tassey became the belentigi. Several months later, David C. Conrad, who edited this version · of Sunjata, began a collabora- tive relationship with Tassey Conde that lasted until that great bard's death in 1997.

The passages collected here are from the rendering by Tassey Conde of this communal, epic story. The narrative is episodic and often disjunct, full · of magic (dalilu) and humor z. as the jeli gives his own version of a sto familiar to 1s isteners. T e epic tells of the great expectation surrounding the birth of Sunjata, whose heroism has long been foretold .. Foreigners come to

14 SU JATA, A WEST ArR I CA\I rP I C

de feat a wild buffa lo t hat has been d ee- Li ke most e pics, S unjata is a relati on imating Ma nd e lands, and the ir first or th e he ro's many tria ls, whic h he sur- ac hieve ment is to recognize the bu ffalo mo u nts through his courage, tenacity, woma n Do Kamissa as the cu lprit. and pie ty. Ye t the s ingula r hero is also The y tame he r with kindness clai ming deep ly ensconced in his community: in that s he resembles their mother. until order to lead he mu st find a ll ies, c ulti- sh e re le nts a nd offers t h e m he r wis- va tc fr ie nd s, a nd hon or his fam ily. Pa rt dom. Urging th e m to look bev~d of th e cha rm of Sunjata lies in its attcn- appeara nces, s he commend s to the m li on to de tail, and its fresh humor as it t he de form ed Sogo lon, who will be th e rela tes the interactio ns of legendary mother of S un ja ta. \ ,V he n S unjata is he roes with the very conc re te world finall y born , into a worldiull ol sorcery around the m. This is a poe m about the and treac hery, h e ba rely escapes th e powe r struggles that can lead to war, ma ny plots against him , a nd is evcntu - certainly, but it is also about people's ally dri ven into exile b the ·ealousy of re lal ionship to a place a nd a la ndscape. li1s ste p rot 1e r. His greatest ach ieve- Land takes o n a concrete quality beyond mc nt comes :vftl1 the defeat of the tyr- its 1io li tica l s ign ifi ca n ce as Sunjata a n n ou s Sumawo ro to liberate Manden, pleads for a plot in whic h to bury his whi c h the text recognizes as a founda- mother whe n s h e dies i n ex ile . In its ti ona l imperial gesture. S1mjata a lso vivid re-creation o r t h e h e ro's expc ri- e mphasizes, however, that the he ro's e ncc·. Sunjata knits togeth er the mythic exalted stature comes at a great cost to a nd the everyday, the a ncestral a nd the the community: while Su ma woro furi- contempora ry, provid ing for its Mande ou s ly seeks the ma n who is fated to li steners a recogn iza bl e, living h istory, s ucceed him, we are told , the Mande and for everyone else rich in sight into

Je~~ieop~:;· 1 ~: hi~/om:r~~i the culture o~::,:;:gl:io~.

From. Sunja ta 1 jori,J,ll. _ f/.,5 e_

The Sea rc h f or a Special Wife

Whe n Maghan Ko n fara 2 was a 111ansa in Man de n , he had power, he had wealth, he was popular, and he had dalih!,:;-but he had n o c hi ld. Maghan Kon Fara , Sun- j ata's fath e r, c raved a chi ld. T houg h h is fri e nds h ad begun to have c hildren, hq / s till had no child . But the n his dalilu3 showed that he would final ly have a child,V His moriw," h is sa nd d ivine rs, a nd his pe bble divine rs 5 all sa id , "S imbo n, you will sire a c hild who will be famous.'' Everybody he con sulted sa id the same thing. ''But try to marry a light-skinned woman ," they told h im. " Ujou marry a light- ~ s he will g ive b irth to the c hild t hat has been foreseen." Because Maghan Konfara was powerfu l, h e m a rried n ine lig ht-s kinned wo me n. But aside

I . Transla te d from lhc Maninka bv David C. Conrad. All notes were made by I h~ Lrans lalor unless otherwise indicated. In an excerpted section, the narrator. T assev Co nde, introduces

• the birth ol' the seve ntl, king (11u111sa} S unja ta by recalling the lineage of kings born be fore S unjata. He declares 1ha1 he wi ll not sta rt from the very beginning since t he lislcners and the J\ lande people a re a ll Adam 's dcscendanls. 2. ~l a han Knofara is th e fall • · Su n·a · a lso refcrre 10 as S imbon J\ lastcr l luntcr) and /\I ,m sa ru e r) !editor's note . ----

3 . 1\1lagic, occult, or secret power; in everyday use, any means used to ac hi eve a goa l. -Ail 1 • RI l\ l uslims w ho. in or.ii tradition, often pe rform divination. 5. Seers a nd heale rs who ide nlify the sou rce of a ll kinds of problems by s preading a p ile of sand and rend ing symbols in ii, or casting mul - ti pit· o bjecls s uc h as pe bbles or cowri e shells and reading th e conligurations in whic h they land. Diviners t he n presc ribe approp ria te sac- rifices to remedy the proble m.

SUNJATA 15

fmro Flaba Naabi, none of them gave him a child. He was perplexed. From the last Wednesday of the month of Jomene6 to the same time the following year, Maghan Konfara did no_t_~ire.a child. (If you want to know about Sunjata, then you have to learri what Sunjata's father and the people of Manden had to endure!)

He sent the moriw back into retreat, telling them, "I need a child, so do your best. It's said that if I sire the child that. has been foreseen, that child will rule Manden. I must sire this child.'~ 'fbe moriw. all of whom were present, went back into retreat. When they returned, they told hirri, "Simbon, marry somebody who

_is a mulatto." So he married nine mulatto women. But aside from Marahajan: I arawele, none of thos~ mulatto women gave birth. From that tjme of the. y~ar to the same time the following year, none of those women who were wi~h him in the house bore any male children. Simbon was frustrated. Maghan Konfara sent the moriw back mto retreat. He said, "Tell me the truth. Ah! If you see that I will not have any children, tell me. A child is something that bnly God can pfo- ~e; it cannot be bought in the market." This time the moriw d nim, '~ weH, many a black woman, hnd a black woman who has whit heart." This. time he married nine black women. But asi e rom Nyuma Damba Magasuba, none of them bore any children. ~ ""Maghan Konfara was frustrated. His moriw told him again, "Very well, man,

~e one of your slave girls and marry her." (In those days they still practiced slavery.) He liberated and married nine slave: girls. But aside from ]Qnmusoni Manyan, none of the slave girls bore him any children. Frustrated, Simbon

gathered the people of Konfara together on the last Wednesday of Jomene. When the people of Konfara had gathered, ~ated the moriw, the sand

diviners, and the pebble diviners into groups and sent them all into retreat. He -;aid, "I told 01,1 _not to hesitate. If ou see that I won't a child tell me. Go i~to the house. I you do not te me the truth, I'll kill all of you and replace you." When the moriw came out of retreat, they told him, "Simbon, you will sire a child. Make one of your jelimusow7 happy. Marry her so she will give birth." J:k._, made nine 'elimusow ha • but aside from Tunku Manyan Diawara, none of t em ever gave birth.

ow alt of Manden was frustrated. (It's hard to give birth to a child who will be famous. And w en a o Man en became frustrated, the di~rs were ashamed of themselves. They met and swore an oath: "Any one of us who has

r'"broken a taboo should confess it. Maybe this is our fault. If we don't get together and tell this man the truth', the feet of our descendants will not be able ~~ak an egg in Manden." They went into retreat and came back out,. telling Simhon.~'S"""om~on ·n come from the East. He will be coming from the land of the white-skinned people. This muc as ee reveale to us. Let this in,an B!ll¥-J:O God-for a solution to your problem. If you let thrs man ~ God ·on the matter of your so -a he-tells you will be God's word. We won't be able to accomplish this ourselves. God ass own us a good mari."

While they waited there in Farakoro,8 Manjan Berete arrived. Mani~ B~~-was the first Muslim leader of Manden; he opened the door9 to the

t, ~ ~ ~ ~

\l

~{ ~

t., ~

~

~ 0-...

~

? 6. The first month of the year. 7, Female bards (sing.jelimuso). 8. Sometimes shortened to "Farako." Evi- dently the hometown o( Sunjata's father, located in the territory (jamana) of Konfura [editor's note]. Farakoro appears in the longer

version of Maghan Konfura's name, ash~-~~~ ,l $t known to Tassey Conde and his anc~ bards of Fadama: Farako Manko Farakonken.

lhin lt i ~ tc_1 n~ fk 5(A;M. ~ 9. That is, he was instrumental in the intro- duction of Islam.

16 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

Mande people. (He is also the ancestor of the B~rete in Manden. The home of the Berete people is Farisini Hejaji, 1 a region in the land of Mecca; the Berete are Suraka.2 ) Berete packed up some books and came from Farisi to the land ~Qf_Ml!!)den because it was a powerful place. If he found someone in the land of

· Mande~ho would join him, who would work with the Koran, then his bless- ings would be great. Because he could not get used to the food here, Manjan Be~ete _brought Sansun Berete, his litde sister, with him when he came to meet Simbon. He brought his sister so she could prepare his food until he became better acquainted with the Mande people. .

Manian Berete came and lived with Simbon. He said, ''You need the religion, practiced in my homeland. The Prophet has said nol:iody should take up swords in the religion again, that we should now be gentle with one another. Let us win people over with kindness, so we can awaken their minds and they can join the religion. The blessings will be great for anyone who accomplishes this."

[In an omitted passage, Konfara suggests that Berete's sister is his destined wife: Berete forbids this union, but his fathers and brothers convince him that Konfara can have his sister if he converts to Islam. Berete's sister gives birth to a son, but it is not the foretold son.] ·

Simbon said, "How do I get that son? Pray to God for me to have that son. Will I get that son?"

"Yes, you will get that son." "Very well, pray to God for that!' Manjan Berete prayed to God. He said, "Sirnbon, you will get this child. When

I was praying, God revealed to me that there are others like me who will come. They too will come from the land of the white-skins. Those people will not bring_ any woman with them when they come. But they will tell you the name of the place that is their destination, and if you ask them to, they will bring you a n woman from that place. She will bear that child."

~~~ ~In an omitted passage, the narrator describes the Moroccan ~ackground of two .(i - 7 brothers, Abdu Karimi and Abdu Kassimu, who will travel to the land of Do ni \ ~I A Kiri to hunt a buffalo that is devastating tlie countryside, and will eventually ,~ become known as Danmansa Wulanni and Danmansa Wulanba.]

~ Two Hunters Arrive in Manden

Abdu Karimi and Abdu Kassimu came to Manden from Momcco. When they got here they walked all night and all the following day, and were already under the three nkiliki trees of Manden hy the evening of that second day. When Abdu Karimi and Abdu Kassimu arrived under the trees, they measured out their food, cooked their meal, ate, and slept there.

(People used to rest under those three nhiliki trees when traveling to and from Do ni Kiri, the home of the Conde. Travelers of Manden, from the home of the Mansare, used to rest there, as did travelers from Negeboriya, the home of

1. "Farisi" is from Fars, a region in Persia. "Hejaji" is from Hejaz, a region that was the ancient cradle of Islam, including the Red Sea coast of Arabia and the cities of Mecca, Medina,

and others. 2. A Maninka and Bamana term for the local perception of "Arab," which includes "Moors" and North Africans in general.

SUNJATA 17

the Koroma. Travelers from Soso, from the home of the Kante, also used to rest under those trees. People could get the news of the world there.)

Abdu Karimi and Abdu Kassimii, who· were Arab kamalenw,3 were worried, for they did not know where they were headed. They found a place where some traders had left their cooking pots. After eating, the Arab kamalenw said, "Let's lie down here and wait for these traders to return. We'll soon learn our next destination."

While Abdu Karimi and Abdu Kass1mu were sleeping, some traders who . : were on their way from Manden arrived. Some traders also arrived from Nege-

boriya, home of the Koroma. They all greeted one another. The Arab kamalenw asked, "Is everything all right with the people of Man-

den?" The traders replied, "There is nothing wrong with them." "Is everything all right with the Koroma of Negeboriya?" The traders said, "Nothing is troubling them." They too measured out their

food; then they went to sleep. While the brothers were lying there, some traders who were on their way

from Soso arrived. These traders had visited Do ni Kiri and found it in tur- moil. Upon meeting Ahdu Karimi and Abdu Kassimu, they asked, ''Where are you from?"

The kamalenw said, "We are from Morocco." "Where are you going?" The kamalenw replied, 'We were on our way to the land of the Conde, but

we don\know the way." · The traders said, "The ~ of. Do .ni ~ri is Donsamogo Diarr,a; he is

quarreling with his sister." I just told you about this sister, called Do Kamissa, the first dau hter o .. ".°"')

Ma'an Solonkan. She and her brother, Donsamogo Diarra, were quarrelin ..::r over the issue of the legacy left by Ma;an Solonkan, their mother.

Do Kamissa said, "Donsamogo Diarra, if you refuse to share our mother's @ gacy with me, I'll take it myself." · 1'1\\i•d·,v<1 s·-r-1?' e-<fiAn-f w~~ The Conde elders said to_ her, "Go ahead and try t9 take a share for yourself; · -

___you are too headstron&," . · "You think I can't ta)<.e it for myse1P"

"Yes, that's right." The did not know she had the her- ~ sel mto 1 erent t ings. ~

" 06 Kam1ssa left the town and stayed in a farm hamlet near Do ni Kiri. At that (>1'jt,t;A time, the place known as Q_o ni Kiri included the twelve towns of Do, the four1, 1,;t\C t': towns of Kiri, and the six towns on the other side he river. At the break of day~ j 1" I~-~

-Do Kamissa trans ormed hersel into a buffalo and began to kill the people living I;\<( in those places. --------==:, O I J. I

- It became a bad time for Do ni Kiri. ~~4rt ld.. , onsamogo Diarr~ said, "This buffalo has killed all of the hunters that I U.,ru,\L

r~quested from Manden." He sent a message to the Koroma of Negeboriy.a, but ,r the buffalo killed all of the hunters who came from there. He sent for the hunt- ers of Soso, but when they came the buffalo killed them all..to,o...

- 01iv' .. d:lM11J/'L11/~1,J~/ ,(l:11.5e~ll1 ..,.,,... 3. Kamalemv: plural form of kamalen, a circumcised youth 15-25 years old. \ I kt_ ~ ~

~ ~ Gc1~ ~t1rn,>r..v{_? n ul{"{bj

/ht Wrdl t (). W~/ r;:~,,J1 ~ -ydlp Pi-sRe.s;e& suNJATA: A wEsT AFRICAN EP1c O Wv~

Donsamogo Diarra was at a loss. He sent out the word &om Do ni Kiri. He said, "People have died because of me. An one who kills this buffalo will et to choose a wife from three age sets4 of Do ni Kiri s tr s. verybo y w o visited Do ni Kiri was to a out 1s. when the traders returned to the camp under the nkiliki tree, they told Abdu Karimi and Abdu Kassimu about the turmoil in Do ni Kiri. lll-4

The traders said, ''Things in Do ni Kiri have become very bad. Donsamogo q f' Diarra's quarrel with his sister has resulted in many deaths. Hunger has come to ~ Kin]. ecause no one can go m or out. I he paths to the village and farms have beeTicl\uir' · closed. There is no way for crops to be brought home, for the buffalo is blocking ~'.Jr'~ the way. The Conde say that anyone who kills this buffalo will get to choose a wife &om three sets of Do ni Kiri girls."

The Arab kamalenw were still camped there. The younger brother, Abdu Karimi, said, "Big brother, do you hear what they are saying?"

Abdu Kassimu replied, "I hear it." . \tf~~ Together they said, "Let us go to Do ni Kiri." ~btr · The elder brother said, "Hey, little brother, what about these things they-'/ jf~

are talking about? Suppose the buffalo kills us?" }ft· Abdu Karimi replied, "If the buffalo kills us, at least we'll die for the sake of the

Conde. They are having a bad time in Do ni Kiri. I feel bad for them. Remember how our fathers told us the story of the Conde ancestor Samasuna? 5 Before the Prophet could make any progress, God told him to fight at Ka1bara.6 The Conde ancestor Samasuna took a thousand of his sons to o and hel our ancestors

g t at the battle of Ka1bara, and there he lost all thousand of his sons. -2--- n{atter how difficult the fight at Do ni Kiri will be, it can't be more difficult than the battle at Ka1bara. _ H,~ OQ... bon A ..\- .u, sp,·r,/cp()

"The thousand sons that the Conde ancestor Samasuna gave all died on the , V 1-, _ attlegro~nd of our a~cestors' ~?r ~t ~1bara. If the two of us should die for the p--· / ake of the Conde, will our deaths be equal to the deaths of those thousand

men? If it's our time to die, we should die for a good cause. We do not equal a thousand men. But if we should die for the sake of the Conde, we will only be doing what t~e thousand men did_for:those_ancesto~~- So let us go to Do ni ~ri. Knowin what the Conde ancestors suffered for our sake at Ka1bara we would be bastar s i we retre d now, after hearin that the ~on e ares~. er.ing." __ .-if i Thus A~u Karimi encourage his elder brother, w_u ~'PW'\ ~ (

Abdu Kassimu now had the courage to go to Do ni Kiri. But first the brothers packed their belongings and went straight to Konfara. They-bypassed Do ni Kiri and. went straight to Manden. · ·

When the brothers arrived in Manden, Manjan Berete was sitting in a circle ar Maghan ·Konf~ra. The two men were playing wari. 7 Manjan Berete was sit-

ting in the circle near Simbon, with prayer beads in his hands, praying to God:

4. Children born within the same span of about three years are identified as a single group or age set that grows up together, going through the various initiation rituals into adulthood. 5. Samson· (Shamsun in Arabic) is not men- tioned in the Koran, but according to other ·

'sources of Muslim traditjon (e.g., a_l-Tl}a'labi and al-Tabari), he dedici\ted- his life to· God and continual,y.fought against idolators.

6. Maninka usage of Khaybar, an oasis ninety- five miles from Medina, Arabia, the site of a· famous battle fought by the Prophet Muham- mad and his army. 7. A popular game played with two rows of shallow holes, usually in a carved woode·n

. board, wjth small stones or cowrie shells .used as '- ~oui1ters. · · · - · '

SUNJATA 19

"~ay God not let me be embarrassed by my prediction." They remained sitting when. they saw Abdu Karimi ancf Abdu Kas-simii approaching. When the two brothers arrived, all of the men met in that same circle, and Manjan Berete· and Maghan Konfara stopped playing wari.

Abdu Karimi said, "My respected ka.ramogo, we have come to God, we have come to the Mande people, and we have come to Simbon. What makes us walk fast will also make us talk fast."

After greeting the brothers, the Mande people asked them, "Where did you come from?"

The Arab ka.malenw said, "We come from Morocco." "What is your family?" "We are Sharifu."8

The Mande people saluted them, "You Haidara,"9 to which the ka.malenw replied, "Marahaba." 1

The Mande people said, "The honor is yours, the honor is Simbon's." The Arab ka.malenw said, "We come from Morocco. We al:"~ children of Abdu

Sharifu. We are descend~nts of Sa'idin"a Ali."2 · The ka.malenw explained, "We have heard that the Conde are suffering, that

they are quarreling with their sister who has transformed herself into a buffaloi A 'l Every morning the buffalo has killed people in all of the twelve towns of Do, the n I.- four towns of Kiri, and the six towns across the river. That is why we have come We want to go to Do ni Kiri, to help the Conde with their trouble. We want you to perform the sand divination for us. If our sand is sweet, we will go to Do ni Kiri. And if our sand is not sweetz. we will still go to Do ni Kiri." ,,.

[In an omitted passage, the narrator recounts that the sand is indeed sweet and a sacrifice must accompany the divination. Before the hunters leave, Maghan Konfara asks for a wife but the younger brother refuses. The narrator intro- duces the buffalo's fe1nale genie companion, who advises the brothers on how to respond to abusive women they will meet, and how to approach Do Kamissa, the Buffalo Woman, and avoid being killed by her.]

Do Kamissa the Buffalo Woman

After walking for one kilometer, the brothers passed into the land of Konfara, and from there crossed into the land of the Conde. There they met a woman who had

' bor:ne one <;hild, just as the female genie had told them. The genie had said, "You will not see me again. But if you d~n't_ he~_d t_h~ a~v!ce I give you, the ~~ff~lo '"_'ill kill you." ··

When they greeted this woman who liad borne one child, she spoke abusively to them. She said, "Eh! Is it the woman who should greet first, or is it the man?

~~ r,1,o< <5 lL 8. Contraction of the longer plural form Shari- or jamu (patronymic, identity). From Arabic fulu from the Arabic Shurafa' {sing. Sharif), a 111r~hba ("welcome"). lineage claiming descent from the family of the }, 'Al~ ibn Ahr Talib, cousin and son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad. - the Prophet Muhammad, and one of the first 9. A prestigious Muslim family name in Man- converts to Islam; renowned as a warrior dur- den, here used in a greeting as the equivalent of ing Islam's struggle for survival, he took part in Sharifu. most of the Prophet's expeditions and displayed I, Response to a greeting that honors people legendary courage at the battles of Badr and by saluting their ancestors with the family name Khaybar.

20 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

Yo,u do not_eass by a beautiful woman without greeting her!" She said every pos- sible bad word to them.

They said, "M'ba.3 We are children of the road. We do not know anything about women or men. We have never been to this country. We speak to everyone we meet, so they can help us."

She replied, "Am I the one who is supposed to help you?" Huh! They passed on by her without quarreling further. After they passed that woman, they walk(~d another kilometer and met the

full-breasted girl. When they met this girl they said, "Lady, we greet you, God is great."

Ah! She abused them. She said every bad \\<Ord to them. The younger brother said, "Aaah, you do not understand. A beautiful woman

like you will pass by a man like that? You do not know what is happening." (No matter how proud a girl is, once you call her "beautiful," she will soften.)

After the hunters passed by the full-breasted girl, she went on her way. (!:lumility really comes only with death, but men act· humbly until they get what ths.y want.) - -.

After walking on for another kilometer, they heard the pounding of the mor- tars and pestles"' of Do ni Kiri, and there they met Do Kamissa herself. She carried a hoe on her shoulder and a walking staff served as her third leg.

When they said, "Greetings mother." Heech! She cursed their father. After that, she cursed their grandfather. Then she cursed their mother.

"You are calling_me mother? Was I the one who gave birth to your father or your mother?" She said every bad wor4 to them. _

Abdu Karimi said, "Big brother, don't you think this lady resembles our mother?"

[In an omitted passage, the brothers help the buffalo woman feed her chickens before they arrive in Do ni Kiri and are given lodging. They set out on their plan, treating the buffalo woman as they would treat their mother. After three failed attempts at fonning a bond, she finally invites them into her home for a conversation.]

Do Kamissa's Revelations

Do Kamissa the Buffalo Woman said, "You have outdone me. No one can get the better of people like you. You are polite. You were brought up well. Eh! Despit~ /()~ everything you were told, you were not discouraged. You favor me? Now I wiJL.t.YLY

~operate with you. re it not for ou, I would have wiped out Do ni Kiri. "You know that Donsamogo Diarra, with w om am quarre ing, is my brother.

I was the firstborn of my father's children. When I reached puberty, I said, 'My Lord God, I will give the largest oTihe two gold earrings that are on my ears to whoever brings me the news that my father has had a son. My Lord God, I will also give the beautiful outer one of the two wrappers I am wearing to the person that brings me such good news.' I was the first to offer a sacrifice for my brothet- So who does he think he is, telli~g me that women shouldn't have property? Huh!

3. Contraction of marahaba, a response to a greeting that honors people by saluting their ancestors with the family name or jamu (patro- nymic, identity). From Ar. mrehba ("welcome").

4. The mortar is a large wooden receptacle in which women pound grain with a heavy, wooden, dub-shaped pestle that can be as long as five feet.

LP1f0rtvic.-: t :&.n.,a - 617-<iA. l ~hb~ I 6a.0s ~ P (.!4<- - /1'14~ec.~~l~.~-•tTl<~i: ~} "I would have wiped out Donsamggo's entire lineage. But you Sharifu, you ci

have outdone me. I will coo erate with you and give you m life, for I know that if you kill me, you will bury me; you will not et m o to God as a bad bod .

" fore I 1ve m elf u to ou, t ou h, I wi ree t in s for me. ir OU a ree to do those three thin s, then I will coo erate with OU, But if you do not a ·ree to those three thin s I wi I kee a ter OU until OU do.,,

e kamalenw said, "Ma, tell us the three things you want us to do for you." She said, "Here's the first: Don't o to tOW!} immediate! after killing the buf-

falo; come to this hamlet instead. You'll fin me ea . Because I am the only one who knows what I have done,5 my brother must not see my corpse. When you arrive here, you'll see that I have poured water on the fire. There will be a hoe; there will also be an axe. Take the axe and mt down a toro tree. Take the hoe and dig my grave. After you have laid me in it, fire the musket. At no point can my Tirother, m father's son seem bod · nor can m bod be carried to Do ni Kiri.

ave not one any good for them. I have wiped out their children, I have wiped ~ out their wives, I have widowed their husbands; this is all m doin . r

"That's the first thing you must do. Now, you nowt at whoever kills me 's will be rewarded with the choice of a wife from three sets of Do ni Kiri's girls. ?:r' The second thing you must do for me is refuse all of the fine young girls they ~. bring out for you. Do not choose any of those girls as your wife, bec~~s~ thc:ar \') would be forcing my father's last-borQ to remain in the house. f:ive sets· of girls nave gone to their husbands, but she has not marrie~, and !f you do not marry her,. she will never be married. She holds something special in her breast for whoever marries her. You, Sharifu, must marcy her.

"She is very ugly. She's the 'Short Sogolon' you've heard about, the one who is · so very ugly. I dama ed one of her tear ducts and now here es wat~r all the time. Her head is bald, she has a humped back, her feet are twisted, an w en she walks, she limps this way and that. I, Do Kamissa, did all of that to her._

"How could I make her so ugly when I loved her so much? I put my far-seeing mask6 on her face before she was old enough to wear it, and, in doing so, cut her tear duct, caused her hair to fall out, and put a hump on her back. By putting her on my sorcery horse when she was too young, I twisted her feet, stretched her tendons, and made her knock-kneed. All of this is my fault. I take the blame, andjf she does not get married, it will be my curse.

"So, when the men of Do ni Kiri bring those beautiful Conde women to you, do not accept any of them. Choose my father's last-born. Some call her 'Hump- backed Sogolon.' Some call her 'Ugly Sogolon.' Everybody used to call her what- ever they felt like. But the real name of that last-born child is Sogolon Wulen Conde. There will be something special in her breast for you because she'll have

.::-all the dalilu. 7 "If you choose her over all the beautiful daughters they offer you and are not

satisfied with the way she looks, then Cl!LQ_fJ the buffalo's tail when you kill it. The tail is heavy with gold and silver, because I took the gold and silver earrin~

r

5. Contrary to what the narrato~ has pr~vi- but there also could have been an indigenous ously indicated. mask'imbued with such power. 6. A magic object allowing the wearer to see- 7. The mother's physical deformities signal her unimaginable distances. The concept mig9t possession of special occult powers that she have entered oral tradition when Europeans will pass on to her child. were observed using telescopes and binocula ,

]S.S.

22 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC . : .i-~

. o eve o ni Kiri woman I killed and hun them from the hair of m tail I have a lot of hair on my tail, and it is heavy with the_gol and silver ear jewelry of th~Po i:ti_ K!r_! _w~1_11~n. If yo_u excl:i~ng~ so~e ~:>£'~hat gold, yo_u can go and ma:!Y. _a, b~~1:1tiful woman som_ewhere else,.a wife toJ1ave along with Sogolon Con_cfe ... Buf .. d9,JlOt refuse to take Sogolonl Then there will be no problems. Will you dq_ili!_s1 or not?"

Th~ Sharifo said, "We agree to that.". -· She said, "That is ·the second thing you mustJ9. Here's the third thing: ~

dead b11 £fa)a's carcass must not be taken to the town" "Eh, Conde woman! We have agreed to your other den:i~nds, but we might not

be able to do this. What i.f we can't convi:r:ice the people of Do ni Kiri not to take the carcass back to town? What if they force us? We'll be powerless to fight them off or to take the carcass from them."

"Oh, you_ will do your best to heed what I have said. If you can do the oth_g: thlngs. then forget about that last request. But you must respect my other two_ wishes." ·

"Very ~ell." . . As the brothers were about to· leave, she said to them, "Sit down." Once they

were sitting, she said, "The weapons you brought won't do anything to me. The /() arrows and quivers you brought won~t do anything either. I am in control of my tJ( own Hfe. .

She put her han.d in her basket of cleane9 cotton, pulled out the spind~ and handed it to them. Then, putting her hand in her storage basket, she took out the distaff that usually hoJd~ the thread, and ·gave it to them, saying, "Put this in your 'bow ana shoot the buffalo _with it. It will stop t be buffalo. If y~u do not shoot the buffalo with it-if you shoot a big arrow at the buffalo instead-then the buffalo will kill you." · ·

[In an omitted passage, Do Kamissa provides·the brothers with various enchanted objects that will help them kill her buffalo ·wraith.]

Death of the Buffalo

The brothers left the town and went into the bush, past the lake of Do ni Kiri and into the forest. They crossed another open space and entered more forest. There, before going any further, they saw the buffalo.

(Before they came to the bush that day, the brothers' name was Sharifu. But afterwards they were called Diabate or Tarawele. They left their Sharifu identity behind in Manden8 and came to be known as Tarawele and Diabate. We will soon come to the reason for this.)

There was the buffalo. Abdu Karimi, the younger brother, said to Abdu Kas- simu, "Big brother! You should be the one to take the magic dart and shoot the buffalo;because the killing of this buffalo will make history. The person who

· kills this- buffalo will be mentioned in all of the future generations' histories, right up until thetrumpet is blown·on Judgment Day. You are my big brother, so you kill the buffalo." __,- -r.. /\,., ~ , "'·-"" I 0 __ 1 / I_

I~ l(Qh\-::; q~'f'Yl~<f' unrvtN( 8. Only after the buffalo is mortally wounded does Tassey begin to use the names by which the brothers are usually known, Danmansa Wulanni and Danmansa Wulanba. These prob-

ably originated as praise names based on the brothers' exploits, e.g., Danmansa Wulanba can

. be roughly translated as "Big Lord of the Soli- ta·ry Forest Buffalo".

~·.

SUNJATA 23

A~c!u Kassimu said, "Little brother, a job must be left to the experts. Yes, I was the first to be.born. But rlrnow what dalilu you have-and I know you must be the one to kill the buffalq." He handed the magic .. dart to hi~ younger brother.

Abdu Karimi told ~is ~Ider bro~her to _g<> ~~ ahea~. g_ra~ling through ~he_ gra~s, Abdu Karimi came ever closer to the buffalo. He remembered what the old woman had told him: that he should not try to kill the buffalo until he was in its shadow. She'd said, "Do not ·ss me! If ou miss the buffalo, I'll kill you." The younger brother crawled unti e reached the bu a o's sha ow. He too the dis- taff and put it on the spindle. He pulled the string of his bow back, back, back, he pulled it still harder, and he could feel that he had something very powerful in his hand. When he'd pulled the bowstring back to his shoulder, he let the spindle go, pow! It shot right into the buffalo's chest. .

The buffalo was startled when the spindle pierced its chest. It raised its head, saw Abdu Karimi, and bellowed, hrrr! And there, while he was still right beside the wounded buffalo, Abdu Karimi told his elder brother, "Run!" for the buffalo had been shot and the struggle between them had begun.

(It's said that greatness will not be ac uired without hardshi . We've been tell- _ing y_Qu a QUt e __ ar ship Manden had to endure before the country c~mld know peace. Sunjata would not have been born without this hardship. and with- out Sunjata, Manden would never have been sw"t. And if Manderi was never. ~ swe:et; we Mande eo le would never h·ave known ·ou 1

e o~ng, t e u a o began to chase the kamalenw:-it came up behind Abdu Karimi, who was trying to catch up with his elder brother. Abdu Karimi dropped the bamboo stick which instant! s routed into a rove of bamboo and before the bu alo could get through it, the kama enw were far ahead.

Once it was clear of the bamboo, the buffalo started chasing them again. When it came up behind them and bellowed, the brothers dropped the hot charcoal. In those days, the Mande bush had been • there a long time and had never been burned. So when the kamalenw dropped the hot charcoal, the bush caught on fire, stopping the buffalo and forcing it back while they dashed ahead through the

::.

grass. -=..-- When the fire died out, the buffalo jumped into the ashes and started chasing ~

them again. But by the time it reached them and bellowed, they were already at =- the lake of Do ni Kid. There Abdu Karimi dro ed the e which turned th -:f± ground into deep m~. The buffalo got stuck in the mud. (This is the mud ~ referred to in the Conde song "Dala Kombo Kamba":

'.'Conde drin~er'.of big lake-water,· Those who drank the big lake water, They did not stop to clean it. Those who clean the big lake, Th-ey did not drink its big wafer."

•' ~-,,;

It was Danmansa Wulanba and Danmansa Wulanni9 who cleaned the water of the big lake.)

By the time the mud started to dry, it was too late for the buffalo: the spindle wounds were letting water into its intestiqes, and it fell down. When the buffalo fell, Danmansa Wulanni said, "Big brother, look behind you! The buffalo has fallen."

9. The elder brother is Wulunba, the you:ger WulannL ~ *. ~ f:f 11.J>..} N~ Owi~: s~ 1-o p~J ~~t,r~i.

L:.fs (}.)ire- v:>trS ~ 24 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC ~~s~~ sjQ_

/' ~J i.p~~c.,~lt A new famil lin was created at the moment the elder brother looked back

,.and saw that the buffalo was dying. ,Going ac e pu s oot on t e u alo's body. He said, "Ah, little brother! You have given me a name. Ah, little brother! You were sired by Abdu Mutulu Budulaye1 Abdu Mutulu Babatali. Aha Alibi's own son is Sedina Alia, to whom God gave a sword, and you were sired by Alia. Sedina Alia's son is Hassana Lonsani, and you were sired by him. Hassana Lonsani's son is Sissi; Sissi's son is Kemo; Kemo's son is Kcmomo Tene; Kemo Tene's son is Sharifu-and you were sired by Sharifu. Aah, Karimi! You have given us names."

After hearing this praise, the younger brother said, "Eh, big brother! If you were a praise-singer or jeli, no one could surpass you (i jemba te)!"

That was the e inning of the ·eli famiJy known as Diabate; 1 that was the ori- gin of the lineage. "Dia ate wa.s rst sai fn Manden; in the Mande language, when the buffalo was killed in the bush.

Once the buffalo was dead, the brothers saw that its tail was heavy with gold and silver.

In cutting off the buffalo's tail, the brothers were able to take for themselves all of the gold and silver in its hair. The kamalenw were also able to use the__!~il a.s.m-oof that they really had killed the buffalo. As soon as they showed the tail,

eople kn~w that the business was finished because the tail of Do Kamissa's u a o wra1t cou on y e ~ut o if the buffalo was ea . u .

the beginning.a t e custom o remo e tai so dead ame.)

[In an omitted passage, Danmansa Wulanf1a and Danmansa Wulanni try to respect Do Kamissa's wish that her wraith be buried in the bush, but the towns- people insist on retrieving the buffalo carcass and dragging it into town to be desecrated.]

Sogolon Wulen Conde of Do Ni Kiri

After the buffalo was dead, the people of Do ni Kiri started beating the ceremo- nial drum. All of the people living in the twelve towns of Do, the four towns of Kiri, and the six towns across the river were expected to attend, and they all came. ·when the twenty-two towns were all present, the people said, "What did we say? We said'.that we'll bring out three age sets of girls for the hunter that kills this buffalo, and that he can choose any girl from among them to be his wife. Bring your daughters forward." (Huh! If you bring out three age sets of daughters from twenty-two towns, you should bring out the oldest set first

1 then the pext _J...

oldest, then the youngest set.) 0 r J.er " ~ rttf)or\-c:.v,1' / lii·<l''th/- / f1111t>l The villagers brought out the beautiful Conde girls, formed them into three

circles, and told the boys to choose. The people said, "Even if you choose ten or twen iris, the will be your wives. Or if you choose only one irI, she will be your wife, You ave e IVere us om disaster! An everyone ere wants to have their daughters married to you two boys.

I • The singing or chanting of praises is an occupational specialty ofjeliw. This is a popu- lar etymology explaining how the Dia bate jelitv acquired their family name. When the younger brother killed the buffalo and the elder brother

. praised his courage by reciting their family

gent'alogy, this was the way a jeli would do it. When the younger brother said. "no one could surpass you," the phrase jemba te evolved through repetition into "Diabate" which, along with "Kouyate" is one of the two names exclu- sive to traditional bards.

SUNJATA 25

''You Sharifu, we don't go back on our promises. Take a look at these girls, and take any one that pleases you." The two men followed one another, walking around, around, around the circle. When they had returned to where they started they_said, ''Where are the rest of the girls?"

The Conde ancestor ~aid, ''You young men search every house, so that no one can hide his daughter." _ _

The villagers searched the entire town but found no other girls. Everybody· wanted to marry their daughter J~. t~e brothers!

When the searchers returned they said, "There-is nobody left." . A bystander said. "What about the bad ~ld woman who was just killed? She

has her father's last-born still in her house." Somebody said, "Eeh, man! Heeeye, can we show that one to the strangers?" Danmansa Wulanni said, "Go and get that woman you're talking about. Has

she been married to another 'inan?" They said, "No." "Has

1 she been married before?"

"No." The brothers said, "Well, if she is unmarried. go get her." The people said, "Out of five age sets of girls that have found husbands, only

she has remained unmarried." The brothers said, "If she is an unmarried girl, go get her." Ma Do Kamissa had told them that the door ofSogolon Wulen Conde's father's

house was the one facing the town's meeting ground. She'd also told them,'~ Sogolon is coming from my father's house to go into the town meeting ground, L bttle black cat will come from behind her and pass in front of he~; ~ little bla<:k_ cat will go from in front of her and ass behind her. If you see that happening to anyone, t en you ow t at s e is the 'rl I am talk.in ab " ·

They sent or Sogo on, an as she was heing brought out of the house-just as she reached the edge of the town meeting ground-a black cat came fro_!Jl behind her and passed in front of her; it went from in front of her and passed behind h .

As soon as the brothers saw Sogolon, they said, "This is the one we've been talking about."

They heard people go, "Wooo!" They were asked, "Is this really the one you were talking about?" To which the brothers rephed, "Yes, this is the one we have been talking

about." Ancestor Donsamogo Diarra said to them, "You Sharifu, is this the one you

want?" To which they replied, "Yes, this is the one we want." "Are you sure this is the one you want?" "This is the one we want." He said, "Th· · even more owerful than m s · er whom ou 'lled a ~ know how much dalilu she hfili. This one as really powerful dalilu. But if you say that you want her, I'll give her to you. Go ahead and take her with you. If you're not compatible, just bring her back. I'll return her to where you found her, and I'll give you another wife.

"Now, I don't want to contradict myself, but just take another look at these other girls. We'll give you up to three month~: If. after three months. you're not

26 I SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN E~ D .,A • I T .,.A_ _, ,6 'Vt ••lt:dh aJl 1-tmportvt,.. 1'11¼1'1'-, iii,/-

compatible with my sister, come hack and I wil1 give you one of these girls. I will put my sister back where she came from."

The brothers said, "Very well." She was Sogolon, the woman who was given to them, the mother of Simbon,

Simhon, whose birth was foretold and who united Manden-this is the child ,JJbaut ta be barn We can talk about Turama'an, we can talk about Kankejan, or ofTombonon Sitafa Diawara, of Fakoli, Sumaworo, or of Tabon Wana Faran Kamara; hut the one who· organized them all • united them ·into one place and called it Mao<len, welI, the person who did all those thmgs was Suniata. a~ is how his mother was· married. -

[In an omitted passage, both brothers try to consummate the• marriage but are unsuccessful. They reach Konfara and offer Sogolon to Maghan Konfara. While Simbon prepares for their meeting; the community shows the new bride a mixed welcome. At the threshold of the new couple's hmne, Sogolon and -Konfara test each other with three magical back-and-forth attacks before Sogolon acquiesces to her role as a traditional bride. On their wedding night, she uses sorcery to watch the other wmnen dancing, making them wary of her.]

Sogolon was still a virgin when she came to Maghan Konfara. After three days, her bloody virgin cloth was .taken out. The following month, she became preg- nant with Sunjata. That is how _Sunjat~ was concei_ved.

The co-wives said, ''W~ ~on't he able to do anything against this woman." She had gone to her husband almost at the end of the lunar month, and for the rest of that month, she did not see the other moon. She had conceived.

When the women of Manden heard this, they went outside tfie town arid held" a meeting under a baobab. tree. They said, ''Getting prew1ant. is one thjn-g, deUv- ering is another. Make miscarria e medicine, an thin that will s qH the.belly w..W, a tnucf-t. Everyone mu~t prepare c er own."

Sogolon Conde also had very powerful cialilu. When her belly started to expiind, the -~ther wives would visit her, s~wing, ''Younger sister, this is the medi- cine we use here in Manden for pregnant women. Aah, all of the women Ii.ere wanted a child, but we have not been able to conceive. You may be the lucky one bearing our husband's child-but the child belongs to all of us. Here, M'ma, 2

dilute this medicine in water and drink it." Heh, Sogolon, the Conde woman, diluted that medicine in water and drank it .

. S_he cl rank it _a!)d drank it, for_ S<::ven_years. And each time she drank it, her belly would shrink away, je!

After seven years of this, Sogolon Conde went outside the town. She prayed to God. She said, "M'mari! That is enough! Enough of what those

Mande people have done to me. I come to you, God. I am only a stranger here, and the men who brought me here cannot help."

[In an omitted passage, the narrator describes his own family's relationship with characters in the narrative, and with ancestors from Arab tradition.]

2. Affectionate greeting to a woman, equivalent to the masculin_e "M'ba" [editor's note].

SUNJATA 27

The Childhood of Ma'an-Sunjata.

God made Ma'an Sunjata into a person, made him into a human fetus and brought him into the world. _

When the Mande women heard the news of l\1a'an ·surijata's birth, they again gathered together under the Mande baobab tree. They said, "It is one thing to give birth to a son, hut another thing for him to survive."

Then what did they do ta" him? Through sorcery ·th~y stretched the tendons of . -his two feet. They lamed ·him and forced him to crawl on the ground for one

yearL · Two ears!:

ree y~ars! Four years! Five years! Six ears!

_ en, _m Sunjata's seventh year, the co-wives provoked Sogolon to anger. (Because we are walking on a straight path, we can_r1ot wande!-" from one side to the other. We have to take the mam road, so we will know how Manden was built.) . :· - - -- - . -. --

One day, in Sunjata's se_venth year, Maramaian Tarawel~·was picking so.me leaves from the same ha at we've alread mentioned. As Maramajan Tarawele was on her way back to the villiage, Ma Sogo on u en Conde, who was sitting under the eaves of the house she shared with Ma'an Sunjata, asked,

.· "aig sister Maramajan Tara~el_e, won't you give me a few of your baobab leaves?" C. f , Maramajan Tarawele saJcJ, .. "f.:\h! Younger siste~, you __ are ~he only one of us !9 ·r:have a ·sori. Why would you ask us for baobab leaves·? Y.<mr lame son is sfrdng

right there inside the h~use'. !f y~u. ~~n~ ba~hah le~ves,_ w~x. don't you tell your son to stand up and go get some?" ·

Ma Sogolo.n Wule!l Conde s~~d, "Ah, ~hat is JJ()_t what I meant. I thought I sould depend on the help of my sisters. I didn't know you were upset because I had this child." ro{)'t•hlr ?

The two women didn't know Sunjata was listening to them. Afterwards, when Ma Sogolon Conde walked by, Sunjata said, "Mother!

Mother!" She did not answer because she knew he had overheard them. He said, "Mother, what are they saying?" St..e/L( ~ 11 R~ ~ "Forget about that talk." 0 "Ah, how can I ignore that? Mother, I'll walk today. They insult you by saying

you have a lame person in your house, and yet you beg them for a baobab leaf? I'll walk today. Go and get my father's sunsun3 staff, and bring it to me. I'll walk today."

Ma Sogolon Conde went and got the sunsun- smff and brought it trr Simbon. When he attempted-to stand by thrusting the..sunsun staff firmly into the ground and·holding on·to it;the sunsun staff broke~- - - -

Sunjata said to Sogolon, "Ah, -mother. They say-you have ·a ·lame-son in -the house, hut you gave birth to a real son. Nothing happens before its tim_£,, Go and bring my father's iron staff." But when she gave him the iron staff, he broke it, too.

3. An extremely hard wood called "false ebony" or "West African ebony" [editor's note].

28 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

He said, "Go and tell my father's blacksmith to for e an iron staff so I can walk." The blac m1t Carrie one oa of iron to the bellows, forged it, and made it into an iron staff. But when S_!!nja.ta. thrus_t that iron staff into the ground and tried to stand, the staff bent. That iron staff, the one they say was bent by

unjata into a ow, is now in Narena.) Sunjata broke both of his father's staffs and an iron one that was forged for

him. Th_ erefore, when he stood, he did it on his own, first lifting one foot, then ) the other foot, then th_e other one, and so on. l -'~--, () ~ 4

His mother said, "Simbon has walked!" ~ 'B@'4 3 c:Jtl lJ¼,.. .. , The jeliw sang this song: _

5 J n ~ l"

'" ~-· ·-- -t t r;..J 1(,#AC,(._ -"Has walked, "..-.re' Jata has walked. r qi; Jl./lt-R.. Has walked, Jata has walked."

Thus it was his mother's rival with her co-wives a umiliation of her, that caused Jata to w~k. That is wh I can't believe it when I hear eop e sa ·ng ~ ~hey do not love their mother! Heh! Jelimori 4 Your father belongs to everyone, but your mother belongs only to you. When you meet people for the first tirne, they don't ask you about your father; they ask about your mother} ,

After that, God gave Sunjata feet. Sunjata went into the house, took his father's bow and quiver, arid left town. (Some people say he made the bent iron staff into his bow, but don't repeat that.) ;r i· :J

_ he reached the baobab tree, he shook it, u rooted it and ut it on his "':.,. U) - ..!!!?ulder. He carrie it into his mothers yar and said, "Now everyone will come ~ lt"Mi here for baobab leaves." e CJ t.1

So it was that when the Mande women next saw Sogolon they s&d, as they picked the baobab leaves, "Aah, Sogolon Conde? We knew this would happen for you. The prayers and sacrifices we made on vour behalf have been answered." · (Now, when you are having a hard time, everyone abuses you. But when things are going well for you, people say, "We knew this would happen for you." May God help us persevere!) 5 ff\J' C 1' 1, rl'\

Sogolon eventually had three more children. After So'olon Ma'an was born- but before he could walk-his younger brother So'olonjamori was born. Then, while So'olon Ma'an was still crawling on the ground, Manden Bori was born. Finally after So'olon Ma'an walked, So'olon Kolonkan was born.

4. During performances,jeliw occasionally speak to people in the audience, commenting on some- thing in the narrative.

SUNJATA 29

Mistaken Murder and the Question of Exile

As So'olon Ma'an waited for the rain to stop so he could go hunting, he sat in his hammock with his six-stringed hunter's harp and sang to himself. (His younger brothers Manden Bori and So'olon Jamori were also harp players.) After playing "Kulanjan"5 for a while, Sunjata changed tunes and played "Sori."6

Some youths passing by So'olon Ma'an's door heard him singing in a low, sweet voice and stopped in his door to listen. One of these youths was an appren- tice hunter. He said, "I will listen to Sunjata until the rain stops."

While the youth stood at the door, Sunjata put some snuff into his mouth. When the snuff was wet, he stopped playing the harp and went to spit out the door, where he noticed the young man. Sunjata said, "Who's there?"

The youth said, "Brother So'olon Ma'an, it is me." "Ah, what are you doing here?" "Your brother sent a message that we should bring him some food and sup-

plies. So that's what I'm doing. But it is raining, and a slave with wet clothes does not enter the house of his betters. I am an apprentice hunter at the farm. I stopped under your eaves when I heard your music. Let me keep listening to you until the rain stops."

(Meanwhile, the mµsket7 of conspiracy was being loaded in town.) So'olon Ma'an said to the youth, "Come into the house." The young man entered the house and sat on the edge of the bed. Simbon was

playing the harp. When he played certain parts, the young man would tap his feet, because the harp music was so sweet. But the youth was also tired, and the warm room felt good to him. He became sleepy and started to nod. Ma'an Sun- jata told him, "Lie on the bed." When the young man was asleep on the bed, Simbon stood up and covered the young man with a blanket. When the rain stopped, Sunjata-who forgot about the young man sleeping there-stood up, put on his crocodile-mouth hat, took his hunter's hammock, his quiver, bow, and fly whisk, 8 shut the front door, and went out the back. Taking a deep breath, he .}Vent into the bush.

While Simbon was in the hnsb Dankaran Tuman came and stood under the ea~es of the house, where he heard the young man snoring. He did not know that Ma'an Sunjata had left the house.

Dankaran Tuman went and told'the seven young men, "Didn't I tell you that Sunjata sleeps anytime it rains into the evening? He's sleeping now; go get your

fhZ~ getting their clubs, the seven young men came to Simbon's door. But they were afraid of him. To each other they said, "Man, don't you know who So'olon Ma'an is? One man can't outdo him, two men can't outdo him, even the

5. One of the oldest melodies in the bards' repertory; often dedicated to hunters, Suma- woro is praised as "Kulanjan." 6. A lesser-known melody dedicated to hunters. 7. Maninka morifa. The first firearms did not

rarrive in West Africa until the 16th century, but the jeliw frequently speak of muskets in the time of Sunjata. Linear chronology is not a pressing issue in their views of the distant past, L-7 fo~rdiabkr

~

but what is of interest is the imagery of a formi- dable weapon and a hero's power to repel any iron projectile. 8, Ideally made from the tail of a dangerous wild animal and possibly symbolizing the one cut from the slain Buffalo of Do, although elephant tails were highly prized for this essential hunters' device carrying occult protective qualities.

jQ I SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

7: seven of us together can't outdo him. When we go in, listen carefully for the ~ sound of his breathing, and be sure to hit him on the head. If we only hit him on /; the back, he'll be sure to capture us." They went in and surrounded the young ~ man. When they located the source of his breathing, they raised their clubs and '/,(• hit him on the head. They beat him until his body went cold. ~ f

When the body was cold, they left to tell Dankaran Tuman that they'd finished "'..L the work he had given them. Dankaran Tuman told his mother, "Ahah, Mother. 1/'J T · The bad thing is now off our backs. He is dead." (No matter how ood ou think _you are ou'll alwa s do methin bad to our enem . C {J7

"Eh! Dankaran Tuman," she said, "has he died?" "Yes! The son of the Conde woman has died today!" "Ah, my son! Now I will not be the failure in my husband's home. Now my

heart is cool. If you have killed Ma'an Sunjata, aagba! Manden Bori and So'olon Jamori can't stand up to you. The only brother I was worried about has been killed."

They did not sleep that night. Sansun Berete said, "Heee, just wait until Sogolon Conde knows about this." When day broke, Dankaran Tuman and his mother went to spy on Sogolon. "Huh!" they whispered. "Don't say or do anything! When he's slept for a long

time, his mother will go and open the door on him."_ _ . . Sansun Berete said, "If you don't ·say anything, no one will guess that you are

the one who kiiled him." As the soft morning sun rose on them, they saw Sunjata, Danama Yirindi9-

yes, ·the son of the Conde woman-walking along, carrying three dead animafs; one was hanging over his left shoulder, one was hanging over his right shoulder, and one was on his head.

When they saw him, Sansun Berete said, ''Dankaran Tuman! Didn't you say that Sunjata was dead?"

Dankaran Tuman replied, "Mother, we really killed him." "Then who is this co_ming? Who is coming?" "It is s·unjata who is coming." When they saw that it_~t!ally was Stmjata, Dankarai:i Tuman peed in his pants._ Walking up to diem, Sunjafa said to Sansu n Ber~te, -tt'"Big mother, here is somy

~l_d game for yo~." !hen, laying a~ 1

other animal before his step-:_other, he said, Big brother, her~ IS one f~r you. ~ .c. OJ/e 7hj t:.o-en, ?£ There was nothmg they could say. ... ~ -

· Surijata carried the last animal to his mother's place and said, "Mother,'i;ere is your animal."

His mother said, "Ah, my son, thank you." When he returned to his house and pushed the door open, there were flies all

over the stinking body-wooooo! Sunjata shouted, "Mother, Mother! Come here! I'll kill someone todat; Ever

since I was born, I've never done anything bad like this. My brother did this, and I'll take revenge."

Ma Sogolon Conde came to the door. Sunjata said, ''You see this? I went to the bush and forgot about the young man

you see lying here. My brother's men beat him to death with their clubs. I'll kill

9. A praise-name for Sunjata that can be translated as "superhero."

SUNJATA 31

for this young man. I know this is Dankaran Tuman's boy, but he died my death. 1'11 prove to them that I am not the one who died..:'

Ma Sogolon Conde knew that Konfara would be destroyed by So'olon Ma'an's revenge, because he would kill an one known to be one of Dankaran Tuman's sup r ers. \ilu fA~fl.,,,- fV'- kt, ¾ -'~ ~

unjata dashed out ·of die house. When he reached for his iron staff, his Iiiofher rar1~ and c·alled· Jeliffiu~ortt ,:ui\kitManyan·Dfawara.

Sogolon s~1d, "Sunjata is going to kill someone··riglifnow-if you··ac;,ij\'~top hiiti-:" · - · · ·· · · ·· ··--· · "• ·· · ·---~·· --· -·· · - ·· ·· ···• ·-~·-··· ,. .. --------·· --· ·· ·· • -· .. d •• •

__ . _ Jelhny_sQpi J\1~kµ. Mal13/an-Diawara-went·and-tookhold ·of Simbon;· · She said, "Simbon, won't you think about your mother? Simbon! Won't you

think of me? Won't you leave this to God? Don't you realize that Dankaran Tuman has poked himself in the e e?" Sunjata tried and tried to break away, but sfie wcauld·not et o:· T ·ewas a6Itdo··hold"li111i. . ... : : ... , .. _,._g_ ... --~--~---=""~--~-~~::,;:;,.::..:.:::..:.:;~~:.:.:.:-

·Then Ma Sogolon Conde said, "My·son·Sunjata;'jlftiTifopiilarify is-yo~ybig- gest problem. If they have started nmcrlecing people because of you, sbau)do't

~':. go awavl' This is why the~_we!:!tlPt~ ~;.. {~ne never·sells his father's homeland. but it

san be pawned!t\C ~ i. ' . . ..,

,•\

.,I

~. ;: _, .. \,. . "·

. 1,,/wti i l110 f,sf ··vepar1«,efo, Exile °"W :; -- 1 ~ ~( [In an omitted passage, Sunjata re eatedly refuses to flee from his step-brother~1lJil>[.;

but.S r ues that neit r lie nor an ran n u rsta t ~ i,;. l

f,C

srecia .circ,llr,:i,stav.c.e$_ Q V. r.. e iu.Do.nLKiri . ..a ,= .s 'tlS rou.g t ~;, to·t · because.D .. · ' aesti •. .She-convinces·Sunjatq..that.,.eye.n.if ,..

, they go aw.ay, .. ·•· ., _ -~tually.take..oizer-the.leadership~<J!.·Manden. ~ .. _.. -::-~--. . Ma Sogolon Conde then set out to visit Sansamba Sagado, the Somono 1

ancestor. (This-is the·SansamnaSagaao~you· always hear about m the hislories of Manden. He was involved with the organization of Manden-a an4 _tJ1ose towns ... · along the bank of the rive~ elibakoro··sarts·ando, and Bal~clugu---:~re popu-

\. :fated with his Mande dest2hdanrs.-1 ·you 'fa a out Man en wit out talk.Ing· ~ abou~ Sarisamba Sagado, 'you have not covered the subject of Manden.)

• ·Saying, "Sansamba Sagado," Sogolon removed her silver wrist and ankle brace- ~ • s nd ave them to the Somono ancestor as the price for a future river cross-·

\

, ~ , ingµThis way,. e wou ta e er c i ren across e nver whenever the neede ~ to cross, at any time o t without anybody in an en knowing that

lie one so. ~ The days passed. Then, one day, at three o'clock in the morning, Sogolon woke ~ up her children and said, "The time has come for what we talked about." ~ They left together. When they came to the riverbank, she took the path to Sans- L amba Sagado's house. Waking him, she said, ''This is the day we talked about."

C He was not a man to break his promise. Taking his bamboo pole and his pad- dle, he left to meet Sogolon and her children in the bushes by the bank of the river. The water was rising; it nearly touched the leaves on the bushes. Sansamba

I. Maninka- or Bamana-speaking sp. ecialists in fishing, canoeing, boatr~:d the water-borne

transport or people and goods. Co f)S; ~ f fl C" ,f I~ rt> #t, h1>tf~ ~ \(~ .a---~

•·:,1,

,;.,•

~ C --...

32 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

Sagado's canoe was attached to a npeku tree; he untied it and brought it to them, · saying, "Get in!"

Ma Sogolon Conde, her daughter Ma Kolonkan, Manden Bori, and So'olon Jamori got into the canoe. But when they told Sunjata to get in, he refused.

Ma Sogolon Conde said, '!Ah, Sunjata! Do you want to make m_e suffer?" He said, "Mother, if I told you that I will go with you, then I will go. You take

the canoe now; I will jom you later. , T e crossed the nver m the canoe, and before they could reach the other

side, they saw unjata sitting on t e an . roug t is dalilu with him.

A Visit to Soso

[In an omitted passage, So olon decides to stop in Soso to ask for the help of Sumaworo, a powe,ful s_orcerer w o, in is 1out been er an 's

unting apprentice,. eanw t e, umaworo's personal oracle informs im t at 11ie man who will eventually take Soso and Manden away front liim has not only been born, but has grown up into a hunter and will be identifiable as the one who violates.Smna~oro's taboo.] f (bf fl"-'--\.)_ They were now m Soso. · 0- · Sogolon Conde arrived and said, "Eh, ~oso mansa. These µre the childr~n of

your former master. Their relationship with their brother is str~in,~d, and mµl:"der has been committed as a result. The death of one of two friends 2 ·aoes not spoil the friendship; the one. w.ho survives continues the friendship. I've come to put Ma!an Sunjata-and his-younger-siblings under your protection:·You s·hould tram them to be hunters eo le who can kill fl'ie1r own·game. (Oh! She did not kriow

an aran Tum a sent a message a ea o em to· Soso!)3 umaworo said, "Conde woman, t at p eases me. agree to-care or them and

take them under my protection, so long as they do not inte~re with my sacred totem::,

"God willin they will never spoil yo~r totem." ell, if the do not mter ere WI my ~- em, en. I agree to pro!ect thei:n,"

--~e-sp-ent· the .. day there. That evening a . ogo 011 on e at at she had brought a small amount of cotton she wanted to spin at.night, arid ~sk~l the childr~n !>~ Soso t<>_~ollect a pile of dried cow dung she could use to light her Ian.tern of conver.sa~ion:• The children b~e>,ught h~r _t~~ cow dung sh':_ 11~e,.4e.d. Sumaworo owned all the rriusfcal instruments, and he brought all of them- except for the bala 5-out f~r the first time th~t ·night. He bi-ought ~'u-t the kerel~~g-· kengbeng,6 the ki>woro,' the donso nkoni,8 the three~stringed b~lon,9 the ~oron',1

2. Sumaworo and Sunjata's father. 3. Offering a reward to kill Sunjata. 4. When villagers gather after dark to socialize and play music, they do it around a lantern to avoid burning valuable fuel needed for cooking fires. 5. An indigenous xylophone. 6. Named from the sound it makes (i.e., ono- matopoeic), this child's instrument consists of a tin can resonator (or a tiny gourd) and a stick for a neck that supports a single string. 7. Mo.i,:e common,ly-kqpwn P,S ~'~• ~n-invert~d open.calabash instrument with a nec~.for eac:h

of ils six strings; technically known as a penta- tonic pluriac. 8. The hunters' harp, a large animal-skin- covcred calabash ,,ith a single neck and six strings, played to praise hunters. 9. · rhe harp used to praise warriors; larger and deeper toned than the hunters' harp, an animal- skin-covered calabash with a single neck sup- porting three or four strings. I. ·\ large, rarely seen harp of northeastern Guinea, similar to the kora but with twelve strings.

.. ; , ..

·;F

. -~·

SUNJATA 33

and the kora. 2 (The kora was the last of the instruments to be brought out; that is why they call it ko la, which means "the last one."3 Eventually it came to be called kora. It is played in Kita and Senegal.)

Taking out his nkoni, 4 Sumaworo sat down by the people who were talking. Sunjata and his siblings came and sat down too. Contented, Ma Sogolon Conde said, 'Wait. I will sing three songs." They said, "Very well." When anybody sang, Sumaworo would accompany them on the nkoni.

For Ma Sogolon Conde's first song, she sang:

"Big ram, The pen where the rams are kept, The leopard must not enter, Big ram. The pen where the rams are kept, The leopard must not enter."

Sumaworo's nkoni was in harmony with her song. After that, what else did she sing? She sang:

"Pit water, Don't compare yourself with clear water flowing over rocks, The pure white rocks. Pit water, Don't compare yourself with clear water flowing over rocks, The pure 'rhite rocks."

Again, Sumaworo's nkoni was in harmony with her song. The third song she sang was:

"Big vicious dog, If you kill your vicious dog, Somebody else's will bite you, Vicious dog. If you kill your vicious dog, Somebody else's will bite you."

Sumaworo's nkoni was still in harmony with her song. Then the gathering broke up.

[In omitted passages, Sumaworo pe,forms a ritual to identify his rival for power, learns that it is Sunjata, and resolves to kill him. Sunjata intentionally violates a taboo by sitting in Sumaworo's sacred hammock, confirming that he is the rival described by the oracle. In an episode about Sumaworo's youthful rebelliousness and leadership, he invents different stringed musical instruments at various stages of his youth. The narrator describes Fakoli's birth by his father's second wife, Kosiya Kante, who was also the sister of Smnaworo. During his hunting apprenticeship, Sumaworo encounters a group of genies and their instruments.

2. With twenty-one strings, the largest of the calabash harps. 3. Ko la=literally "later on," another popular etymology.

4. Bamana ngoni; a traditional lute consisting of four to five strings attached to a single neck on a wooden, trough-shaped body covered with animal skin.

J4 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

Sumaworo covets the bala, but when he hears that the price would be people, four members of his family, he refuses. Kosiya, upon hearing this, decides to sac- rifice herself, and Fakoli is raised by his father's first wife, who carries him to the sacred sites of Manden to receive protective devices and become a hunter.

The scene then shifts back to Soso at the time of Sogolon's visit with her children, when Sununvoro is in pawer. Sununvoro interprets the meaning of the songs sung earlier by Sogolon. Sunjata violates Sumaworo's sacred taboo, the two men engage in the deadly snuff-taking ritual, and Sunjata is banished from Soso. Continuing the journey into exile, Sunjata l'iolates sacred taboos in each of the places they stop, including Nema, where they remain.]

Sumaworo's Tyranny over Manden

When Sogolon and her children were staying with ancestor Faran Tunkara at Kuntunya in Nema, he sometimes sent Sunjata on journeys out between the edges of the village and the place where the sun sets. Whenever war broke out, the village sent for Sunjata, who would come and join the Kuntunya army, march- ing along with them. Whenever he captured three prisoners, he kept one for himself. Whenever he captured five prisoners, he kept two. Whenever he cap- tured ten prisoners, he kept four as his share. (The other six captives were given to the Kuntunya mansa.) This is how Sunjata collected his own band of men.

Sunjata stayed in Kuntunya for twenty-seven years, and before the end of the twenty-seventh year, well, things turned very bad in Manden. Things were terri- ble in Manden! Sumaworo, who was looking for Sunjata, had sent his warriors to Manden. Whenever Sumaworo consulted Neneba, his oracle, it would say, "Your successor has grown."

Before consulting Neneba, Sumaworo first had to have three age sets of young men pile wood beneath Neneba's cauldron; this had to be done morning and evening, for the oracle always said, "Fire, fire, fire, fire, fire, fire." Then Suma- woro would bathe in the cauldron's medicines whenever he went to visit Neneba. And Neneba would tell Sumaworo what to sacrifice before setting out to war.

Every morning Neneba told Sumaworo, "Sumaworo, only God knows the day. Your successor has grown up."

Sumaworo asked the Mande people, "Has Ma'an Sunjata returned to Manden?" Meanwhile, he laid waste to Manden nine times. The Mande people struggled and rebuilt their villages nine times during Sumaworo's failed search for Sunjata.

Whenever Sumaworo killed some Mande villagers, he would tell his men to search among the bodies for the Conde woman's son. But his men never found Sunjata; instead, they would return saying, "The Mande people do not know the whereabouts of the Conde woman's son."

Sumaworo then summoned all of the Mancle villagers to Kukuba. He killed all of the men who attended this meeting except for the leaders Turama'an and Kankejan, who could disappear in broad daylight, and Fakoli, who could stand and vanish instantly. The people who had that kind of dalilu were the only ones he did not kill; he killed all of the other men. The people of Manden mourned and wept. But Ma'an Sunjata and his brothers were not there.

After another month had passed, Sumaworo summoned his men to Bantamba, saying, "I have to finish off the Mande. If I do that, I'll find my successor. If I kill all the human beings, my successor will be among them."

SUNJATA 35

So he called the Mande to a meeting in Bantamba. After looking them over he said to his men, "Kill them all." Only those who had the power to disappear in broad daylight escaped. Again Manden wept.

He summoned the Mande to Nyemi-Nyemi, and they wept there, too. Every time Mande people were summoned by Sumaworo, it ended in mourn-

ing. Sumaworo was killing the people of Manden, searching among the bodies for his successor. After every massacre, he would go to his Neneba. (The Kantes now have that Neneba in Balandugu, the only town they established. Suma- woro's descendants did not establish any other towns, because he was so ruth- less.) The Neneba would say, "Sumaworo, uh heh. You still haven't found him yet? You've killed so many, yet the one you want is not among them."

Sumaworo asked, "What should I do?" To which the oracle replied, "Keep searching for him. He has reached maturity."

When the Mande people were summoned again, this time to Kambasiga, Fakoli went to see Kani Simbon, the Kulubali ancestor.

He said, "Simbon. Manden is about to be wiped out. We must sit down together and find a solution to this problem in Manden. Manden will be reduced to being Soso's peanut farm, because Sumaworo has said two things. He·has said, 'Manden's reputation is better than Manden itself,' and 'The Mande women are better than the Mande men.' By this he meant that Manden has only women because he's killed all the men. He said these things to provoke Sunjata, who he now knows to be his successor, into responding." Having said that, Fakoli then returned to Manden and said, "Let us build a council hall at the edge of town, and let the surviving men of Manden hold meetings there. If we don't get together, Manden is doomed." So the men worked hard and built a council hall. Afterwards, they sat in front of the council hall while Fakoli addressed them.

He said, "We have finished building this council hall, which belongs to all of us--except for the one who wants to destroy Manden. If you are a man of cour- age, this is your council hall. If you are a man of truth, this is your council hall. If you are a master of sorcery, this is your council hall. If you have love for Man- den in your heart, this is your council hall."

The Expedition to Find Sunjata and Return Him to Manden

[In an omitted passage, the assembled elders decide to summon divi.ners to learn who will be the liberator of Manden, and where he can be found. After an extended period of divination it is determined that Ma'an Sunjata is the one w1io was fore- seen, and that a special delegation must be sent to find Sogolon and her children. Volunteering for this delegation are the Muslim divi.ners Manjan Berete and Siri- man Kanda Toure, as well as the female bard Tunku Manyan Diawara and the female slave Jonmusoni Manyan. They plan to visit distant markets with special sauce ingredients that can only be found in Manden, as a way of finding the people they seek.]

Manjan Berete laid down his prayer skin 5 as soon as he'd left town, and made two invocations to God: he asked that no one would see the travelers leave, and that they would meet no one on the road. He said, "Siriman Kanda Toure, we

5. His Muslim prayer rug, the hide of a goat or sheep.

36 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

mustn't be seen on the road. It doesn't matter whether you are a man or a woman: every one of us must use their dalilu." When he'd finished making his two invocations. Manjan Berete shook hands with his companions, who asked where they would sleep that night.

"Ahhh," said Manjan Berete, "let us try to reach Soso today. Because tomor- row is Soso's market day."

As a result of his two invocations, each of his companions became invisible when Manjan Berete shook their hands. When he gave his hand to one of his companions and withdrew it, the person became invisible. Then Manjan Berete circled his prayer skin and became invisible himself.

They traveled on to the outskirts of Soso, where they spent the night. At day- break Manjan Berete said, "Take the things to the market." They set their goods out in the Soso market, but nobody wanted them. They went on to the market of Tabon; but no one wanted what they had. They went to the market of Kirina; no one was interested.

On Thursday they took the road to Kuntuny.a and slept outside that town to be ready for the market on Friday.

Meanwhile, at a house in that same town, Ma Sogolon Conde was saying to her daughter, "Ma Kolonkan, aaaoy! My stomach is hurting me because it's been twenty-seven years since I last had dado6 in Manden. Tomorrow morning, do not wash the dishes, do not scrub the pots; instead, be the first one into the market, my child, and get me some dado to eat." (When a dado eater goes for a long time without having any, their stomach hurts; this is why Ma Sogolon Conde was complaining all night to Ma Kolonkan. It was a good thing that the Mande people spending the night outside of town had brought dado!)

As soon as the sun started to show its face the next morning, Manjan Berete said, "Take the things into the market." The two women went and sat outside the covered part of the market. They had the dado there, along with some namugu and some nere seedsi they had on display.

Ma So'olon Wulen Conde said to Ma Kolonkan, ''Go early to the market so you can get the dado I want." As soon as she'd arrived at the market, Kolonkan saw two women standing there with dado. She clapped her hands, saying, "From the time we came from Manden, my mother has not said anything about dado, nothing at all. It was only yesterday that she suddenly spoke of dado-and here it is! Heh! My mother has dalilu." She did not even stop to greet the dado seller; she immediately reached for the dado and put some in her mouth.

Jelimusoni Tunku Manyan Diawara said, "Eh! You, girl, are impolite! Don't touch our merchandise without greeting us or asking us first."

"Eeeh, I was so surprised! My mother told me to come to the market today to see if I could find dado. She said she's gone for so long without eating the old things of.Manden that her stomach hurts. We haven't seen dado since we arrived here; we haven't even seen anyone who sells it. I just wanted to taste it because it is something we always used to have."

6. Dried hibiscus blossoms and/or leaves, used as a condiment in sauces. 7. Namugu is powdered leaves of the baobab tree, used as an ingredient in sauces. Nere:

Parkia biglobosa; the seeds are pounded into a paste that is fermented and rolled into balls to make a pungent condiment called sumbala.

SUNJATA 37

Tunku Manyan Diawara asked, "Who are you? Where do you come from?" "Ah, mother, we come from Manden." "Who is with you here?" "I am here with my mother Sogolon Wulen Conde, my elder brother Ma'an

Sunjata, and my elder brother So'olon Jamori." "Aaah! You are the people we have come for! Our road has been good. Let us

go to your house."

[In omitted passages Kolonkan conducts the Mande delegation to her house for a joyful reunion with Sogolon. Manjan Berete announces that they have been sent to ask Sogolon to return to Manden because her children are needed there. Sogolon explains that her sons are hunting in the bush and concerns herself with providing the customary hospitality to the guests.

Kolonkan goes out of town to find meat for the guests from Manden and discov- ers animals killed by her brothers. Her brotlier Manden Bori is enraged that slie has removed the animals' internal organs, and they fight. Kolonkan's curse on his descendants-they will not be able to decide on a ruler until the final trumpet is blown-still affects them in today's Hamana region of Guinea. Tassey Conde mentions a childhood experience with his famous father, Babu Conde, toward the end of the colonial era and describes how he, Tassey, became the spokesman for the bards of Fadmna. Reverting to his story, Tassey describes Sogolon's great hap- piness at the prospect of her sons' returning to Manden. The next episode describes a momentous family meeting of Sogolon and her children, in which the rarely mentioned brother Jamori plays a conspicuous part.]

Sogolon Bestows the Legacy of Maghan Konfara

Sogolon said to her children, "Let us go outside the town. I want to give you my final words." They left the Mande delegation behind and went out of town. When they arrived there, Ma So'olon Conde said to Manden Bori, "Break off that termite mound."8

When Manden Bori broke off the termite mound, Sogolon said, "Pick some leaves." He picked some leaves.

She said, "Lay them on the termite mound." When they were laid on it, she said, "Ma'an Sunjata, you sit on that."9

Then she said, "Go and break off another termite mound." So Manden Bari went and broke another one and put leaves 1 on it.

She said, "So'olon Jamori, you sit on that. Now go and break off another one for you to sit on." Manden Bari broke off another termite mound and brought it over.

The three men sat, but Ma So'olon Conde stood up. Ma Kolonkan stood behind her. Women would usually be seated during a hunter's ceremony,2 but here they did not sit down.

8. As the youngest of three sons, Manden Bori is ordered to perform the menial tasks. 9. Of the manv kinds of termite mounds (some well o\'er six fe~t tall), the type referred to here is approximately one to two feet high, shaped like a hard clay mushroom, and the larger ones could be used as stools.

I. For a soft and clean seat. 2. If present at a hunters' meeting, women would be seated in the background. In this and the following line, the bard explains that mother and daughter remain standing because Sogolon is in charge of this solemn occasion.

38 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

While they were standing, Ma So'olon Wulen Conde said, "Manden Bori! What I say to you is also for So'olon Jamori and for Ma'an Sunjata3 to hear. The people of Manden have come for you; they ,ire calling you to war.

"When your father died, Dankaran Tuman wanted your father's gold and sil- ver; he also wanted your father's dalilu but did not know where to find it. That's why he has plotted against you all this time: he thought that when he killed you, he could take your father's legacy, his dalilu.

"But my sons, you do not have your father's dalilu; Dankaran Tuman does not have it either. I have your father's dalilu here. If you are seeing that a man's dalilu went to his last wife, 4 it is because my husband trusted me. When my husband was dying, he gave his ,lalilu to me so that I could keep it safe and give it to you when you reached maturity. I have brought you here now to give you your father's dalilu, because the Mande people have come to take you to war. But what worries me is that there are three things in your father's dalilu, and they cannot he separated. They can only go to one per- son. Ah! There are three things, but your father had three sons. These three things would not be of any benefit to you if we were to divide them up amongst you.

"The Mande messengers have come for your brother Ma'an Sunjata. You must allow him to be given the three things, because the three things-the sorcery horse, the sorcery bow, and the sorcery mask--all work together: when you sit on the sorcery horse, you must also wear the sorcery mask and take up the sorcery bow. Then you are ready for combat against all comers.

"If you mount the sorcery horse without carrying the sorcery how, or without wearing the sorcery mask, then somebody will strike you down while the horse is galloping. If you put on the sorcery mask without carrying the sorcery bow and you are not on the horse, you will not be able to kill the enemies you see. If you take up the sorcery bow without wearing the mask and without being on the horse, what good is that? The three things must go to one person: please, allow me to give them to Ma'an Sunjata."

So'olon Jamori said, "Manden Bori, tell our mother that I do not agree to what she is saying. Ah! She herself says there are three things. There are three of us. They are easily divided.

"Have you not heard the Mande saying that if you cannot take your father's legacy on your head, you must at least drag part of it behind you? If I cannot carry it, I will drag it behind me. Let her bring the three things out and divide them between the three of us."

Ma So'olon Conde said, "Eh, So'olonjamori my son! Eh, So'olonjamori! I was afraid you'd cause trouble; that is why I wanted to bring you out of the town. Did you not hear me say that there are three things, but they can only solve one prob- lem? Will you not be agreeable?"

3. On occasions where oral communication must be precise, it is customary for an impor- tant speaker's words to be repeated several times by various people in the presence of the person addressed. When a jeli is available the speaker addresses the bard, who repeats and

validates what was just heard. At Sogolon's secret meeting, the youngest son serves to repeat and reallirm her words. 4. The legacy would normally go to the first (senior) wife.

SUNJATA 39

Manden Bori said, "Big brother So'olon Jamori, 5 will you not have pity on our mother, who is so worried about this? Let us agree to give the dalilu to brother So'olon Maghan.''

Ahl Jamori said if Manden Bori did not shut his mouth, he would slap his ears. Manden Bori said, "You can't slap my ears. Why should you slap my ears for

this? Don't you know our brother can battle Soso with or without our father's legacy?

"And who used up our mother's legacy? You and I did; our brother did not take part in that. Our mother took her gold earring and silver bracelet and gave them to Sansamba Sagado, the Somono ancestor, as a future day's river-crossing fee. And how many of us got into the canoe that day, when we left Manden by cross- ing the river? The canoe our mother paid for with her legacy? Our mother went in the canoe, our little sister got into the canoe, you got into the canoe, and I got into the canoe. Did our brother get in? Hah! Didn't our brother say he was not getting in? Didn't my mother weep? Didn't he say that we should go ahead and he would follow? And by the time we got to the other side of the river, didn't we see our brother already sitting there?

"The dalilu with which our brother crossed the river was our father's legacy, and Sunjata can battle Sumaworo with that. But you say you will slap my ears? Why didn't you slap my ears on the riverbank?"

Ma'an Sunjata said, "Manden Bori, be quiet. Tell my mother that we will not quarrel. If you see somebody taking your friend's share of the sauce, your own sauce cannot satisfy you. Does she think I will quarrel with this foolish person? I will never quarrel with So'olon Jamori over our father's legacy. Even if he were to ask me to give it all to him, I would do it. Tell my mother to bring out the legacy.

"But mother, we will never forget the two things you have done for us. First, we were legitimately born, and it is because of our legitimacy that the Mande people came to find us. Second, my father married fifty women-fifty wives!- and two other women, none of whom gave birth to a child. Sansun Berete was one of the other two women: she gave birth to Dankaran Tuman and Nana Triban.

"But you! You were the fifty-second wife. Eh! Out of all his wives, why did my father give his legacy to you? Because of your devotion, and it was for us you were so devoted. I trust in God. Even if you do not give me the legacy, I will van- quish Sumaworo because of your devotion. Bring out the legacy."

Ma So'olon Wulen Conde said, "I am pleased with that, now excuse me." She pushed her hand into her abdomen. When she did that, ho! The dalilu fell out. When the three dalilu were piled together, Ma'an Sunjata laughed.

He started to say, "So'olon Jamori," but suddenly his mother began to shake. So'olon Ma'an held his mother until her dizziness passed. When the dizziness left her eyes, Sunjata said, "Manden Bori, tell our mother that she should tell So'olon Jamori he should choose one of the things. Aheh! My little brother and I will not quarrel over my father's legacy."

5. In many variants of the epic, Sogolon's son Jamori is not mentioned at all, and the claim here that Manden Bori was the youngest of the three brothers is an especially rare detail.

40 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

So'olon Jamori said that he chose the sorcerer's mask. They asked, "Is that your choice?" And he replied, "Uhuh, that is mine." They said, "Very well, take it."

Sunjata said, "Manden Bori, choose one." Manden Bori said, "I will not take a share in this legacy. I am holding your

shirt-tail, and so long as I hold your shirt-tail, nothing will happen to me in the war with Soso. When you die, Sunjata, your legacy will come to me anyway. It was my father's legacy, but you are my father now, and so it belongs to you. Take both my share and your share."

Ma'an Sunjata said, "Is that your word?" "Uhuh. It is your name, not mine or So'olon Jamori's, that will become

attached to the bow and mansaya6 we are quarreling over." (That is why, when people go outside town for a private meeting, they say, "Let us speak with the truth of Manden Bori.")

Manden Bori, the youngest of the brothers. had his oldest brother's blessing. Ma So'olon Wulen Conde spoke. She said, '·Manden Bori, is that your word? Come here."

Taking Manden Bori behind a bush, Sogolon said, "Manden Bori, you've hon- ored me, and so now God will honor you. Nobody will ever dishonor you. If you'd acted the way So'olon Jamori acted, then all of the Mande people would know that your father's dalilu had been divided-and if your rival knows your secret, he will vanquish you. You preferred to keep all of this secret so I would not be shamed.

"Come and let me give you my legacy. My legacy is something that did not come from here, in Nema, or Manden. It came from Do ni Kiri, the home of my brothers. I will give this ring to you. So long as you live, it will protect you from genies or enemies that might threaten you; it will also keep you safe in the bush. If you find yourself in trouble, look at this ring and say, 'Ah, mother!' If you do that, God will protect you. If you look at it and say, 'Ah, genie!' God will save you from genies. If you look at it and say, 'Genie and man!' God will spare you from both." (That was the first of the brass rings hunters now wear on their fingers. Some people call such a ring "genie and man.'') Sogolon said, ''This is your keep- sake." Then they all returned to town.

[In the next scene, Sogolon suddenly dies and Simjata tells Manden Bori to request a plot of land for lier burial.]

The Burial of Sogolon and Departure from Nema

On the path to town, Manden Bori met with Faran Tunkara, the mansa of Nema. He said, "Mansa, my brother says that I should come and tell you that my mother is dead. He'd like you to agree to give him some land he can use for her burial."

Now, Faran Tunkara had been unhappy to see the messengers from Manden arrive in Nema. From the time Sunjata arrived in Nema, he'd helped the Kuntu- nya people win every single battle they'd faced, and he returned with slaves from every campaign. But Faran Tunkara could not keep Sunjata in Nema, because Sogolon and her family had arrived there by choice. He decided to start a quarrel so he could detain Sunjata.

6. The bow and c1uiver were symbolic of Mande kingship (maustrya).

SUNJATA 41

So Nema Faran Tunkara said, "Manden Bori, go and tell your brother that I, Nema Faran Tunkara, say that I own all the land here. Unless you brought a piece of land with you from Manden to bury your corpse in, you should load her body on your head and carry it back to Manden the same way you brought her. Tell him that if you bury her in my land, I will blast her out of the ground with gunpowder. Go and tell your brother that."

Manden Bori returned on the path and relayed Nema Faran Tunkara's mes- sage to Sunjata. When he heard what Manden Bori reported, Manjan Berete said, "What kind of man is Nema Faran Tunkara? Simbon, let me go and give him a real 'message.'"

"Eee," said Sunjata, "just leave it alone. Don't worry, he'll provide the land. I've spent twenty-seven years here; I'm in his army. And he says I should carry my mother's body back to Manden? He'll soon provide the land."

To Manden Bori, Sunjata said, "Go back and tell Nema Faran Tunkara that I, the son of the Conde woman, say he should give me some land in which I can bury my mother. Tell him it is I who say so."

When Tunkara was told this, he said to Manden Bori, "I do not want ever to see you here again. From the minute you first arrived here, I knew that you're a hotheaded man. Go and tell your brother that I don't go hack on what I've said twice. Tell him I have no land for him here."

Manden Bori went and told this to Ma'an Sunjata. Manjan Berete and Siri- man Kanda Toure became angry. They were all brave men; they all had dalilu, and they all knew how to fight. But when they started to leave the house to find Nema Faran Tunkara, Ma'an Sunjata said, "Be patient and take your seats. He will soon provide the land."

Sunjata took the path that passed behind the house. Along the way, he picked up a fragment of old clay pot, a piece of old calabash, the feather of a guinea fowl, and a partridge feather. To these things he added a stick of bamboo. He gave all of these things to Manden Bori, and said, "Te11 Tunkara that I say he should give me land to bury my mother in. If he's asking a price for his land, well, tell him I'll pay his fees with these things. Tell him he must agree to let me lay my mother in the ground."

As he gave Faran Tunkara these things from Sunjata, Manden Bori said, "My brother says this is payment for your land, and that you should agree to let him bury his mother."

Faran Tunkara said, "Is this what you pay for land in your country? Huh, Man- den Bori? I do not ever want to see you here again. Take these things and go away."

But Tunkara's jeli man, who was sitting there beside him, said, "He should not take those things away from here. Heh! Sunjata has sent you an important message.

"M'ba, when these people came to Nema, didn't I say you should kill Sunjata? And didn't you reply that Sunjata had come to place himself in your care, and that therefore you must not do anything to him? Ahuh! Well, now he has said something to you; there's a message in these things he sent. Since you do not understand the message, I will tell you what these things mean."

To which Faran Tunkara replied, "All right, tell me what they mean." The jeli said, "This piece of bamboo means that you should give him land so he

can bury his mother in it. If you do not give him land, the Mande people will

42 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

come and take it for themselves. If he should be named king after he finishes fighting that war for Manden, he will bring the Mande army here to Nema, and he will break Nema like this old clay pot or this old calabash. Then the guinea fowls and the partridges will take their dust baths in the ruins of Nema. See? These are the feathers of those guinea fowls and partridges. Nothing will grow in the ruins of Nema but weeds; that's what this piece of bamboo stick means."

Now, Mansa Tunkara was a good debater, and he always won arguments. So he said, "I am right."

The jeli said, "How can you be right about this?" "I am right," said Faran Tunkara, "because these people have been here for

twenty-seven years. During the time those three brothers served in my army, I lost no battles. They never cheated me, were never disobedient to me; I never had to discipline them for chasing women. Now their mother has died. Are they going to do the right thing and say the corpse is mine, or are they just going to demand that I give them land?"

Everyone agreed that the three brothers should have observed the custom of saying, "This is your corpse."

Faran Tunkara said, "Ah! This is why I refused. Eh! If they were raised cor- rectly as children, they should have said that God has made this my opportu- nity, and that this is my corpse. But did they show me the proper respect? Should they be looking for land to lay their mother in?"

Everybody said, "You are right!" Even Manjan Berete himself came and said, "You are right."

"Very well," said Faran Tunkara. "If I am right, give her to me and I will con- duct the funeral."

Even though she was a woman, the people of Nema gave Sogolon a man's funeral. They killed cows, fired their guns, and beat the special drum. (This tra- dition started with Ma So'olon Wulen Conde's funeral.) Then they took her body to the town of Kuntunya, and on Thursday they buried her.

When they were finished with the burial, Simbon asked for Faran Tunkara's permission to leave Nema. Because all debts had now been settled between the two men, Sunjata was able to say, "I will leave tomorrow."

Faran Tunkara said, "Go with my blessing. l give you the road." But once Sun- jata and his brothers had returned to their house, Faran Tuhkara summoned his warriors, telling them, "I cannot allow Sunjata to leave with his men, because those men are rightfully mine; Sunjata had no men of his own until he arrived here. Prepare yourselves and go on ahead to cut them off. Go ahead as far as the second village and wait for them there; attack them when they arrive, and try to capture them. If you bring them back, they will never leave Nema again .. ,

Faran Tunkara's warriors left, passing the first village and preparing their attack at the second. And when Sunjata and his companions arrived at the sec- ond village, they were attacked. So'olon Jamori did not survive the attack! He died there; he did not live to reach Manden. So the three parts of his father's legacy were combined and given to Simbon. (That is why we say that if a kama- len of the Mansare lineage becomes selfish, do not bother to curse him. He won't live long.)

Sunjata and his men escaped that ambush, and Sunjata added the captives they took from among Faran Tunkara's warriors to his own troops.

SUNJATA 43

[11ie narrator explains that despite the ambush that ldlled So'olon Jamori, Faran Timkara sent troops to support Manden's campaign against Soso, and Sunjata never attacked Nema. Claiming that he wants to ootify Sumaworo of his return so lie will not be accused of sneaking back into Manden, Sunjata stops in Soso. Smnaworo issues a series of warnings to Sunjata that he must not attack Soso. They engage in a traditional boasting contest, concluding with Sunjata's vow to return and Sumaworo's reply that he will be waiting.]

The Return of Sunjata

Sunjata took the road toward home. When they arrived at the edge of town, the townspeople could hear nege music 7 played by Jelimusoni Tunku Manyan Diawara.

She sang to Manden:

"The danama yirindi8 that we have been looking for, He is at the edge of town. Come, let us go. For the sake of the Conde woman's son, Come, let us go. The person that Manden was busy searching for, Known as So'olon Ma'an, Come, let us go."

Sansamba Sagado crossed the river with his canoe that day. He put the canoe into the river without a pole or paddle, and as soon as he untied the canoe, it headed straight for Sunjata and his men-prrrr, just as if it had a motor.

Sunjata loaded his men into the canoe and said, "You will now see the power of my dalilu." He struck the water, the canoe went prrrr, and they landed on the riverbank in Manden, where Simbon stepped out. His fathers, brothers, and all the men of Manden were there to greet and embrace him. (The shade tree under which the people of Manden welcomed Sunjata home is still living today.) When he arrived, Manden was jubilant, Manden celebrated. They named that place Nyani, the town of happiness, the town of rejoicing, ko anye nyani so. 9

As the people of Manden welcomed Sunjata and his men, they said, "Manjan Berete, you are welcome; Siriman Kanda Toure, you are welcome; Tunku Man- yan Diawara, you are welcome; Jonmusoni Manyan, you are welcome. You have brought a gift for Manden: you have found Simbon! We knew that someday the son of Farako Manko Farakonken and the Conde woman would return. But Manden suffered while he was away; we have suffered so much at Sumaworo's hands. Let Sunjata see for himself how many of those he knew here have been killed by Sumaworo. The only people left here are those with dalilu, and Suma- woro has even caused those who have dalilu to suffer.

"When we knew Sunjata was returning, we carried out divinations and swore oaths and saw that only he could receive ancestor Mamadi Kani's legacy. And now that he has come, heh! We all-the Kulubali, the Konate, and the Douno-

7. Nege = iron; also a synonym for the nkarin- yan, a rhythm instrument consisting of a notched iron tube seven to eight inches long, held in one hand and scraped with a thin metal rod.

8. Roughly translated as "superhero." 9. This and the following line comprise a popular etymology.

44 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

say that he should accept the legacy and help Manden. Simbon, you have been called to take the legacy." (This saying-"Take your legacy," or ko ila ke ta- came to be spoken as "Keita.")

[In the following brief departure from his narrative, the bard (who is traditionally expected to instruct as well as entertain) reiterates his view of human origins and explains who really built Paris. In the omitted passage, the bard explains the power of the Conde people, their descent frmn Isiaaka, and t1ie equality of all hunums as children. of God.]

Fakoli Reveals His Power

While the Mande men were in a meeting, a message from Sumaworo arrived. He said that he'd been waiting a long time for a message from the Mande. He said it had been a long time since their mansa arrived, and that he'd not seen any Mande messengers. Finally, Sumaworo said that since So'olon Ma'an had now returned home, he wanted to see all of the l\lande people at Dakajalan on the fourteenth of the new month. The battle had now been set.

As soon as he heard Sumaworo's message, So'olon Ma'an replied by having his people beat the signal drum, calling everyone to the council hall. On his way to the council hall, Fakoli was thinking, "We are going to march against Soso!" But his mother and Sumaworo had suckled at the same breast, and he wondered if it was right for him to join the Mande people in attacking Sumaworo. He decided, "As soon as I get to the council hall, I will ask the Mande people to let me go to Soso. Let Manden come and fight both me and my uncle."

But before Fakoli had the chance to say this to the men gathered in the coun- cil hall, Manden Bori laughed at him. Manden Bori always ridiculed Fakoli whenever he entered the council hall. When he heard Manden Bori laughing at him, Fakoli became angry and said, "Turama'an, let me give you a message for Simbon. Tell Simbon to ask his younger brother why he always laughs at me. Of all the people that enter the council hall, it's me that Manden Bori laughs at. Why does he laugh at me? What have I done to him?"

When Ma'an Sunjata was given this message, he said, "Manden Bori, stop laughing at Fakoli. Didn't you hear him saying that you are shaming him? Why do you laugh at him?"

Manden Bori replied, "Big brother, the tall men always duck their heads as they enter the council hall. Though Fakoli is only one and a half arm-spans tall, he also ducks his head when he comes in. That is what makes me laugh. Aaah, that Fakoli, heh, heh."

Fakoli said, "Turama'an, tell Simbon that he should tell his younger brother that short Mande people can do things that tall Mande people cannot do. And he'd better believe it."

Manden Bori said, "I won't believe that until I see it. Really, do you believe that? I don't."

Fakoli picked up his goatskin rug and, placing it in the center of the council hall, sat down on it. He waved his hand and grunted. He raised the roof from the house! The sun shone in on everybody. He said, "Well, Manden Bori, what about that?"

Manden Bori said, "You spoke the truth.'' (They were fair about crediting one another with the truth, for there was

respect among those with dalilu.)

SUNIATA I 45

The people asked Fakoli to put the roof back where it belonged. They said, "No tall Mande man has ever done such a thing."

Then Fakoli placed his hand in the middle of the council hall floor. He crouched there and wrinkled his face. Wrinkled his face and wrinkled his face! He squeezed everyone against the wall. That was the origin of the song "Nyari Gbasa," which goes:

"Fakoli, our arms will break, F akoli, our heads will burst, Fakoli, our stomachs will rupture."

(That song belongs to the Koroma family.) The people said, "Fakoli, stop! No tall Mande man has done such a thing:'

Fakoli Explains His Dilemma and Takes His Leave from Manden

After performing these feats, Fakoli spoke to the assembled elders. He said, "Turama'an, Simbon, and everyone in the council hall: Sumaworo has sent a message that we should meet at Dakajalan. But my mother and Sumaworo were the children of the three Toure women, and it would be shameful for me to par- ticipate in Manden's attack on my uncle. I ask that you give me leave to go to Soso. I should be at my uncle's side when you come to attack him."

Ma'an Sunjata heard what Fakoli said, even though Manden Bori refused to repeat it to him. To Manden Bori, Sunjata said, "Haven't I told you? Fakoli is right. You and I have uncles whose home is Do ni Kiri. What if we knew that Do ni Kiri would be attacked? Would we stay here and do nothing?"

Manden Bori said, "Would anyone dare to attack Do ni Kiri?" "That's not the point. If Fakoli says he is going to help his mother's kinsman,

leave him alone and let him go." Then, turning to Fakoli, Sunjata said, "Fakoli, you have done well by Manden. You helped us during Sumaworo's nine inva- sions of Manden, and our nine efforts to rebuild our homeland. So if you should say that you are going to help your uncle, very well; we won't stop you. But remember that if we meet on the battlefield there will be no brotherhood, no friendship between us. Don't think us ungrateful. But there's no gratitude when the guns start firing. That is all I have to say."

Fakoli said, "Bisimillahi," 1 and returned to his house for the night. The next morning Fakoli bathed in the water of his seven medicine pots. Tak-

ing his battle-axe on his shoulder, he brought out his horse and mounted it. His groom, Nyana Jukuduma,2 was with him. He lifted up his wife, Keleya Konkon, and sat her behind him on his horse; then he took the ends of his scarf and tied them together, saying, "Because I know the kind of man my uncle is, he might wait for me on the road."3

While he was preparing to leave, another message from Sumaworo arrived. Sumaworo said that he'd been informed of Fakoli's plan to help him fight against Manden, and that Fakoli must not go to Soso. Sumaworo said he'd learned that if the Mande were successful in defeating him, they planned to replace Sumaworo

I. Literally, "in the name of Allah" (Arabic), a 2. A slave that cared for his horse. traditional Muslim invocation spoken at the 3, To ambush him. outset of an undertaking [editor's note].

46 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICA~ EPIC

with Fakoli as ruler of Soso. When the people of Soso heard this, they promised to cut off Fakoli's head, just as the Mande people already wanted to. Thus, one way or another, said Sumaworo, Fakoli's "feet would be bringing his head" if he dared to come to Soso. Fakoli laughed, "I'm not going to die for anyone-not Sunjata, and not Sumaworo." (Even today, that expression is often quoted.)

Fakoli said, "Go and tell my uncle that I'll soon be there. If I were really plan- ning to get myself killed, then I'd let him carry out his threats against me. But since I don't intend to die, I'll go to Soso today. Tell him to get ready."

[In an omitted passage, Summvoro deploys soldiers to intercept Fakoli and kill him, but Fakoli makes himself and his companions invisible and arrives unscathed at the gates of Soso.]

Fakoli Finds Trouble in Soso

When Sumaworo learned that Fakoli was accompanied only by his wife and his slave, he told Bala Fasali,4 "Take the bala and welcome my nephew."

Bala Fasali took up the bala and sang the song we now call "Janjon": 5

"Eh, Fakoli! You became a son. If death is inevitable, A formidable child should be born. The Mande people said That if you came, they would wait for you on the road. The people of Soso said That if you came, your feet would bring your head. Knowing that, you still had no fear. If death is inevitable, A formidable child should be born."

Sumaworo welcomed Fakoli by standing and raising his elephant tail in salute. Fakoli sat down and explained why he had come to Soso. He said, "Bala Fasali, you take part in this. 6 Let Sumaworo hear what I have to say. I have come because Sumaworo has done many things, and though I was; invisible as I trav- eled, I come in good faith.

"The three Toure women gave birth to my mother and to Sumaworo. I have been thinking about my mother ever since war was declared between Soso and Manden. Had my mother been a man, she would have fought in this war along- side Sumaworo, her brother. That is why I decided to come: to fight in place of my mother. I have come to Sumaworo through the will of God; let us unite and fight the coming war together."

Sumaworo replied, "Bala Fasali, I'll tell you what to say to Fakoli. Tell him that I appreciate his words, and that I am pleased he has come."

4. An unusual pronunciation of this famous bard's name, which is usually given as Bala Fasake, or a variant thereof. 5. One of the oldest and most famous songs of Manden, said to have been originally composed for Fakoli, but in later times played to honor

any distinguished personage. 6. Custom dictated that the dignitary, in this ca~e Fakoli, would speak to the jeli, who would dwn add weight to the message by repeating it to 1.he person addressed.

SUNJATA 47

After this meeting, Fakoli was taken to meet Sumaworo's wives. Sumaworo had three hundred and thirty-three wives. Fakoli had only one wife, Keleya Konkon.

To his three hundred and thirty-three wives, Sumaworo said: "Fakoli has arrived just as I am going to war. The oracle Neneba says that in order to win this war I must offer three hundred and thirty-three different dishes as sacrifice. I want these dishes to be prepared the day after tomorrow, on Friday. I mention this because Fakoli should know about this sacrifice if we are to be allies."

Fakoli said, "Fine. Since I have come to take the place of my mother, my wife will cook the one bowl of food my mother would have provided."

When the Soso women heard Fakoli say that, they said, "Paki! We'll show that Mande woman how much better a Soso woman's cooking is." This was insulting to Keleya Konkon, who said, "I'm going to build my fire near theirs. Fakoli, go and find a cooking pot for me. Those Soso women want to brag? They'll soon learn that Mande women can also cook. They will realize that Manden has kitch- ens, too." Fakoli left to find a cooking pot for Keleya Konkon.

Among the three hundred and thirty-three dishes prepared by Sumaworo's wives were beans, rice, fonio, cereal paste, millet wafers, wheat meal, cassava, and porridge: all of these different foods were included in the sacrifice.

Fakoli's wife said to him, "Bring me rice, pounded cassava, and fonio for my pot. God willing, I'm going to cook a meal that the jelilu will sing about for years to come."

Keleya Konkon put her one pot on the fire. Whenever she saw the Soso women who were cooking rice put some into their pots, she would put rice in her one pot, then sit down. Whenever she saw the Soso women who were cook- ing fonio put some into their pots, she would add some fonio in her one pot then sit down.

When the women who were cooking monie7 were rolling their monie balls, Keleya Konkon also rolled monie balls. When the women put the monie balls into their pots, Keleya Konkon would put monie balls into her pot too, then take her seat. When the women who were baking takura8 were putting their takura balls into their pots, Keleya Konkon also put takura balls into her pot, then sat down.

So Keleya Konkon put into her one pot all of the same things the Soso women put into their three hundred and thirty-three pots. Then, when the women started dishing out rice, she took her rice bowl and dished out the rice from her pot. When the women started dishing out the fonio, she took her fonio bowl and dished out her fonio from the same pot.

Sumaworo's wives produced three hundred and thirty-three dishes-but Fako- li's wife also produced three hundred and thirty-three dishes, and all from her one pot! The wives couldn't get the best of her.

Some scandalmongers went to Sumaworo and told him what had happened, adding, "Didn't we tell you that Fakoli came to take your place? You have three hundred and thirty-three wives, who have cooked you three hundred and thirty- three dishes. Your nephew has only one wife, but she has also prepared three

7. A millet porridge made with small balls of millet flour flavored with tamarind or lemon. 8. A millet cake made with five balls of soaked

millet flour and baked or steamed in a clay pot buried in the ground; one of the preferred foods for sacrifice or alms-giving.

48 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

hundred and thirty-three dishes! In fact, Keleya Konkon's servings are bigger than yours! Everything that you have, Fakoli now also has. He came to take your place. If you don't take this Fakoli business seriously, he will take Soso away from you even before you go to war."

Sumaworo said, "Huh? Oho!" And he called his people together. Sumaworo sent the scandalmonger to go and bring Fakoli to the meeting.

Instead of going to find Fakoli, the scandalmonger simply went and stood on the road, then returned to Sumaworo, saying, "I have called him." A lot of time passed; Fakoli did not come to see Sumaworo. When Sumaworo sent for some- one, he expected that person to arrive one minute after the messenger returned.

"Ah!" said Sumavvoro. "Did you not see my nephew?" To which the scandalmonger replied, "I saw him." "Ah, did you not call him?" "I called him." "All right, go and tell him I am waiting for him." The scandalmonger went and stood in the road again. Returning to Suma-

woro, he said, "I have called him." More time passed and still Fakoli did not appear. Now very angry, Sumaworo

sent another messenger to get Fakoli. He said, "You go and tell Fakoli that I am waiting for him."

That messenger did find Fakoli. He said, "Fakoli, this is the third time you have been called. Why didn't you come when we called? Who do you think you are?"

Fakoli said, "Me? Was I called three times?" "Yes, the message came and came again." "Me? M'ba, I refuse." That messenger ran back and told Sumaworo, "Your nephew refuses to come." Sumaworo said, "Paki! That's it! Fakoli dares tell me, Sumaworo, 'I refuse'?" Once Sumaworo's last messenger had gone, Fakoli put on his hat with the

three hundred birds' heads. He put his axe on his shoulder and tied his head- band around his head, because he knew there was going to be trouble.

When Sumaworo saw Fakoli approaching, he stood up in his royal seat and said, "Fakoli, am I the one to whom you said, 'I refuse'?"

Fakoli replied, "I refuse," for he believed it would be cowardly to explain him- self to Sumaworo.

Again, Sumaworo asked, "Am I the one to whom you said, 'I refuse'?" "I refuse." "¼'hy?" "I refuse." "Ah, very well." Sumaworo said. "What they told me is the truth. You claim

that you came to help me. But you have not come to help me. You know what you came for. I have three hundred and thirty-three wives who have prepared three hundred and thirty-three dishes for me. You have only one wife, yet she also produced three hundred and thirty-three dishes for you.

"Did you come to help me? Were you told that your head and my head are equal? I gave you this wife you're so proud of-the one with your mother's name9-

9. Fakoli's mother was Kosiya, so his wife Keley,1 was not exactly her namesake.

SUNJATA 49

and now I am taking her back. You can't brag about what you don't have anymore! This Kosiya Kante that you have, she is my daughter, 1 so now I am taking her back."

Fakoli said, "Ah! Uncle, have matters between us sunk so low? Has our dispute come to the point of taking back a wife? You can have her! I don't even want her now, at least not until the smoke from our battle with the Mande people at Dakajalan has settled. Until then, I don't want her!"

He brought out his blanket and tore off a strip, prrrr! He threw it to Keleya Konkon and told her to use it for a mourning veil, saying, "I will not marry you again until I've defeated your brother2 in gunsmoke. I am returning to Manden."

Turning his back on Keleya Kondon, he gave the tail of his horse to Nyana Jukuduma, 3 and the two men took the road to Manden, where the diviners were still praying to God.

When Fakoli got back to Manden, he went and stood at the door of the coun- cil hall. He said, "Simbon, my uncle and I have quarreled. He has taken my wife from me. I will not take back Keleya Konkon until I do it in gunsmoke."

"Huh," Ma'an Sunjata laughed. Manjan Berete and Siriman Kanda Toure also laughed. They said, "Manden is

now complete." They said they had put their trust in Turama'an. (This is why you sometimes hear a person say that they put their trust in Turama'an instead of Fakoli. 4 The people gave their trust to Turama'an while Fakoli was off visiting his uncle.)

Still standing on the threshold of the council hall, Fakoli said, "Simbon, I do not want a wife from Manden or Negeboriya. Send a message to your uncles in Do ni Kiri, and ask them to give you your 'nephew wife.'5 Then give that wife to me. I want to have that woman before we go to the battle at Dakajalan. Then, regardless of what happens, no one will be able to blame my actions in battle on the fact that I have no wife. If I don't have a wife before going into battle, the people will say I fought well because I was trying to get myself a wife-that I was afraid of staying a bachelor. So let me have your 'nephew wife' before we leave for the war.'' Ma'an Sunjata sent a message to his uncle (our ancestor!) in Do ni Kiri, who sent Ma Sira Conde to Sunjata as his nephew wife. Ma'an Sunjata then gave this wife to Fakoli.

At that time, Fakoli was feeling bitter. Having refused to live in Negeboriya, Manden, and Soso, he'd built his own hamlet and remained there until it was time for the battle at Dakajalan. The people all said, "Eeeh, Fakoli is bitter! He

I. Family relationships among Manding peoples arc perceived on several levels, or "paths." Keep- ing in mind that this is the storyteller's view- point, this is probably meant in the sense that the wife Sumaworo provided for Fakoli was a classificatory "daughter" of Sumaworo. In Man- ding societies, the children of one's cousins are considered to be one's own children. 2. In the same wav that Keleva Konkon could be a classificatory "daughter" ~f Sumaworo, she could also be a classificatory "sister." Indeed, on one path a person can be classified as one's sib- ling, while on another path the same person can be referred to as one's father, uncle, mother, or aunt. This reflects the polygymous practice of

men marrying wives of the same age as their children. 3. The slave would run behind the horse, hanging on to its tail. 4. Turama'an had acquired a leadership posi- tion or military command that was formerly held by Fakoli. 5. In Maninka and Bamana society, it is claimed, both jokingly and seriously, that it is the uncle's duty to give his nephew a wife, the so-called nephew wife. The obligation of this uncle-nephew bond is implied in the Bamana proverb: "When your uncle fails to give you a wife, he is no longer your uncle but your mother's brother."

50 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

has refused to live with us; he's built his own hamlet:' (That hamlet, built in Man- den, became Bambugu, and it was there that Sira Conde was brought to Fakoli.)

A Visit to Kamanjan in Sibi

Dressed in his ritual attire, Sunjata said to Fakoli, "Before she died, my mother asked God to help me earn the support of a l\Iande elder whose dalilu is greater than mine, and I believe I must not go to war without having first accomplished this. Now that you're settled, Fakoli, I ask }OU-just as I'm asking Turama'an, Kankejan, Tombonon Sitafa Oiawara, and all the Simbons-please give me sixty men so I can greet Kamanjan, because I esteem him above all other elders."

Kamanjan was much older than Sunjata; Kamanjan and Sunjata's father, Maghan Konfara, were born at the same time. Kamanjan never committed a shameful deed in his entire life, and anyone who commanded an army would seek his advice. This is why Sunjata said, "Let's go to greet Kamanjan."

I

With sixty men, Sunjata went to salute Kamanjan at the battle site called Kal- assa, near Sibi Mountain, where Kamanjan liked to hold torchlit meetings at night. It was a special honor to be asked by Kamanjan to extinguish the torches at the end of such meetings; only those kamalenw he knew to be special in their towns would be allowed to put out the flames.

Sunjata arrived as Kamanjan was having one of his nighttime meetings, and all of the torches were lit. With his hand, Sunjata extinguished them all. Then he used a little thing to reignite them, kan! Suddenly everything was illuminated again. The people at the meeting said, "As soon as Sunjata put out the torches, he lit his own torch."

(Sunjata's own light was as powerful as the light from a pressure lamp, and the little town where Sunjata extinguished the torches is called Kalassa, which is near Tabon on the Bamako road. The Konate live there.)

After relighting the torches, Sunjata saluted Kamanjan and explained the pur- pose of his visit, saying, "I left here with my mother; now I have returned."

Kamanjan said, "Simbon! Have you come?" "Yes, I have come." "Ah, are you the one that Manden will send against Sumaworo?" "Uhuh. That is why I have come to greet you, father Kamanjan. The last per-

son to be told you're leaving on a trip must be the first person you greet upon your return."

"Sunjata, what dalilu did you bring with you? Hm? Sumaworo is a bad one. Haven't you heard people sing his praises? They sing:

'Transforms in the air, Sumaworo, Transforms on the ground, Sumaworo. Manden pi-pa-pi, Whirlwind of Manden, Kukuba and Bantamba, Nyemi-Nyemi and Kambasiga, Sege and Babi'?"

Sunjata said, "Yes, Father Kamanjan, I've heard that." "Then what kind of dalilu did you bring to use against him?"

SUNIATA 51

"Ah, father Kamanjan, that is why I have come to greet you and tell you my thoughts."

"Well, I've become old since we last met here. I can't go to war again, nor can I ask anyone else to do that. All those who attacked Sumaworo have been defeated, and this is Manden's fault; it was Manden that made it possible for Sumaworo to become what he is. It was a mistake for us to give him the four jamanaw,

6 Not satisfied with that, he now wants to add Manden to Soso. That is

what we must fight to avoid." Kamanjan and Sunjata were talking beneath the tree that is called balansani in

Manden, and when Kamanjan said, "Ah!" the balansan flipped upside down onto its top branches.

When Sunjata also said, "Ah!" the balansan flipped back over onto its roots. (It's true, binani tinima!)

Kamanjan said, "Ah!" a second time, and the balansan flipped back over onto its top branches.

Before Sunjata could say, "Ah," again, his sister whispered in his ear, "Big brother, this is not what my mother told you to do. Let Kamanjan do this. Our mother prayed that you would be blessed by an elder with dalilu stronger than yours. Kamanjan is trying to demonstrate to you how strong his dalilu is. If you beat him with your own dalilu, he will not give you anything. Let him do this, and he will flip the tree back once he's satisfied. If you add his dalilu to what you already have, maybe you will win the war against Sumaworo. You should act like you do not know anything, so Kamanjan will give you his dalilu."

A Strategic Alliance: Kolonkan's Marriage

The battle that followed Sunjata's meeting with Kamanjan did not go well for Manden, and the town was filled with sorrow. But Kamanjan didn't let Sunjata leave him empty-handed. Kamanjan said, "Simbon, I see that your sister has matured since we last met. Yes, she has matured, and you should give her to me so I can marry her. Though your sister spent twenty-seven years at Nema, your mother-who was of the best stock-said she would never be given to a man there. You yourself agreed that your sister would only be married here in Manden. So give her to me."

Ma'an Sunjata said, "Eh! Father Kamanjan, that won't be possible. If I give you my younger sister, I would be embarrassed to discuss certain subjects with you. There are things I could discuss with you so long as there's no marriage between us. Now that my mother and father are both dead, I'm depending on your counsel on such matters. But a marriage between us would make it embarrassing for me to do so.8 Besides that, you are a battle commander. If we do something to dis- please you, if you become offended, we might quarrel."

6. The four main provinces of Soso that com- monly appear in praise-lines to Sumaworo (though rarely identified in the same way): Kukuba, Bantamba, Nyemi-Nyemi, and Kamba- siga. This comment, which the bard attributes to a contemporary of Sunjata's father, appears to imply a failed policy of appeasement toward Sumaworo. 7. Acacia albida; in Mande lore, one of the

many trees, including the baobab and the dub- alen, that carry strong associations with the spirit world. 8. In this case of buran}'a ("having an older in-law"), Sunjata would have to practice great restraint and lack of familiarity toward his sister's husband, and would no longer be able to appeal to him for help or advice.

52 SUNJATA, A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

Kamanjan said, "Ah, give her to me." "Well, I'll give her to you if you will command the Kamara people to show

respect for the Mansare people. Tell the Kamara people to show respect for my people and for me. The Kamara should respect us, Kamaralu ye dan a na." (The Dannalu, who take their name from that saying, live between Balia and Wulada. Now because of Ma Kolonkan's marriage to Kamanjan, the Dannalu must be men;ioned whenever the Kamara are discussed.) Ma Kolonkan was given to Kamanjan Kamara as soon as he made this promise to Sunjata. Kamanjan entered her, and she eventually gave birth to his son Fadibali.

The Battle of Negeboriya

Kamanjan said, "Simbon, I respect you, and believe you'll be successful in the war against Sumaworo. But listen: don't go to Dakajalan yet. Go to Negeboriya first and pay your respects to Fakoli's relatives. Though Fakoli is from Negeboriya, not Manden, he has done much for us. Besides, haven't you ever heard the saying, 'Negeboriya Maghan, Kayafaya Maghan'?<J The Negeboriyans are our in-laws.

"Fakoli has said, 'The Mande people are wrong if they think I am helping them only because I want to win the mansaya for myself,' and we believe him. After all, none of the Koroma living in our Mansare towns have ever tried to take the man- sa1·a for themselves.

··•Fakoli has also said, 'I am only helping Manden because of Ma Tenenba Conde; it was she who raised and blessed me. Tenenba Conde's sister is So'olon Wulen Conde, and So'olon Wulen Conde's son is Ma'an Sunjata. So I am not helping you because of personal ambition. If you listen to the Mande people's gossip about me now, you'll be ashamed to face me later.'

"Turama'an and Kankejan have said the same sorts of things. So go and pay your respects to the people of Negeboriya."

Taking their leave from Tabon, Ma'an Sunjata and his companions mounted their horses and rode straight to N<"geboriya. But Sumaworo had built a wall around that town by the time they arrived. In fact, Sumaworo had built waHs around many towns of Manden and was occupying them with his troops.

\Vhen Sumaworo's men heard that So'olon Ma'an and his troops were coming to pay their respects to the people of Negeboriya, they lined their musket barrels along the top of the wall and wait<·d. When Sunjata and his men arrived, the muskets fired and fired and fired at them!

Forced to retreat, Sunjata returned to find Manden in mourning over his defeat at the Battle of Negeboriya. But Sunjata's powerful army was not destroyed, and Sumaworo had lost his sacred drum Dunun Mutukuru during the battle. (That drum, the Dunun Mutukuru, was never found; only the bala was saved.)

[In omitted passages, bacl~ in Manden hvo rams that are nmned for Sunjata and Smnaworo, respectfoely, fight 011e another in a symbolic preview of the battle to come. Preparing for the Battle of Dakajalan, Sunjata calls for volunteers. The anny of Manden is divided into companies of men who possess occult powers, companies of those who have no magic, and one unit made up of famous ances- tral figures with the power to become invisible. In a secret meeting with Manjan

9. Kayafaya is said to have been ajammza, or province, attached to Negeboriya under the Koroma ruling lineage.

SUNIATA 53

Berete, Sunjata learns the elaborate strategy lie must adopt to defeat Sumaworo. He exchanges his sorcery horse for the sorcery mare of the jelimuso Tunku Man- yan Diawara. He also sends a messenger to his sister, Nana Triban, who is in Soso, to retrieve from her the dibilan medicine that she steals from the tail of Sumaworo's horse]

Trading Insults and Swearing Oaths

Manden mourned after each of their battles against Sumaworo. He made many women widows. He made shirts and pants from the skins of Mande and Soso people. He sewed a hat of human skin. He even made shoes of human skin and then ordered the surviving Mande people to come and name them. If one of the people tried to name the shoes "Finfirinya Shoes," Sumaworo would say, "That is not the name." If someone tried "Dulubiri shoes," he would say, "That is not the name." Finally, the people asked him, "All right, Sumaworo, what are your shoes called?" He said, "My human-skin shoes are called 'Take the Air, take the Ground from the Chief.' I wear your skins because the Mande people will always be around me, Sumaworo. You will always be in my power."

After both sides had made their preparations, the war began. Briefly, here's what happened:

The three Mande divisions-including those men who could become invisible in the daytime and the five mori diviners-arrived at the first battle. Simbon was placed in the middle of his men, with Manjan Berete directly in front of him. The men were packed so tightly that the head of one man's horse touched the tail of the horse in front of him. Sanbari Mara Cisse and Siriman Kanda Toure were there, as were Kon Mara and Djane, Manden Bori, Tombonon Sitafa Diawara, Turama'an, Kankejan, and Fakoli. Sunjata ordered them to maintain their positions on the battlefield, so they marched back and forth in a line, like an army of ants. Simbon was in the middle!

When they arrived at the battlefield, Ma'an Sunjata said, "Men of Manden, wait here," and crossed the field with his masked flag bearers, headed for Suma- woro's camp. Sumaworo's troops were also there, waiting in position. Sumaworo sat astride his horse, surrounded by his corps of personal guards.

As he approached Sumaworo, Sunjata said, "Father Sumaworo, good morn- ing." (True bravery is revealed by the mouth!)

Sumaworo said, "Marahaba, good morning. Where are the Mande troops?" "Ah, Father Sumaworo, they are over on the Mande side." "Ah, is that how you usually arrange your troops?" Sunjata said, "Well, I am new at this. This is our first encounter in battle. If I

brought my men over here, they'd mingle with your troops, and ,ve'd be unable to tell whose men are whose. 1 You can see them standing over there on the Mande side."

"Ah, So'olon Ma'an, this is not the usual procedure." Feeling bold, Sunjata said, "Well, you killed all of the other leaders; there was

nobody left to lead the Mande troops." Sumaworo said, "I say to you, Bala Fasali, tell Simbon that I am doing him a

favor by inviting him to meet here on the battlefield. I understand that the Mande

I. The problem of distinguishing between ally book, the narrator describes how Kamanjan and enemy in the heat of battle was a serious Kamara introduced facial scarification for that concern. In an episode not included in this purpose.

54 SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

people sent for Sunjata so he could be their commander in battle. But apparently they did not tell him about anything that happened while he was away.

"This is why I have invited him to come and meet in the field: so that I can tell him what I have to say, and he can tell me what is on his mind. Then I will do to him what I planned to do-or he can try to do to me what he wants to."

Simbon said, "I appreciate the invitation. Ah! You are my respected elder. The person who has helped one's father is also one's father. But let me tell you some- thing, father Sumaworo: people may refuse peanuts, but not the ones that have been placed right in front of them."

Sumaworo said, "M'ba, give me some snuff from Manden."2

"Ah! Father Sumaworo, it is more appropriate for the master to give snuff to his apprentice, rather than for the apprentice to give snuff to his master. Give me some snuff from Soso, so that I will know I have met my master."

Sumaworo took out his snuffbox and handed it to Sunjata. Simbon put some snuff in his palm, took a pinch and snorted it, took another pinch and snorted it, and put some in his mouth. He closed the snuffbox and gave it back to Suma- woro. The snuff did not even make Sunjata's tongue quiver.

Sumaworo was surprised. Anybody who took that snuff would immediately fal) over. It was poison! But So'olon Ma'an sucked on the snuff and didn't even cough. He spit the snuff on the ground.

Then Sumaworo said, "Give me some Mande snuff." Simbon reached in his pocket, took out his snuffbox, and handed it to Sumaworo, who put some in his palm. He took a pinch of snuff and snorted it, took some more and snorted it, and put the rest in his mouth. That was specially prepared snuff, too, but it did not do anything to him.

Sumaworo said to him, "I asked you to meet with me because the Mantle people seem to think you are their mansa, and it's true that you would not be here if you didn't have some dalilu. But your dalilu will do no good against me. I told you before, when you passed through Soso, that if the Mande people tried to send you to fight me, you should refuse. As you now know, I have become hot ashes surrounding Manden and Soso; any toddler who tries to cross me will be burned up to his thighs. And yet here you are."

"Ah, father Sumaworo, as I told you, this is my father's home, not yours. You are not from here: your grandfather came from Folonengbe; your father was a latecomer to Manden. You are only the second generation of your people in Manden. But we have been here for eight generations: our ancestor Mamadi Kani first came here from Hejaji. After him came Mamadi Kani's son, Kani Sim- bon, Kani Nyogo Simbon, Kabala Simbon, Big Simbon Mamadi Tanyagati, Balinene, Bele, and Belebakon, and Farako Manko Farakonken. Now I am Far- ako Manko Farakonken's son, the eighth generation. My people have been here all along; you only arrived yesterday, your dawn is just breaking today.

"Huh!" continued Sunjata. "And you say that I have just arrived? M'ba, huh! You are my respected elder, so I will not be the first to make a move. You invited me here to tell me that rm a disrespectful child? You just go ahead and show what you've got."

Sumaworo said, "Bisimillahi.''

2. This request commences a standard ritual called sigifili, conducted between O[>posing commanders before a battle; it involved boast-

ing about one's powers and swearing oaths while taking a poisonous snuff that would kill a liar.

SUNJATA 55

The Battle of Dakajalan and Fakoli's Revenge

When something is filled to the brim, it will overflow. When Sumaworo took his sword and struck at Sunjata, his blade flexed like

a whip. Sunjata also struck with his sword; the blade of his sword also bent. Sumaworo raised his musket and fired, but nothing touched So'olon Ma'an. So'olon Ma'an then fired his musket at Sumaworo but failed to wound him.

With that, the dalilu was finished, and the two men just stood there. Suma- woro reached into his saddlebag and took his whip. As he raised his hand like this, So'olon Ma'an seized his reins like this-Clap!-and dashed away.

The two armies were waiting, Soso on one side, Manden on the other. Every- body was watching the commanders on the battlefield. Fakoli stood off to one side of Sunjata; Turama'an was on his other side. Sumaworo was also flanked by his men.

Blu, blu! Sunjata, Sumaworo, and their men dashed across the field and up the hill. Near the top of the hill, they faded from sight; even their dust dis- appeared. Soon they reached the edge of a very deep ravine. Gathering all her strength, Sunjata's sorcery mare (Tunku Manyan Diawara's horse) jumped the ravine and landed on the other side. When Sumaworo's horse tried to jump the ravine, it tumbled to the bottom. 3 Fakoli and Turama'an-whose horses safely jumped the ravine-turned and, with Sunjata, went to look down at Sumaworo who was trapped at the bottom of the ravine.

Sunjata called down, "Sumaworo, what is the matter?" "So'olon Ma'an, kill me here; do not carry me to the town. Do not bring such

shame to me. God controls all time. Please do not take me back." Sumaworo removed his dalilu and dropped his horse-whip. He stripped com-

pletely, taking off his human-skin shirt and trousers. Sunjata said, "I am not going to finish you off. No one can climb out of that

ravine; you're stuck. I do not want your shirt of human skin, because it is the skin of my father's relatives. I will not take it." Turning to his companions he said, "Come, let's go home."

They had gone some distance when Fakoli made a decision, turned, and went back to the ravine. When he arrived there, he said to Sumaworo, "What did I tell you? When you took back your sister,4 what did I say?" Taking his axe from his shoulder, Fakoli struck Sumaworo on the head, poh! He said, "This will be men- tioned in Ma'an Sunjata's praise song." (And he was right! Though we sing, "Head-breaking Mari Jata," it was Fakoli who broke Sumaworo's head.) 5

Fakoli started to leave. But he was still angry, so he went back to the ravine again and struck Sumaworo on the leg, gbao! Fakoli broke Sumaworo's leg,

3. Though not usually seen in versions of the Sunjata epic, the incident of the horse tumbling into a ravine is a popular motif in jeli storytell- ing, a favorite way of disposing of the hero's enemy. 4. Fakoli's wife, Keleya Konkon. 5. It is unusual for a jeli to describe the death of Sumaworo, as Tassey Conde docs here. In many versions, Sumaworo flees to the mountain at Koulikoro where he disappears. The Kouyate and Diabate jeliw, among others, are usually careful not to say that Sumaworo was slain by

Sunjata, Fakoli, or anybody else. Such things arc taken seriously in modern times, because Maninka and Bamana identify with the ances- tors whose names they carry. The version trans- lated here was recorded in a private performance in the narrator's own house, but in a public per- formance, giving details of a humiliating defeat (even one alleged to have occurred more than seven centuries ago) risks embarrassing any people in the audience who regard themselves as descendants of the defeated ancestor.

56 I SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

saying, "This will also be mentioned in Ma'an Sunjata's praise song." (That is why we sing, "Leg-Breaking Mari Jata.") ,

With his axe, Fakoli returned to the ravine a third time and broke Sumaworo s arm, saying, "This, too, will be mentioned in Ma'an Sunjata's praise song." (And so we sing, "Arm-Breaking Mari Jata." Aheh! It was not Jata who broke it! It was Fakoli who broke it.)

Finally Sunjata and his men went home. Laughter returned to Manden, and eventually Soso joined in.

[In omitted passages, the narrator describes how, following the defeat of Suma- woro, the people of Soso dispersed and eventually settled in various communities along the Atlantic coast. Meanwhile, Sunjata begins to initiate refonns and orga- nize the newly unified Mali Empire.]

The Campaign against Jolofin Mansa

After the war was over, Ma'an Sunjata said, "My fathers and my brothers: now that the war has ended and the mansaya has come to us, the Mansare, let's send our horse-buyers to Senu to replace the many Mande horses killed by Suma- woro. We should buy enough horses for each of our elders and warriors to have one."

So the horse-buyers went to Senu an<l bought hundreds of horses. On the way back to Manden, the horse-buyers stopped at the jamana of Jolofin Mansa, and there Jolofin Mansa robbed the buyers of their horses; he then took the horse- buyers captive and beheaded all but two. Jolofin Mansa sent the two survivors to tell Ma'an Sunjata that even though Ma'an Sunjata had taken over the power- that Sunjata had recently received the Mande mansaya-he knew the Mande walked on all fours like dogs, and that they should leave horse-riding to others.

The two horse-buyers arrived in Manden and gave the message to Ma'an Sun- jata, who said, "Jolofin Mansa has extended an invitation to me. I myself will lead the campaign against Jolofin l\[ansa."

His younger brother Manden Bori said, "Elder brother, are you going to lead us in that campaign? Give me the command, and I will do the fighting."

"I am not giving you command of the army." Fakoli said, "Simbon, give me the army! We will not stay here while you lead

the army. Give the army to me. Fakoli, so I can go after Jolofin Mansa." Simbon said, "I will not give you the army. I will go myself." Meanwhile, Turama'an was digging his own grave. He cut some toro branches,

laid them on his grave, and had his shroud sewn. Then he said to Ma'an Sunjata, "Simbon, I'll kill myself if you do not give me the army. Would you really leave us behind while you lead the army to go after Jolofin Mansa? Give me the army. If you don't, if you go after Jolofin Mansa yourself, you will lose me, for I'll kill myself."

"Ah," said Simbon. "I did not know you felt so strongly, Turama'an. Yourdalilu and my dalilu are tied together: my mother was given to your fathers, who killed the buffalo of Do ni Kiri. If your father and my mother had gotten along, my mother would have stayed with your father. Because my mother did not get along with your fathers, your fathers brought my mother to my father, and I was born out of that marriage, as were my younger brothers Mand en Bori and So' olon Jamori.

SUNJATA 57

"My father took my younger siblings Nana Triban and Tenenbajan, and gave them to Danmansa Wulanni and Danmansa Wulanba, your fathers. You, Turama'an, are the son of Danmansa Wulanni. Considering what you have said, you and I are equal in this war, and I will let you take the army."

So Sunjata gave Turama'an command of the army, and Turama'an prepared the army for war. With the campaign underway, they marched to Jolofin Mansa's land.

(You know Jolofin Mansa, he was one of the Mansare. The son of Latali Kalabi, the Mansare ancestor, was Danmatali Kalabi; Danmatali Kalabi then also named his son Latali Kalabi. This second Latali sired Kalabi Doman and Kalabi Bomba, and Kalabi Doman sired Mamadi Kani. Mamadi Kani sired Kani Simbon, Kani Nyogo Simbon, Kabala Simbon, Big Simhon Madi Tanyagati, and M'balinene; M'balinene sired Bele, Bele sired Belebakon, Belebakon sired Maghan Konfara, and this Farako Manko Farakonken was Ma'an Sunjata's father.

So Jolofin Mansa and Ma'an Sunjata both descended from the same person. And Jolofin's people-the Jolofin na mo'olu-became known as the Wolofo. 6

Have you heard people calling the Wolofo "little Mande people"? That's because they all came from Manden.)

Turama'an marched the army of Manden to Jolofin Mansa's land and there destroyed Jolofin Mansa's place like it was an old clay pot; Turama'an broke it like an old calabash. He also captured those who were supposed to be captured, killed those who were supposed to be killed.

Though his soldiers had been defeated, Jolofin Mansa had not been captured, so he fled with Turama'an in pursuit. Jolofin Mansa headed for the big river/

At that time, no one knew that Jolofin Mansa could transform himself into a crocodile, living on land or under water. When he came to the big river, Jolofin Mansa plunged in and swam into a cave; there he transformed himself into a crocodile and lay down to wait.

Standing above the cave, Turama'an and his men said, "Jolofin Mansa went in here." The Mande men were good warriors, but they were not used to water fighting. All of the battle commanders standing there were dressed for fighting on land; they were all wearing hunting clothes and carried quivers and bows. Until they stood at the entrance to that cave, the Mande people did not know that they had a warrior who could fight under water.

Turama'an said, "Jolofin Mansa has changed himself into a crocodile and gone into that cave. We can't leave him there, for if we destroy the war mansa's home without killing the war mansa himself, we have not won the battle. But who will go after him?"

Everybody kept quiet, Zele! Again Turama'an asked, "Who will go after him?" Nobody spoke up, so

Turama'an asked a third time, "Who will follow this man?" The Diawara chief, whose name was Tombonon Sitafa Diawara, stepped out

from among the soldiers. He said, "Turama'an, tell the Mande people that if they agree, I, Sitafa Diawara, will go after Jolofin Mansa. But also tell them that I am

6. Maninka pronunciation attaches an extra vowel. The Wolof, who call their country Jolof (see previous sentence), arc mainly in Senegal (the narrator's "Senu"), and they speak a Ian-

guage that is not interintelligible with Mand- ing languages. 7. The Senegal River.

58 I SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC

not doing this to prove my manhood. I'm doing it because we can't return home to Simbon having only destroyed Jolofin Mansa's home. If we return home with- out also having killed Jolofin Mansa himself, Simbon will wonder why we told him to stay home."

(That is why, if you are a real man, you should stay low to the ground when you are among the k.amalenw. You should only reveal the kind of man you are when somebody challenges your group.)

Meanwhile, Jolofin Mansa's crocodile wraith was lying in the cave, its mouth open wide. The upper jaw reached to the top of the entrance, the lower jaw reached to the bottom. Anybody who went after the crocodile would end up in its stomach, and the crocodle would just close his mouth. Eh! There would be no need to chew.

Sitafa Diawara said, "I'll give you two signs when I get down to where the crocodile is. If, while the water is bubbling and churning and turning the color of blood, you see a pelican flying from where the sun sets to where it rises, Manden should weep, for you'll know that Jolofin Mansa has defeated me. But if, while the water is bubbling and churning and turning the color of blood, the pelican flies from where the sun rises to where it sets, you Mande people should be happy, for it will mean I have honored you and God. Those are the signs I've given you."

Diawara put on his medicine clothes and gathered all his dalilu. He had a small knife fastened to his chest, and a short Bozo8 fish-spear hung from his waist.

To the other warriors Diawara said, "Excuse me. We may meet in this world or we may meet in God's kingdom. If I'm successful, we'll meet in this world; I'll come back and find you here. But if I'm overcome by the crocodile, we'll meet in God's kingdom." Then he dove into the water and swam into the cave, unaware that he was actually swimming straight into the crocodile's stomach. The croco- dile closed its mouth on him.

As the crocodile closed its mouth on him, Diawara the hunter demonstrated his dalilu. Though he was trapped inside the crocodile, he was still alive, as com- fortable as if he were in his own house. Taking his spear from his side, he stabbed the crocodile here, pu!; he stabbed it there, pu! The crocodile went kututu. Diawara speared the crocodile over and over again.

The water bubbled, and blood came to the surface. As the water around him turned bloody, Diawara reached for the knife on his chest. He sliced a hole in the crocodile's belly and swam out of it. Then, still under the water, he twisted the crocodile's front legs and tied them together.

As Diawara swam to the surface with the crocodile, a pelican flew by, squawk- ing, from east to west. Manden laughed. As they hauled the crocodile wraith up onto the riverbank, Jolofin Mansa himself appeared. He was captured, tied up, and taken to Sunjata, the mansa.

Turama'an, who was the commander at that battle, brought Jolofin Mansa's treasure to Ma'an Sunjata. Manden was at last free, and the war was over.

8. An ethnic group of the Middle Niger, spe- mainly located between Sansanding and Lake cializing in fishing and boating occupations, Debo in Mali.