Theory to Practice

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STUDY GUIDE: THEORY TO PRACTICE EXAM The following ELCC standards and explanation of their research base may assist you in preparing for the Theory to Practice Exam. These selected standards are the ones being assessed in the exam: ELCC 1.1, 2.1, 3.3, 3.4, 4.2, 4.3, 5.2, and 5.3. ELCC Standard Element 1.1: Candidates understand and can collaboratively develop, articulate, implement, and steward a shared vision of learning for a school. This is indicated by their knowledge of the following:

♦ collaborative school visioning; ♦ theories relevant to building, articulating, implementing, and stewarding a school vision; ♦ methods for involving school stakeholders in the visioning process.

ELCC 1.1: Research Base The importance of shared school vision, mission, and goals for student success is well documented in the effective schools literature (Clark, Lotto, & Astuto, 1984; Hallinger & Murphy, 1986; Purkey & Smith, 1983; Rosenholtz, 1985; Rutter et al., 1979) and subsequently in the school improvement literature (Chrispeels, 1992; Fullan & Miles, 1992; Kurland, Peretz, & Hertz-Lazarowitz, 2010; Lambert, 1998; Leithwood et al., 1994; Leithwood & Jantzi, 1999 a, b; Murphy et al., 2007; Powell et al., 2009; Short & Greer, 1997; Silins et al., 2002; Tillman, 2004). When vision, mission, and goals are widely shared, student achievement is most likely to increase (Chrispeels, 1992; Harris, 2002; Printy & Marks, 2006; Rutter et al., 1979).

Vision and mission statements vary. Some include a social as well as an academic focus (Chrispeels, 1992; Lightfoot, 1986; Short & Greer, 1997; Silins et al., 2002); some refer to student learning as well as or instead of achievement-test scores (Firestone & Gonzáles, 2007; Harris, 2002; Marks & Printy, 2003). Trust extended to students (Printy & Marks, 2006; Rutter et al., 1979; Short & Greer, 1997; Silins & Mulford, 2004; Silins et al., 2002) and to teachers (Harris, 2002; Short & Greer, 1997; Silins et al., 2002; Tschannen-Moran, 2009) is reported to be important in moving toward ideals captured in vision and mission statements. Use of various techniques for involving stakeholders in the visioning process is explored in the research (Chrispeels, 1992; Chance, Copeland, Farris, & Allen, 1994; Short & Greer, 1997). Developing a shared vision and mission requires consensus-building strategies with teachers in particular, but also with other school-based personnel and external stakeholders (Chance et al., 1994; Marks & Printy, 2003; McPike, 1987; Purkey & Smith, 1983; Short & Greer, 1997; Silins & Mulford, 2004; Silins et al., 2002). Sustaining commitment to the vision and mission is enhanced when principals and others communicate them often and sometimes strategically (Short & Greer, 1997) to the appropriate constituencies (Silins & Mulford, 2004; Silins et al., 2002). Schools are attended by students whose families come from a variety of Western and non- Western cultures. Culture is one of many types of diversity. Diversity also includes socioeconomic status, race and ethnicity, language differences, and various learning styles. Responding positively to diversity and proactively to students’ learning needs enables schools to improve student learning and achievement (Casner-Lotto, 1988; Clark et al., 1984;

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Delpit, 1992; Gerstl-Pepin, 2006; Kohl, 2007; Rutter et al., 1979; Stedman, 1985; Tillman, 2004). Embracing diversity subsumes understanding schools as interactive social and cultural systems and necessitates cultural competence for school leaders (Aspiazu, Bauer, & Spillett, 1998; Bustamante, Nelson, & Onwuegbuzie, 2009; Institute for Educational Leadership, 2005). Several studies have noted that establishing a school culture that applauds diversity entails creating a caring community (Gerstl-Pepin, 2006; Harris, 2002; Lightfoot, 1986; Murphy, 2005; Silins & Mulford, 2004; Tschannen-Moran, 2009).

ELCC Standard Element 2.1: Candidates understand and can sustain a school culture and instructional program conducive to student learning through collaboration, trust, and a personalized learning environment with high expectations for students. This is indicated by their knowledge of the following:

♦ theories on human development behavior, personalized learning environment, and motivation;

♦ school culture and ways it can be influenced to ensure student success.

ELCC 2.1: Research Base This element stresses the role of school leaders in developing an effective school culture. Candidates should have knowledge of the elements of school culture and ways it can be influenced to ensure student success and human development theories, proven learning and motivational theories, and knowledge of how diversity influences the learning process (Darling-Hammond et al., 2009; Leithwood et al., 1996). This dimension of leadership has been widely researched over the past 30 years through case study and survey research. An extensive body of research beginning with early effective schools research (Edmonds, 1979) continually with the most recent large-scale, multi school research study (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2008; Louis et al., 2010; Wahlstrom & Seashore-Louis, 2008) sought to capture the leader actions that contribute most to a culture that positively influences student learning.. Much of the research focused either specifically on culture influencing actions or on those actions among other effective leadership practices. Research has described the importance of leaders setting high expectations (Hallinger & Heck, 1998; Leithwood & Jantzi, 1999a, b; Leithwood et al., 2004; Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005), and creating a culture of collaboration and trust among staff and the larger community (Hoy, Sweetland, & Smith, 2002; Hoy, Tarter, & Bliss, 1990; Podsokoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, & Fetter, 1990; Silins et al., 2002; Sweetland & Hoy, 2000; Tschannen-Moran, 2003; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 1998). Various terms have been used to signify school or organizational culture, including fostering organizational health (Hoy & Woolfolk, 1993), and creating a culture of care (Hayes, Christie, Mills, & Lingard, 2004). Findings reported in various reviews of research and large-scale multivariate analyses confirm that leaders strongly influence student learning by creating and sustaining a culture that sets high expectations and enables teachers and students to learn and work productively. A few studies have tried to differentiate leader practices by comparing similarly challenged schools that have different student outcomes (Brown, Anfara, & Roney, 2004; Watts, Campell, Gau, Jacobs, Rex, & Hess, 2006). Results of these studies similarly underscored the leaders’ influence on building a supportive culture around high expectations.

ELCC Standard Element 3.3: Candidates understand and can promote school-based policies and procedures that protect the welfare and safety of students and staff. This is indicated by their

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knowledge of the following: ♦ school strategies supporting safe and secure learning environments including prevention,

crisis management, and public relations; ♦ school strategies supporting student development of self-management, civic literacy, and

positive leadership skills; ♦ school-based discipline management policies and plans. ELCC 3.3: Research Base Much of the support for Standard 3.3 is grounded in the law and case law precedent rather than from empirical research. However, the effective schools research of the 1980s emphasized the creation of an orderly school environment as one of the critical components of effective schools—a necessary but not sufficient condition for student learning (Purkey & Smith, 1983). Similarly, research by Browne-Ferrigno, Hunt, Allan, and Rowe (2006) found that successful schools have a culture of leadership that supports a safe, orderly environment.

ELCC Standard Element 3.4: Candidates understand and can develop school capacity for distributed leadership. This is indicated by their knowledge of the following:

♦ the meaning of distributed leadership in a school environment and how to create and sustain it.

ELCC 3.4: Research Base Candidates have knowledge about the meaning of distributed leadership and how to create and sustain it (Day & Leithwood, 2007; Firestone & Martinez, 2009; Gronn, 2002; Harris, 2009; Leithwood, Mascall, & Strauss, 2009; Spillane, 2006; Spillane, Halverson, & Diamond, 2001). Evidence on effective principals demonstrates the importance of understanding and practicing leadership as a network of relationships rather than “control over processes or outcomes” (Leithwood et al., 2009, p. 7). Research has demonstrated that the principal’s practice of distributed leadership can take various forms depending on school characteristics, specific leadership activities, the school’s stage of development, resources, and the leader’s personal preferences (Leithwood, Mascall, Strauss, Sacks, Memon, & Yashkina., 2007; Portin, 2003; Portin, Knapp, Dareff, Feldman, Russell, Samuelson, & Yeh, 2009; Spillane et al., 2001). Although research findings are mixed in terms of the effects of distributed leadership on student learning, evidence exists to support the claim that principals’ use of distributed leadership contributes to school change, student achievement, and organizational learning (Day & Leithwood, 2007; Leithwood et al., 2009; Seashore Louis & Marks, 1998; Stoll & Seashore Louis, 2007; Wahlstrom & Seashore Louis, 2008; York-Barr & Duke, 2004). Louis et al., (2010) concluded that leaders should, as a matter of policy and practice, extend significant influence to others in the school community as a foundation for their efforts to improve student achievement. Candidates are able to identify leadership capabilities of staff at various levels of the school, including teacher leaders and assistant principals (Copland, 2003; Firestone & Martinez, 2009; Gronn, 2002; Leithwood et al., 2009). In addition, effective principals model collaboration skills and are able to authentically involve faculty and staff in decision-making processes (Copland, 2003; Silins et al., 2002; Wahlstrom & Seashore Louis, 2008). Research on principal leadership has demonstrated an indirect, but significant, effect on student learning via the principal’s support of teacher collaboration and communication (Supovitz et

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al., 2010).

ELCC Standard Element 4.2: Candidates understand and can mobilize community resources by promoting an understanding, appreciation, and use of the diverse cultural, social, and intellectual resources within the school community. This is indicated by their knowledge of the following:

♦ identify and mobilize effective community resources; ♦ school-based cultural competence; ♦ diverse cultural, social, and intellectual community resources.

ELCC 4.2: Research Base Candidates must possess cultural competence and have a basic knowledge of the communities they serve to understand, appreciate, and use the community’s diverse cultural, social, and intellectual community resources (Aspiazu et al., 1998; Bustamante et al., 2009; Flanagan, Cumsille, Gill, & Gallay, 2007; Franke, Isken, & Parra, 2003; Gaitan, 2004; Harry, 1992; C. M. Tucker & Herman, 2002). Given the growing diversity of students, their families, and communities, cultural competence across a broad spectrum of constituents is viewed as critical to building a welcoming environment for learning in schools and at home.

Cultural competence refers to the ability of a leader to understand his/her own cultural background and values and work successfully with individuals of different cultures without engaging in deficit categorization of them. This capacity is sometimes referred to as engaging in leadership with cross-cultural skills. Limited research suggests that programs can enhance culturally competent practice and that the climate and culture within a school is related to school-wide cultural competence. Increased understanding and appreciation of cultural differences, as well as commonalities, serve as the foundation for “cultural relationships,” which are necessary for reciprocity and collaboration within schools and with community entities (Bustamante et al., 2009; Evans, 2007; Gaitan, 2004; Harry, 1992; Nazinga-Johnson, Baker, & Aupperlee, 2009; Tucker & Herman, 2002). The importance of candidates being able to identify and match diverse community resources to meet the needs of all students has been highlighted by a number of studies looking at outreach with specific student populations (Blue-Banning et al., 2004; Christenson, 2004; Epstein & Sanders, 2006; Gaitan, 2004; Leistyna, 2002; Tucker & Herman, 2002; Zirkel, 2008).

ELCC Standard Element 4.3: Candidates understand and can respond to community interests and needs by building and sustaining positive school relationships with families and caregivers. This is indicated by their knowledge of the following:

♦ the needs of students, parents or caregivers; ♦ school organizational culture that promotes open communication with families and

caregivers; ♦ school strategies for effective oral and written communication with families and caregivers; ♦ approaches to collaboration with families and caregivers.

ELCC 4.3: Research Base Candidates have knowledge of the needs of students, parents, or caregivers (Catsambis, 2002; Christenson, 2004; Fuerstein, 2000; Harris & Chapman, 2002; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005; Landsman, 2006; Patrikakou, & Weissberg, 2000; Reid et al., 2005; Ryan & Martin, 2000; Seashore Louis & Miles, 1990). To build trusting relationships with parents and key

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community members, school leaders must first understand the challenges and pressing issues in the lives of their students and their communities. Based on this knowledge, responsive outreach efforts can be undertaken that build relationships of consequence for caretakers (A. R. Anderson et al., 2004; Blank, Melaville, & Shah, 2003; Barnyak, & McNelly, 2009; Blue- Banning et al., 2004; Epstein & Sanders, 2006; Harris & Chapman, 2002; Harry, 1992). The research has described a wide range of strategies that bring parents into the school for meaningful engagement and dialogue or create events in the community, such as potluck dinners and sporting events, that create a sense of connectedness (e.g., Colombo, 2004). Efforts to engage family members in the learning environment for children and youth have been found to be related to stronger cognitive and emotional outcomes in many research studies, some of which offer compelling longitudinal evidence of impact (Catsambis, 2002; Epstein & Sheldon, 2002; Fan & Chen, 2001; Fantuzzo, McWayne, Perry, & Childs, 2004; Jeynes, 2005; Mathematica Policy Research & the Center for Children, Youth, and Families, 2001; Reynolds, 1999; Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, & Mann, 2002; Xu, Kushner Benson, Mudrey-Camino, & Steiner, 2010).

To be effective in building positive relationships with families and caregivers, the candidate understands how to build the organizational culture that promotes open communication with families and caregivers (Levin & Fullan, 2008; Miretzky, 2004). Research has indicated that cultural competence is both an individual and organizational skill and must be developed at the building level to influence how students and families respond to engagement efforts (Benson & Martin, 2003; Bustamante et al., 2009; Epstein & Sanders, 2006; Griffith, 2001; Pena, 2000; Scheurich & Skrla, 2003; Steinberg, 1992).

Research has identified factors that help schools develop meaningful partnerships with schools, which include strategies for effective oral and written communication and collaboration with families and caregivers (Berger, 2003; Cairney, 2000; Gordon & Seashore Louis, 2009; Lawson, 2003; McIntyre, Kyle, Miller, & Moore, 2002; Miretsky, 2004; Pena, 2000; Porterfield & Carnes, 2008; Smrekar & Cohen-Vogal, 2001). These partnerships are related to higher levels of family involvement in student learning at home and school (Durlak et al., 2007; Epstein, 2005; Sheldon, 2005; Sheldon & Van Voorhis, 2004; Taylor & Pearson, 2004).

Candidates are able to assess the needs of students, parents, or caregivers; articulate a vision of school leadership characterized by respect for children and their families; apply oral and written communication and collaboration strategies to develop school relationships with families and caregivers; and involve families and caregivers in decision making about their children’s education (Epstein, 2005; Gordon & Seashore Louis, 2009; Jacobson, Brooks, Giles, Johnson, & Ylimaki, 2007; Miretzky, 2004). The research on the National Network of Partnership Schools provides the best evidence of how these elements work together to ensure better learning outcomes for students (Epstein, 2005; Epstein & Sanders, 2006; Sanders & Epstein, 2000; Sheldon, 2005).

ELCC Standard Element 5.2: Candidates understand and can model principles of self- awareness, reflective practice, transparency, and ethical behavior as related to their roles within the school. This is indicated by their knowledge of the following:

♦ the basic principles of ethical behavior established by legal and professional organizations; ♦ the relationship between ethical behavior, school culture, and student achievement;

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♦ the effect of ethical behavior on one’s own leadership.

ELCC 5.2: Research Base Candidates have knowledge of the legal and professional organizations’ information to understand the basic tenets of ethical behavior; the relationship between ethical behavior, building culture, and student achievement; and the effect of ethical behavior on one’s own leadership (Beckner, 2004; Begley, 2006; Brennan & Brennan, 1988; Bustamante et al., 2009; Chouhoud & Zirkel, 2008; Gavin & Zirkel, 2008; Holler & Zirkel, 2008; Lupini & Zirkel, 2003; McGough, 2003; Webster, 1994; Zirkel, 1997; Zirkel & Clark, 2008; Zirkel & D’Angelo, 2002; Zirkel & Gischlar, 2008). Although the research literature does not specifically refer to information provided by professional organizations, it does emphasize the importance of understanding and having a set of ethical principles (Beckner, 2004; Begley, 2006; Brennan & Brennan, 1988). Candidates are able to formulate a school-level leadership platform grounded in ethical standards and practices and analyze decisions in terms of established ethical standards (Browne-Ferrigno, 2003; Bush, 2008; Huefner, 1994; Stöcklin, 2010; Walker & Shuangye, 2007; Wegenke, 2000). The empirical basis for developing a leadership platform grounded in ethical standards is underdeveloped. Moreover, the majority of studies that specifically stress the importance of having a leadership platform are from outside of the United States (e.g., Bush, 2008; Huefner, 1994; Stöcklin, 2010; A. Walker & Shuangye, 2007). However, research that emphasizes the importance of formulating a vision or plan for the school that is grounded in a leader’s ethical principles is more common in the United States and is linked to literature on building school capacity and leading change (Beck, 1994; Beckner, 2004; Begley, 2006; Browne- Ferrigno, 2003).

ELCC Standard Element 5.3: Candidates understand and can safeguard the values of democracy, equity, and diversity. This is indicated by their knowledge of the following:

♦ democratic values, equity, and diversity.

ELCC 5.3: Research Base Candidates have knowledge of democratic values, equity, and diversity (Gross & Shapiro, 2004; Hess, 1993; Papa & Fortune, 2002; Rollow & Bryk, 1993; Rusch, 1998; Scheurich & Skrla, 2003; Theoharis, 2007). Moreover, school leaders play a pivotal role in shaping meaning; fostering understanding; and promoting the values of democracy, equity and diversity in their organizations through communication, symbols, structures, and routines (R. Cooper, 1996; Meyer, 1984; Strike, 1993). Candidates are able to develop, implement, and evaluate a professional development plan for a school that clearly addresses democratic values, equity, and diversity (Burch et al., 2010; Theoharis, 2007; Webster, 1994). Although much of the research on the leader’s role vis-à-vis professional development (e.g., Leithwood, 1994; Leithwood & Jantzi, 2008; Murphy & Seashore Louis, 1994) casts it as supportive, the leader is considered critical in the development of professional learning communities that support teacher growth (Fine, 1994; Seashore Louis & Kruse, 1995; Seashore Louis, Marks, & Kruse, 1996; Talbert, 1996). Furthermore, research has indicated that leaders who model democratic values and equity can develop such values and educational practice that serve the needs of diverse students among their staff members (Corson, 1995; Perry & Fraser, 1993; Rusch, 1998).

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