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Strategic-Business-Writing-5e.pdf
Strategic Business Writing 5e
Strategic Business Writing 5e
CLARK BARWICK, JEANETTE L. HEIDEWALD, MICHAEL C. MORRONE,
AND JUDY STEINER-WILLIAMS
INDIANA UNIVERSITY PRESS
BLOOMINGTON
Strategic Business Writing 5e Copyright © 2018 by Trustees of Indiana University. All Rights Reserved.
Contents
Strategic Business Writing: Commit to Becoming a
Better Writer
1
Part I. Learn the Theory Behind Strategic Business
Writing
1. Use the Communication Model to Guide Your
Writing Strategy
9
2. Analyze Risk to Maximize Communication
Outcomes
14
3. Develop a Growth Mindset and Set Actionable
Goals to Improve Your Strategic Business Writing
Skills
17
4. Build the Strategic Business Writing Skills
Employers Value Most
19
5. Communicate Strategically Within a Crowded
Information Environment
24
Part II. Planning
6. Plan with Purpose, Audience, Content, and
Context
31
7. Plan, Draft, Revise 37
Part III. Purpose
8. Brainstorm, Narrow, and Articulate Your Working
Purpose Statement
43
9. Organize with Purpose 47
10. Revise for Audience and Context 51
11. Develop a Strong Purpose Statement 54
12. Focus Your Message with a Purpose Statement 55
13. Know the Benefits of Identifying Your Purpose 57
14. Determine Your Purpose 59
15. Understand Strategic Business Writing 60
Part IV. Audience
16. Identify Your Reader 67
17. Research Your Reader 69
18. Build a Relationship with Your Reader 71
19. Analyze Pronoun Choice and Overall Focus 75
20. Consider Secondary and Unintended Audiences 77
21. Write Your Audience-Centered Message 79
Part V. Tone
22. Apply Positive Tone Techniques to Internal and
External Messages
89
23. Emphasize Positive Tone with Additional
Strategies
92
24. Analyze the Impact of Positive Tone Wording 94
25. Consider the Tone for an Audience-Centered
Message
96
Part VI. Credible Content
26. Select Credible and Sufficient Evidence to
Persuade Your Reader
101
27. Use the Credible Content Checklist 106
28. Integrate Evidence into Your Organized Argument
to Best Meet Your Reader’s Needs, Add Credibility,
and Enhance Persuasion
108
29. Identify Your Reader’s Likely Assumptions 111
Part VII. Organization
30. Use the Indirect Approach for Persuasive
Documents
117
31. Apologize Cautiously 122
32. Delay the Purpose for Negative Messages 124
33. Consider the Indirect Approach for Negative and
Persuasive Messages
130
34. Follow the Direct Opening with Details and a
Goodwill Ending
132
35. Use the Direct Approach for Routine and Good
News Messages
139
Part VIII. Style Revision
36. Use the Document Revision Checklist 147
37. Structure Sentences for Concise and Precise
Business Style
149
38. Revise for Style to Connect Not to Impress 155
39. Revise for a Formal or Informal Business Style 158
40. Structure Paragraphs for Concise and Precise
Business Style and Meaningful Transitions
161
Part IX. Design
41. Follow the Document Format Used by Your
Employer or Industry
173
42. Combine Design Elements to Enhance Clarity,
Hierarchy, and Tone
181
43. Create Salience with Lists and Mechanical
Emphasis
184
44. Know How Readers View and Comprehend a
Document
188
45. Frame Words, Phrases, and Images 192
46. Position Content for Emphasis 197
47. Write Headings to Communicate Your Argument
and Organizational Logic
199
Part X. Visual Argument
48. View Deck Design on a Continuum: One Deck
Does Not Fit All
209
49. Use the Slide Deck Revision Checklist 214
50. Move from Storyline to Storyboard: Identify and
Align Necessary Content
215
51. Plan Your Visual Argument: Start with Your
Storyline
224
52. Use Visual Argument in Your Business Writing 228
Part XI. Complex Argument / Report Writing
53. Analyze Your Report’s Audience and Purpose 273
54. Analyze the Meaning of Your Evidence 275
55. Select the Best Report Type 284
56. Structure Your Argument with Claim + Evidence +
Source Paragraphs and Slides
293
57. Use the Complex Argument/Report Checklist 299
58. Organize Your Complex Argument into a Reader-
Centered Story
300
Part XII. Supplemental
59. Develop Successful Teams 307
60. Evaluate Meeting Guidelines 317
61. Write an Executive Summary 322
62. Prepare a Press Release 325
63. Eliminate Biased Language 328
64. Use Correct Grammar and Punctuation 330
65. Write Numbers, Fractions, and Quotes Correctly 346
66. Write Ethically and Persuasively About Statistics 349
67. Ask and Answer Questions Effectively 350
68. Refresh Your Presentation Skills 358
Author Bios 361
Search key terms of Strategic Business Writing 363
Strategic Business Writing: Commit to Becoming a Better Writer
Understanding strategic business writing will help you to set
actionable goals for your skill development to grow as a thinker,
writer, speaker, teammate, and business professional.
As a strategic business writer, you will see communication as a
strategic process and learn to craft clear, concise, and persuasive
messages by identifying and meeting the needs and values of
specific audiences in specific contexts. As a result, you will build
stronger, more positive relationships fostered by effective
communication to drive your successful business career.
Key Values to Help Your Learning Experience
Your ability to enter into the learning process embracing several key
values will facilitate your growth as a business writer:
• Learning—Strive to learn, applying both theory and practice to ensure you develop the most relevant skills and current best
practices for business communication.
• Achievement—Pursue the highest standards of excellence and professionalism in your work to maximize your professional
growth and build your professional reputation.
• Collaboration—Promote a collaborative work environment to draw on the unique strengths, skills, and insights of your
colleagues.
• Respecting Others—Treat everyone with respect and dignity as you commit to the professional development of yourself and
others.
Strategic Business Writing: Commit to Becoming a Better Writer | 1
By embracing these values you can help yourself become a strategic
business writer and realize tangible benefits in your professional
life. You will improve your critical thinking skills, develop an
efficient and effective writing processes, and write a range of
audience-centered professional documents—documents that will
enhance your business relationships and realize successful
communication results.
To ensure you develop your skills as you read Strategic Business
Writing, you will work on a variety of real-world, often case-based, activities. Working individually and in teams, you will demonstrate
your understanding of communication theories, strategies, and best
practices and apply feedback from your professor, outside
professionals, and your own work teams. This application/feedback
loop helps you develop and apply increasingly complex and
consistent knowledge about message planning, research, persuasive
argument, revision, visual design, presentations, and working in
teams.
How to Read Strategic Business Writing
Strategic Business Writing was written with a focus on the skills you need to succeed in your future career. You will discover new ways
to improve your writing.
Whether you are new to business writing or bring extensive
business writing experience, you can use Strategic Business Writing
to achieve your skill development goals. As a new business writer, you can read sequentially through the text to develop a comprehensive understanding of business writing, its guiding
principles, and specific strategies to write successful business
documents. As an experienced business writer, you can choose the specific topic areas you want to explore independently of the rest of the content.
As you read, take full advantage of the electronic-text
format of Strategic Business Writing:
2 | Strategic Business Writing: Commit to Becoming a Better Writer
1. Focus on your own professional career and the skills you need to succeed.
2. Allow yourself time to process the information. You can memorize lists and concepts, but developing your writing skills
requires internalizing those concepts as you think, practice,
analyze, get feedback, and practice more.
3. Stop to explore the examples and links. The additional information will clarify concepts and provide additional
guidance as you grow your skill set.
4. Be curious and inquisitive. As you encounter interesting and new concepts, meet the challenge the same way you will in
your professional career: take notes, discuss, ask questions,
and seek additional research.
Wherever you begin in your skill development, set the goal
to internalize the four key concepts of Strategic Business Writing
as you read: audience, purpose, content, and context. You will find these concepts reiterated throughout the parts and chapters
of Strategic Business Writing and will apply these concepts throughout your career to guide your professional and
persuasive communication.
Learn the Theory Behind Strategic Business Writing
Examine the ever-evolving, crowded environment of information
and the reasons to learn impactful strategies and best practices as
you become a strategic business writer.
The Writing Process: Planning Learn the three-part writing process of planning, drafting, and
revising. A planning guide to help you with your own writing is
available for you to print.
Purpose Learn the foundation of strategic business writing—knowing your
message’s purpose, the top-level reasons you are writing to this
reader today.
Strategic Business Writing: Commit to Becoming a Better Writer | 3
Audience Analyze the importance of emphasizing the needs of your
audience (or reader) as you plan and revise—a helpful complement
to the foundational purpose sections.
Tone Practice altering the tone of your writing to become more reader
focused and positive.
Credible Content Examine various sources of evidence and strategies to use
credible sources to strengthen arguments. Learn how to find and
cite persuasive evidence to support arguments.
Organization Examine direct and indirect organization methods a savvy writer
can choose for many types of messages and audiences.
Style Revision Learn to identify, measure, and revise wordiness to create a
professional and appealing writing style resulting in concise
paragraphs and sentences.
Design Learn document design strategies, specifically for professional
letter, memo, and email formats, intended to increase focus,
readability, and persuasive appeal.
Visual Argument Examine strategies to enhance your message’s impact through
the use of visuals driven by data.
Complex Argument / Report Writing Learn about reports and methods to use to create and structure
more complex arguments.
Supplemental Explore critical topics related to successful Strategic Business
Writing, including teams, meetings, special documents, grammar and punctuation, effective questions, and presentations.
4 | Strategic Business Writing: Commit to Becoming a Better Writer
PART I
LEARN THE THEORY BEHIND STRATEGIC BUSINESS WRITING
In a recent National Association of Colleges and Employers
(NACE) student survey, fewer than 40% of college students surveyed
listed communication skills as central to their professional
development. Meanwhile in a McKinsey survey of top U.S.
companies, two-thirds of employers lament that current college
graduates lack the writing and presentation skills necessary to
succeed on the job, including writing routine emails to supervisors
and customers, analytical reports to important clients, or
PowerPoint decks for their work teams.
What can you learn in a business communication course that
enhances the skills you developed in your English classes and
Learn the Theory Behind Strategic Business Writing | 5
college-level research courses? In Strategic Business Writing, you will learn business communication as a strategic action – writing
dependent on audience, relationship, and context. You’ll learn best
practices for planning, drafting, and revising documents quickly
– to save you time – with an emphasis on organization, tone,
conciseness, formatting, and perfect proofreading – to preserve
your reputation and enhance your persuasive abilities.
Know the risks of ignoring strategy in Business Communication
Before developing business messages for specific readers, consider
the low, medium, and severe risks of poor planning, writing, and
revision:
• Low Risk: Poor business communication can at a minimum cost you and your reader valuable time. In business, we seek to
manage our limited resources effectively – our resources of
people, time, money, and reputation. Poorly planned and
written messages can lead to the waste of valuable resources
as readers struggle to understand writer-centered,
disorganized, wordy, and imprecise messages.
• Medium Risk: With limited focus on the needs and expectations of readers and audiences, a writer can experience
the medium risks of causing confusion, missing opportunities
for persuasion, damaging credibility, and increasing costs.
• High Risk: Failing to learn the best processes for professional business communication can, at its worst, lead to lost jobs and
clients, long-term damage to one’s personal brand, and major
financial and legal consequences for writers and the organizations and teams they represent.
6 | Learn the Theory Behind Strategic Business Writing
To manage the risky, complex, and ever-changing communication environment and to create your best messages, first analyze the elements of the Communication Model
To maximize your communication effectiveness, Strategic Business
Writing will challenge you to learn a new writing process in which you will systematically break down each potential communication
interaction into its key elements, resulting in best strategies to
appeal to audiences and, in turn, to maximize your possible
communication success.
Specifically, by thinking strategically about the components of the
Communication Model as you construct business messages, you will
learn to:
• Plan and refine your message to include a purpose statement
written to achieve your desired outcome
• Appeal specifically to your primary, secondary, and unintended
audiences by understanding the filters through which you and
your reader will view your message
• Weigh the benefits and drawbacks of your potential channel
choices
• Minimize possible “noise” that can negatively impact the
reception of your message
• Accept and respond to possible feedback as you continue to
communicate
• Consider the impact of the context on the message and
anticipate your audiences’ reactions.
By responding to the many variables in the Communication Model
as you develop your business messages, you will begin to view
business communication as a strategy—a strategy to achieve
what you want AND what your reader/audience wants, with clarity, honesty, and integrity. And by developing a strategic approach to
communication, you’ll develop a set of critical skills in professional
writing, presentations, and leadership grounded in credible analysis
to achieve desired outcomes while mitigating possible risks.
Learn the Theory Behind Strategic Business Writing | 7
Learning Objectives
• Understand the importance of strategic business
writing to ensure your messages are noticed and
impactful in today’s crowded information
environment
• Develop strategic business writing skills to meet the
needs of your employer and demands of your
industry on day one of your career
• Set actionable goals and use strategic frameworks to
develop the communication skills critical for your
future success.
8 | Learn the Theory Behind Strategic Business Writing
Transactiona l Model
1. Use the Communication Model to Guide Your Writing Strategy
While Strategic Business Communication will guide you through a systematic process for audience-centered and purpose-driven
writing, you can develop a more strategic mindset for your own skill
development by using a Transactional Model of Communication to better access your choices as a business communicator.
The Transactional Model approaches communication as an
interaction between communicators—one where the meaning of a message is co-constructed as a function of how individuals exchange ideas. To understand how the process unfolds, we must
accept that the model below is a dynamic process—one where ideas
and words and images are impacted by multiple variables.
By understanding the elements of the Communication Model below, you can better manage the complex communication process
Use the Communication Model to Guide Your Writing Strategy | 9
and can assess the possible risks associated with each component.
Ultimately, you can develop strategies to maximize the likelihood of
your success as well as enhance your ability to develop and
maintain critical business relationships.
Sender—The individual who takes his or her ideas, encodes them into language, and sends them in the form of a message.
Receiver—The individual who translates the sender’s message into meaning.
Field of Experience (Filters)—The influences on both the sender and receiver that impact the construction or reception of the
message. These filters include personality, culture, experiences,
knowledge, and biases.
Message—The ideas (verbal and nonverbal) encoded by the sender into language and decoded by the receiver into meaning.
Channel—The medium used to communicate the message. Examples include face-to-face meetings, presentations, email,
websites, and text messages, to name only a few.
Feedback—The intended and sometimes unintended response to the message (verbal and nonverbal) sent by the receiver back to the
sender.
Context—The underlying situation in which the communication occurs, ultimately influencing how we send and receive messages.
Noise—The distractions that could interfere with the clarity of the message. Noise can be physical (music, coughing, construction
noise, static); semantic (word choices, poor grammar, vocal fillers);
physiological (illness, exhaustion, nervousness); or psychological
(daydreaming, tangential thinking).
10 | Use the Communication Model to Guide Your Writing Strategy
Your command of the distinct variables of the communication model will push you to think strategically and critically as you plan, draft, and revise business documents. As a business professional, the Communication Model provides you a framework
to develop a strategic mindset for message development, one that
allows you to consider the opportunities provided by your
messages and the potential impact of risks on your communication
outcomes.
Consider these questions: How can knowing yourself and your
intended audience (by analyzing your personal experiences and
filters) help you create the most persuasive message? How can your
language and channel choices combined with your ability to learn
from feedback help you increase the impact of your message? How
can your sensitivity to context and ability to minimize distractions
improve the clarity of your message and build better relationships
with audiences?
Building from your knowledge of the Communication Model variables, you can strategically manage and respond to
Use the Communication Model to Guide Your Writing Strategy | 11
Communicat ion Flows
Communication Flows within your organization. While we would like to believe that communication between superiors and
subordinates is somewhat automatic, in truth the power
relationships and hierarchies operate with surprising ambiguity and
will require forethought and strategy.
As you navigate your way through future workplaces, be aware of
these business communication flow factors and terms:
The Flow of Communication spreads in all directions, not only top down.
Upward communication represents communication traveling from a lower level of an organization to a higher level (subordinate
to superior).
Downward communication moves from higher to lower levels of an organization (superior to subordinate).
Lateral communication occurs between people on the same or similar levels of an organization.
Diagonal communication is exchanged between people at different levels of an organization who possess no direct reporting
relationship.
Now consider how the challenges increase with the addition of multiple recipients, unintended audiences, multiple channels, and an ever-changing context! The distinct variables involved in communication—even between only two people—highlight the
12 | Use the Communication Model to Guide Your Writing Strategy
challenges individuals and businesses face when crafting business
messages potentially read by numerous people over indefinite time.
To succeed in this uncertain environment as you communicate, you
might consider yourself a beneficial resource adding value to the lives, work, and results of the people in your organization. Your
focus remains on meeting your reader’s needs, values, and benefits,
no matter if the reader is your superior, co-worker, or direct report.
Use the Communication Model to Guide Your Writing Strategy | 13
2. Analyze Risk to Maximize Communication Outcomes
Given how challenging the communication process may be, can
we effectively analyze risk when we are considering our business
communication messaging in a strategic way?
By systematically analyzing your communication as strategic
actions, you can use the Communication Model to break down the
process in an effort to identify possible risks involved and
implement potential strategies to better maximize your
communication outcomes.
If you consider every communication interaction, you hope to
achieve a desired outcome—whether explicitly stated or not. When
you send a cold-call email to a business professional for an
informational interview, your desired outcome is your professional
accepting the request, you completing the interview, and receiving
valuable information from the conversation. When you meet a client
for a sales presentation, you hope the client likes your proposal, is
persuaded by your message, and purchases your product from you.
Yet when you consider the communication model, you
can anticipate how possible outcomes can be impacted by strategic
errors in your communication decision making.To maximize the
likelihood of communication success, first visualize your desired
outcome, then develop a writing strategy to achieve it (considering
your audience and purpose), and weigh the potential risks of
possible errors and your reader’s likely response. This equation
offers a guide:
14 | Analyze Risk to Maximize Communication Outcomes
Communication Outcome = Desired Outcome – (Strategic Error + Likely Reader Response)
Communication Outcome = Final actual result of
communication
Desired Outcome = Desired optimal result of communication
Error = Possible strategic errors of communication
Response = How reader/audience responds to strategic errors
By looking at the Communication Model, we can consider which
risks put our communication in jeopardy. For example, consider a
spelling error. In isolation, you know a spelling mistake is bad—but
put into two different contexts within the Communication Model
we can see how a spelling error leads to different outcomes.
Scenario One: You write an email to colleagues you are working
with on a consulting project and ask that they attend a conference
call with a client. In the email you misspell the client’s name. The
Desired Outcome is that your colleagues attend the conference
call. The Error is the misspelling of the client’s name. The likely
Response, even in the worst-case scenario, is that your colleagues
are annoyed with the mistake. Yet despite the annoyance, your
colleagues will attend the conference call. In this scenario, the Error
was low risk and your Communication Outcome was the same as
your Desired Outcome. (Note: Imagine, however, that your
colleague forwards your message to the client, inviting them to the
conference call—the risk escalates substantially).
Scenario Two: You send your potential client a slide deck with
multiple misspellings of the company name. The Desired Outcome
is to secure your client’s business. The Error is the misspelling
of the client’s name. The likely Response ranges from anger to a
damaged reputation. The Communication Outcome? Possible loss
of the client as a customer.
The error remains the same in both scenarios, but the shift in
audience amplifies the overall possible reader reaction in
dramatically different ways. The increased risk involved with the
error can result in dramatically different outcomes.
Analyze Risk to Maximize Communication Outcomes | 15
Setting clear goals for communication skill development and working within proven frameworks as you communicate will bring short- and long-term benefits that enhance communication, your personal brand, your key relationships, and your career.
16 | Analyze Risk to Maximize Communication Outcomes
3. Develop a Growth Mindset and Set Actionable Goals to Improve Your Strategic Business Writing Skills
Business communication is a strategic action using a set of skills
(writing, presentation, interpersonal, social media) to craft
purposeful messages aimed at specific audiences and leveraging the
variables in the business communication model to meet strategic
outcomes while mitigating possible risks.
How do you (and various stakeholders) measure and grow your
success as a business communicator? By embracing a growth
mindset and analyzing your current skills and desired outcomes.
You can grow your communication skills and outcomes by
examining your current communication proficiency, identifying
clear goals for improvement, and proactively working to develop the
skills you need most. This proficiency model will be important to
you throughout your professional career to ensure you possess the
skills required in the job and career trajectory you desire.
Facilitate your growth as a business writer by using the SMART
goals framework to help you get from where your skills are to where
you want to be:
Specific (well defined and concrete goals you can visualize) Measurable (measure outcomes with targeted numbers, dates,
and times)
Attainable (challenging but realistic goals) Relevant (directly relate your skill development to critical writing
needs in your field)
Time bound (set deadlines for each goal)
Develop a Growth Mindset and Set Actionable Goals to Improve Your
To make sure you achieve your goals, visualize the skills and
outcomes you want for your future self. You might select a person
you admire to benchmark, analyzing the skills this role model
exhibits and naming clear objectives to help you reach and possibly
exceed this person’s skill set. Put your development objectives,
actions, deadlines, obstacles, and strategies into a table with
measurable “concrete indicators of success” in the final column so
you can track your progress.
Development objective
Specific well-defined action and deadline
Obstacles and strategies to overcome the obstacles
Support needed
Concrete indicator of success
EXAMPLE:
Be more concise
Use fewer linking verbs.
(Note: you could list “be more concise” multiple times with different well-defined actions.)
I actually use action verbs very well except when I don’t leave enough time for revisions.
I will write a best- effort draft two days before the deadline. I will schedule time the day before the deadline to revise the message.
None needed.
Next writing assignment, I will average 1 linking verb per 100 words.
By identifying clear, measurable objectives you can actually track
your improvement over time—the key is identifying precise goals
and actions you can take to achieve them.
Setting clear goals for communication skill development and working within proven frameworks as you communicate will bring short- and long-term benefits that enhance communication, your personal brand, your key relationships, and your career.
18 | Develop a Growth Mindset and Set Actionable Goals to Improve Your Strategic Business Writing Skills
4. Build the Strategic Business Writing Skills Employers Value Most
Businesses need and want employees who write well. In the 2016
National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) Job Outlook,
employers identified written and oral communication skills as two of the top five skills they look for in potential job candidates after passing a company’s GPA threshold. A survey conducted by
Millennial Branding highlights the significance of previous NACE
findings, where 98% of employers considered communication skills essential. As Millennial Branding’s Dan Schawbel argued, employers need employees who possess “the ability to write,
compose emails, give presentations in front of others, and [who are]
able to have conversations with those across generations.”
Meanwhile, employers’ lower rankings of proficiency in software
or technical skills for new hires should be no surprise. Schawbel
explains, “It takes time to master the art of communication,
especially when young people are so dependent on technology
instead of real-life communication.”
Professional-grade communication skill development requires significant time and feedback—your future employer will want you to arrive with already-developed skills. Industry- and workplace-specific technical skills surprisingly require less time to
develop than strong communication skills, and many employers
prefer to teach you the technical skills you’ll need in your specific
position in your industry.
Employers consistently struggle to find job candidates who
possess the communication skills necessary for available
jobs. Employers cite poor writing, listening, and presentation skills in job candidates as a primary concern—deficiencies often
Build the Strategic Business Writing Skills Employers Value Most | 19
reflected in the poor interview performance of candidates. In a
2013 survey conducted by the NACE, nearly two-thirds of employers
reported that college graduates lack the twenty-first century
communication skills required to thrive in the global economy. More
recently, 75% of employers surveyed by the Association of American
Colleges and Universities want colleges to put more emphasis on
written communication skills.
What is the takeaway? Businesses want employees who already write and speak well because strong communication skills play a critical role in business success.
A 2012 McKinsey Global Institute study reinforces the belief that
understanding the communication process and developing essential
communication skills is worth the time and effort: the average U.S.
work week is dominated by communication-related activities. According to the McKinsey study, employees spend at least 13 hours
per week on email, 6.4 hours communicating and collaborating
internally, and 5.2 hours communicating externally—representing
24.6 hours of each workweek spent on communication-related tasks.
In a 2016 study by Adobe, the time spent on email alone jumped to an average of 20.5 hours per week. A 2015 survey of Kelley Business School graduates reveals that 59% of business grads spend
one to four hours each day writing emails, 50% spend one to four
hours each day communicating one-on-one, and 50% participate
in meetings for one to four hours each day (see table below). As
these studies reveal, business communication dominates much of a
typical work day.
20 | Build the Strategic Business Writing Skills Employers Value Most
Not all rows add to 100% due to rounding
Given the deep disconnect between what employers want in
employees and the value many students place on their
communication skills, a motivated student like you who prioritizes the development of your strategic communication skills can position yourself well as an intern and business professional as you begin your career.
Ineffective messaging strategies could cost you money and damage your reputation
Navigating communication challenges can prove costly—in dollars
and reputation—if messaging isn’t managed well. In 2011, for
example, Netflix found itself in the middle of a business crisis, after
changing its business model from a single-price strategy for both
DVD-by-mail and streaming video services to the separation of
services with higher costs for each. The change in service and the
price increase generated outrage among the Netflix customer base,
and many vented their frustration online by threatening to cancel
their Netflix service.
Netflix CEO Reed Hastings complicated the problem by
mismanaging the messaging of his apology to customers, not
responding until two months later. Instead of understanding and
addressing the underlying reason for consumer frustration (i.e., the
Build the Strategic Business Writing Skills Employers Value Most | 21
cost), Hastings thought he simply needed to better explain the
rationale for the lack of communication on his company blog:
In hindsight, I slid into arrogance based upon past success. We have
done very well for a long time by steadily improving our service,
without doing much CEO communication. Inside Netflix I say,
“Actions speak louder than words,” and we should just keep
improving our service.
But now I see that given the huge changes we have been recently
making, I should have personally given a full justification to our
members of why we are separating DVD and streaming, and
charging for both. By ignoring the needs of his customers and developing a
company-focused messaging strategy, Hastings continued to botch
his messaging and dramatically impacted the financial performance
of his company. By the end of the third quarter of 2011, Netflix
had lost 805,000 customers and the market punished the company
by sending its stock price down 27% in after-hours trading following
its quarterly earnings announcement. Clearly, the communication
failures of Netflix affected its long-term financial performance.
While Netflix offers a high-profile example, errors in strategic judgment can have negative consequences even in routine messages like cover letters. For example, a letter sent by an NYU student named “Mark” to J.P. Morgan Chase in 2012 got him
blacklisted at investment banking firms throughout New York City.
His error? One quote caught the attention of a JPMorgan Chase
employee who decided to share the cover letter with
colleagues—and the letter went viral:
That semester I achieved a 3.93, and in the same time I managed to
bench double my bodyweight and do 35 pull-ups. In a matter of 24 hours, the cover letter Mark sent out
transformed him from prospective candidate to a national news
story published on Gawker.
Writing with a strategic audience focus is imperative for your long-term career success.
22 | Build the Strategic Business Writing Skills Employers Value Most
Build the Strategic Business Writing Skills Employers Value Most | 23
5. Communicate Strategically Within a Crowded Information Environment
As you begin your professional career, you are entering a
complex business communication environment where an
abundance of messaging demands your strategic focus.
The amount of information is overwhelming—are you up for the challenge?
Consider the sheer volume of information being communicated
across a highly saturated communication landscape. In 2016,
nearly 2 billion people connected and communicated on Facebook.
At the end of 2016, 319 million people posted to Twitter, up 60
million users from seven months earlier.
Consider the ever-increasing number of social networks
available, including Facebook, Snapchat, Twitter, LinkedIn,
Pinterest, Tumblr, Google+, YouTube, Flickr, SlideShare, and Reddit.
People are overwhelmed by the sheer amount of data being shared.
Every minute, there are:
• More than 2.4 million Google search queries
• 400 hours of new video content uploaded to YouTube
• 150 million new email messages sent (65% of which are spam)
• 3.3 million Facebook posts
• 348,000 new tweets over Twitter
• Over $200,000 spent on Amazon
24 | Communicate Strategically Within a Crowded Information
Communicate Strategically Within a Crowded Information Environment | 25
Business leaders are embracing this speed in every aspect of
their business—including strategies for product development,
manufacturing, agility, and business investment. In a letter to his
shareholders in late 2015, General Electric CEO Jeff Immelt wrote,
“We are putting a premium on speed,” while IBM’s CEO Ginni
Rometty calls speed “the silver bullet” to business success. Current
strategies for product development, manufacturing agility, and even
investment prioritize speed.
The desire for speed extends to our communication practices
as well. A recent study by Adobe highlighted how an “always on”
culture has shifted our expectations of business email. Smartphones
are the preferred reading device for 90% of millennial business
26 | Communicate Strategically Within a Crowded Information Environment
professionals between the ages of 18 to 34. Most prefer email as
their primary form of communication for the immediacy of
responses, with older millennials (25 to 34) believing response times
to business emails should be minutes from the time an email is
received.
While speed can be thrilling, your effectiveness as a business
communicator is placed under increasing pressure to develop clear,
concise, and effective messaging. Employers value these skills, seeking employees like you—strategic business writers who can analyze data, identify critical arguments, get your messages noticed among an overwhelming amount of information, and write your messages strategically—and quickly!
Communicate Strategically Within a Crowded Information Environment | 27
PART II
PLANNING
Strategic business communication is about meeting human needs
Business involves the ethical exchange of goods, services, and ideas
to the benefit of both parties. As an effective business writer, your
goal is to ethically persuade a specific reader to think or act in the
way you want, while also helping your reader fulfill their own needs.
Therefore, you must approach business writing strategically—how
can you appeal to your reader’s values, wants, and needs to compel
them to think or act as you desire? Your strategy begins by
understanding business writing as a unique field of communication involving a three-step process: plan, draft, and revise.
Planning requires you to identify your purpose, audience, channel, approach (direct or indirect), organization, content, tone, style, language, document design, delivery,timing, and audience’s reception. When you plan before you write, you can tailor your
Planning | 29
message to your reader’s needs and significantly increase your
chances for persuasion. Drafting executes your writing plan. Because you have prepared thoroughly, your drafting process will
be much more efficient, saving your company time and money.
Revising demands that you revisit your draft with a critical eye for organization, conciseness, language, and design.
When you separate these three key actions of the writing process,
planning, drafting, and revising will guarantee you pay close attention to each of the critical stages of writing, resulting in the
most audience-centered, clear, credible, and ultimately, persuasive
document possible. As you learn this efficient pattern of business
writing, your speed and accuracy will increase, resulting in less time
spent writing and more time available for living your life.
Learning Objectives
• Introduce strategic business writing as a unique field
of communication designed to persuade a specific audience
• Explain the three-step process of planning, drafting, and revising
• Begin to plan persuasive messages by identifying
purpose, audience, content, and context
30 | Planning
6. Plan with Purpose, Audience, Content, and Context
In our digital age, we are constantly inundated with demands for
our attention. By one New York Times estimate, the average U.S. corporate employee now writes and receives 122 emails per day.
How then, when we have an important message to communicate,
do we have any chance to cut through this noise, connect with our
audience, and ultimately inspire action?
No cookie-cutter approach exists. Instead, we must be flexible
as writers, and each message we craft, no matter how significant
(a major sales pitch) or routine (a request to park in a different lot
during construction), has to be its own unique project. We must
write to a specific person with a specific purpose, and in doing so, we must appeal to this person’s needs and interests in order
to persuade them to act. A “mass” email or letter, conversely, is
probably bound for the trash.
So how do we do this? We need a plan. Before we can begin to
write, we must answer a series of key questions that will shape our
message and give us the best chance to accomplish whatever it is
that we seek to accomplish. We will start with four areas of inquiry:
Purpose, Audience, Content, and Context.
Purpose: What Are You Trying to Accomplish? What is your primary purpose for writing your message?
What are your secondary purposes?
What is the ultimate goal or intended outcome of the
message?
Audience: Who Are You Attempting to Persuade?
Plan with Purpose, Audience, Content, and Context | 31
Who is your primary audience?
What is your relationship to your primary audience (or
smallest shared community)?
What does your primary audience stand to gain (if anything)
from this message?
What benefits or advantages should you stress to appeal to
your reader?
How is your primary audience likely to react and respond?
Who are your secondary audiences? How are they likely to
react and respond?
Who might be your unintended readers or future readers?
How are they likely to react and respond?
Content: How Are You Attempting to Persuade? Once you have determined your purpose and audience, you
can begin to strategize how to develop your content to have
the best chance to persuade your reader. Plan your content
and delivery in this order:
Channel What is the best channel (e.g., email, letter, memo) for
reaching and persuading your reader?
Will you need to communicate through a second or
third channel? Should this communication be
simultaneous with or subsequent to the initial message?
Is this message solicited or unsolicited? (If this
message is a response, consider using the same channel
as the original writer.)
Is your message part of a chain of messages taking
place with your audience via a particular channel?
What is the likelihood your message will be broadcast
beyond your intended audience?
Approach Is your reader likely to find your message to be
positive, neutral, or negative?
Does your message require a direct (positive or neutral
32 | Plan with Purpose, Audience, Content, and Context
message) or indirect approach (negative or persuasive
message)?
Organization Based on your purpose, audience, and approach, how
will you order your information? What is the hierarchy of
your content?
Does your document have a title (if needed)? (Your title
may be a subject line.)
How do you properly address your reader at the
beginning? Where and how will you build rapport /
establish a connection with your reader?
Where should you place your purpose statement?
What are your subtopics related to your purpose
statement? (These might be your headings and/or topic
sentences.)
Where do you need transitions (or logical breaks)
between sections to reveal the connections and overall
storyline of your ideas?
How should you conclude your document to enhance
the likelihood for action?
How long should your document be?
Content What information does your audience need to know in
order to be persuaded?
What content responds to your audience’s needs and
values?
What information is your audience likely to already
know about your subject?
Which claims will you make to support your argument?
What content is self-centered (and therefore should be
shifted in focus or eliminated)?
What kind of evidence will you use to support these
claims and build your credibility? Testimonial evidence?
Factual evidence?
Plan with Purpose, Audience, Content, and Context | 33
Will you use primary sources? Secondary sources?
Quantitative information? Qualitative information?
What are the questions that your audience is likely
to have about your content? What are their likely
counterarguments?
Tone, Style, and Language Is your communication upward, downward or
horizontal (peer)? How will this relationship impact your
tone and style?
Is your audience internal or external? How will this
relationship impact your tone and style?
Is your communication cross-cultural? How will this
relationship impact your tone and style?
Does your message require a specific or technical
vocabulary? Or should your language be accessible to a
wide or non-specialized audience?
How can you make your language audience-centered
(“you-focused”) versus self-centered? What language
makes your message self-centered?
What words does your audience use in the context?
Should you use those words?
Design How can use you use design to advance your
argument? Emphasize important content?
How can design make your structure clear at a glance?
Headings? Framing? Spacing? Bullet points? Lists?
Which colors and fonts will appeal to your reader?
Which charts, graphs, or images should you include?
How can you ensure that your design is consistent with
your company or brand?
Delivery and Timing When would be the best time to send your message?
When do you need a reply by? What deadlines do you
or your reader need to meet?
How (i.e., through what channel) do you want your
34 | Plan with Purpose, Audience, Content, and Context
reader to respond? Does your reader have your proper
contact information?
Context: How, When, and Where Will Your Message Be Received?
As you plan, you should also consider the context in which
your reader will receive your message. For instance, is your
reader likely to read your message as a certified letter
delivered during normal work hours? Or have you planned a
message that could be opened on her phone at the airport
as she boards a connecting flight? There are advantages to
each scenario. Yet, as a writer, you must think through these
possibilities to give yourself the best chance to persuade and
bring about action.
You must also take into account your reader’s corporate
context. Is her company looking to grow, or has it recently
experienced a crisis? Is this a particularly busy time of the
year? Does your reader work on a team? Will she use your
document to persuade someone else internally? The answers
to each of these questions—as well as others that you will
brainstorm—will definitely impact how your reader is likely to
respond.
Reception: Where and how is your reader likely to receive your
message? How will this context impact the likelihood of
persuasion?
In what context is your reader likely to use this information?
Is your reader likely to keep this message for future use
and/or forward it to others?
Do you need to provide anything additional to ensure that
this document is easy to read and use?
Planning Guide Now you can begin to plan your message. Open and print the
Strategic Business Writing Planning Guide in order to start your
Plan with Purpose, Audience, Content, and Context | 35
planning process. You should complete this guide every time you
need to write a business document. Keep in mind: planning is
parallel and recursive in nature. As you draft and revise, you should
continue to consult and adjust your plan as needed.
References Davis, Kenneth. Business Writing and Communication. Second
Edition. New York: McGraw Hill, 2010: 20.
Wayne, Teddy. “A Eulogy for the Long, Intimate Email.” New York
Times 11 July 2015.
36 | Plan with Purpose, Audience, Content, and Context
7. Plan, Draft, Revise
For many college writers, the process of drafting a paper is simple:
sit down, write a document as quickly as possible, print it, and
turn it in. Sound familiar? In strategic business writing, however,
you simply cannot get away with such a “one shot” approach and
still hope to persuade your audience. Rather, the most successful
business writers understand that writing involves a three-step
process: plan, draft, and revise. So how does this model work? In his book Business Writing and
Communication, Kenneth Davis explains that effective business writers spend about 40% of their time planning, 20% drafting, and
then the remaining 40% revising. At first, this breakdown may
surprise you. Just 20% of your time actually writing? Yet, as
Strategic Business Writing will demonstrate, when you effectively
plan and revise, your writing process becomes far more efficient. As a result, you eliminate the time that you would otherwise waste
staring at a computer screen either waiting to be inspired or cutting
and pasting to try to finish with a coherent document. By separating
out the key actions of the writing process, the three-step process
ensures that you pay adequate attention to each of the critical
stages of writing that will produce the most audience-centered,
clear, credible, and ultimately, persuasive document possible.
Here is a brief overview:
Step One: Plan The strategy in strategic business writing begins here.
Before you can write, you must answer a series of important
questions that will guide your decision-making process. Why
are you writing? What is the specific purpose of your message, and what do you wish to achieve? Who is your intended
audience? What is your relationship with this person (or people), and what are their needs? Once you have identified
the what and the who, you will then be able to make informed
Plan, Draft, Revise | 37
decisions about the best channel of communication (e.g., email, letter, memo, text), the best approach (direct versus indirect), the best structure and organization, the best content and evidence, the best tone, style, and language, and the best document design to effectively achieve your purpose. During the planning process, you will also consider the
delivery and timing of your message and the context of its reception.
Step Two: Draft With much of the strategic “heavy lifting” out of the way,
you can draft your message quickly and with clear direction.
Because you will later invest ample time in revision, you are free to get your content out on paper (or up on screen) without
the interruption of having to immediately edit yourself for
sentence structure, concision, grammar, spelling, or even typos.
Step Three: Revise Once you’ve executed your writing plan and you’ve
completed your first draft, you are ready to revise. Many
amateur writers underappreciate (and often ignore) the
revision stage of the writing process. Yet, this third phase of
the writing process entails so much more than simply running
spell-check or glancing over your document one last time for
typos. As you will learn in Strategic Business Writing, effective revision involves a systematic review of your document’s
structure, language, and visual design choices. When you revise well, you ensure clarity, credibility, and
professionalism—qualities essential to your primary goal:
persuasion.
38 | Plan, Draft, Revise
PART III
PURPOSE
Throughout your academic life, you wrote numerous papers for
teachers, learning to explain topics to generic one-time readers
without a personal stake in your documents. With word counts and
good grades as your goals, you often wrote wordy sentences in
double-spaced format and included all the information you knew
about topics, hoping to earn As and high GPAs. The reader (your
teacher) read each paper to determine if you could write well and
knew the material. Your teacher then gave you a grade (and
hopefully good feedback). At that point, the paper’s life basically
ended.
How will your business writing be different from your academic writing? As you already noticed in Strategic Business Writing, your business writing will be quite different from the writing you did in school. In contrast to your high school and college
Purpose | 39
papers, your business writing—the writing you’ll use throughout
your career—will be driven by purpose, audience, content, and
context. You will write to real decision makers to try to influence
their beliefs and actions. Your documents will continue to exist
through time and be forwarded to secondary and unintended
readers. You’ll plan your business documents well to include only
the information your reader needs (not all the information you
know) and organize the information with careful attention to the
reader’s needs and your desired outcomes. You’ll revise your various
business documents for conciseness, tone, and appealing,
skimmable design.
Determining your purpose, or your reason for writing, is the first step in planning a persuasive, audience-centered message. Before
you can appeal to your reader, you must first know why you are
writing and what you need to accomplish. When you identify your
purpose, your planning, drafting, and revising gain focus, and you, your team, and your reader benefit from this clarity.
In order to help you determine and hone your purpose, you will
develop a purpose statement, or a declarative sentence (or group of sentences) that clearly, accurately, and concisely expresses your
primary reason for writing and your intended outcomes, while also accounting for your audience’s needs and their context. Your purpose statement will develop from a process of brainstorming, narrowing, and articulating a working purpose statement.
Once devised, your purpose statement will give your document
direction and allow you to effectively organize your message.
40 | Purpose
Learning Objectives
• Understand the value of determining your
document’s purpose
• Learn how to develop a purpose statement to focus
and organize your message
Purpose | 41
8. Brainstorm, Narrow, and Articulate Your Working Purpose Statement
Brainstorm
To focus your core idea, begin by answering two key questions:
1. What are my reasons for drafting this document? 2. What are my ideal or intended outcomes for drafting this
document?
A good strategy is to try to answer these questions in an initial
brainstorming session. Open a word processing document on your
computer, and take five minutes to generate a list of answers for
both questions. At this point, don’t worry about editing yourself
for “bad” responses. Instead, keep your fingers moving until your
timer expires or you feel like you’ve truly exhausted your possible
responses.
Most likely, your brainstorming will produce far more content
than you can include in one or two sentences. At this point, that’s
okay, and actually ideal—what you cut or eliminate from your core
statement will likely become useful later in the process when you
identify your secondary purposes and begin to determine your message’s organizing principle.
Let’s take a look at a sample brainstorm. Here’s the scenario:
Carl Salazar, the Vice President of Marketing for Great Lakes
Health, leads a strategic planning task force that recently met
to discuss his company’s future. During the meeting, the task
force updated the company’s Mission and Vision statements,
developed new Goals and Values statements, and made major
rebranding recommendations involving updating the
company’s signage and logo and changing the common usage
of the company’s name. The task force now needs input on
Brainstorm, Narrow, and Articulate Your Working Purpose
these actions from the Board of Directors, and Carl is tasked
with emailing this audience. With so much information to
communicate—and so many different readers to persuade,
including some who are likely to be resistant to any
change—Carl must develop a purpose statement that will focus and organize his message. He begins by brainstorming
all of the possible purposes for his message.
This brainstorm produced good content. Now Carl’s job is to mine
this list for his core purpose and outcome(s), which will allow him to develop a working purpose statement that he can test and revise.
Narrow
As you review your brainstorm, separate your purposes and
outcomes into four lists:
1. Primary purpose (the most essential reason for writing)
2. Primary outcome (the highest-priority outcome) 3. Secondary purposes
44 | Brainstorm, Narrow, and Articulate Your Working Purpose Statement
4. Secondary outcomes (may be supportive, long-term, or contextual)
As you categorize your purposes and outcomes, you are
encouraged to combine or cut your content as needed to improve
clarity and focus.
Now, let’s return to Carl’s brainstorm. He has identified his
primary purpose and primary outcome as well his secondary
purposes and secondary outcomes.
Articulate Your Working Purpose Statement
When you have determined your primary purpose and primary
outcome, you are ready to articulate a working purpose statement. A working purpose statement will allow you to state your purpose
while still revising for audience and situation.
At this point, you may want to use this straightforward template:
The core purpose of my document is
____________________. When successful, this
Brainstorm, Narrow, and Articulate Your Working Purpose Statement | 45
message will lead my reader(s) to
____________________.
In Carl’s example, his working purpose statement might look like
this:
The core purpose of my document is to update the Board
of Directors about the recent work of the Strategic Planning
Taskforce and request input about the strategic plan and
proposed rebranding of the signage / logo and the company
name. When successful, this message will lead my readers to
provide feedback on the recommendations by the upcoming
deadline.
46 | Brainstorm, Narrow, and Articulate Your Working Purpose Statement
9. Organize with Purpose
Once you have established your purpose statement, you now can use this statement to organize the rest of your document. Often,
your purpose statement will appear near the beginning of a
document (or in a prominent place of emphasis), and the remainder
of your content will serve to support or explain the “why,” “how,” and
“when” of your purpose. Your document’s subheadings, governing
questions, and topic sentences will directly connect back to your
core purpose.
In order to demonstrate how a purpose statement can organize
and lend clarity to your message, let’s return to Carl’s example. In
this first document, imagine if Carl had just written his message
without developing a purpose statement. His document might look like this:
Organize with Purpose | 47
The basic content here is good—Carl summarizes the
accomplishments of the recent meeting, informs his readers about
proposed company changes, and provides a good level of detail.
However, Carl is ultimately seeking action. With this email, he’s really asking for the Board of Directors to provide input on the
strategic plan, the updated logo, and the rebranding of the
company’s name. Yet, this request is buried in the email and does
not appear until the fourth paragraph. That’s too late.
Now let’s look at a revised version of this message. Here you will
48 | Organize with Purpose
notice that Carl presents his purpose statement (Reason + Intended
Outcome, Revised for Audience and Context) in the very first sentence of the email. He uses questions throughout the email to
direct the readers towards his desired action, and he uses spacing
and bullet points to emphasize his main points and make the
document more reader-friendly. Carl concludes by reiterating his
request at the end of the email. Overall, this is a much more effective
document.
Organize with Purpose | 49
50 | Organize with Purpose
10. Revise for Audience and Context
Before you can proceed to plan your document around your
purpose statement, you must take into account your audience’s
values, wants, and needs and the context in which your reader will encounter your purpose statement. To this point, developing your
purpose statement has been about your needs—understanding your
reasons for writing and what you need to accomplish. In order to have the best chance to persuade, you must shift focus and consider
your reader’s needs by asking the following: Is your purpose statement as audience-centered as
possible?
Is your purpose statement as clear and direct as
possible?
How is your audience likely to respond to your purpose
statement? If negatively, should you delay introducing
bad news?
Do you give clear direction about how the audience
should think or act?
When, where, and how is your audience likely to read
your message?
Now, let’s revisit Carl’s working purpose statement for audience and context. Here is his original working purpose statement:
The core purpose of my document is to update the Board
of Directors about the recent work of the Strategic Planning
Taskforce and request input about the strategic plan and
proposed rebranding of the signage/logo and the company
name. When successful, this message will lead my readers to
provide feedback on the recommendations by the upcoming
deadline.
Revise for Audience and Context | 51
Understandably, Carl’s purpose statement is still writer centered.
Let’s refine his statement by asking the aforementioned questions:
Is his purpose statement as audience-centered as possible?
No. Carl should appeal to his readers’ expertise by
acknowledging how important their feedback will be. He
can achieve a “you-focus” directly addressing his readers with “you” pronouns.
Is his purpose statement as clear and direct as possible?
No. Carl’s purpose statement is still formulaic (“The
core purpose of my document”) and wordy. He should
focus on style and conciseness in order to condense his writing and achieve greater “per word” impact.
How is his audience likely to respond to his purpose statement? If negatively, should he delay introducing bad news?
Since Carl’s task force is suggesting major changes to
his company’s strategic planning and branding, he should
anticipate resistance from some of his readers.
Therefore, Carl should delay identifying specific
changes—especially concerning adjustments to the
signage/logo and company name—until he has the
opportunity to contextualize these recommendations
later in the message.
Does he give clear direction about how the audience should think or act?
Carl can be more direct by using a “you” address, which
will also make his request more personal and immediate.
When, where, and how is his audience likely to read his message?
Carl will send his message by email to make it easier
for his readers to provide timely feedback (his primary
outcome). However, Carl understands that his readers
may read this message in any number of locations—e.g.
52 | Revise for Audience and Context
the office, the car—and at any time. Therefore, Carl will
re emphasize his purpose throughout his email with
headings and bullet points, which will allow his readers to understand his core reason for writing even if they are
scanning the message on their phone.
Here is Carl’s revised purpose statement:
I would like to update you on the Great Lakes Health Strategic
Planning Taskforce’s recent work, including major
recommendations for our company’s strategic planning and
rebranding efforts. Your input is critical, and I am requesting
your time-sensitive feedback on these changes. In the following “Organize with Purpose” section of this chapter,
we will consider Carl’s purpose statement-driven message in its
entirety.
Once you have made necessary adjustments for audience and context, you should have a strong purpose statement that will direct your reader throughout your document. However, if your purpose
statement is not as strong as you’d like, you should return to these
questions as many times as you need to in order produce the most
clear, accurate, and compact statement possible.
Revise for Audience and Context | 53
11. Develop a Strong Purpose Statement
Developing a strong purpose statement is a process that involves
first determining your own motives and objectives and then
adapting these to your reader and the situation. Another way to
state this would be:
Purpose = Your Reason + Intended Outcome(s), Revised for Audience and Context
Therefore, before you can begin to figure out how to best persuade
your audience, you must first have a clear idea about the goals
you want to accomplish. In order to get this process started, you
will identify and hone your idea through three initial steps:
brainstorming, narrowing, and articulating a working purpose statement.
54 | Develop a Strong Purpose Statement
12. Focus Your Message with a Purpose Statement
Determining your purpose, however, can be deceptively
challenging. Most likely, you’re beginning with a general idea about
why you need to write. But how do you shape this initial thought
or impulse into the kind of succinct, audience-centered, and
persuasive statement that can drive and sustain a document?
Fortunately, there’s a process for getting to this point.
In the chapter that follows, you will learn how to identify and
refine your purpose through the development of a purpose statement.
A purpose statement is a declarative sentence (or group of sentences) that clearly, accurately, and compactly expresses your
primary reason for writing. When your reader encounters your
purpose statement, which often appears near the beginning of a
document, he or she will know your precise intentions. Purpose
statements are necessary for shorter and longer documents, and
they are useful across various channels of business writing.
Sample Purpose Statements in Routine Documents
Here are some routine document purpose statements from writers introducing themselves to new work teams:
I want to tell you more about myself and the skills I will
contribute to our work team.
My internship experience transformed my perspective on
teamwork; I’d like to highlight the impact these insights could
have on our team.
Before we start working together, I would like to tell you a
Focus Your Message with a Purpose Statement | 55
little about my relevant business communication experiences
that I believe will add value to our team.
Since we will likely spend months on this project together, I
want to share how I plan to contribute to the success and well-
being of our team.
Because we’re going to spend a lot of time together on our
fast-paced project, I want to send you information about my
previous writing and team experience to help you get to know
me and better utilize my skill set.
Here are a few routine document purpose statements from
writers requesting informational interviews: I am reaching out to you because I would appreciate a brief
conversation with you about your career in accounting.
I wish to talk to you more about real estate and the impact it
has had in your life.
I’d like to schedule a conversation to get to know you and
receive your feedback and advice as I prepare for a career on
Wall Street.
I look forward to scheduling a 15-minute phone call to
discuss how your college experiences led you to your career as
a strategic consultant.
I would appreciate twenty minutes of your time to discuss
the most critical experiences that led to your current role as
project manager, if you’re available.
I’m interested to learn what led you to choose non profit
consulting and hear about your responsibilities as Managing
Director at Excel Group.
56 | Focus Your Message with a Purpose Statement
13. Know the Benefits of Identifying Your Purpose
Although your purpose is the most essential component of your
document—how can you proceed if you don’t know exactly why
you’re writing in the first place?—it is astounding how little
forethought some writers put into defining their objective.
Some move forward with only a vague idea of what they want
to accomplish, or with the attitude of “I’ll figure it out as I go.”
Others may begin with a pretty strong sense of what they want
to accomplish, but never clearly articulate their purpose, which
overlooks the fact that other critical stakeholders—namely, their
team members and their intended audience—may not have the same
understanding about the reasons and goals behind a given message.
Therefore, when you consciously identify, revise, and then state your purpose, you bring substantial value to many parties, including yourself, your team, and your reader.
When your purpose is clear, you benefit by shaping your
message’s focus and direction. Your purpose will dictate every
subsequent aspect of your message, including:
• Audience: Your purpose will give you direction about the reader to whom your message should be addressed.
• Channel: Your purpose will determine which channel (email, letter, memo, tweet, ) will best allow you to reach and persuade
your intended audience.
• Approach: Your purpose (i.e., delivering good news or bad news) will dictate whether you should use a direct or indirect
approach.
• Organization: Your purpose will drive your organization and structure—i.e., how, where, and when you introduce your
content. Your purpose (and secondary purposes) will also help
Know the Benefits of Identifying Your Purpose | 57
you devise headings and topic sentences.
• Content: Your purpose will determine the information—including claims and evidence—to include in the
body of your document.
• Tone and Language: Your purpose will give you a sense of what kind of tone and language will be appropriate for your
message.
• Design: Your purpose will inform your visual design, even determining such aspects as color schemes, fonts, and the use
of images and data.
• Timing: Your purpose will determine when you send your message and if you need to send a second message or
communicate through a second (or third) channel.
As a result, writing your message will be far more efficient, saving
you and your organization time and money. Internally, this clarity of
purpose will also benefit your team members. If anyone ever feels
confused about the goal or objective of your project, they need only
consult your purpose statement in order to realign the writing and
argument with the overall goal of the document.
As for the reader, they will benefit by having a clear sense of
what you are proposing. This clarity eliminates the chance for misinterpretation and gives the reader the best opportunity to
decide how to act. Your clarity of purpose will also generate
goodwill. Your reader will appreciate your directness (which respects their time) and your level of preparation, which will
enhance your credibility and professionalism. Moreover, with this clarity of purpose, your document can be circulated among
secondary audiences (e.g., your primary reader’s supervisors or
financial partners) without additional explanation.
58 | Know the Benefits of Identifying Your Purpose
14. Determine Your Purpose
In strategic business writing, we always have a purpose or reason for writing. Whether your document will have large-scale, global
implications—to propose a merger between two multinational
corporations—or will be more everyday in nature—to ask your
employees to restart their computers after a recent overnight
software update—you can begin to draft an effective message only
after you first understand why you need to write and what you’re attempting to accomplish. After all, if you’re not clear about your
purpose, then there’s little chance that your audience will
understand it.
Once you’ve determined your purpose, which involves a complex process of honing your objective to its core and taking into account your audience’s needs, you can begin to write with direction and clarity. You will then have the best chance to persuade
your reader to think or act in the way that you desire.
Determine Your Purpose | 59
15. Understand Strategic Business Writing
Although you’ve likely been a writer for most of your academic life,
you probably have little or no experience with business writing. Business writing actually differs in key ways from expository
writing. Even though you may have succeeded as a writer in your
high school English class or as a journalist for the school newspaper,
writing for the corporate world is a unique field of communication
with its own strategies, approaches, and demands. Therefore, as you
begin, you need to understand exactly what business writing entails
and how it differs from the various types of writing that you’ve
experienced so far.
There are two key principles of business writing:
1. All business communication is designed to persuade. Whether you’re selling something, informing someone, or
attempting to generate goodwill, you’re communicating to get
something that you need or want. In many instances, you’re
requesting action. 2. The best business communication is audience-centered.
Before you can write, you must know who your audience is and
what they value, want, need, and expect. Although some forms of writing—essays, poems, blog
entries—involve self-expression, business writing is rarely, if ever,
about just you. Instead, business communication is relationship-
based. You are attempting to connect with a specific person to achieve a specific outcome, and your task is to determine the best way to persuade readers to think or act as you wish while helping
them achieve their own goals, too. Although this kind of writing
may feel much different from what you’re used to, you will likely
come to appreciate its directness and clarity. Your new ability to
write strategically for a business audience will bring value to your
60 | Understand Strategic Business Writing
company and will be a major advantage to you as you start your
career. And best of all, Strategic Business Writing follows a process that’s easy to learn and to begin to use.
Understand Strategic Business Writing | 61
PART IV
AUDIENCE
In strategic business writing, your audience impacts every decision you will make. Each message you write must be tailored
to a specific audience, and in order to persuade, you must know
precisely who you want to influence and what they value and need.
After all, would you be inclined to respond to an email or letter that
didn’t mention your name or address your specific needs?
Thinking about the reader—your customer, your client, your
supervisor, your subordinates—can be difficult because we are all,
at least sometimes, self-centered. When you enter a store, for
example, you want that business to have what you want, when
you want it, where you can easily find it. . . at a competitive price!
You want knowledgeable, polite salespeople, clean aisles, and a good
selection. So, as a writer planning a business document, you
Audience | 63
must ask yourself what your reader wants, needs, and expects so you can appeal to your intended audience.
Once you’ve determined your purpose, ask yourself: 1. Who specifically can or will act on my request? Who can
make the decisions leading to the outcomes I desire? Who will
be most receptive to my idea or plan?
2. What do I already know about this reader? What
relationship do we have? What more do I need to know about
this reader?
3. How can I appeal to this reader’s values, wants, and needs?
In the following chapter, you will learn how to identify and research your primary, secondary, and unintended audiences. Once you know who your specific audiences are, you will be able to
build a relationship with your readers by appealing to their values, wants, needs, and expectations with a “you-focused” strategy and strategic pronoun choices. After this thorough preparation, you will be ready to organize and write an audience-centered message that persuades your reader to think or act as you want, which is the goal
of all strategic business writing.
Learning Objectives
• Learn to identify your specific primary, secondary,
and unintended audiences
• Learn to research your reader’s background to
understand their values, needs, and expectations
• Learn to build a relationship with and persuade your
reader by determining your smallest shared
community
• Learn to shift from a writer-focused “I” perspective to
a reader-focused “you” perspective
64 | Audience
• Learn to use language (sentence structure and
pronouns) to develop a relationship with your reader
and appeal to them
• Learn to write an audience-centered message
through the example of an informational interview
Audience | 65
16. Identify Your Reader
Your most immediate intended reader is called your primary audience, and in many instances, the name of this person (or people) will be readily apparent. Perhaps you’re writing to a client
you’ve worked with for many years or you’re reaching out to a
product representative whom you’ve just met at an industry
convention. Excellent—you now have the foundational information
necessary to begin to plan an effective audience-centered
message.
However, what if you’re not so sure about the specific name of
your primary audience? Maybe you know only the general position
within a company of the person you wish to contact. Or perhaps
you’ve been tasked with messaging a large or nebulous audience.
Whenever possible, avoid writing a broad or generic message (e.g., “To Whom This May Concern,” “Dear CEO,” “Dear Applicant,” “Dear
Everyone,”). At best, this kind of message can be easily misdirected.
At worst, it will be immediately deleted.
Find a Specific Name for a Position
If you know where (the company) to write but not who (the specific
person) to address, invest the extra energy to locate your intended reader’s specific name. With today’s technology, finding your contact’s information may simply be a matter of:
• Searching keywords (“EY,” “Senior Tax Manager,” “Chicago”) in
your favorite search engine. Most likely a profile will quickly
appear
• Calling the company’s headquarters to ask for the name of
your preferred recipient (Be prepared, however, to possibly
end up on the phone with this person!)
• Asking those within your own organization or network if they
Identify Your Reader | 67
know the name of the appropriate contact at the company
Whichever route you take, your additional effort will be worthwhile.
When you directly address a reader by name, you create a
personalized interaction that demonstrates investment, initiative
(especially when your use of the contact’s name was unexpected),
and attention to detail. As a result, you significantly increase your
chances for a response. Also, once your have a specific name, your
job as a writer becomes far easier because you now have a particular
person to tailor your message to and a direction for further
research.
Be Specific with a Group
If you have the challenge of communicating with a large, possibly
unfamiliar group of people (a common scenario, especially in crisis
contexts), avoid sending a single “mass” email or memo, whenever possible. If you have the time and the resources, write multiple messages, each one tailored to smaller constituent groups (if not
individuals). Include relevant details to make your message feel
personalized or community oriented, and be sure to include your
contact information (or the contact information of an actual person,
not an “[email protected]” address) in order for your reader to be
able to respond.
68 | Identify Your Reader
17. Research Your Reader
You have already identified your primary audience, so you’re off to a good start. However, what else do you know about this person? In
order to appeal to your reader, you need to know their perspective
and what they need. Yet, if this person is new to you, where do you
begin to find this critical background information?
You could start by searching for this person’s professional
internet presence. Often, your intended audience will have a
corporate profile, either on a company website or on a platform
such as LinkedIn.
This information will provide valuable clues about this person’s
identity and perspective. For instance, you may learn how long this
person has worked for their company and their level of experience.
You may gain insight into their fields of expertise and company
responsibilities. You may also be introduced to the kinds of projects
they worked on in the past and their current projects. Each of
these details will give you a clearer understanding of who you’re
communicating with and a better chance to speak to their needs
and values.
As you research your audience, you should ask:
Where is this person from?
What is their title, job description, and area(s) of expertise?
How long has this person worked at their company?
Where was he or she educated? (Possibly your university?)
What projects has this person worked on? What is their
current project?
Does this person seem to prominently identify their
national, religious, political, family, sexual, or cultural
background? If so, this information will give you insight into
which aspects of your message you may want to emphasize or
be sensitive towards.
How does this person seem to communicate? Do they
Research Your Reader | 69
provide only their email address or list all of their social media
usernames? (And if so, you should definitely examine these
profiles!).
Before proceeding, you should run an internet search on your
audience’s organization. Basic details will be helpful to know—What
size is this company? Is this company located in the Midwest?—and
more importantly, you will want to know about any recent
developments, positive or negative, that might influence how your
reader will likely react.
70 | Research Your Reader
18. Build a Relationship with Your Reader
Now that you have a good sense of your primary audience and their values, next you can determine how you can use this background
information to appeal to and ultimately persuade your reader.
Strategic business writing is relationship based: when you
develop a meaningful, personal connection with your audience, you
greatly enhance the chances that your reader will carefully consider
your content and act in the manner in which you desire. Conversely,
if you come off as a stranger, as self-absorbed, or as someone who
put little time or effort into understanding your reader’s situation,
your chances for a successful outcome are significantly diminished.
So how do you forge a sincere working relationship with your
reader? Begin by determining your smallest shared community. Then focus on the reader’s needs, wants, and benefits.
Determine Your Smallest Shared Community Ask yourself what you know about your reader: Have you met
before? Are you already friends? Your smallest shared community
will be your own relationship.
In other instances, especially when you’ve never met your reader,
your shared community might still seem rather broad. Perhaps you
both work in the same industry. Maybe you belong to the same
professional organization. Or perhaps you live in the same region or
state.
In other situations, your shared community will be much more
narrow or local. You may work at the same company. You might
have attended the same university or even have been in the same
business fraternity. You may have a shared experience—e.g., you’re
both from Shanghai and are now working as accountants in the
United States. You may share a personal passion—you might both be
runners. Or in many cases, you may know the same person.
Build a Relationship with Your Reader | 71
Whatever your smallest shared community, this connection will
offer you a starting point to introduce yourself, capture your
reader’s attention, make your message personal and engaging, and
ultimately, present your request or proposal.
Focus on the Reader’s Needs, Wants, and Benefits Because human nature leads us to think about our own needs and
wants, focusing on the reader’s needs, wants, and benefits instead
of our own can be challenging. Your reader will ask “What’s In It
For Me?” (WIIFM), which means you as the writer need to ask about
your reader “What’s In It For You?” (WIIFY). As you plan, write, and
revise your documents, use a “you-focused” strategy to address
your reader’s needs.
Your readers want to know what they will receive, what they
should do, and why they should do it. In most cases, telling the
readers what their emotions should be or sharing your own
emotions does not achieve a reader-focused document. Using
pronouns referring to your reader (you, your, yours) rather than
pronouns referring to you the writer (I, me, my) can help you
achieve the “you viewpoint.” More important than counting the
number of first- and second-person pronouns used, however, is
analyzing how your readers will react. Will your readers think that
you care about them and their wants and needs? That’s your
primary goal.
Think of WIIFY (What’s in it for you) and WIIFM (What’s in it for
me) as two sides of the same coin. As you plan and write documents,
you have to answer the question “What’s in it for you,” your reader,
because your reader will certainly be asking “what’s in it for me.”
• We are giving you a $10 discount.
• You will receive a $10 discount.
Changing from writer focus (we are giving) to reader focus (you will
receive) may seem like a minor change of words, but the impact
makes a big difference in the reader’s reaction.
72 | Build a Relationship with Your Reader
WIIFY: 1. Focuses on the reader’s actions and benefits, not the writer’s
We have expanded our inventory to give you a larger selection
of flooring options. (writer focus)
You may now choose from a larger selection of flooring
options. (reader focus) 2. Emphasizes what the reader wants to know rather than what
you, the writer/company, think is important
We shipped your flooring order today. (writer focus)
You may track your flooring order with #25601. Your order
will arrive by March 14. (reader focus) 3. Avoids talking about the writer’s feelings, unless the reader
wants to know them
We are pleased to announce our new company exercise
facility. (writer focus)
You now have the opportunity to exercise before work, at
lunch, or after work—at the new completely equipped company
exercise facility. (reader focus) 4. Avoids telling the readers the emotions they should feel
You will be happy to learn that all your receipts have been
filed, and we will reimburse you by September 14. (writer focus)
You will receive your reimbursement by September 14. All your
receipts have been filed. (reader focus) 5. Highlights the positive result if the reader takes a requested
action
Company policy requires that to receive credit you must send
a copy of the signed delivery receipt for all returned
merchandise. (writer focus)
To receive credit for the merchandise you returned, please
send a copy of the signed delivery receipt. (reader focus) 6. Stresses “you” more often than “I/we”
I want you to know that we appreciate your business, so we
are sending you a coupon worth $10. (writer focus)
Enclosed is a $10 coupon to show you that your business is
appreciated! (reader focus)
Build a Relationship with Your Reader | 73
Focusing on your reader’s needs and values can help achieve a
stronger working relationship and a more positive impression of you
and your company.
EXAMPLE When your subordinate wants to know if she can attend
a seminar and wants your company to pay for it, you will
want to know what the company gets from it—possibly a more
knowledgeable, better-trained employee, an employee who
contributes positively to the company’s morale, and an
employee willing to add value to the company.
If your employee writes, “Please approve my request to allow
me to attend the upcoming conference ‘The Impact of Office
Politics’ in Boston and have all expenses paid by the company. I
will learn a lot,” no benefit to the company is offered, and you may deny the request.
On the other hand, this version of the request includes the
reader’s benefits and may be approved:
Please approve my request to allow me to attend the upcoming
conference in Boston with expenses paid by the company. “The
Impact of Office Politics” conference is being held in Boston
on March 18-20. The agenda includes sessions on conflict
resolution, time management, and team dynamics (complete
agenda attached). At our last department meeting, these topics
were discussed as areas that our company needs to improve.
I could conduct small group discussions with our staff teams
sharing what I learned at the conference when I return. Now you know the possible benefits your company could receive
from paying the expenses for one person to attend the conference.
This employee could disseminate the information to help others
in the company with issues already identified as areas needing
improvement. Including this reader benefit will increase the chance
of your approving your subordinate’s request.
74 | Build a Relationship with Your Reader
19. Analyze Pronoun Choice and Overall Focus
Using second-person pronouns can help you focus on your reader.
However, achieving a complete reader focus is not as simple as
counting the number of writer pronouns (I, me, my) and the number
of reader pronouns (you, your, yours). Avoid thinking that if more
reader pronouns are used that you have automatically achieved
reader focus. Rather, read aloud and listen—who receives more
emphasis? It should be your reader.
In this example, nine “we/our,” writer-focused words, and nine
“you/your,” reader-focused words are used.
We received your message, and we are glad to inform you that we considered your request. Therefore, we are enclosing a list of the benefits to which you are entitled. We hope you will sign up for numbers 2, 7, and 9. We know that you will want to have access to our company-provided educational benefits and to our special reward program for perfect attendance. We are available to answer any of your questions. You may call your manager or HR
representative for answers.
However, the message’s focus remains on the writer.
The score in the revised example is four reader-focused words, and
one writer-focused word but more important than counting words
is that the reader’s needs and actions are emphasized.
Analyze Pronoun Choice and Overall Focus | 75
You are entitled to three of the benefits you asked about: 2, 7, and 9.
Those items include company-provided educational benefits and a
special reward program for perfect attendance. You may sign up for
the benefits until June 1. Let us know if you need more information.
A reader-focused strategy will help your readers feel as though you
understand and care about their needs.
76 | Analyze Pronoun Choice and Overall Focus
20. Consider Secondary and Unintended Audiences
As you research and build a relationship with your primary audience, you should be aware of the multitude of other audiences who may encounter your document.
In many instances, your secondary audience(s), or your nonprimary readership, will be predictable. Common secondary
audiences include your colleagues, management (both at your
company and at the recipient’s), shareholders, lenders, lawyers,
auditors, and the media. Often, you will actually grant these readers
access to your documents as part of your responsibility to keep
these interested parties informed. Over time, your secondary
audiences may change or you may gain additional secondary
readers (e.g., new management following a merger or a new set of
investors).
If you identify potential concerns your secondary audiences are
likely to have with your message, you have two courses of action.
You may find it necessary to go back and revise your original
message to account for these concerns. Or you may decide to leave
your original message “as is,” but make sure that you provide your
secondary readers with additional context for understanding your
message’s content. For example, you might include a letter of
explanation or additional language to accompany your message.
You should also be aware of unintended audience(s) who may one day become privy to your message. In today’s digital age, anyone can
easily share “private” content with hundreds of millions of people,
and once information is posted on the internet, it becomes universal
and enduring. Therefore, before you send your message, ask
yourself:
Is anything in this document so sensitive that it would
Consider Secondary and Unintended Audiences | 77
embarrass or cause irreparable damage to my company or
others if it became public?
Is there any information in this message that would be
catastrophic if it landed in the hands of my company’s
competition?
Could this message potentially harm or demoralize our
company’s workforce if its contents became public
knowledge?
If the answer is “yes” to any of these questions, you might choose
to rethink your channel and perhaps select a method of delivery (such as a certified letter or phone call) that would be more secure
and less likely to be shared with others. In instances when you are
communicating with the media, you may want to request that your
conversation remain “off the record.”
78 | Consider Secondary and Unintended Audiences
21. Write Your Audience-Centered Message
The payoff for your thorough preparation is that when you begin
to write, you now have the necessary information to devise an
audience-centered framework for your message. As you will see
below in the sample structure for an informational interview
request, an effective audience-centered message will engage your
intended reader and only include content relevant to your reader’s
values, needs, and interests.
Audience-Centered Scenario: Requesting an Informational Interview
As you begin your business career, you will need to network and
use your strategic business writing skills to connect with people
in positions to help you. An informational interview can provide an
important opportunity to meet someone who is accomplished in
your desired field or who works at a company where you would
like to work someday. However, requesting an interview can often
require an unsolicited correspondence in which the reader has no
idea who you are. Therefore, to have any chance of receiving a
positive response, you will need to plan and draft the most
audience-centered, persuasive email possible. Your request must
establish a relationship with your reader and appeal to their needs,
thereby motivating them to want to speak with you.
Let’s first look at the audience-centered structure for an
interview request, and then we’ll consider some examples.
Subject Line: Inspire your audience to actually open the email by including specific details that pertain to your shared
community and illuminate your reason for writing. Avoid
writing a subject line that is too brief and generic (“Interview”),
too wordy (“I’d like a chance to talk with you sometime this
month about your career”), or too creative, confusing, or
Write Your Audience-Centered Message | 79
literary (“From College Student to Career: The Best
Trajectory”).
Opening: Immediately engage your reader by using their first name (or last name with Mr. or Ms.) in your greeting.
In the first lines of your message, establish rapport (“make
friends”) by emphasizing what you and your reader share in
common. If appropriate, identify any shared acquaintances,
especially if they have put you in contact with the reader.
Mention how you became aware of this person and
demonstrate that you are familiar with their background or
accomplishments. Your first paragraph should explicitly state
your purpose: a direct request for a conversation. When you
make this request, be clear about your purpose, and be
respectful of the interviewee’s time. When possible, articulate
what the reader stands to gain from this interaction.
As you write, include only information about yourself that is
necessary and relevant to the reader. Your language and tone
should reflect what you’ve learned about the reader during
your research.
Body: Make your body paragraphs audience-centered by providing your reader with the primary reason for the
conversation and a preview of a few open questions you plan
to ask during your interview. This “agenda” will give your
recipient time to formulate detailed and helpful responses.
However, do not overwhelm your reader with too many
questions or insult your reader with questions that have
obvious answers. Respect your reader’s time by keeping your
writing concise, your body paragraphs brief, and your
questions interesting.
Closing: Provide your reader with logistical information for the potential interview, while again being respectful of their
schedule. Also include your contact information unless it is
included in your signature block. Express enthusiasm and
gratitude, and conclude with a cordial and professional closing
(“Sincerely,” “Thank you,”) that includes the name you would
80 | Write Your Audience-Centered Message
like your reader to call you. End your message with a
persuasive signature block including your full name, your best
credibility, and your contact information (your cell number
and email address and possibly your LinkedIn profile link).
Write Your Audience-Centered Message | 81
Now consider the scenario where Todd researches Ms.
Pineda and learns she receives many similar requests and is
known for impatience with long messages. Todd might send
her this more brief yet still complete email:
82 | Write Your Audience-Centered Message
Write Your Audience-Centered Message | 83
PART V
TONE
A strategic business writer understands that effectively planning
a document means considering the audience, the purpose, the
content, and the context. Once you have analyzed who is reading
your document (audience), why you are writing the document
(purpose), what needs to be included (content), and how the overall
situation impacts the message (context), you will then need to
determine how to achieve the appropriate tone. Composing a
document without planning these elements can result in an unclear
message, a misunderstood message, or even an unread message. If
the tone is negative, harsh, accusing, or writer focused, a customer’s
or client’s feelings may be hurt, sales may decline, or a business
relationship may be lost permanently.
On the other hand, if the writer considers the audience’s potential
reactions to the message and chooses words that result in a positive
Tone | 85
tone, the intended outcome is more likely to be achieved. That
outcome, that purpose, may result in a stronger business
relationship, more sales, and positive word-of-mouth advertising.
Effective tone helps an audience understand a message and builds
goodwill with the audience. Goodwill may, in turn, add to corporate
value.
The chart below shows one way that a writer can minimize risks
of miscommunication by writing with a positive tone.
Learning Objectives
• Recognize words that create a positive tone and
86 | Tone
audience-centered message
• Analyze the importance of a positive tone
• Apply strategies that result in a positive tone
• Write a complete document using positive tone and
audience-centered strategies
Tone | 87
22. Apply Positive Tone Techniques to Internal and External Messages
As you examine the tone in these contrasting documents, notice
the word choice, the sentence structure, and the space given to the
negative. Emphasizing the positive and deemphasizing the negative
is more likely to result in (1) your reader having a positive impression
of you and your organization and (2) your reader continuing the
business relationship.
To a customer who asked to apply her rent payments toward the purchase of a condominium
1. Unfortunately, we cannot permit you to apply the rent payments
you’ve been making for the past ten months toward the purchase
of your condominium. When you signed your lease, you were
told that you were signing a 12-month lease. Company policy
does not allow such a conversion. Obviously, we couldn’t stay in
business long if we agreed to proposals such as yours. You’ve
rented the condo for ten months now, and you claim you like its
location and interior style. Even though you can’t buy the condo
you currently live in, we do have some that are for sale. We won’t
be able to meet with you to discuss the ones available to buy until
the end of the month.
2. So that the rental prices for the condominiums at Gail Gates
remain competitive, the condo you chose is available only with a
12-month lease. Other condos in the same general location (map
attached) with comparable interiors are available to buy. Let us
know when you are available to discuss your options and/or to
tour condos currently for sale.
Apply Positive Tone Techniques to Internal and External Messages | 89
To a subordinate who asked his supervisor to allow work release time to attend a seminar
1. We must refuse your request to attend the “Best Ways to Meet
and Greet” seminar. You contend that the information from the
seminar would help improve your interpersonal skills. We can’t
permit you to do this since your colleagues would have to work
harder to do your job while you are absent. Obviously, if you
aren’t at work, you aren’t getting your work done—and this is a
busy time. Other seminars may be available during slower times
in your department.
2. You are to be commended for wanting to hone your
interpersonal skills by attending the “Best Ways to Meet and
Greet” seminar. Even though all employees are needed during
this busy time of the year, other seminars are available in the
summer during our slower months (list attached). Please review
the available seminars, and let me know which one you want to
attend, so we can get your release time on the calendar.
To a participant who asked for a pre registration fee refund for a 10K race
1. You won’t get your $25 pre-registration fee refunded. When you
signed the form, you were clearly informed that you wouldn’t be
eligible for a refund. You claim that you weren’t able to run
because of the rain the morning of the race. The form you signed
indicated that the race would be held regardless of the weather
conditions. We can’t give you a refund because the entrance
money has already been used to help fund the new child-care
center in the community. Even though you failed to read
carefully, if you bring your race receipt to another race sign-up,
we’ll give you 10% off your next registration fee.
2. The registration form signed by all participants included the
information that the race was sponsored to benefit local children
and that the race would be held regardless of the weather
conditions. All pre-registration fees have been donated to the
90 | Apply Positive Tone Techniques to Internal and External Messages
CCCenter, our community’s new child-care center (registration
form copy attached). Bring your race receipt to the next race you
enter and receive 10% off that registration fee. A list of
upcoming races is available at B’town Upcoming Races website.
In each of the examples, the negative words resulted in a harsh,
negative tone—won’t, can’t, claimed, failed, unfortunately, contend.
The revisions eliminated the negative words and created a more
positive tone by explaining the reason for the refusal and then
focusing on the positive: look at condos that are for sale, take a
seminar later, get a future discount.
So, to help you achieve stronger business relationships—both internally and externally —increase sales, and encourage positive word-of-mouth advertising, consider the tone as you plan your document.
Apply Positive Tone Techniques to Internal and External Messages | 91
23. Emphasize Positive Tone with Additional Strategies
In addition to choosing words that help you focus on the positive,
applying additional emphasis strategies can help you achieve an
overall positive tone. Because readers remember most the
information they read first and last, the bad news should be
deemphasized in the middle of a sentence, paragraph, or entire
document and given a limited amount of space. The mechanical
emphasis techniques, such as bullets and bold font, should be used
to highlight positives rather than negatives.
Sentence structure also needs to be analyzed: short sentences
emphasize (the average sentence length is 16–20 words). Placing
the bad news in a dependent clause in a complex sentence
deemphasizes it: for example, Even though your dishes were eligible
for a refund for only 90 days, you may exchange them for an in-
store credit (no refund = bad news; dependent clause = reduced emphasis).
The revisions in these examples use positive words and change compound sentences into complex sentences to deemphasize the negative by placing it in the dependent clause.
1. You won’t be able to register late for classes this semester, but your
class choices for next semester are now available online.
Revised While registration for this semester ended last week, your class choices for next semester are now available online.
2. We can’t allow you to take the test again, but one test grade of the
five will be dropped.
Revised Even though each of the five tests may be taken only once, your top four test grades will be averaged.
3. You ordered from the wrong catalog, but that item is available in
the latest catalog for an additional $6.
92 | Emphasize Positive Tone with Additional Strategies
Revised Even though item #3343 costs $23.00 in the Spring 2018 catalog, you will receive it within two days of placing your order.
Use positive words and emphasize what can be done as strategies for achieving a positive tone.
Emphasize Positive Tone with Additional Strategies | 93
24. Analyze the Impact of Positive Tone Wording
Those various categories of negative words—often referred to as
“trigger” words—cause readers to have negative reactions. When
someone says
“You can’t. . .” “You shouldn’t. . .” “You won’t be able to. . .”
“You failed. . .”
human nature is to become defensive and reply with something
such as “Well, it wasn’t my fault; no one told me,” “You didn’t make
clear what you wanted,” “I didn’t know you meant for me to do that,”
or even “It wasn’t in my job description!”
Which of these next two sentences would result in your customer
having a more positive reaction—or in other words, which has a
more positive tone?
1. We have had to raise the service charge on your account because
we’ve had a decline in profits and can’t continue to charge the
current rate.
2. To ensure you continue to receive efficient full service, the
minimum service charge on your account is now $5.00.
Your customer won’t like the fact that the service charge on her
checking account has increased regardless of which wording is
used, but the impact of the wording is different. The first example
focuses on the writer and the writer’s concerns and has a negative
tone because it focuses on the bad news. The second sentence
emphasizes the benefit to the reader with a more positive tone.
If you are able to avoid all or at least most of the negative
language, then your reader’s resistance to the message is reduced.
Focus on what is or can be rather than on what isn’t or can’t be. Focusing on what you can do rather than on what you can’t do is
similar to the “glass-is-half-full” strategy.
94 | Analyze the Impact of Positive Tone Wording
Applying that principle to these sentences shows an improved
tone.
1. You won’t receive your order until Friday.
2. You will receive your order Friday.
1. You can’t reserve Shelter House B for June 10.
2. While Shelter House B is already reserved for June 10, it is
available on June 9 or 11.
The first example in each group focuses on what isn’t or can’t
be—won’t and can’t—and the second examples focus on what is or
can be—will and is. Also, the Shelter House #2 example refuses by
implying the bad news. Telling your reader that, a room is already
reserved for the requested date, states a fact and clearly implies that the room is not available on the requested date.
These additional examples also illustrate strategies of how to
eliminate the negative.
1. You can’t practice any place except Room 203.
Revised Room 203 is available as a practice room. 2. We can’t allow you a refund more than thirty days after your
purchase.
Revised Your item is eligible for a refund for thirty days after purchase.
3. Your new video glasses won’t work unless you follow the
directions.
Revised Your new video glasses will work well when assembled according to the directions.
Recognizing the difference between positive and negative words and their impact helps you create positive, audience-centered messages.
Analyze the Impact of Positive Tone Wording | 95
25. Consider the Tone for an Audience-Centered Message
What comes to mind when you hear the word “tone”? Have you
ever said or been told “watch your tone”? In oral communication,
we usually correctly identify someone’s tone as being kind, gruff,
matter of fact, or sarcastic, for example. Trying to understand what
tone means in written communication and how to achieve a positive
tone can be more challenging. However, understanding the positive
tone concept is crucial to achieving an audience-centered strategy.
One of the first steps to achieving a positive tone is recognizing
negative words and phrases. Negatives come in different
categories.
• Negative words: can’t, won’t, didn’t, shouldn’t, failed, forgot, not only, unfortunately
• Negative connotations: claim, contend, grant, permit, allow
Claim and contend indicate an element of doubt—You claim that you
didn’t receive the message. . . or. . .You contend that the item was broken when you received it.
Words such as grant, permit, and allow are in the negative group
because only someone in higher authority can grant, permit, or
allow something to someone in a lesser position. The tone is
condescending. Even if the writer is in power or control, willing
cooperation rather than forced compliance should be the goal.
• Reminder of negative: problem, broken, dissatisfied, complaint, error
Writing about being dissatisfied with the broken window, or, the
inconvenience of having a problem with the service technician focuses the reader’s mind back to the negative. You want your
96 | Consider the Tone for an Audience-Centered Message
reader remembering the repaired window rather than the broken
window and the additional training to ensure better service rather than the problem with the service technician.
• Doubtful words: hope, if, feel, would like to, think, believe
Even though hope can be a positive word, both hope and if can
express doubt, as in, I hope I’ve satisfied you, or, Use the enclosed coupon if you ever do business with us again. Use the enclosed 20% off coupon the next time you visit our store, has more assurance
than, If you ever do business with us again. If the writer is doubtful then the reader will be, too.
• Insults: If you had read. . ., If you had followed the instructions. . .You should have been more careful….
Psychology teaches that each of us has three egos: adult, parent,
child. In business, the “adult” ego needs to be used. Statements
such as the above put the writer and reader in a parent/child
encounter rather than an adult/adult situation.
• “Cop out” words: company policy, “they” won’t let me
Customers generally resent “company policy” statements because
they may be interpreted as, You are just using this as an excuse not
to help me. Therefore, avoid stating “company policy” to customers. The only thing that customers want to know about a company’s
policies is how those policies benefit them. The writer needs to
explain the “reader benefit” of the company policy.
• “Preachy” words: must, have no choice
You have no choice but to refund my deposit, or, You must give me
another chance. The reader does have a choice. Defensive human nature may make your reader even more determined to
demonstrate that he/she does have a choice.
Consider the Tone for an Audience-Centered Message | 97
Even though a single negative word may cause your reader to
have a defensive or negative attitude, the cumulative effect of
multiple negatives may result in an even greater effect on your
reader—even resulting in undermining the entire document. As you
plan your business documents, consider the impact tone has on
how your reader will react to your message. Your goal is to choose
words that result in a positive tone and a positive reader reaction.
Reference http://angrycustomer.org/faq/
index.php?action=artikel&cat=6&id=39&artlang=en
98 | Consider the Tone for an Audience-Centered Message
PART VI
CREDIBLE CONTENT
Business messages guide actions. They lead to sales, collaborative
efforts, informed decisions, strategic implementations, reports, and
many more actions or decisions. Readers need sufficient credible information to understand what action to complete, why to
complete an action, and how to complete an action. The sufficiency and credibility of information is built with evidence; in other words evidence gives content its credibility. When readers interpret
evidence, they determine whether they believe a writer’s reasoning
and whether it is persuasive. Both the structure and content of an argument influence the reader.
The reader’s role to interpret your message means you need to
write a message that sufficiently and credibly guides your reader.
Before drafting your message, you will seek to understand your
readers—their level of relevant knowledge, needs, values, and
circumstances. Then you will engage in informal or formal research
Credible Content | 99
depending on the complexity of your purpose, content, and context.
Your reader analysis and research will set you up to choose and arrange evidence to enhance your argument.
Learning Objectives
• Determine the evidence that will be most credible
and sufficient to guide your reader
• Identify assumptions that underlie your and your
reader’s point of view relevant to your message’s
specific business context and purpose
• Integrate evidence into your arguments in an order
that best meets your readers’ needs, adds credibility,
and enhances persuasion
100 | Credible Content
26. Select Credible and Sufficient Evidence to Persuade Your Reader
An argument makes a claim to persuade an audience. In business,
the claim asks an audience to change a belief or take an action.
For instance, in the sales context, a message attempts to convince
a reader to buy a product or service. An argument might also
convince a reader to change or maintain a belief—the act would be
to believe the argument’s claim. The reader determines the weight
of the evidence, based on its source, its relation to the argument
being proven, its relation to other evidence, the tone of its
presentation, and the timing and pace at which it is presented.
To convince a reader to act, the reasons in an argument must be believable, logical, and stir the reader’s emotions. Evidence as interpreted by the reader, however, gives reasoning its weight.
Examples of evidence types and sources
To support your claims you will construct arguments synthesizing
primary and secondary sources offering quantitative and qualitative
evidence.
Primary sources provide direct evidence: for example, a lunch receipt is primary evidence of a purchase. So is your own statement
of what you purchased and ate for lunch. Primary sources arise from
actual participation in an event. In contrast, secondary sources rely on primary and secondary sources for the data: a report
summarizing your annual purchases is a secondary source
describing the purchases you made over time.
A source can combine primary and secondary evidence. For
Select Credible and Sufficient Evidence to Persuade Your
instance, an employee’s personal log of workplace accomplishments
might mention accomplishments of other people, too.
Sources can also be viewed as primary or secondary depending
on how they are used. An Excel spreadsheet regarding a specific
business’s monthly expenditures is a primary source showing the
records kept by that business, but it is a secondary source of actual
expenditures for reader’s outside of that business.
Business professionals typically desire both quantitative and
qualitative evidence before making decisions. Quantitative information allows professionals to base their decisions on specific
cost and revenue trends and projections, to extrapolate from broad
data (numbers, statistics), and to measure potential outcomes of
actions. Qualitative information allows decision makers to learn from narrow data (examples, stories). It gives business professionals
descriptive, focused answers to their business questions.
102 | Select Credible and Sufficient Evidence to Persuade Your Reader
General description
Types of information
Example sources
Qualitative Descriptions Interpretation
Consumer trends Predictions
Conclusions
SecondaryDiscussions in market analysis reports and consulting reports
Academic studies Expert opinions
Primary Client interviews Customer feedback
via social media Evidence-based
testimony/statements Internal reports Press Releases
Quantitative
Numbers and statistics Measures/ metrics
Trends
Revenues Costs
Year-over- year values
Industry growth
Market penetration
Revenue per square foot
Secondary Market analysis reports
Consulting reports Bureau of Labor
Statistics Academic studies Census reports
Primary Transaction records Balance sheets Budgets SEC filings Surveys
Manage your research process
To find credible content, you will conduct valuable primary and
secondary research to support your arguments. Routine documents frequently require primary research such as reviewing spreadsheets or reports, or engaging in impromptu information-
gathering conversations. Sometimes, you will need to conduct
secondary research. For example, suppose your supervisor asks
whether “year-over-year sales are on track this year.” You might
Select Credible and Sufficient Evidence to Persuade Your Reader | 103
review Excel spreadsheets with sales numbers from this year and
last year, and you might talk to the company’s Sales Director.
In contrast, complex arguments will often challenge your
research skills, requiring you to engage in extensive primary and
secondary research. Complex arguments, such as those found in
reports, often address ambiguous questions and contexts. Even
before starting your research, you will need to consider your
intended reader’s needs and develop your research questions.
Overall, your research process will require more strategic project
management.
Adapt the following techniques to meet your research needs.
Primary Research: Talk with people who can offer you credible information. Because it is highly focused and timely, primary
research often adds the most value to your routine documents and
reports.
1. Plan an information-gathering meeting: Set up the meeting,
research the topic and person you’ll interview, create a
meeting agenda, and write/revise your questions.
2. Lead the meeting: Include everyone, ask compelling questions,
take notes, and outline and summarize the evidence you
gather.
3. Follow up: Offer gratitude, organize and write a summary, and
plan for future contact, as needed.
4. Prepare an interview citation for your Works Cited listing the
interviewee’s name and credibility (e.g. job title) for
your argument, and the date and place of the interview.
Secondary Research: Find written sources with credible information to further build the argument in your routine
documents and reports.
1. Use online and library resources and search engines to locate a
breadth of credible sources.
2. Develop key terms to search.
104 | Select Credible and Sufficient Evidence to Persuade Your Reader
3. Conduct background research to know the topic and context
well.
4. Find and save your sources and/or take notes.
5. Evaluate your sources’ credibility.
6. Cite your sources in MLA (in text and Works Cited/Works
Consulted) and/or use footnotes. Possibly annotate your
Works Cited to help you locate evidence as you write your
arguments.
Improve your complex argument research by referencing the IU Libraries Research Process Checklist.
Select Credible and Sufficient Evidence to Persuade Your Reader | 105
27. Use the Credible Content Checklist
Questions to ask when conducting research and composing your argument or when evaluating an argument
Claims
• On what claims does this argument rely?
• What claims will the evidence support?
• What logical reasons support the claims?
• About what claims will the audience feel neutral or positive?
• Will the audience doubt any of my claims? Why?
Testimonial Evidence
• What testimony (expert or the lay opinion of others) supports
or counters each claim?
• What makes the testimony credible or less than credible?
• How reliable will the audience think the testimony is?
Factual Evidence
• What credible facts support or counter each claim?
• What analogous facts support or counter each claim?
• How similar and different are compared items?
Audience Analysis
• What criteria will the audience use to evaluate the evidence?
• Why will the audience consider evidence “good” or “bad”?
• What assumptions will the audience make about the argument,
claims, and evidence?
106 | Use the Credible Content Checklist
Presentation of Evidence
• In what order should evidence be presented for clarity and a
positive response?
• Are any uses of evidence inaccurate from the audience’s
viewpoint?
• Do any uses of evidence hide important facts?
• Was all evidence gathered fairly and ethically?
• Are all sources cited accurately?
• What combination of quantitative and qualitative information
is sufficient?
• Am I over-relying on any individual piece of evidence?
Overall, an argument’s evidential intensity should meet the reader’s needs and values—you need the right amount, type, and combination of evidence to help your reader understand your argument in one reading and to use the information appropriately, ethically, and correctly.
Use the Credible Content Checklist | 107
28. Integrate Evidence into Your Organized Argument to Best Meet Your Reader’s Needs, Add Credibility, and Enhance Persuasion
Purposeful arrangement of evidence is also called marshaling evidence, which means that a writer selects and shares evidence when and in an order that best supports an argument’s reasoning.
Evidence best supports an argument’s reasoning when integrated
carefully: careful writers choose evidence that clearly relates to
their claims and adds value by stating the relationship between
evidence, related evidence, and the claim. Simply listing evidence
fails to state the important relationships in an argument. In contrast,
competent research and well-structured argument tend to show
truthfulness, provoke earnest belief in evidence, and establish professionalism. Providing citations shows your forthrightness and demonstrates goodwill, intelligence, and competence—building your credibility.
The following paragraph exemplifies flaws in argumentation;
however, specifically consider the claim’s relationship to the
evidence and the marshaling of evidence. The writer claims that
Walmart’s credibility leads to trust that leads to flexibility to
implement new ideas. A careful reader will not see a clear
relationship between the claim and evidence; basically, the writer
proves Walmart offers some innovative ideas but does not provide
evidence of a causal relationship that its credibility leads to
innovation. As far as marshaling evidence, the writer simply lists
items. Lists without a writer’s statements analyzing and
108 | Integrate Evidence into Your Organized Argument to Best Meet
synthesizing the evidence often fail to prove the reasoning stated in
the claim.
Before sample with poorly marshaled and chosen evidence
The credibility of Walmart’s brand helps to gain and maintain
consumer trust allowing the flexibility to implement new ideas.
For example: Renewable energy now provides 21% of Walmart’s
electricity globally (Walmart.com, 2013). The EPA Green Power
Partnership recognized Walmart as the largest on-site green power
generator in the U.S., with more than 200 solar projects across
the country (epa.gov, 2014). The Solar Energy Industries Association
(SEIA) cited Walmart as the most-installed onsite solar capacity in
the U.S (seia.org, 2013). Walmart was named an Eco-Environment
Innovation Award winner by Oracle (oracle.com, 2013). Walmart
awards over $3.4 million to help philanthropic non-profits that help
economically vulnerable women (philanthropynewsdigest.org,
2012). Walmart and the Walmart Foundation are increasing training,
market access, and career opportunities for nearly 1 million women
worldwide (Walmart.com, 2013). Walmart created and spearheaded
the “Fighting Hunger Together” campaign to help Feeding America
serve 1 billion donated meals (since 2005)(feedingamerica.org, 2013).
Walmart committed to hire any honorably discharged U.S. veteran
in his or her first year off active duty (Walmart, 2013).
Whereas a poor argument fails to synthesize evidence, strong
arguments state a claim, provide evidence to support the claim,
and comment on the evidence, relating the it to claims and other
evidence. You should note that strategic business writers seek
evidence before composing complex arguments; they rely on
evidence to determine claims, instead of just trying to find
evidence to prove their pre existing claims. Building a complex
argument is a recursive process of research and claim
Integrate Evidence into Your Organized Argument to Best Meet Your Reader’s Needs, Add Credibility, and Enhance Persuasion | 109
development. The after sample demonstrates the relationship of evidence to claims and the integration of evidence into a written
message.
After sample with improved marshaling and chosen evidence
Walmart believes the environment and people deserve its
investment. Therefore, the company attends to environmental
concerns with innovative technologies to provide the largest onsite
green power generation in the US (EPA.gov, 2014) including the most
solar panel capacity of any US retailer (seia.org, 2013). In recognition
of these efforts, Walmart received Oracle’s 2013 Eco-Innovation
Award for its positive ecological innovations (oracle.com, 2013).
But the company did more than invest in green power and
technologies—Walmart globally has hired or trained over 1 million
women seeking entry into the workforce (Walmart.com, 2013) and
also heavily invested in philanthropies that serve economically
disadvantaged women (philanthropy.com, 2013). Walmart also
promises to hire any honorably discharged veteran recently
returned from service (Walmart, 2013). The company consistently
receives awards and praise around the globe for its social
responsibility (Walmart.com, 2013). But more importantly, the
company’s investments in green power, philanthropies that address
empowerment of women, and workforce development give the
company a far-ranging reach and fuel its hope to help people
globally.
Well-integrated evidence synthesizes and analyzes information and introduces the evidence in an order that enhances credibility and advances your argument.
110 | Integrate Evidence into Your Organized Argument to Best Meet Your Reader’s Needs, Add Credibility, and Enhance Persuasion
29. Identify Your Reader’s Likely Assumptions
If you want to make claims and choose evidence that connect with
readers, you have to understand the assumptions inherent in your
argument. All arguments rely on assumptions and these
assumptions need to impress the reader as reasonable. These
assumptions relate to the audience, the claims, the evidence, or the
evidence’s source.
Audience-related assumptions lead to choosing claims and evidence that a writer believes will persuade an audience.
Depending on the context and purpose of a message, a writer will
explicitly state and use evidence to justify assumptions. Explicitly
stated and justified assumptions are especially valuable in business
consulting and business decision making. Business people want to
make well-informed decisions with full understanding of the
strengths and weaknesses of an argument and corresponding
evidence.
While you might not state your assumptions in a message to a
customer, you still need to identify the assumptions for yourself
as part of the planning process. For example, in a situation where
you have to inform a customer that you are raising prices,
understanding your audience requires asking why you believe what you believe about your audience. Do you assume that price is what’s most important to the customer? Why? Do you have any
evidence to back up that assumption? Could your audience identify
with your product in a way that lessens the importance of price?
In that case a price-focused message will likely fail to produce the
effect you desire. Failing to analyze your assumptions can thwart
your strategic choice of evidence and lead to fallacious arguments.
Claim and evidence-related assumptions reflect your values and beliefs about the paradigm you operate in (paradigmatic
Identify Your Reader’s Likely Assumptions | 111
assumptions), about what ought to happen in a particular situation
(prescriptive assumptions), and about causes and effects (causal
assumptions).
• Example of paradigmatic assumption—Democracy provides the
greatest amount of freedom. Paradigmatic assumptions are deeply integrated in belief systems. In business, paradigms
often relate to the operation of power structures. For instance,
50 years ago in the U.S. people generally assumed only men
could achieve executive status, but this changed as women
pushed for equal rights. Technological advancement and
globalization often lead to reconsideration of these
assumptions.
• Examples of prescriptive assumptions—If you attend a job
interview, you should send a thank you note. Or, If you want to
choose an employee for an international assignment, you should
send an extrovert. Prescriptive assumptions relate to what we
view as desirable. They are often indicated by the word should.
• Example of causal assumption—Hard work leads to success. Causal assumptions underlie many business messages, such as
sales forecasts that rely on trend data. Even choosing the trend
data relates to causal assumptions. For example, say Business A
is considering expanding employee eligibility for irregular work
hours, known as “flex time.” Instead of researching productivity
trends for businesses that use flex time, Business A may
consider evidence that globalization requires around-the-
clock availability to business stakeholders (customers,
suppliers, distributors). This reliance makes assumptions about
what causes productivity.
Source-related assumptions relate to the value you and your audience inherently give a source. In business, information that
comes from well-kept business records will more likely persuade a decision maker than testimony. Certain testimony may receive more trust than other testimony. For instance, many people may
112 | Identify Your Reader’s Likely Assumptions
readily accept Warren Buffet’s investment advice: Buy into Geico
now. But Warren Buffet understands that not everyone will act without evidence, not even on his word. So when he gave the Geico
advice in his 2010 Berkshire Hathaway Letter to Shareholders, he
provided reasons and referred to evidence. Decision makers think
about many factors when weighing the value of testimony, including
the biases of the person who makes a statement and the person’s
competence, experience, and closeness to the information.
Understanding evidence is not enough to compose an effective
argument, even though evidence and claims lead to an argument’s
persuasiveness. Why? Arguments pass through the communication
process, which means writers encode arguments and readers
decode them. In the encoding and decoding processes, assumptions
act as filters. Therefore, even well-supported claims may fail to
convince an audience if you do not identify, discuss, and clarify
assumptions in a way that your reader will accept as reasonable.
Consider a simple and easily believable claim: ExxonMobil has
the highest revenue of any company in the world. A reader may know too much to accept this claim. For instance, the revenue of a
company changes over time, so the truth of the claim depends on
what time period is being discussed. Therefore, the reader may find
the writer imprecise and therefore not credible. The reader might
also have preconceived notions based on what she heard before
about corporate revenues. If you provide no contrary evidence, then
the reader relies on whatever knowledge or notions she brings to
her reading. Your reader could conclude: No. Walmart makes more
money. Either way, the reader interprets evidence to determine whether to believe the claim.
Unreasonable assumptions about audience, claims, or evidence can result in obstacles to persuasion, such as using the wrong claims or evidence or failing to think from multiple perspectives, especially the reader’s perspective.
Identify Your Reader’s Likely Assumptions | 113
PART VII
ORGANIZATION
Choose the best organizational pattern for your document to help
ensure the reader’s maximum understanding and positive reaction
to the message. Strategically organizing a message increases its
readability, clarity, and persuasiveness.
You will be faced with writing routine, positive, negative, and
persuasive messages for clients, management, and subordinates. As
part of the planning process, you will analyze your
• reader’s familiarity with the situation
• reader’s wants and needs
• reader’s anticipated reaction to the message
• desired action from your reader
Understanding those elements will help you determine whether
Organization | 115
the direct or indirect approach should be used. To write an
understandable, positive, reader-focused clear document, you will
need to plan by (1) determining your purpose (why am I writing)
and (2) anticipating your audience’s reaction (receptive or non
receptive). Most readers will have a neutral or positive reaction
to good news and routine situations. With no reader objection or
frustration to overcome, use the direct order by beginning with the
purpose statement. On the other hand, having to give your reader
negative news or persuade your reader to donate or volunteer could
result in a negative, defensive, even hostile reaction, making the
indirect approach more effective for skeptical, non receptive
readers. The indirect approach de-emphasizes negative news and
persuasive requests by delaying the purpose statement.
The direct approach is generally used for routine inquiries,
routine responses, adjustment grants, and claim letters. The
indirect approach may be more effective for refused requests,
adjustment refusals, and persuasive requests. Choosing the correct
strategy is an important part of the communication process.
Learning Objectives
• Explain the need for direct and indirect strategies
• Recognize the difference between direct and indirect
strategies
• Plan and compose routine, positive, negative, and
persuasive messages using direct and indirect
strategies
116 | Organization
30. Use the Indirect Approach for Persuasive Documents
The other category for which the indirect approach is necessary
is persuasive situations. How would you react to a message that began with one of these openings?
• Will you donate $100 to my favorite charity?
• Will you volunteer on your own time for Career Day at the local
junior high school?
Most readers won’t immediately say, Here’s my check or Of course,
sign me up. In fact, most will probably not read beyond the first sentence before throwing away the letter or deleting the email. The
writer needs to persuade the reader to donate money or volunteer
time.
What about these openings? The reader might at least be curious
and continue reading or scanning the document.
Helping others is one way to promote our company in the
community.
Do you realize that helping others is one way to reduce your blood
pressure? These openings do not guarantee the document will be read and
certainly not that the reader will agree to the request, but the
chance is increased of the letter being scanned.
These examples show that the first step is to get the
readers’ attention and to make them want to read or at least scan the rest of the document. The opening needs to be brief, relevant,
and engaging—perhaps a startling statement, a story or anecdote, or
a quote. Once you’ve gained your reader’s attention, then you need
to get your reader interested in the purpose of the request. Facts, examples, and benefits, both direct and indirect, and rational and
Use the Indirect Approach for Persuasive Documents | 117
emotional appeals are possible ways to keep the reader interested
and reading.
• Rational appeals reach the reader’s logic. The sale price is 20%
below cost and This system will get customers’ orders to them
three times faster are examples of rational appeals.
• Emotional appeals play on the reader’s senses. You will be the
most popular guy at the dance if you use All Men’s Cologne or All
your friends will be envious when they see you in this designer
gown.
To help determine which appeals to use, consider the reader
(wholesalers, for example, use rational appeals when selling to a
retailer: make money with 50% markup) and the product (perfume
and cologne, for example, have no rational appeal).
After the reader is interested or curious to know more, the next
step is for the writer to anticipate and overcome all reader
objections. A complete audience analysis helps identify potential
reader questions and objections. If, for example, the boss has asked
for a volunteer to conduct a tour of company headquarters for a
class of high school students, what questions would you want to ask
before you agreed?
• When—day and time of day?
• Length—how long?
• Content—what would need to be said?
• Questions—responsible for answering questions?
• Dress—any change in dress requirements?
• How many—a group of 10 or a group of 50? adult chaperones
available?
• Areas—what exactly will be students be allowed to see?
• Other responsibilities?—still have to meet scheduled deadline
on an important project?
118 | Use the Indirect Approach for Persuasive Documents
After resistance is reduced by anticipating and answering the
reader’s questions, the writer must encourage the reader to act. The action needs to be easy to take and immediate. If the writer
wants an email response, then the email address must be included.
If the situation is time sensitive, then as soon as possible is too
vague. Rather, include a specific time. The volunteer lists need to be
sent to Beth at [email protected] by 4 p.m. tomorrow.
Let’s analyze this unsolicited persuasive letter Storage Unlimited for Watercraft (SUW) sent to over 5,000 watercraft owners within a 30-mile radius of Bloomington, Indiana, seeking new clients.
The letter is hard to read, disorganized, wordy—in other words, the
approach, organization, and evidence were not planned. It needed
to have an audience-centered/reader-focused strategy with a
positive tone to meet the document’s purpose.
First, what is the document’s primary purpose? SUW does want to inform the readers about the benefits of storing their watercraft,
but that’s not the ultimate purpose. The ultimate purpose is to
motivate the readers to take action—to contact SUW about storing
their watercraft and ultimately to contract with SUW for watercraft
storage services.
What will persuade the reader to contact SUW? The writer must
Use the Indirect Approach for Persuasive Documents | 119
think from the “outside in”—in other words, try to get inside the
reader’s mind—understand how the reader thinks—anticipate and
answer the questions the potential clients will have. The watercraft
owners who received this unsolicited letter will have varied
reactions. Some may have ample space where they live, so have
no interest in any storage facilities. Others may already store their
watercraft and are satisfied, but some may be receptive to a
different company if the price and location are better. Still other
readers may have thought about storage facilities but have never
taken the next step, so they may be curious about the process. For
those who are curious and interested, answers to these questions
need to be analyzed as an effective persuasive document strategy is
planned:
• Should a direct or indirect approach be used?
• What does the reader need and want?
• What are the benefits to the reader?
• What concerns will the reader have?
• What possible objections might the reader have?
• What appeals will motivate the reader to action?
• How can the tone be adapted to stress the reader benefits?
After the audience, purpose, context, tone, and best information
arrangement were analyzed, this revised letter was drafted.
120 | Use the Indirect Approach for Persuasive Documents
The indirect strategy of getting your reader’s attention, appealing to your readers’ needs, emphasizing reader benefits, anticipating and responding to all reader objections and concerns, and motivating your reader to take action in persuasive situations increases the chance that the reader will take the requested action.
Use the Indirect Approach for Persuasive Documents | 121
31. Apologize Cautiously
Notice that “apologizing” is not part of the direct or indirect
organizational patterns.
Some situations do warrant an apology when a person or organization created harm. For example, Microsoft’s email apology due to offensive messages sent by an AI chat tool opened with these
words:
As many of you know by now, on Wednesday we launched a chatbot
called Tay. We are deeply sorry for the unintended offensive and
hurtful tweets from Tay, which do not represent who we are or what
we stand for, nor how we designed Tay. Tay is now offline and we’ll
look to bring Tay back only when we are confident we can better
anticipate malicious intent that conflicts with our principles and
values.
I want to share what we learned and how we’re taking these lessons
forward.
Before apologizing, however, consider if the apology will satisfy the reader. Normally the apology is not what satisfies the customer and even if used, should not be emphasized, which means: generally
don’t begin or end with an apology. The goal is for the reader to
remember the good news in good news messages or the reasons for
the refusal and the goodwill in bad news messages.
Another “apology” issue is that an apology can be interpreted as accepting responsibility or being liable. An innocent, “I’m sorry you got a table with a broken leg” might legally mean that your
company has accepted the responsibility and would have to
reimburse the customer. As a company representative, you must
understand the legal ramifications of issuing an apology.
A BusinessWeek article, “A Close Reading of Two Apple Apologies,” linked below, compares and contrasts Steve Jobs’s (former Apple
CEO) and Tim Cook’s (current Apple CEO) apologies. The article
122 | Apologize Cautiously
emphasizes the need to evaluate every word to determine how it
will be perceived by the audience.
A “non apology” apology is common in the business world. The
“I’m sorry” is not for an action or statement, but rather because
someone has requested an apology or may be threatening legal
action. An example of a non-apology apology would be saying “I’m
sorry that you feel that way” to someone who has been offended
by a statement. This apology does not admit wrong doing. Issuing
a statement saying, “Mistakes were made” is another example of a
“non apology” apology.
The person considering making an apology has to weigh whether
(1) the apology is more likely to cause legal action to be taken or to
help avoid legal action being taken and (2) whether the apology will
improve or cause more harm to the writer/reader relationship.
References http://www.instituteforpr.org/knowing-legally-safe-say-im-
sorry-legal-effects-mortification-strategy
http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2012-09-28/a-close-
reading-of-two-apologies (subscription required)
https://blogs.microsoft.com/blog/2016/03/25/learning-tays-
introduction
Apologize Cautiously | 123
32. Delay the Purpose for Negative Messages
Giving the reader negative news immediately with the direct
approach risks having an angry reader who never reads the reasons
for the refusal. You want your reader to understand why the
decision was made. The indirect approach helps accomplish that
goal.
The indirect approach begins with a buffer—some statement that is on-subject but neutral. The reader still needs to know what the letter is about. For example, if you were writing to refuse
someone’s request for credit, a poor letter could begin Our company
is having a sale on coats next week. That’s neutral because it doesn’t give the reader a “no” answer immediately, but it also doesn’t
identify for the reader what the document is about. He might think
it is a sales letter. A neutral and on-subject opening could be Your
May 20 request for credit shows that you understand the benefits
credit buying can provide. No answer is given, but the reader does know the letter is about his credit request.
Next, a tight transition is necessary between the opening paragraph and the explanation. Transitional techniques include
• repeating key words and/or pronouns that have a clear
reference
Your May 20 request for credit shows that you understand the
benefits credit buying can provide. To be eligible for those benefits. . .
• transitional words
Your May 20 request for credit shows that you understand the
benefits buying on credit can provide. In fact, credit buying. . . The word “however” should not be the transition word since that
124 | Delay the Purpose for Negative Messages
word shows contrast. However after a neutral opening means bad news follows.
Your May 20 request for credit shows that you understand the
benefits buying on credit can provide. However, your credit request. . . the reader knows the request has been denied before reading the explanation.
A smooth positive transition leads to the fact-based explanation,
the reason(s). The reader is reading, looking for an answer. The
fact-based explanation may be brief or more detailed depending on
the complexity of the situation. Keep asking those questions. How
much does my reader know? How much does the reader need/
want to know? How much should the reader know?
Now you are ready to reveal the purpose of the document: to give the negative news. The three requirements are to make the negative news
• quick (one time)
• clear (make certain the reader knows the answer is no; can be
achieved by implying)
• positive (stick to the facts as you avoid the negatives)
Customers whose credit score is 634 or higher are eligible for a credit
account. Your score is 599. When your score reaches the
requirement, you are encouraged to re-apply. Your credit account
will be available within 24 hours of your being approved. What’s left? Once the negative information is given, a goodwill
ending is needed to conclude the letter.
In the meantime, you will receive an additional 10% discount on cash
purchases of clearance merchandise until February 12.
The ending needs to be strong to help you achieve your purpose of a continuing relationship with your reader. Consider all aspects of the situation in determining which ending strategy to
use. Even though not all of these strategies would be appropriate in
all situations, consider ending with
Delay the Purpose for Negative Messages | 125
• a forward look (anticipate future business)
• an alternative follow-up (offer a counter if possible)
• goodwill wishes (suggest future success)
• a “freebie” (promote repeat business)
• resale or sales promotion (encourage future relationship)
Here is an example that analyzes the entire indirect approach. An irate customer contacts you complaining that she bought a table
at your recent sale, had her son pick up the table and deliver it to her
home, and discovered one of the legs has a six-inch scratch on it.
She demands that you pick up the table and give her a full refund.
Every company, of course, wants satisfied customers; this customer
obviously isn’t. A fact-finding check reveals that
• she bought the table at your recent yearly clearance sale—all
items during the sale are 50% or more off the regular price
• signs were posted throughout the building indicating that all
items were “as is”
• a tag on the table said “as is”
• each customer was given a flier explaining the “as is” sale and
encouraged to examine carefully the sale items for flaws and
imperfections and to understand that the sale was final once
the customer left with the merchandise
Those facts justify refusing the request. The purposes of the
document are
• to give the bad news
• to explain the facts
• to retain or regain the customer’s goodwill so she will be a
repeat customer
Can all three of those goals be attained? Probably not if the direct
organizational pattern were used. That would mean giving the bad
news in the opening sentence. How would the reader react to Your
126 | Delay the Purpose for Negative Messages
request for a refund was denied? Even if the explanation of why the decision was made is given clearly after the refusal, the reader
is already reacting negatively—angry, defensive, and blaming the
company. That’s a normal, human reaction. Most readers probably
won’t even bother to read the rest of the letter—tossing it aside with
some comment about never buying anything from that company
again!
Now consider the indirect organizational pattern that delays the
purpose. If the opening is one about which the reader doesn’t have
an immediate negative reaction, chances increase that he may read
or at least scan the letter. Why is the reader scanning? Looking
for the answer. As the reader scans for the answer, even though he
may start to become impatient, he is reading at least a portion of
the explanation. By the time he gets to the purpose of the letter—to
give the bad news—he at least partially understands the reason
the decision has been made to refuse his request. Generally, the
impatience experienced is not as damaging to the writer/reader
relationship as is the impact of giving the reader the negative news
first.
This example refusing a refund follows the indirect approach.
As you examine it, notice that the subject line also needs to be
neutral. If the subject line in this example were REFUSAL OF TABLE
REQUEST, the reader would react the same way as if the first line of
the document had given the bad news.
Delay the Purpose for Negative Messages | 127
Is the customer happy? In bad news/negative situations, the reader
is not going to be happy. The goal is for a customer to react “I don’t
like the answer, but I understand why the decision was made.” The
chance to get the customer to return for repeat business increases.
Another negative situation is when you have to inform your customers that prices will increase. The primary purpose is to tell customers that prices are increasing, and the secondary purpose
is to keep the customer’s business. No customer will be happy to
learn of a price increase. So is giving the bad news without losing
business possible?
Look at this approach.
128 | Delay the Purpose for Negative Messages
The letter focuses on the writer without any reader benefit and
gives the reader neither a choice nor an explanation.
Here is an improved reader-centered revision:
The indirect approach, the reader benefit, the positive tone, the
explanation, and the personalized goodwill strategies combine to
help the reader understand why the cost increased and to help get
the customer to agree to the cost change.
Delay the Purpose for Negative Messages | 129
33. Consider the Indirect Approach for Negative and Persuasive Messages
Unfortunately, not all documents have a neutral or positive
message. Bad news has to be given and readers have to be
persuaded to say yes to a request. The indirect organizational pattern means delaying the purpose. Even though the indirect
organizational pattern is a slower, more involved approach, the
benefit is that your reader may better understand the situation. If
the direct organizational pattern is used in negative news situations,
your reader may quit reading once he or she reads the immediate
bad news, will react negatively, and will never read the reasons
behind the decision. Additionally, if the direct pattern is used for
persuasive situations, the writer will not have the chance to
persuade the reader to agree to the request.
Consider using the indirect approach in these types of situations:
• When a customer has to be told that a claim or request is
rejected or refused
• When a subordinate’s request for release time to attend a
seminar or for a specific vacation week is refused or denied
• When a superior has to be informed that a proposal is three
weeks behind schedule or that a major account was lost
• When a product or service is being sold
• When the reader needs to be persuaded to agree with an
opposing point of view, to donate, or to volunteer
In other words, the indirect organizational pattern is usually more
130 | Consider the Indirect Approach for Negative and Persuasive Messages
effective when the message has a negative or a persuasive
component.
Caveats: Some readers prefer and some situations need to use the direct approach for negative news. Internal messages are more
likely to be direct than external ones for these bad news and
persuasive messages. Directness does not include harshness and
rudeness for the few exceptions.
Consider the Indirect Approach for Negative and Persuasive Messages | 131
34. Follow the Direct Opening with Details and a Goodwill Ending
Once the purpose is clear, then specifics or an explanation will
follow. For example, additional questions may need to be asked in a
routine inquiry/request document.
After the Will you please send me information about your hotel’s
availability for December 12–19 for a group of 50 people opening, you will need to ask for additional information to help you decide if the
hotel and its facilities meet your specific needs.
Compare and contrast these two documents.
132 | Follow the Direct Opening with Details and a Goodwill Ending
The second example contains specific questions and time element,
uses an easy-to-read list, and is clear. The first example contains
no questions. It would be nice if you would tell me, or I would
like to know are not questions. Also, look at these examples that illustrate “open-ended” specific questions, which result in receiving
meaningful information, rather than “closed-ended” general
questions which result in only a yes/no response.
Follow the Direct Opening with Details and a Goodwill Ending | 133
• “Are family activities available?” results in yes/no.
• “What activities are available for families? is an open-ended question that will result in the reader receiving specific
information.
• “Is a lower room rate available if a block of rooms is reserved?” results in yes/no.
• “What is the room rate if a block of 25 rooms is reserved?” is an open-ended question that will result in getting the exact rate.
The primary purpose of the hotel’s response document is to answer
the potential customer’s questions. The secondary purpose is to get
the customer’s business. Which of the following examples is more
likely to achieve both purposes?
134 | Follow the Direct Opening with Details and a Goodwill Ending
As you analyze the two routine response documents,
• look at subject lines—one is general and vague; the other is
specific and begins by “selling” Hotel Superior
• examine the answers’ specificity—one gives no concrete
answers; the other answers the questions asked and provides
Follow the Direct Opening with Details and a Goodwill Ending | 135
additional goodwill by including a direct phone number and
email updates about available attractions
• analyze document design—one uses one paragraph; in the
other, the answers are easy to find in a list format
• consider the positive emphasis—one avoids the negative
element by not giving a complete answer; the other
deemphasizes the one negative answer—a cancellation fee will
be applied if a 72-hour notice is not given—by placing it the
middle of the list (#3) and using only positive words
• contrast the writer/reader focus—one focuses on the writer;
the other emphasizes the reader’s needs
• notice the personalization—one has no separate goodwill
ending; the other shows that the document is personalized to
this reader’s specific request
The routine inquiry and routine response documents needed
specific questions and responses; the lawn care claim and the glove
adjustment grant situations will likely require specific explanations.
The length of the explanation is determined by the complexity of
the situation: perhaps a simple fact-based explanation that the
motorcycle gloves were out of stock or a more involved explanation
if a lawn crew was in the process of being trained.
• Your item #243, green and black motorcycle gloves, is on back
order and will again be available on April 2. If you want to re-
order, you will receive these gloves by mid-April, and the gloves’
cost will appear on your May statement.
• An experienced supervisor will be in charge when the crew
arrives Monday morning to complete your lawn maintenance to
your complete satisfaction. Because we want your and all our
clients’ lawns to receive the highest level of attention, a new
lawn crew team has recently been hired and trained. Even
though the new crew received 12 hours of supervision, another
training step is now being added.
136 | Follow the Direct Opening with Details and a Goodwill Ending
After the necessary explanation is given, the last part of the direct
order offers a personalized goodwill ending. It needs to include a
positive tone with reader benefit. Even though the reader of a good
news adjustment grant document should be pleased, the goodwill
close could offer a final reason for the customer to continue doing
business with you.
• If you re-order by February 28, you will receive a 10% discount
on the gloves. The gloves will arrive in time for that first spring
motorcycle outing.
• Let us know a good time to schedule an individual lawn
maintenance consulting session with you. Spring is the perfect
time for your lawn’s first fertilizer treatment with the necessary
nutrients to help your lawn stay lush and green all summer. If
you schedule this session between February 10-March 10, you
will receive three lawn treatments for the price of two.
Personalized wording means avoid ending with a stock phrase or
cliché such as
• If you have any further questions, don’t hesitate to contact me.
• Feel free to contact me if you have any further questions.
• Thank you in advance for your understanding.
• Thank you for your time and attention.
Also, keep your message positive as you avoid ending with any
mention of the claim situation.
• We know that you must be upset that you didn’t get your
motorcycle gloves.
• Again, we are sorry that you were dissatisfied with our lawn
crew.
You should emphasize the solution, the explanation, and a look to
the future rather than the problem.
Routine and good news documents—inquiry, response, claim,
Follow the Direct Opening with Details and a Goodwill Ending | 137
and grant—should begin directly with the document’s purpose, explain as necessary, and end with goodwill that connects the writer/reader relationship and is future oriented. Following the direct approach for these situations will send a message to the readers that you understand and care about their needs.
138 | Follow the Direct Opening with Details and a Goodwill Ending
35. Use the Direct Approach for Routine and Good News Messages
The direct approach—beginning with the message’s purpose—is used
for routine and good news situations. The reader’s reaction will be
either neutral or positive. Here are four examples that examine the
document’s primary purpose and anticipated reader reaction.
Routine or direct inquiry
The purpose of a routine or direct inquiry is to get information.
We ask questions to gain information, so the direct approach for
an inquiry is typically to begin with a question. All companies want
to sell their products or services, so they are eager for requests
about their products or services. The reader does not have to be
persuaded to respond.
Examples
• Will you please send me information about your hotel’s
availability for December 12–19 for a group of 50 people.
(Note: This is a “courtesy question” and should end with a period rather than a question mark because the writer wants
information rather than a “yes, I will send the requested
information.”)
• Does your hotel have 25 available rooms for December 12–19?
Caution: Avoid indirect, wordy openings such as
• We read about your hotel’s accommodations.
• Enclosed please find some questions about your hotel.
Use the Direct Approach for Routine and Good News Messages | 139
• We are going to reward our top sellers with a mini-vacation.
• I am writing to ask some questions.
Routine response
The purpose of a routine response is to answer a question, so begin
directly with an answer. For example, the hotel receives the inquiry
and is eager to respond. The potential customer asked for
information, so the response will provide answers to the questions.
Because the information is solicited, the reader is expecting
answers.
Examples
• Here is the information you requested about our hotel’s
availability from December 12–19.
• Reservations for 25 rooms can be made for December 12–19.
Caution: Avoid indirect, wordy openings such as:
• I am writing to you about your request for information about our
hotel accommodations. The reader is holding the document so that’s an obvious statement.
• We received your letter about our hotel. If you hadn’t received it, you wouldn’t be replying.
• Thank you for your letter. The response letter’s purpose is not to thank. (Note: Writers who begin documents with “thank
you” may think they are being polite. However, using this
empty phrase could be interpreted as the writer can’t think of
any other way to begin the document or doesn’t know the
document’s purpose. Save the “thank you” opening for sincere
thank you letters such as Thank you for the opportunity to
interview for the Media Director position.)
• We are glad you are interested in our hotel accommodations. Of course, the writer is glad—that potential customer’s business
could make money for the company.
140 | Use the Direct Approach for Routine and Good News Messages
Claim letter
Another category of documents that needs to be written directly is
the routine claim letter. Its purpose is to identify a problem—the
writer is “claiming” that the product or service expected and paid
for was not received or satisfactory and wants to be compensated.
Even though a claim situation has a negative element, companies
appreciate receiving claim letters—knowing about the experience
gives the company an opportunity to make amends. Studies show
that a typical business hears from only 4% of its dissatisfied
customers. The other 96% just quietly go away and will never come
back, or worse, these dissatisfied customers may convince other
potential customers to avoid the company. That represents a
serious financial loss for companies. A direct opening for claim
letters will begin with the problem and possibly the solution.
Examples
• The lawn care crew left several weeds in my flower beds last
week when they did routine scheduled maintenance.
• Please credit my account for $92.34 for the motorcycle gloves
that were missing from my Order #2470 I received April 12.
Caution: These examples do not violate the positive wording discussion. A writer can be direct and use strong factual language
without being negative. Your incompetent workers must have a
vision problem—they left weeds in my flower bed, and Did anyone
even check my order or even care that I didn’t get my motorcycle
gloves?!?! have negative, harsh tones and would cause the reader to become defensive.
Adjustment Grant
The purpose of an adjustment grant letter is to give the customer
what was requested in the claim, so a grant letter contains good
news.
Use the Direct Approach for Routine and Good News Messages | 141
Examples
Our work crew will arrive at your home on Monday at 8:00 a.m. to
remove any remaining weeds.
Your account has been credited for $92.34 for item #225 (Order
#2470), green and black motorcycle riding gloves.
Caution: We use the words grant and claim as we discuss these letters, but you should avoid using these words that have negative
connotations in your written messages. Also, avoid meaningless,
indirect, writer-centered openings such as We received your request
to remove your remaining weeds or We are sorry that your motorcycle
gloves were missing from your order. The inquiry, the response, the claim, and the adjustment grant are
examples of routine and good news documents that should open
with the purpose—ask the question, give the answer, identify the
problem, or give the solution requested immediately.
Reference LeBoeuf, Michael Ph.D., How To Win Customers & Keep Them For
Life. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000.
142 | Use the Direct Approach for Routine and Good News Messages
PART VIII
STYLE REVISION
Throughout Strategic Business Writing, you’ve examined the theory behind the strategy of effective business writing and applied
it to the business writing process. By now, you’ve
become accustomed to planning each message with a thorough examination of your audience and your purpose. You’ve made it your habit to plan well through narrowing, specifying, organizing,
and outlining the content your reader needs most to achieve your message’s purpose within a specific context. And you have pushed yourself to draft quickly—viewing your outline as you write without pausing to think through each word.
To build from this well-organized reader-centered draft, you’ll
next learn the revision process for Strategic Business Writing. Your revision process will follow three steps:
Style Revision | 143
1. Revise Your Organization for a Clear and Persuasive
Storyline: Do your headings, sections, and paragraphs
communicate a well-planned and logical flow of ideas your reader will easily understand? Do you transition meaningfully
at the top of your paragraphs to reveal the logical connections
of your ideas?
2. Revise for Concise Business Style: Do you Say as much as you need to with the fewest words possible, enabling a busy reader to understand your message easily in one reading?
3. Revise for Perfect Mechanics: Did you proofread every word of your message out loud to ensure your spelling, grammar, syntax, punctuation, and document design follow
the rules of standard U.S. English and the expectations of your
employer and reader?
With organization and mechanics explained clearly in other parts
of Strategic Business Writing, in the Style Revision section, you’ll
learn Phase 2 of the Revision Process—how to revise for professional business style, to improve your organized paragraph structure, and cut out words to reveal concise, precise sentences.
Revising for style improves the likelihood your busy reader will
read, understand, and act on your messages. In short, the time you
devote to revising your paragraphs and sentences for organized,
concise, and precise style means better communication, better
relationships, and better outcomes for you.
When you plan too quickly and simply draft and send business
messages—without careful revision—you take the risk that
a disorganized, wordy, and/or imprecise message won’t be read,
or worse, will be read and leave your reader with confusion, misinformation, hurt feelings, and possibly a loss of trust.
Often hastily sent messages lead to missed opportunities for
persuasion and a waste of future resources, especially time. You may have to write more messages for clarification and damage
control. You may need more meetings and phone calls to preserve
your reputation and relationships. Poorly revised messages can lead
144 | Style Revision
to the loss of client contact, opportunities for leadership and
promotions, or even the loss of a job.
Consider these risks carefully, and then dedicate yourself to
learning the style revision strategies you’ll review in this section
of Strategic Business Writing and use them with every business message you write.
In the Style Revision chapters of Strategic Business Writing, you’ll learn revision strategies that will become part of your own business writing process. These strategies result in these five outcomes:
• Formal or Informal Business Writing Style—Revise for a consistent business formal or informal writing style (avoiding a
casual or colloquial style) to build the best professional
relationship with your reader.
• Coherent and Cohesive—Revise for well-structured paragraphs, often from general claims to specific evidence,
revealing a logical flow connecting sentence to sentence.
• Concise—Revise to the fewest words necessary to achieve your purpose.
• Clear—Revise to select appropriate, meaningful, and specific words found in plain English that help you connect with your
reader.
• Correct—After revising for business style, proofread out loud to ensure correct spelling, grammar, syntax, punctuation, and
format.
Learning Objectives
• Examine appropriate contexts and strategies
for business formal or informal tone to enhance
Style Revision | 145
your relationship with the reader
• Structure your paragraphs and concise sentences
to Say as much as you need to with the fewest words
possible • Learn how to cut extra sentences, phrases, and words
to drive document readability
• Follow a checklist to ensure your documents reflect
careful planning and word-by-word proofreading
precision
146 | Style Revision
36. Use the Document Revision Checklist
You’ve learned the three phases of the Strategic Business Writing
process: Plan, Draft, and Revise. As a final step to ensure your document is ready to share with your intended reader, you may
follow this checklist before you send: 1. Document Design: matches reader request, samples, and/or
industry standard for professional, appealing, reader-focused
document
• best choices for subject line, greeting, headings, page numbers,
signature block, tabs, layout, emphasis, white space, small
paragraphs, neat margins, fonts, colors
2. Audience: clarifies relationship and context (solicited or not), aimed at reader’s needs, values, expectations
• creates personal rapport early, uses personal pronouns (I, me,
you, your, we, our), offers reader action at end
3. Purpose: tells clear reason for writing to this reader today, reveals desired outcome
• uses direct approach for positive/neutral message; uses
indirect approach for negative/persuasive message
4. Organization: follows reader-centered storyline, reveals careful planning
• transitions appear at top of paragraphs connecting ideas to
reveal writer’s logic and reader’s needs
Use the Document Revision Checklist | 147
5. Content: provides persuasive, concrete, and credible arguments the reader needs to know
• states claims (possibly conclusions), offers best logical and
emotional data, cites credible sources
6. Tone: uses friendly, positive/neutral language, avoids general statements lacking context
• avoids negative words when possible (not, but, however, had
to, can’t, won’t, error, problem, sorry)
• avoids extreme language when possible (always/never, love/
hate, every/none, all, huge, very, really)
7. Style: says what the reader needs to know with the fewest words possible (check your text in Expresso)
• avoids overuse of helping/weak verbs (be, have, do, get, make,
come, feel, hope)
• avoids overuse of abstract/vague nouns (it, this, there, that,
these, thing, aspect, one, any/every, who/what/how)
8. Proofreading: leaves no errors in mechanics (proofread aloud), preserves trust and credibility
• No spelling, grammar, punctuation, or format errors
148 | Use the Document Revision Checklist
37. Structure Sentences for Concise and Precise Business Style
Think back to your successful high school years when you often
received good grades in writing and how great you felt. As a
successful student, you read the course material and
formed opinions, and then you wrote and wrote for each paper and
essay question, dazzling your parents and teachers with
an abundance of words.
You were rewarded in high school for writing a lot of words, often
because your teachers were overworked and didn’t have time to
read each paragraph or document you wrote carefully and critically.
When your teacher saw your writing—full of ideas, long sentences,
and so many words—you were rewarded for your quantity of work.
Typically your high school grades rewarded verbosity over brevity.
In the business world, the writing strategy you learned in high school can produce the opposite result. Instead of praise for an abundance of language, your overly wordy sentences,
paragraphs, emails, and reports can cause your intended readers
to avoid reading your writing, negatively impacting your
persuasiveness and possibly harming your credibility. In some cases,
your excessive language could prevent you from getting a job or
promotion worthy of your intelligence and effort.
To be taken seriously as a business person—to ensure your
messages are read and remembered—you can retrain yourself to
write concisely, to Say as much as you need to with the fewest words possible. Fortunately, concise writing style isn’t magic or genetic. Like mathematics, concise writing style follows formulas you can
learn and apply immediately to build instant credibility with your
Structure Sentences for Concise and Precise Business Style | 149
business colleagues and to ensure your messages are read,
understood, and remembered.
Good writing begins with clear thinking. You can begin writing
a clear sentence by seeing an idea you’d like to share clearly in
your mind and then forming it into words that link to your
mental idea. Concise style is especially easy to learn for business
contexts because all ideas in business involve people doing actions
(or organizations, which are also made up of people, doing actions).
For clear, concise business writing, you simply need to
visualize the people in your idea within your mind and then write the actions you see into Subject-Verb-Object (S-V-O) sentences that reflect the images from your visualization. The easiest method to transfer this idea of people-doing-actions into a
sentence is to build an S-V-O sentence from the action Verb first,
then add the right Subject before the Verb (the people doing the
action), then follow the S-V with the Object, or the result of the
action. People doing an action (S) + Action (V) + Result of the action
(O).
You can practice this skill here. Let’s imagine you want to write to Sondra Winton, a business person with a job you admire, to ask
her if you could meet in her office next Friday to discuss her career
path to her current job as a Brand Manager for XYZ Toys. As with
all business messages, you begin planning your message by thinking
carefully about Audience and Purpose: Who am I writing to and why? What do I want? What does she want?
In your mind, you see what you want: You see yourself sitting
in Sondra’s office, you are asking questions about her career path
and listening to her responses. Can you visualize this scene in your
mind? When you see the image clearly in your mind, next consider the verbs that represent the actions in your idea and write a list of these action verbs to begin forming your S-V-O sentence. You
might write verbs like these:
Sit, talk, discuss, converse, ask, inquire, share, listen, focus, learn.
. . (you may even google synonyms for these verbs, as long as you select words you are certain match your idea well).
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You can begin writing your S-V-O sentence by selecting one verb
you believe best fits the idea you see in your mind. Let’s say you
select DISCUSS.
Next you’ll consider the Subject who is doing the action you just
selected as your Verb. In your mind you see Sondra and you see yourself doing the action DISCUSS together. You can now try out
a few subjects that reflect your idea to see which one is most
accurate:
We discuss, Sondra and I discuss, you and I discuss, let’s discuss,
can we discuss, could we discuss, may we discuss. . . You decide that a question best fits your idea, so you begin to
form your S-V-O sentence into a question: “Could we discuss. . ?”
Next you’ll need to select the Object that reflects the result of the
action (remember that you see yourself and Sondra in your mind, in
her office, and you are talking about her career path):
“Could we discuss. . ?” What do you see as the result of the
action? List out possible Objects until you’ve found the most
accurate and concrete representation of your idea:
. . . your job, . . . your great job, . . . your job like I want someday, . . .
your job in marketing, . . . your Brand Manager job, . . . the path you
took to your job as Brand Manager, . . . your path to Brand Manager,
. . . your path to Brand Manager at XYZ Toys. Continue to challenge yourself to find the fewest and most
precise words that represent your idea. Eventually you will find the
right language for your entire concise and precise sentence:
Could we discuss your path to Brand Manager at XYZ Toys soon?
. . . next week? . . . next Friday at 2pm in your office? Select the version that truly fits your request. You’ve now written
a concise, precise S-V-O sentence that matches your idea and
allows your intended reader (Sondra Winton) to read the fewest
words possible and see a close representation of the idea that you see in your mind.
“Hello Sondra! Could we discuss your path to Brand Manager at
XYZ Toys next Friday at 2pm in your office?” Because Sondra also knows the formula for concise S-V-O
Structure Sentences for Concise and Precise Business Style | 151
business style—and she wants you to read the fewest words possible
in her response—she writes back to you:
“Yes, I can meet with you in my office next Friday at 2pm for 30
minutes. Please park in the visitors lot. See you then.—Sondra”
Concise writing improves your clarity and persuasiveness. Writing your ideas concisely and precisely with concrete nouns and action verbs set into S-V-O sentences improves the likelihood that your reader will see mental images similar to yours and will actually read your messages.
Similar to writing wordy and disorganized paragraphs, often our
sentences emerge from our minds with extra words we don’t need
and in a word order that is challenging for a reader to follow. To
cut extra words and vague language from a sentence as you edit,
you can look for verbs without action and nouns without concrete content. Then consider the ideas in those wordy, disorganized sentences, and rework them for S-V-O structure.
Look for verbs like these that lack clear action: be, being,
been, is, are, am, was, were, have, has, had, do, doing, did,
done, get, got, make, made (and more)
Look for nouns like these that lack clear content: it, this,
that, these, those, there, thing, aspect, any, every, one, such,
who, what, how (and more)
Look for metaphors, wordy phrases, overused phrases, and
rare words: think outside the box, when it comes to, give 110%,
indubitably, and so on.
Look for multiple sentences that express only one idea to
combine into one S-V-O sentence.
These sentences (with helping or linking verbs and with indefinite
pronouns and vague nouns) are challenging for a reader to visualize
accurately:
1. “This is one of those things that is hard to do.”
OR 2. “It is true that one of the aspects of this hasn’t been made any easier.”
A writer (or editor) may then visualize the mental image to find
the people, action, and results of the action to rewrite the sentence.
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With clear visuals in your mind, you might write these S-V-O
sentences instead:
1. “Precise editing challenges me.”
OR 2. “I struggle to locate the best action verb.”
Practice S-V-O sentence structure with these wordy sentences from Berkshire Hathaway’s 2016 Letter to Shareholders.
Can you revise these sentences to follow concise, precise S-V-O
sentence structure?
Original: “The similarity of the two figures existed then because
most of our resources were deployed in marketable securities that
were regularly revalued to their quoted prices (less the tax that
would be incurred if they were to be sold).” How can you revise this
sentence for conciseness? Revised: “We retained company value by buying marketable
securities valued at quoted price minus sales tax.”
Original: “Every decade or so, dark clouds will fill the economic
skies, and they will briefly rain gold. When downpours of that sort
occur, it’s imperative that we rush outdoors carrying washtubs, not
teaspoons. And that we will do.” How can you revise this sentence to
avoid metaphors? Revised: “When the economy offers brief sell-offs, we boldly buy
large quantities.”
Original: “It is puzzling, therefore, that corporate repurchase
announcements almost never refer to a price above which
repurchases will be eschewed. That certainly wouldn’t be the case if
a management was buying an outside business. There, price would
always factor into a buy-or-pass decision.” Can you combine these
sentences into one sentence and retain the ideas? Revised: “Our firm will always consider our stock price ceiling
in buy-or-pass decisions, just as we would in buying an outside
businesses.”
Structure Sentences for Concise and Precise Business Style | 153
Will a writer ever need to write sentences in passive voice? Passive voice (sentences or phrases that make the object of an
action into the subject) can be used strategically to deemphasize
or even hide the actor of a phrase or sentence. You can tell that a
sentence uses passive voice by finding a be verb and a past
participle. For example, the active sentence Jane threw the ball could
become a passive sentence The ball was thrown (by Jane). In the second version, the actor “Jane” is either omitted (and hidden) or
deemphasized (appears after the verb). We see the same effect with
the active sentence The accountant balanced our books last Thursday
and the passive Our books were balanced last Thursday. Passive voice can help a writer avoid naming a person or an
organization to protect an identity or minimize attention to the
subject. For example, if an employee made an error, should you
mention the employee in a response to a complaint? Probably not.
Original (Active Voice): “As soon as Jane Smith discovered that she
accidentally forgot to log your order into our system, she sent it to
you for a Tuesday arrival.”
Revised (Strategic Passive Voice): “As soon as the omission of your
order was discovered, we sent your package for a Tuesday arrival.” Original (Active Voice): “When six angry employees in the meeting
asked challenging questions, the new director defended her
proposal with skill.”
Revised (Strategic Passive Voice): “When challenging questions
were asked in the meeting, the new director defended her proposal with skill.”
When you put in the work to write concise sentences, you reward your readers with clarity, precision, and fewer words to read. You also reward yourself with business writing skills your future employer and clients will notice, appreciate, and value.
154 | Structure Sentences for Concise and Precise Business Style
38. Revise for Style to Connect Not to Impress
To further refine a concise, precise business writing style, you’ll
seek words your reader already knows to help you connect well and
explain clearly. You want your readers to “decode your symbols“–or
read your words–with accurate visuals of your ideas in their own minds.
When writing in English, writers can choose from over 170,000
words; English is a vocabulary-rich language. While a well-
educated speaker may know 80,000 of the available English words,
we typically write using between 20,000–35,000 words and speak
around 5,000.
With so many words available to provide precision in our writing,
we must keep in mind that our business writing goal is to connect and not to impress. That means effective business writers prioritize the needs of the reader over self and write with common yet precise
words they believe readers will likely know and use regularly. The
trend toward common language usage arose in the U.S. in the 1970s,
spurred by The Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 and The Plain
Writing Act of 2010.
The Journal of Accountancy included Plain English writing examples in its 1997 issue to help writers adjust to the new common
language movement:
Original: The proxies solicited hereby for the meeting may be
revoked, subject to the procedures described herein, at any time
up to and including the date of the meeting.
Revised: You may revoke your proxy at any time up to and including
the day of the meeting by following the directions on page 18.
Review a challenging passage from an address by Donald C. Cook, Vice Chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission, to the
American Institute of Accountants in 1950:
Revise for Style to Connect Not to Impress | 155
During the early years of accountancy, around the turn of
the century, the business world had not yet come to recognize
the need for this concept [the relationship between rigid
independence in accounting and the presentation of the facts
of business life]. Generally, an accountant’s duties consisted of
opening and closing books, detecting frauds upon the owners
of the enterprise, and straightening accounts which had
become charmingly mixed up by amateur bookkeepers. As one
writer expressed it, the general notion seemed to prevail that
an accountant was ‘merely a man of figures, a rapid and
unerring calculator who could add up two or three columns
of figures at a time, could tell you immediately the square or
cube root of any given number, or say off-hand, for example,
what one dollar put out at six percent compound interest
per annum at the time Columbus discovered America would
amount to today.” Perhaps the greatest impetus to the new
profession was given by the passage of the Sixteenth
Amendment in 1913 and the War Revenue Act of 1917.
Commercial banking institutions and mercantile creditors
were quick to avail themselves of the services of the new
profession, and it grew. These creditors required audits and
verified financial statements. I believe full maturity was
reached upon passage of the Securities Act of 1933, which for
the first time imposed the legal requirement that statements
be certified by independent accountants.
Compare the writing style from 1950 above to this more readable style from 2015 in an Accounting Today article:
The accounting profession needs to take advantage of
current conditions to take critically important steps to ensure
its future, according to American Institute of CPAs president
and CEO Barry Melancon. He listed a host of major trends
that are determining the future shape and function of the
profession: the increase in international business, technology,
economics, the war for talent, specialization, increasing
regulation, changes in learning models, and growing
156 | Revise for Style to Connect Not to Impress
competition. In response, the profession will need [to] develop
its expertise in serving worldwide businesses; find new ways
to measure its competence in learning; work to become more
attractive to the younger generations; and address new
competitive challenges from both inside and outside
accounting.
Would you like to check your own writing for simplicity and clarity? You can copy and paste your writing into a Gunning Fog Index online tool. In 1952, businessman Robert Gunning created a
formula to check the reading level of English-language documents
and called it the “Gunning Fog Index.” The tool calculates the
average number of words per sentence (shorter sentences are
easier to read) and the number of words in the writing with three or
more syllables (shorter words are typically known by more people)
to determine the reading level of a written passage.
A Gunning Fog Index number of 8 means the writing is easily read
by a person with an eighth-grade level of education, a 12 would be
easy for a high-school senior to understand, and numbers higher
than 12 are often considered not suitable for “all readers,” as they
contain more complex sentences and include more complex, rarely
used words.
To connect well with your business writing, seek words your reader will know to improve the likelihood that your reader will actually read, understand, and remember your message.
Revise for Style to Connect Not to Impress | 157
39. Revise for a Formal or Informal Business Style
As you plan a business message, you’ll consider persuasive
strategies appealing to audience, purpose, context, argument,
organization, and tone—and then you’ll draft the message. As
you revise your written message, you’ll review your document
carefully, checking its organization, writing style, mechanics, and
design.
As you examine your document’s writing style, you’ll edit to
ensure you achieved your intended level of formal or informal
business style by reviewing your word choices.
The level of formality in your message’s writing style depends on three variables:
power, relationship, and context
Formal Style: We often select a formal writing style when we write to people we perceive to have authority or power higher than our
own, when we have a less familiar relationship with a reader, when
addressing cross-cultural readers, and when the context calls for
emotional distance, politeness, and often an appeal to a broader
audience. Formal style typically avoids humor, personal pronouns
and contractions, and usually varies the sentence structure while
strategically adding politeness words. Business writers using a
formal style in a message (e.g., in a report document, a letter to
shareholders, in legal correspondence) intend to create a formal
tone indicating personal distance.
A rapport-building statement at the beginning of an email written
in formal style could begin this way:
Thank you for contacting the Office of Human Resources to
158 | Revise for a Formal or Informal Business Style
express your interest in the Financial Forecasting Director
position posted by our company last week. A report written in formal style could begin this way:
This report reviews four recommendations to manage future
discretionary expenses in our regional offices.
Informal Style: This is the most common style used in routine business correspondence in the U.S. When writing a business
message using an informal style, writers often use personal
pronouns (you, your, I, me, my, we, us, our) and shorter sentences.
Informal style can include contractions, abbreviations, and humor,
often reflecting a closer relationship with a reader and less
emotional distance between the writer and reader. Business writers
adopting an informal style in a message intend to create a friendly,
personal tone. Like all business correspondence, messages using
informal style may be forwarded and could reach unintended
audiences.
A rapport-building statement at the beginning of an email written
in an informal style could begin this way:
Dana, I enjoyed our conversation last Thursday at the ABC
after-hours event and would like the opportunity to discuss your
interest in our Financial Forecasting Director position. A report written in informal style could begin this way:
Please implement these four simple recommendations this
month to curb excessive spending in the regional offices.
Casual Style and Colloquial Style: A casual style is considered very informal and is rarely used in business writing. If read aloud,
a casual writing style would sound like a close friend talking with
another close friend. Colloquial style would go a step further and
include words and phrases of a specific region, dialect, slang, or
very close relationship. In an era of digital communication, we are
becoming increasingly aware of the permanence and lack of privacy
in our business correspondence. Any casual or colloquial messages
written using the software owned by a writer’s employer or
accessible by the government or members of the public can be
Revise for a Formal or Informal Business Style | 159
opened, read, saved, and forwarded to anyone else, just like more
formal messages.
An inappropriate casual message a writer might send in an email
could begin this way:
“Hey Dana, I know you’re sick of your dumb job with ABC—we’re
going to have an opening soon when our Financial Forecasting
Director finally gets fired next week and you should def apply.”
It is funny to read a message like this one because we can
immediately envision the repercussions for the writer and possibly
for the reader. Plus, it seems ridiculous that someone might write
a casual message like this one to a friend using her work email
account. To make sure messages like this one stay funny, you can
decide now that you’ll never put yourself in a similar situation.
When writing your own business messages, select either a formal or informal writing style that reflects the appropriate power, relationship, and context between you and your reader(s).
160 | Revise for a Formal or Informal Business Style
40. Structure Paragraphs for Concise and Precise Business Style and Meaningful Transitions
Talk to a typical business person about emails, memos, reports,
letters, and other business messages and you’ll likely hear a
familiar complaint: I spend more than half of every business day
composing, reading, organizing, and replying to messages, mostly
emails. I could get actual work done if only I had less to write and read.
In the early chapters of Strategic Business Writing, you learned valuable strategies to speed your writing process. As
in mathematics, you can follow these writing formulas to plan audience-centered business messages that get the results you want and build relationships that last in much less time.
In this revision chapter, you’ll learn the formulas for concise and
precise revision of your business writing. You’ll develop the ability
to Say as much as you need to with the fewest words possible, the goal of concise business writing. The fewer words you write, the
fewer words your intended reader must read, leading to an
increased likelihood that your reader will open and read your entire
message. We’ll begin this concise revision process with paragraph
structure and transitions in this chapter and continue with
sentence structure in the next chapter.
You likely already know many organizational patterns for routine business documents
• Intro—Body—Conclusion
• Past—Present—Future
Structure Paragraphs for Concise and Precise Business Style and
• Who/What—Why—How
• Attention—Need—Satisfaction—Visualization—Action
• Buffer—Reasons/Alternatives—Bad News—Action (for negative
messages)
These common and easily recognizable document patterns help
business readers skim messages to find the information they need
most, when they need it.
Similarly, business writers must know and follow the patterns of routine business writing to ensure intended readers will read our documents to find the information they need quickly.
When planning a document to fit a familiar pattern, you’ll plan
your message as a series of ideas set into a storyline through a
series of paragraphs. To help a reader skim these paragraphs quickly, business writers write the first line of each paragraph as a topic sentence or claim sentence that introduces the more specific information, evidence, and argument explained in the rest of the paragraph. Readers, in turn, know to read these first lines first in order to get a quick understanding of the
document’s storyline.
For example, the CEO of the Target Corporation began each of his
paragraphs in the 2015 Target Annual Report letter to shareholders
with these topic sentences revealing a positive story of Target in
2015:
In 2015, Target drove profitable growth throughout the year
with a strategic framework that we are confident will keep our
company growing for years to come. (Top claim leading the story)
Central to our strategy – really, to everything we do – is a
clear understanding of what our guests expect. (Four strategies to appeal to customers)
Our team drove these results while also undertaking several
key strategic shifts. (Two new broad strategies to appeal to shareholders)
Above all, our team rallied around a set of key enterprise
162 | Structure Paragraphs for Concise and Precise Business Style and Meaningful Transitions
priorities focused on the things that matter most to our guests. (Five priorities building from the two strategies)
The progress Target made as a team and a brand in 2015 is
real, and it’s sustainable. (Explanation of future commitments) A reader wanting a quick understanding of the general storyline
can skip the sentences after the topic/claim sentence and know the
overall message without any of the supporting details.
If you plan your message simultaneously as you write (a poor
business writing process), you may find yourself writing evidence
first and ending each paragraph with a topic/claim sentence. In
the editing process, you would check your paragraphs to see if they
follow a writer-centered thinking pattern (a poor strategy) rather
than a reader-centered claim + evidence pattern (the best strategy).
If you find a specific-to-general pattern in your argument paragraphs, you can purposefully move your general topic/claim from the end to the beginning of the paragraph. Then, if appropriate, you may add a conclusion sentence to the paragraph
explaining the direct relevance of the evidence to the reader’s
needs.
For example, when writing about your own writing process, you
might compose your first draft this way as you think, from evidence to claim:
When I draft a document, I often write the words exactly
as I think and speak, and without much planning or editing.
Sometimes I let my ideas flow freely in order to gain a better
idea of my main ideas. Eventually I end up with clear claims and
well supported arguments, and then I restructure my writing. I
would label my writing process as free flowing.
In the revision process, the writer would move the final sentence (the topic/claim sentence) from the end of the paragraph to the beginning for a well-structured paragraph of claim + evidence (and possibly explain relevance at the end). It would now read this way:
I would label my writing process as free flowing. When I draft
a document, I often write the words exactly as I think and speak,
Structure Paragraphs for Concise and Precise Business Style and Meaningful Transitions | 163
and without much planning or editing. Sometimes I let my ideas
flow freely in order to gain a better idea of my main ideas.
Eventually I end up with clear claims and well supported
arguments, and then I restructure my writing. This free-flow
of ideas combined with careful revision ensures I’ll offer you
precise, organized arguments. To improve your own paragraph structure, pay attention
during your drafting process to see if you also end paragraphs with
general topics or claims. If you do, simply cut and paste the final
sentence to the beginning to create a paragraph structure that
matches the pattern expected by business readers. This quick
editing helps your reader skim for the main ideas.
With a leading topic/claim sentence in place, the rest of the paragraph should include more specific supporting sentences that tell a brief story in a logical order, provide new information and/or
evidence, and relate to the first sentence.
After the topic sentence, each new sentence should reveal a new and unique idea. The following sentences should not repeat the same ideas again. Try to avoid repeating your claims again with new
words as though they are new ideas. The most common error when
writing paragraphs is repeating the same idea again and again (as
you can see in this very paragraph—it’s annoying right?). To help
a reader read the fewest words possible, you are responsible as
the writer to support general topic/claim sentences with new,
concrete, specific, and related information and evidence.
After the topic sentence, each new sentence should follow a logical process order that is easy for the reader to visualize. Remember, the best order for your sentences may not follow your
thinking process as a writer. When editing, consider your ideas
from the reader’s new perspective, and arrange your sentences in
an order that is easiest for the reader to understand.
164 | Structure Paragraphs for Concise and Precise Business Style and Meaningful Transitions
Review these paragraphs to see three problem structures and one improved paragraph
Poorly organized from evidence to claim: “We learn new
skills naturally as children—how to speak in sentences, throw a ball,
and climb a ladder. As we grow older, we learn to ride a bicycle,
use a keyboard, and drive a car. In college, we learn professional
writing, editing, and presentation skills. Throughout adulthood, we
must actively seek opportunities to learn new skills in sports, crafts,
music, and technology to fully express our human lives. You should
learn a new skill daily to live a full life.”
Poorly written as a series of repeating claims: “You should learn
a new skill daily to live a full life. Skills are important when we are
kids and should stay important throughout our lives. As we grow
older, we can keep learning and building new skills. Even when we
are older adults, it’s important to learn new skills to fully express our
human lives.”
Poorly organized with Claim + Evidence set in writer-
centered thinking order: “You should learn a new skill daily to live
a full life. In college, we learn professional writing, editing, and
presentation skills. We first learned new skills naturally as
children—how to speak in sentences, throw a ball, and climb a
ladder. Throughout adulthood, we must actively seek more
opportunities to learn new skills in sports, crafts, music, and
technology to fully express our human lives. Some of the most fun
we had was learning to ride a bicycle, use a keyboard, and drive a
car in our teenage years. We need to keep learning because it is fun.”
Well organized with Claim + Evidence set in a reader-centered
process order: “You should learn a new skill daily to live a full life.
We learn new skills naturally as children—how to speak in sentences,
throw a ball, and climb a ladder. As we grow older, we learn to
ride a bicycle, use a keyboard, and drive a car. In college, we learn
professional writing, editing, and presentation skills. Throughout
adulthood, we must actively seek opportunities to learn new skills
in sports, crafts, music, and technology to fully express our human
lives.”
Structure Paragraphs for Concise and Precise Business Style and Meaningful Transitions | 165
Lead your paragraphs with meaningful transitions
Business writers typically transition at the top of paragraphs to help busy readers skim the document to see the organizational
logic of the message. Poor transitions function much like paper
staples—you can staple one idea to another to connect them but you
won’t actually reveal why the ideas are set in this order. Examples of
often ineffective transition words that reveal ideas added to other
ideas or following other ideas include these:
in addition, additionally, also, another, moreover, first, second,
third, next, and finally
Use these addition and sequence transition words in contexts where you want to avoid revealing a hierarchy of main ideas and
subpoints or the meaning of a sequence. Other more effective transition words in business
documents typically indicate hierarchy and human-centered processes. To help readers visualize the ranking of your ideas or recommended action steps, for example, first plan your sections,
arguments, and paragraphs into a reader-centered storyline that
follows this hierarchy or process. Then let your transitions form
somewhat organically as you reveal your organizational logic. Chronological Process Organization might use transition words
like these: When we began. . . soon after. . . later in the process. . .
as we concluded. . .
Spatial Organization might use these transition words: Beginning
in the western region. . . as we moved north. . . in our study of the
eastern territory. . . and in the southern region we found. . .
Topical Organization could include transition words that reveal
this context: The industry standard reveals. . . responding to recent
trends. . . as competitors continue to adapt. . . responding to new
regulations. . . the future likely demands we. . .
Cause and Effect Organization might use these words: The
momentum for the new plan began with. . . with the research phase
166 | Structure Paragraphs for Concise and Precise Business Style and Meaningful Transitions
concluded, our division responded by. . . we are currently requesting
additional funding to complete the. . .
Structure Paragraphs for Concise and Precise Business Style and Meaningful Transitions | 167
PART IX
DESIGN
Business writing includes many document formats. The most
commonly used for routine messages include emails, letters, and
memos. The most effective business messages—for your employer,
client, or business associate—will appear professionally formatted
and will use design techniques to enhance readability and
emphasize important ideas the audience needs and values.
Your written messages will compete for your reader’s attention.
Digital marketing statistician Craig Smith reports that the average
U.S. office worker receives 121 emails daily; less than a third are
opened. Your documents will also compete for attention with hard
copy messages such as letters, memos, and reports, not to mention
phone calls, meetings, and impromptu conversations. When you
write a message, whether it’s an email, letter, memo, report, or
other business message, you want your reader to read the message,
understand it, and be able to use the information after one reading.
Design | 169
No busy person wants to read a document that looks like one
long paragraph with little effort made by the writer to state a clear
argument, signal important content, or enhance readability.
While you will adapt your choice of business message format
to match the practices of your employer, you probably will write
emails (with and without attachments), letters, and memos (less so
these days) regardless of your workplace. You will want a writer’s
handbook, such as How 14, as a reference of the many options for formatting written channels. This text covers basics of routine
formats and provides examples.
Learning Objectives
Regardless of your message’s written channel, you can
advance your argument, emphasize important ideas, and
clarify your message if you use design techniques:
• Frame words, phrases, and images
• Position content for emphasis
• Advance your argument and communicate your logic
with headers
• Create salience with lists and mechanical emphasis
• Combine design elements to advance coherent
argument, create hierarchy and cohesion, and
manage tone
• Use appropriate document format according to your
workplace’s guidelines
170 | Design
References Duarte, N. (2012). Do your slides pass the glance test? Harvard
Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2012/10/do- your-slides-pass-the-glance-test
Sharples, M. (1999). How we write: writing as creative design. New
York, NY: Routledge. Smith, C. (2016). By the numbers: 78 incredible email statistics.
DMR, 1 January, 2017, http://expandedramblings.com/index.php/
email-statistics/
Design | 171
41. Follow the Document Format Used by Your Employer or Industry
While you choose the channel based on your relationship with your
audience and the practices of your workplace, business letters,
business memos, and business emails are common for everyday,
routine documents. You will commonly send emails to external and
internal readers. Letters usually go to external readers, and memos
to internal readers. Again, different workplaces follow different
rules. Adapt to your employer’s expectations.
The following section presents examples of accepted business
letter format, business memorandum format, and business email
format.
Business Letter Format
Letterhead: Most businesses use business letterhead stationery for hard copy documents sent to an external audience (people outside
the organization) such as clients, other businesses, the government,
and the press. This letterhead includes the name of the organization
and may include addresses, telephone numbers, fax numbers, email
addresses, and a company logo or picture.
Receiver’s Information: The receiver’s information is the name of the receiver, title, and company with the street, city, and state
mailing address.
Mr. Robert Chandler, CEO Ms. Sophie Yu, CEO
Bloomington Crushed Stone Jenkins Financial Services
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1618 N. Walnut Street 138 S. College Avenue
Bloomington, IN 47404 Bloomington, IN 47401
If you are sending an international letter, you will need to look up
the mail conventions of the reader’s country. You will at least need
to include the country.
Mr. Omar Khan, CEO
Apothecary Solutions
2045 Westminster Road
London WIP 6HQ
England
Salutation: The salutation is the reader’s name. If you write to someone you do not know well and/or your company prefers a
more formal style, use a personal title and the person’s last name as
follows:
Dear Ms. Yu: (The “Dear” is optional. The punctuation is a colon.)
If you write to someone you know well, or your organization uses
an informal style, address the person as follows:
Dear Sophie: (The “Dear” is optional.)
Subject Line: The subject line provides the reader with the subject—or purpose—of the document. It can be specific and direct
if you want to draw attention to the content’s purpose; it can be
general if you are being indirect and do not want to give negative
information before your reader reads the document. It is usually a
few words, not a complete sentence. Here are examples:
Subject: Mandatory Departmental Meeting Friday, October 10, 2017
(direct, specific)
Subject: Your Request for Project Funding (indirect, general)
Complimentary Close and Signature Block: A professional letter most commonly closes with Sincerely. Leave three blank lines after
Sincerely and add the sender’s name and position within the organization. In a professional email, select the closing salutation
you like best or one preferred by your organization. Leave one blank
line before writing the name you like to be called. Then conclude
your email with a Signature Block to build your credibility and
174 | Follow the Document Format Used by Your Employer or Industry
clarify your preferred contact information. Common information
may include your full legal name, your job title, the company or
organization you represent, your preferred mailing address, email
address, telephone number, fax number, Skype name, LinkedIn
profile, and/or website, as needed.
Attachment: Name attachments with a clear filename that the reader will understand and will distinguish the attachments from
others this reader or future readers may receive.
Enclosure: Add “Enclosure” at the bottom of a letter if you include additional items with the letter. This notation tells the reader that
you added something such as a price list with the letter.
Copy Notation: You may add a copy notation at the bottom of a letter if you are sending a copy of the document to others. See two
common notations below:
cc: James Baring, Marketing Vice President
Copy to James Baring, Marketing Vice President
Continuation Page Heading: If a letter or memo continues to additional pages, these pages need the following heading at the left
margin or centered across the top of the page.
Mary Sims, Marketing Department Supervisor (Receiver)
Page 2
September 15, 2017 (Current date)
Mary Sims, Marketing Department Supervisor
2 September 15, 2017
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A Sample Business Letter on Company Letterhead with Block Style and Mixed Punctuation
Business Memo Format
Memorandum (memo) format is used for paper documents sent
176 | Follow the Document Format Used by Your Employer or Industry
internally in the organization. The memo begins with a heading at the top that includes four items: the receiver, the sender, the
date, and the subject. Companies often use subject lines to track
communication: therefore, write specific subject lines, not generic
ones. Sometimes senders initial next to the From: header to indicate they approved the message.
Email Format
Emails use the same headers as memos. In email, your subject line
should be specific enough to encourage your reader to open your
email. Generic subject lines often look suspicious or at least
unimportant. Avoid suspicious wording such as Important or Your
last warning. Email scams use this type of language. Although emails include the same headers as memos, the message itself may include
a salutation, complimentary close, and signature block like a
business letter.
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Sample Cover Letter in Email Format
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Request for Informational Interview in Email Format
180 | Follow the Document Format Used by Your Employer or Industry
42. Combine Design Elements to Enhance Clarity, Hierarchy, and Tone
You can consider framing, placement, and salience as separate
ideas; however, you will usually combine design concepts in your
messages. The look of a text changes when a writer transforms long
block paragraphs by using headers, short paragraphs, and framed
information. In figure 2, note how framing, placement, and salience
communicate organization and hierarchy.
Figure 2. The appearance of a document transformed from a paragraph-only document to one with headers.
Combine Design Elements to Enhance Clarity, Hierarchy, and
Figure 2 demonstrates that white space frames headers, and the
headers’ placement creates primacy effects. White space frames images and short paragraphs and makes them salient.
In short, design features combine to signal importance and build clarity. Design advances argument by making parallelism, contrast, comparison, and story visible to the reader.
Design techniques also combine to manage your tone and focus your reader’s attention. Consider how you can emphasize and
deemphasize content in the same message with multiple
techniques:
• Place—For routine messages and most complex documents, your introduction ought to communicate your message’s
purpose and overarching structure. Your paragraphs should
begin and end with takeaway ideas. Your document should
conclude with a concrete reminder of the most important
information and how to use it. In contrast, to deemphasize
negative news place it in the middle—of a sentence, a
paragraph, or an entire document.
• Space (dominance)—the more space given to an idea, the more emphasis it receives. If, in a 3-page report, 2 1/2 pages were
about Topic A and half a page was about Topic B, Topic A
would be emphasized more. So limit the amount of space given
to negatives.
• Mechanical Emphasis—set off positive, helpful information in headers, bullet and numbered lists, and, at least, short
paragraphs. Avoid emphasizing negative news with these
techniques. These techniques not only use placement for
emphasis, they also frame and make points salient. Other
mechanical emphasis techniques, such as change of fonts,
boldface, and italics, also create salience.
• Sentence Structure—short sentences emphasize (the average sentence length is 16–20 words). Longer, complex sentences
deemphasize, so consider placing bad news in a dependent
clause. For example, Even though your dishes were eligible for a
182 | Combine Design Elements to Enhance Clarity, Hierarchy, and Tone
refund for only 90 days, you may exchange them for an in-store
credit. (no refund = bad news. . . dependent clause = reduced emphasis).
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43. Create Salience with Lists and Mechanical Emphasis
Lists help a reader learn document content at a glance; they also empower a writer to draw attention to information and show steps or parts of a whole, as demonstrated in the following excerpt from the Kickstarter Creator Handbook:
When you compose a list:
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1. Use concise wording to draw attention to important
information.
2. Follow an organizational strategy such as most-important-to-
least-important.
3. Use lists only for information that you want to emphasize. If
the list content is not very important, put the information in
paragraph form.
4. Keep the lists grammatically parallel and organized.
5. Include at least two items in a list; avoid making the list too
long, which fails to emphasize information. Too much in a list
makes it as difficult to understand as information presented in
paragraph form.
6. Introduce your list with a sentence or paragraph before it.
7. Use bullets, unless numbering listed items informs the reader,
as with written instructions.
Text design creates mechanical emphasis, enhances comparison or contrast, and builds repetition, as in the message to consumers from T-Mobile’s CEO following a data breach:
Source: t-mobile.com
Create Salience with Lists and Mechanical Emphasis | 185
Consider text design as well as document design. Use text position, text clustering, highlighting, background color, font size, font type,
and font color to ensure your text design contributes positively to
your document design.
Typically you will use a 12 pt. typeface for text, while larger fonts
or 10 pt. or 11 pt. are often acceptable. Fonts smaller than 10 pt. often
increase reading difficulty. As you decide your typeface, headings
have a weightier appearance than subheadings. Choosing a larger
size and boldface increases the weight of a typeface. Subheadings
have a weightier appearance than corresponding text. In other
words, your typeface communicates hierarchy.
You will also consider using complementary typefaces: headings
being one typeface, while corresponding text is another. Many
studies and companies publish lists of complementary typefaces.
Web Design Toronto maintains a site called ifontyou.com that
shares excellent typeface combinations. You can even buy an app to
help you choose font combinations.
As you choose your typefaces, choose the text level first. Use serif
fonts if you expect your reader to read a hard-copy message and
sans-serif fonts when you expect screen reading. After choosing
the text level, choose a complementary font for headings that
correspond to the text.
For an email with headings and text:
Heading typeface: Georgia
Text typeface: Helvetica
For emails with headings, subheadings, and text:
Heading typeface: Helvetica
Subheading level: Georgia
Text typeface: Helvetica
Continue to alternate as you add heading levels.
For print documents do the opposite. Here’s the simplest level of
complementary print fonts:
Heading typeface: Helvetica
Text typeface: Georgia
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Just as when you expect screen reading, you vary your font choice
as you add levels.
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44. Know How Readers View and Comprehend a Document
A reader should be able to understand and use your written work
in one reading. Readers in business decode hundreds of messages
a day. Effective design helps readers comprehend messages quickly
and easily, without overlooking important items.
Increase a document’s inherent credibility through document design
Effective design means that you build credibility with your reader by
adding visual cues to the structure of your information to increase
its clarity, persuasiveness, simplicity, and appeal. Ineffective design
(such as letters or emails designed as one long paragraph) force
readers to work hard to create meaning.
Your document design should do the following:
• Attract the reader’s eye
• Reveal your organization and advance your argument
• Emphasize important content
• Offer visual balance (limit unexplained graphic information to
promote clarity)
Design a document to improve readability and comprehension
A text’s structure creates mental anchors for readers: in the decoding process readers use these mental anchors to determine
meaning. The theory is that readers create mental maps of a text. A
2011 Scientific American article discussed studies that found people
188 | Know How Readers View and Comprehend a Document
literally report remembering where specific text and visuals appear
in a text.
Effective document design sets up anchors for the reader,
because design makes structure highly visible and drives the
reader’s focus. It influences how readers view a page. Three main
categories of effective business design include framing, placement, and salience:
• Framing occurs when you leave
white space
around an idea or purposely design a frame to separate a
component of your document from the rest of the document such
as a call-out quote.
• Placement means you carefully locate a word or component of
your message to emphasize (or de-emphasize) its importance.
• Salience literally means “to be particularly noticeable.” Salience
results from applying mechanical emphasis, such as boldface,
italics, font changes, and colors.
Effective design also improves readability and comprehension by
clarifying a text’s organization. Design makes hierarchical and rhetorical relationships visible. CIA readability studies in the 1950s confirmed the effectiveness of design, as have many academic
studies.
Rhetorical relationships are built on meaningful connections
between ideas. These connections make ideas cohesive as they transition from idea to idea. At the message level (the macro level)
logical connections make an argument coherent. You can use many types of connections: narration (story), parallelism (for example,
items in a category), comparison, contrast, elaboration (details),
results (cause and effect) and explanation.
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Be aware of how people read online
Your reader will find dense text documents without visual relief
difficult to read.
Eye-tracking studies of text-heavy documents reveal that readers
scan a page in an F-pattern. Document design draws the reader
into your content, whereas a page of solid text is unlikely to attract
readers. Only 16% of readers read a whole page of text. A poorly
designed document can damage your communication efforts as
readers fail to even look at important information.
Careful design leads your readers to view your document as you want them to.
References Jabr, F. (2011). The Reading Brain in the Digital Age: The Science
of Paper versus Screens. Scientific American. Retrieved from https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/reading-paper-
screens/
Jasinskaja, K. and Karagjosova, E. (2015). Rhetorical Relations. Retrieved from http://dslc.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/sites/dslc/
katja_files/Jasinskaja_Karagjosova_RR.pdf
Manjoo, F. (2013). You won’t finish this article. Slate. Retrieved from http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/technology/
2013/06/
how_people_read_online_why_you_won_t_finish_this_article.
html
Meyer, B. (1975). The organisation of prose and its effect on memory. Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Company.
Nielsen, J. (2006). https://www.nngroup.com/articles/f-shaped-
pattern-reading-web-content/
Payne, S. and Reader, W. (2006). Constructing structure maps
of multiple online texts. International Journal of Human-Computer
Studies. 64 (5), 461-474
Sharples, M. (1999). How we write: writing as creative design. New
York, NY: Routledge.
190 | Know How Readers View and Comprehend a Document
Know How Readers View and Comprehend a Document | 191
45. Frame Words, Phrases, and Images
Frames set off words, phrases, and images from their surroundings, bringing attention to them. Frames are everywhere in life: picture
frames, windows, doorways, bookshelves, pages, and screens. When
you compose a document you can create frames with white space, borders, margins, lines, shapes, or colors.
Identify framed words, phrases, and images in the following IU
flyer, webpage, and email announcement template. Example
answers include the word “Friendships” and the “IU” trident.
192 | Frame Words, Phrases, and Images
IU Flyer
Frame Words, Phrases, and Images | 193
IU Bloomington Newsroom webpage
194 | Frame Words, Phrases, and Images
Frame Words, Phrases, and Images | 195
IU Email Announcement Template Source: IU Communications
Use frames for emphasis, connection, or contrast
Strategically stress important words, phrases, or images that advance your message and argument. In the announcement
message, IU emphasizes its brand with the words “fulfilling the
promise,” through the phrase’s placement on the left margin and as
the final phrase framed on the page.
Show connections between ideas by using shapes and visual images as demonstrated in the IU Bloomington Newsroom
webpage’s crimson arrow that points to the picture and story
selected by the reader. The strategic balance of text and shape can
simplify a message and create visual argument. In the article “Do your slides pass the glance test,” Nancy Duarte demonstrates how
blending shapes and text simplifies a message.
Indicate new subject matter by changing background colors as the email announcement frames the video screen. Strategic use
of background colors gives web writing, flyers, brochures, high-
quality print reports, webinar slides, and slide reports much of their
visual appeal and clarity. Most business messages will at least frame
paragraphs with a blank line between paragraphs. White space also surrounds and frames headers, making them an excellent place to signal the structure and development of your message and
argument.
Reference Duarte, N. (2012). Do your slides pass the glance test? Harvard
Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2012/10/do- your-slides-pass-the-glance-test
196 | Frame Words, Phrases, and Images
46. Position Content for Emphasis
We read English documents left to right and top to bottom. A large
usability study in the 1990s and one in 2005 confirmed that a page
with little design results in readers giving overwhelming value to
information at a page’s top and left. A 2014 follow-up study found
that readers read more parts of pages that include additional design
features. These studies provide current evidence that writers can
influence a reader’s interaction with a page by positioning content
strategically.
You can achieve strategic placement by composing your content
with white space and beginnings and endings in mind. In the following page excerpted from the Kelley School of
Business Viewbook, identify content emphasized through
placement.
Start with the claim header, “You’ll leave Kelley prepared to
contribute on the first day of your new career.”
White space breaks pages into parts, creating additional tops/ bottoms and left/right delineations. Even the space between
Position Content for Emphasis | 197
paragraphs and sentences can reorient a reader’s focus. Designing
with white space allows you to use location to create emphasis. Two psychological effects, known as primacy and recency,
increase memorability of beginning and ending content. Primacy means our memories anchor on what we decode first. Recency means we anchor on what we decode last. At a document structure
level, readers most remember a message’s introduction and
conclusion. So, for direct approach, you want to emphasize purpose
and desired action here. At the paragraph level the topic sentence
(assuming it is the first sentence) and conclusion are most
memorable.
How you apply the techniques will depend on a message’s balance
of textual to visual content. Most routine emails, letters, and memos
are text heavy. Genres of business writing such as reports, slide
reports, brochures, and flyers have improved clarity and influence
on the reader with text balanced by visuals such as images, charts,
and graphs.
In routine messages, your most essential document design
strategies include the use of white space and the primacy and
recency effects. These strategies also apply to more complex visual
arguments; however, you manage more visual content in these
complex arguments.
References Mediative (2014). The evolution of Google search results pages &
their effect on user behaviour. Retrieved from http://www.mediative.com/whitepaper-the-evolution-of-
googles-search-results-pages-effects-on-user-behaviour/
Nielsen Norman Group. (2006). F-shaped pattern for reading web
content. Retrieved from https://www.nngroup.com/articles/f- shaped-pattern-reading-web-content/
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47. Write Headings to Communicate Your Argument and Organizational Logic
Add headings and subheadings to your document so that readers
can easily follow and understand your content’s structure and
hierarchy of information at a glance. Important information does
not stand out on crowded text heavy pages. You want design that
draws the reader’s eye and helps the reader see the content
organization.
Figure 1. The appearance of a document transformed from a paragraph-only document to one with headings.
Headings and subheadings direct your reader to content, emphasize
Write Headings to Communicate Your Argument and Organizational
important information, and provide an overview of content. In
addition, as a writer, headings help you to organize your thoughts.
A heading is a label that leads a section of text and can be
a topic, informative, or claim heading.
• Topic headings are those that describe only the topic of the section to follow but do not give any information or draw
conclusions about the topic.
• Informative and claim headings describe the content that follows and provide the reader with important information
about the topic before the reader reads the section.
Informative and claim headings are especially helpful to a
reader skimming the document to understand its story line.
Here is an example of each type of heading:
Topic Heading: Costs Informative Heading: Current Construction Costs Over Budget Claim Heading: Cost Cutting Measures Needed to Prevent Budget Overrun
Include headings and subheadings set in parallel structure within
a section. Here are examples of non-parallel (noun/noun/sentence)
and parallel headings (noun/noun/noun).
Non-Parallel Example:
High Cost of Operation
Slight Improvement in Production Efficiency
Maintenance Cost Is Low
Parallel Example:
High Cost of Operation
Slight Improvement in Production Efficiency
Low Cost of Maintenance
Headings should logically connect one to the next. Example of
logically connected headings:
Heading 1: Rising construction costs appear problematic
200 | Write Headings to Communicate Your Argument and Organizational Logic
Heading 2: Decreasing overhead costs freed significant funds
Heading 3: Balancing costs and savings indicates fiscal health
As you design your document, apply two rules of hierarchy with
headings, subheadings, paragraphing, and lists:
1. Equally important ideas appear at the same level. The short gray
lines in figure 1 represent same-level headers. The corresponding
paragraphs would, therefore, be same-level paragraphs.
2. Ideas appear one level below an idea classified as one level more
important. APA style defines five heading levels. MLA style doesn’t
have strict guidelines: it states that all headings at a level should
have parallel grammatical structure, placement (centered, left, or
indented), consistent, coordinated fonts, and mechanical emphasis
(bold, italicized, underlined). For instance, assume you have written
a report with five sections and each section has a heading. If you
center the first section heading and put it in boldface, you should
do that for each heading in that report. If you have sub headings
in part one, (1) they should differ from the section heading in font
size, placement, and emphasis and (2) each sub heading should have
parallel structure, placement, and mechanical emphasis.
Write Headings to Communicate Your Argument and Organizational Logic | 201
Sample format using MLA style with five headings and subheadings
Headings Develop Headings to Advance Argument
Subheading Subheadings organize an argument
Sub-Heading Subheadings clarify each step of an argument
Headings Understand Your Audience and Purpose First
Subheading Determine your audience’s needs and values
Subheading Determine what your audience knows and needs to know
Headings Draft Audience-Oriented Headings to Appeal to Your Reader
Subheading Choose language that appeals to your reader
Subheading State claims that connect to your reader’s needs and values
Headings Draft Mutually Exclusive and Collectively Exhaustive Headings
Subheading Each subheading addresses a separate part of the overall argument
Subheading Subheadings do not overlap; they are not redundant
Subheading Collectively the subheadings address the whole argument and tell a story
Headings Revise your Headings to Achieve a Persuasive Argument and
Professional Writing Style
Subheading Revise language as necessary to achieve a clear, credible story
Subheading Revise language to emphasize reader benefits
Subheading Revise language to achieve a concise, professional writing style
202 | Write Headings to Communicate Your Argument and Organizational Logic
Write Headings to Communicate Your Argument and Organizational Logic | 203
PART X
VISUAL ARGUMENT
Design your visual arguments to appeal to your reader’s need for clarity, conciseness, scannability, and brand consistency
With careful attention to professional and appealing visual
argument design, you can improve the likelihood that your reader
will read and understand all of your document and act on your message. By carefully thinking through how to create meaningful
visuals to complement your messages you can identify the pictures,
tables, and charts that will maximize reader understanding, provide
additional opportunities to persuade, improve the overall
scannability of your document, and build your credibility and trust.
Avoid the risks of poor visual argument design
At a minimum, a document without precise, persuasive, and
Visual Argument | 205
ethical visual design could mean wasted time for a reader attempting to understand the meaning of a message. An even
greater risk of failing to design visual argument effectively is that
it could lead to confusing or misleading messaging, damage to the writer’s professional reputation, and additional time for the writer
and reader spent clarifying the meaning of the message.
The greatest risks of poor visual argument design include your
reader deleting your message without reading it because it appears disorganized or unnecessarily complex and a loss of credibility and trust associated with unclear argument, unappealing aesthetics, and poor branding. It pays to devote time to impactful visual
argument writing and design.
Which process and principles of document and visual argument design can lead to the best outcomes for you, your team, and your reader?
To achieve the best potential outcomes, you and your team can
follow these guidelines for effective design of your professional
documents and visuals:
1. Analyze the context and the needs and expectations of your
reader/audience
2. Select the software that best fits the context, audience, and
message
3. Plan your message and argument before designing your
visuals—let the argument drive the visual representation of the
message
4. Align the elements of your document similar to a Table
Chart—lay out each page or slide by considering white space,
alignment (gridding elements in columns and rows), your
logical hierarchy of ideas, best font types and sizes, persuasive
and appealing visual elements (including lines, shapes, graphs,
photos, and more)
5. Review and revise your document to ensure (1) you include the
entire argument, (2) it is easily scannable by a reader to easily
206 | Visual Argument
gain an overview and allow for deeper reading, and (3) it is
meticulously aligned, consistent in design, and proofread to
perfection.
Learning Objectives
• Understand the use and value of using images,
graphs, charts, and tables in your documents
• View PowerPoint as a document design tool capable
of constructing a range of business documents,
including image-driven presentation decks,
slideuments, and written reports
• Use an understanding of purpose and audience to
develop argument-driven slide decks
• Storyline, storyboard, and design slides to ensure a
clear story and cohesive argument
Visual Argument | 207
48. View Deck Design on a Continuum: One Deck Does Not Fit All
It’s popular to hate Microsoft PowerPoint. The call for “Death to PowerPoint” is prevalent, with opponents of PowerPoint arguing
the reliance on slide decks kills overall presentation effectiveness.
Certainly, we all have found ourselves in a classroom or meeting
with someone delivering a presentation, reading from text-heavy
and bulleted slides—leaving the audience to wonder why they just
didn’t get the slide deck to read at home.
The corrective often swings to the other extreme. A few years
ago, gurus like Seth Godin and Garr Reynolds advocated a much
more streamlined approach focused almost exclusively by image- driven slides with minimal text. The result? Beautifully designed slides that reflected the content of what the speaker was saying,
but once the presentation was over and a few days passed, audience
members were left looking at the slides and struggling to recall the
argument.
In both scenarios, PowerPoint will often receive the blame. . .
and unfairly so. The failure isn’t PowerPoint. PowerPoint is actually a powerful document design tool that can create slide decks, reports, and slideuments. The software’s versatility is enhanced by its strong integration of Microsoft Excel’s data modeling capabilities
and robust graphics generator. PowerPoint can even offer basic
image editing tools. (Note: While there are numerous effective slide
design software tools, such as Keynote, Prezi, Slide Rocket, and
Powtoon, none is more ubiquitous across business contexts than
PowerPoint.)
Regardless of the possibilities PowerPoint offers you as a business
writer and presenter, the software is only as effective as the user.
View Deck Design on a Continuum: One Deck Does Not Fit All | 209
So when PowerPoint fails, the failure lies with the writer or
designer who failed to carefully analyze purpose and audience.
What are your audience/readers’ expectations? What are you trying
to achieve?
Understanding how audience, purpose, content, and context drive PowerPoint deck design will shift your perspective in two ways: (1) from thinking of PowerPoint as an outcome to seeing it as a powerful document design tool, and (2) from considering What is a good slide deck? to asking What type of deck is good for this situation and audience?
Instead of thinking of a “right” way to develop a PowerPoint,
business professionals are better served to see PowerPoint as a document design tool that can be used to construct a range of business documents, from text-heavy written reports traditionally constructed within word processing software, to the image-only
slide decks developed in PowerPoint. However, most documents
(written reports and slide decks) operate somewhere between the
extremes, integrating varying degrees of the image and text to
create complete arguments with visual appeal.
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Presentation Slides: Low-Text/High Visual
KEY QUALITIES: Minimal text; intended as a visual aid for a live speaker only; emphasis on speaker; not shared as a 7le with audiences after the presentation; require separate take-away document if message needs to be shared.
Many current thought leaders in presentation slide design, such
as Guy Kawasaki, Cliff Atkinson, Seth Godin, and Garr Reynolds,
argue for a less-is-more approach to visuals. Kawasaki offers the
“10-20-30 Rule of PowerPoint” in his How to Change the World blog. Using this prescriptive approach, a business person creates
presentation visuals with no more than ten slides, talks for no more
than twenty minutes, and uses limited text of thirty point font or
larger. Godin adds that presenters should never include more than
six words on a slide. Ever.
Reynolds, in his book Presentation Zen, counters Kawasaki and Godin by advocating a guideline-based approach to visual design
rather than a step-by-step prescriptive method. He states: “At the
heart of Zen is the need for personal awareness and the ability to
see and discover.” In short, Reynolds advocates both an audience-
centered and context-centered approach to creating the visuals the
specific situation requires.
The foundational rule of good presentation slides is to create a visual aid for the audience. The greatest violation of that rule equals creating slides that serve as speaker’s notes. Your visual-
heavy presentation slides should bring meaning to your audience
from a distance and not require much if any reading.
Speaker’s Notes (writer-centered design) versus Visual Aid (audience-centered design)
Review the two slides below: The first slide is clearly speaker’s
notes, a poorly designed slide to help the speaker remember what to say. The second slide includes the same information yet designed effectively to help the reader/audience understand the meaning of the data at a glance.
View Deck Design on a Continuum: One Deck Does Not Fit All | 211
Slideument/Slidedoc Slides: Balanced Text/Visual
KEY QUALITIES: Document serves dual purposes (presentation and shared for takeaway for audience/absent decision makers); document is highlighted within presentation; presentation remains conversational and discussion driven.
A common integration of visuals and increasingly more text is seen
in the slideument (sometimes referred as a slidedoc). The term
“slideument” first appeared in Garr Reynolds’ in 2006 in response
to the trend toward blending slides and documents used both as
212 | View Deck Design on a Continuum: One Deck Does Not Fit All
projected visuals and supplemental handouts. Reynolds implored
speakers to create two deliverables—one PowerPoint slidedeck to
show in the room and one PowerPoint document to hand out at the
end of a presentation. The second file could include additional text
to explain the visuals to absent decision makers.
Since Reynolds’ post, business people continue to use
“slideuments” in dual roles as presentation slide deck and sharable
document. Busy people appreciate the flexibility, efficiency, and
cost savings of the slideument—why create two decks when you can
create one? In many presentation contexts today, “speakers” sit at
a table or videoconference with “audiences” as they review slides
together on laptops and tablets.
Nancy Duarte’s 2008 book Slide:ology explains how to develop an effective slideument to incorporate sufficient explanatory text with
meaningful visual support into a medium that it is truly a stand-
alone document, yet with significant visual emphasis. Duarte
recommends writers “design” slides and not “decorate” them; both
the textual clarity and visual simplicity must benefit the reader.
View Deck Design on a Continuum: One Deck Does Not Fit All | 213
49. Use the Slide Deck Revision Checklist
Checklist for Excellent Visuals
1. Slide design is branded with colors, fonts, and logos to reflect
topic/team/audience; all slides include slide numbers (after title
slide)
2. Slides include Title Slide, Agenda Slide, Content Slides
(following a meaningful organizing principle—possibly Minto
Pyramid: SCQA + Recommendation + Why/Reasons + How/
Implementation), Review/Benefits Slide, Final Branding Slide (often
with writer’s contact information), possible Q&A slides
3. Argument slides include persuasive claim titles, effective data-
driven graph choices + sources, with best layout choices
demonstrating alignment and enhancing readability (left to right
and top to bottom), avoids over-centering elements
4. Slides use the most appealing shapes, colors, and font sizes,
with minimal animation and employing meaningful emphasis
techniques
5. Text is audience focused with positive tone, detailed but
concise, organized, and designed to enhance readability (writer
separates text logically to emphasize meaningful phrasing)
6. Text is revised for concise style and no errors in proofreading,
grammar, or punctuation, with consistency across all slides
7. Sharable deck should be able to stand alone as a meaningful
document for absent decision makers
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50. Move from Storyline to Storyboard: Identify and Align Necessary Content
Because the slide is intended as a Visual Argument, your reader
will expect you to emphasize effective principles of design—both for
aesthetic appeal and enhancing the readability and scannability of your slide deck. As in document design, your slide should follow the
key principles of framing, placement, and salience.
Contemporary Design Aesthetics
Alignment and Minimalism are key to modern PowerPoint slide design. Today’s professional slide design is “minimalist,” typically a simple design with emphasis on white space, alignment, crisp edges,
bright colors, and flat illustrations (avoiding shadow, blur, overlap,
bold arrows, odd shapes, tilted images, clip art, and excessive
symmetry and animation). This minimalist design aesthetic often
incorporates rectangular or circular shapes, parallel or grid lines,
simple photographs or icon images, and minimal animation.
Elements on the slide are arranged and sized carefully to
add horizontal and vertical alignment while revealing relationships
and relative value.
Each Slide Should Represent a Logical Argument
Just as a writer would lead with a claim in a text-based argument
paragraph, the reader of a PowerPoint deck or other visual
argument similarly anticipates clear, meaningful claim titles to lead
the visual argument on the slides. Your slides should follow the
Move from Storyline to Storyboard: Identify and Align Necessary
same Complete Argument structure as the paragraphs of your text-based documents:
Claim + Evidence + Source
or Claim [Subclaim(s)] + Evidence + Source
or Claim + Evidence + Source + Conclusion
Similar to a written paper’s transitions, the meaning of each slide
should build from the slide before and lead to the next slide,
following a logical organizing principle that reveals the writer’s
thoughtful planning.
With clearly developed claims guiding your storyline and a strong
understanding of argument structure, you are in position to
“storyboard” your slides. Storyboarding is an intensive prewriting
process where you carefully break down the claims and
systematically identify what evidence you need to use to support
each claim, along with identifying the best way to visually represent
your evidence.
Similar to storylining a document, you can storyboard your deck without ever opening your computer by following this process for
each of your slides:
1. On a blank sheet of paper (landscape orientation), draw a slide (leave margin space for notes—use the storyboard
worksheet below as an example to follow).
2. At the top of the “slide” write the claim title explaining the meaning of the slide’s data.
3. Read the title carefully and underline the critical words and phrases that must be represented by the slide’s evidence.
4. In the margin, identify the outcomes of the slide (“show trend,” “evoke excitement,” “deck must stand alone”).
5. In the margin, identify what evidence you have/need to support your claim (include sources).
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6. In the margin, identify the possible ways to best represent the evidence on the slide (text, graphs, charts, tables, infographics, pictures). Consider each underlined phrase of the claim.
7. Develop an initial sketch of the slide layout. 8. Compare the claim’s critical phrases to the content—is the
slide complete?
9. Review the goals in the margin—do you fulfill the goals you identified?
10. Revise if necessary—repeat #8 & #9 until completed. 11. Repeat with the next slide until you’ve sketched out your
entire visual storyboard.
You can practice storyboarding a series of slides for your own
intended reader, but remember to first develop out a clear,
compelling, and logical claim-driven storyline to guide your slide
argument development.
For example, these three claims were developed from a case
analysis of a local co-operative grocery:
• Slide 1 Claim: “Bloomingfoods’ Success Depends on Three Core
Customer Categories”
• Slide 2 Claim: “Bloomingfoods’ Core Customers are Unsatisfied
and Spending Less”
• Slide 3 Claim: “Improving Core Customer Satisfaction Will
Improve Co-op Cash Flow”
Each of these claims can then be entered onto the storyboard
Move from Storyline to Storyboard: Identify and Align Necessary Content | 217
worksheet to help guide your slide development.
The resulting slide worksheets allow you to draft your deck
without ever opening PowerPoint, saving you time and helping you
more strategically identify the key evidence and graphics you need
to sustain your argument. Remember, these worksheets are your
testing ground to help you envision what your final deck could look
like.
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Slide 1 Worksheet: “Bloomingfoods’ Success Depends on Three Core Customer Categories”
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Slide 2 Worksheet: “Bloomingfoods’ Core Customers Are Unsatisfied and Spending Less”
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Slide 3 Worksheet: “Improving Core Customer Satisfaction Will Improve Co-op Cash Flow”
Once you develop storyboards for your entire deck, you are ready
to start the intensive design work within PowerPoint.
Visualize one entire slide as a Table Chart as you design its layout
Consider the expected principles of a Table Chart as you draw in
your visuals: A table typically includes a meaningful title above the
chart with a thick row across the top of the table listing column
headers and a thick column along the left side listing row headers.
The rest of the table is set out in a grid of columns and rows. The
grid metaphor can guide your best slide layout choices.
At a minimum, you could divide your slide into a grid with four
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sections to view its landscape as a four-quadrant table (or consider
applying the Rule of Thirds from photography and visualize nine
sections). You can easily create a four quadrant effect to help you
design the slide by clicking View in the PowerPoint software menu,
then clicking Guides—Static Guides. This choice will place thin blue lines on your slide to help you visualize quadrants as you write,
design, and align your slide’s key elements.
How will you lay out the rest of the evidence? For instance, will
you design the slide to appear in 2–6 columns or possibly in 2–3
rows? Or a combination? To try out several alignment looks, add all
visual elements onto your slide and then select all of the elements
and click the Arrange button on the toolbar, then select Align or
Distribute from the menu and try out the various options. Continue
with horizontal and vertical alignment on the slide as you also
experiment with spacing and inserting lines to group items logically
to help the reader understand the argument. Every choice you make
in design should improve the readability of the slide and the
persuasiveness of your argument.
Finally, decide where you’ll list your sources, including enough
information that readers can find the sources of the evidence on
their own.
Why Spend So Much Time Sketching Out Each Slide?
Think about how many times you have created a slide, only to delete
it and make a replacement. Now consider how much time it took
to create the graphs, charts, and tables you discarded; or how long
it took to identify the right pictures; or how long you worked on
formatting. Imagine the time you would have saved to only make
one version of the slide. Just like writing a report, prewriting saves time with deck design.
More importantly, ensuring your argument is solid—a clear claim with aligned evidence and the right visual representation—serves
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as the backbone of your presentation. A writer can lose an
audience’s trust quickly by making mental leaps from the evidence
to a positive sweeping claim.
Finally, readers will critique the credibility of your slide’s evidence,
just as they would when reading a text-based document. Reveal the
source(s) of the slide’s evidence on the slide (or in the Notes function
as requested by your reader) by writing enough text that the reader
could look up the source personally.
Design your slide for clarity and visual appeal
incorporating labels, highlights, and colors that add meaning for
your audience.
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51. Plan Your Visual Argument: Start with Your Storyline
Before you open your computer and fire up PowerPoint or Keynote, pull out pen and paper to plan exactly what you want to put on your slides. Think of this stage as prewriting for your deck—determine your specific audience, purpose, message,
storyline, and context to drive the choices of your future visual
argument. Nancy Duarte, author of Slide:ology, suggests this effective ideation process for your deck:
Put Away the Computer and Remember Your Prewriting “Storylining” is most commonly associated with consulting,
popularized by McKinsey, Barabara Minto, and the Pyramid
Principle. However, “storylining” has value for any industry and
presentation. Specifically, “storylining” is an intensive prewriting for
your message development that establishes a clear overall logical
organization to achieve your purpose. For the purpose of developing
an effective slide deck, think of your storyline as a series of full-
sentence claims that walks your audience/reader through the
presentation systematically.
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As you piece together your storyline, you can read your series of
claims to see if the organization makes sense for your audience/
reader—before you even begin creating visuals for your deck. If
the story makes sense—from the perspective of your reader/
audience—you can now consider each claim on each slide as an
overview of the document, a section heading, a support paragraph,
or a transition—similar to writing a text-based document.
TIP: Avoid functional headings the audience could see in multiple presentations such as Introduction, Analysis, Recommendation, and
Conclusion in favor of brief but meaningful headings specific to
your deck and argument. For example, when reading the following functional/category
slide headings you cannot see a storyline or argument developing:
• Slide 1: “Bloomingfood’s Core Customer”
• Slide 2: “Core Customer Satisfaction and Spending”
• Slide 3: “Impact of Increasing Satisfaction”
As written, you can only see broad categories without any clear
argument or organizational logic.
By rewriting the functional/category headings as claims, you
control your argument and provide your reader guidance about
slide content:
• Rewritten Slide 1: “Bloomingfoods’ Success Depends on Three
Core Customer Categories”
• Rewritten Slide 2: “Bloomingfoods’ Core Customers are
Unsatisfied and Spending Less”
• Rewritten Slide 3: “Improving Core Customer Satisfaction Will
Improve Co-op Cash Flow”
TIP: Avoid using data in your titles. As Nancy Duarte argues, “Data slides aren’t really about the data. They’re about the meaning of the data.”
Plan Your Visual Argument: Start with Your Storyline | 225
• Slide: “The Average Sale at Bloomingfoods is $24 vs. a National
Grocery Average of $32”
• Rewritten Slide: “Bloomingfoods’ Must Increase its Average
Sale to Remain Competitive”
See below two contrasting sets of slides. The first set emphasizes the visual for a presentation deck. The second set functions as a slideument and is a stand-alone document. Both documents consider audience and purpose in the selection of design, layout,
and visual/textual argument.
Note the fundamental difference between the first and second
slides in each set: the quality of the headings. The first example of each set uses Functional Headings, only telling the reader a general topic or category—leaving the reader to try to identify the meaning
of the slide’s content on their own. The second example of each set
uses Claim Headings, helping the reader understand the meaning of the slide’s data and adding persuasion to the argument.
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Plan Your Visual Argument: Start with Your Storyline | 227
52. Use Visual Argument in Your Business Writing
We live in a visual culture where images are abundant. Drive down
any highway, walk any major city street, scan the back page of a
magazine, or pull up a web page and striking images capture your
attention as they tell stories, convey feelings, and make arguments.
Good business writing is no different—you must take advantage of
the right tools at the right time in your writing, requiring a broad
understanding of the tools of visual communication you can use to
complement to your message.
Visuals can make or complement persuasive arguments
A range of reasons to use visuals in your business writing include:
1. Readers expect to see graphics in documents.
2. Visual communication is pleasant to the eyes.
3. Graphics make long, monotonous text easy to read.
4. Visual tools summarize the meaning of a written message.
5. Graphics simplify and communicate complex ideas and data.
6. Visual aids help readers find ideas and data easily.
7. Charts and tables help to emphasize key ideas and concepts.
8. Graphics concisely show relationships.
9. Readers are less inclined to misinterpret information.
10. Readers remember visual information more easily.
Put simply, while your Excel tables and detailed research and analysis may be spectacular, your argument will be enhanced by shortcuts you can create for your reader to better understand your message’s meaning while maintaining their interest. And
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while the data are important, the meaning of the data matters most
to your colleagues, supervisors, and clients.
Your challenge is selecting the most meaningful graphic to
enhance (or in some cases, make) your argument. By better
understanding the range of visuals available to a writer in the
construction of a good argument, you can better decide which
visual strategy is best to enhance your document’s appeal or
complement, clarify, and advance your argument.
Make an informed choice as you select and design visual elements
To create persuasive, audience-centered visual arguments, you can
select from many professional options. Below you will learn the
benefits of using images and pictures, tables, and a variety of charts
to enhance your argument as you view examples of each persuasive
visual.
Images and pictures
The phrase “a picture is worth a thousand words” highlights how
simple images establish an emotional tone or reinforce a concept.
In fact, powerful images can serve as visual anchors for your
written text—an image that functions as a shorthand to the message
you are conveying. The key is to understand why you want to use a picture. You could select images and pictures to:
Make Your Document Look Better: You may choose an image to enhance the aesthetic design of your document, to make the
document appear more attractive to your reader. These attractive
images play little role in supporting your ideas/argument. In the
example below, you can see how the images provide persuasive
aesthetic appeal beyond the generic white background of a report
page, leading the reader to feel a positive emotional response about
Alliant Energy’s corporate sustainability efforts.
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Break Up Text: When your document contains large uninterrupted sections of text, you create a disincentive for your reader to
continue reading. In an effort to break up the page and encourage
better scannability, you might insert an image to break up the text.
The image you choose to break up the text could support your
argument and/or offer aesthetic appeal. In the example below, the
text offers data-driven argument about the client’s customer
profile; the photo simply adds aesthetic appeal while breaking up
the text without introducing additional data.
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Show an Example: While words can create pictures, actual pictures might be better. For example, you can describe a print
advertisement you would like to implement in your marketing
campaign. Showing a mock-up of the ad could be more powerful.
As demonstrated in the image below, instead of simply describing
what the restaurant decor would look like, the writers chose a
photograph to show the look and feel they wanted to achieve.
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Illustrate a Process or Action: Like showing an example, an image or series of images can explain a process or action to better clarify
a concept for your reader. For example, the infographic below
condenses a vast amount of research into a single graphic to explain
the complex process of becoming the president of the United
States.
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Tell a Story that Adds Emotional Tone: A well-crafted photograph can communicate a strong narrative as well as the emotion of your
text. Photojournalists are known for their ability to capture the
singular moment that explains a broader storyline. For example,
consider how the iconic photograph of the young Syrian boy sitting
in the back of an ambulance humanized the experience of war-torn
Syria. In a business context, Nike’s Jordan Brand still resonates with
Jumpman as the iconic image that defines Michael Jordan’s line of
apparel even though the original photograph was taken in 1984,
before Jordan had even signed with Nike. The image of a leaping
Jordan came to represent the soul of the Jordan Brand.
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Tables
Tables function to give data a meaningful structure for your reader
and allow for quick comparison of similar information. By using
rows and columns of numbers, words, and images, you can provide
relevant information in a format your reader can easily understand.
Tables can be used to present statistical data, compare non-
numerical data, communicate trends, show comparisons and
relationships, demonstrate distribution, show composition, and
identify location.
Present Statistical Data: Tables provide structure to complex data in ways that allow your
reader to scan columns and rows to understand the material
presented. As you can see in the simple two-column table below,
your reader can scan to (1) identify the content of the table in the
title, (2) use the top row row of the table to identify the content
in each column, (3) make comparisons across time periods, and
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(4) draw conclusions about the information presented.
An effective way to enhance the readability and scannability of a table is to add design elements that guide your reader’s attention. In the table below, the simple addition of separating lines between
rows of data makes it easier to read the rows. To highlight the
importance of information, the table uses (a) color in the top row
to highlight column categories, (b) bold to highlight the ranks of
faculty members, and (c) shading to distinguish section breaks
between ranks. The addition of these design elements helps your
reader better scan the table to make sense of the data presented.
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Compare non-numerical data: Tables can be used to compare non-numerical data as well. In
the table below, you can clearly identify the content in the table
title, identify the live-streaming applications in the first row of the
table, and the features available in each app in the first column. By
using visual shortcuts readers already know (green checkmarks =
good; red X = bad), the table allows readers to identify quickly which
applications best meet their live streaming needs.
The Ultimate Live Stream Comparison Table
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Graphs and Charts
Your research yields tremendous amounts of data, which means
your challenge is finding the most effective way to present your key
arguments—the “So what?” of your data—visually. Graphs and charts
help you present your arguments effectively, highlighting trends,
relationships and comparisons, distribution, process, and location.
Communicate Trends:
Line Graphs
Line graphs communicate changes in value over time, using lines
to connect key data points to highlight the degree of change. A line
graph adds value by showing past trends and allows writers to
use known data to predict future outcomes. The line graph below
shows the trend line of the usage of “on fleek” on Twitter.
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The following line graph highlights the divorce risk of first
marriages at specific ages. The design of
the graph enhances the meaning of the data by adding confidence
intervals (revealing a range of risk surrounding the trend line). The
writer could have improved the meaning of the graph, however,
with more clearly labeled axes. While the x-axis with ages is clearly
labeled, note how the y-axis label is too vague for the reader to
measure risk accurately.
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Candlestick Chart
A candlestick chart also highlights trends, but usually within
contexts where data values change over discrete time periods. For
example, you can use candlestick charts to track market value
changes for stocks, commodities, and bonds. The chart below shows
open, close, high, and low stock price changes within
distinct trading days for one stock.
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Show Comparisons and Relationships:
Line Chart
Using multiple lines on a line chart is an effective way to compare
trends. The line chart below from the 2017 Economic Report of the
President compares per-capita GDP for three countries. Note the
use of contrasting colors for each country’s trend line to make it
easier for readers to see the three distinct trends. Writers might use line patterns in tandem with color (varied dot and dash lengths) to benefit readers who struggle to distinguish between colors (for
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example, red vs. green and blue vs. green).
Stacked Area Chart
Area charts function much like line charts as they demonstrate
trends over time or some other value. Unlike a typical line chart,
however, the area below the trend line is solid. The three charts
below are stacked area charts, comparing multiple populations as
measured against household income as a percentage of the federal
poverty level. By using three charts, each representing a different
age population, readers can see the differences in health insurance
coverage for each demographic. A writer can add text highlights,
pointing to key parts of the chart to guide the reader’s eye and/or
point to small areas of the chart (as with the “Individual Market” text
and line highlight).
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Vertical Bar Chart/Column Chart
Vertical Bar Charts effectively show comparisons of one or more
data points. When constructing a vertical bar chart, the y-axis
typically represents a numeric value and the x-axis represents time
or another category. In the chart below from Business Insider, the number of CEOs is placed on the y-axis and the compensation
range appears on the x-axis. Notice how the chart highlights key takeaways for the reader to add meaning to the data.
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The vertical bar chart below places earnings on the y-axis and
educational attainment on the x-axis. Note the addition of
distribution within each bar. By using size and color, the chart found in the 2017 Economic Report of the President highlights the range of earnings within each category by percentile. The
educational attainment distribution bars function like pie charts,
each equaling 100% when added together.
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Percentage Bar Chart
Percentage bar charts visually represent composition (with each bar equaling 100% when added together) and offer comparisons over time (like a line chart). When examining the chart below rom the 2017 Economic Report of the President, the reader can quickly scan the chart to understand that the number of subprime and Alt-
A home loans fell dramatically after 2006, while government and
conventional loans increased.
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Hybrid Bar/Line Chart
You can combine chart types to create interesting ways to compare
data. The example below combines line and bar charts to show the number of borrowers in student loan income-driven repayment
programs. Note the addition of a secondary y-axis as a reference
point for the comparison.
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The next graph combines multiple line charts with a bar chart to demonstrate the economic value of higher education. The three
trend lines clearly reflect the earning trajectories of each
category while adding the difference in earnings for graduates
with either a high school or college education over time.
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Bar Chart (Horizontal)
A horizontal bar chart allows for quick scanning and understanding
across a large number of categories within a series. Within seconds
of looking at the chart below, you can identify the two apps that
significantly outsell all others. This type of chart works better than a pie chart when you must include many variables.
Quick Tip: Carefully consider whether to use vertical or horizontal bar charts to decide which most effectively represents your data.
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Demonstrate Distribution:
Scatter Plot
Scatter Plot Charts attempt to make sense of a large number of data
points, seeking to represent questions of correlation between two
variables (as represented on the x- and y-axes). The chart below
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uses two categories of data (Medicaid Expansion States versus Non-
Expansion States) to compare rates of decline in insured status.
The two graphs below highlight the importance of the sample size of your data when looking at questions of correlation. The first graph appears to represent a clear correlation between the decline
in unemployment and investment to GDP ratio–using data from
1990 to 2010. The apparent correlation disappears in the second
graph, however, when the data set is expanded to cover 1970 to
2010. A deeper analysis of these data sets can be found in the
Freakonomic’s Blog.
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Word Cloud
Word clouds visually represent the frequency of word usage within
a defined data set of text. The word cloud representation of words
most used in keyboard app reviews offers a quick way to identify
words and themes that emerge from the text data. As a writer using
a word cloud visual, be careful not to (1) confuse frequency with importance, (2) overlook multiple words communicating a similar
concept, and (3) ignore the context of the data set.
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Show Composition:
Pie Chart
Pie charts display a single set of data, representing individual values
as proportional slices of a pie. To maximize the value of a pie chart,
you should always make sure to (1) provide three or more values (but be careful not to include too many pieces), (2) clearly label each
slice of the pie near the slice or in a clearly developed legend, and
(3) identify the numerical value near each piece for clarity. For data
divided in two categories only, you’ll improve your argument clarity
by sticking to text only or representing the comparison with a
photograph or image. The two examples below highlight the value
of a pie chart in representing composition, with the second showing
how you can stylize your chart to reflect the context of the data.
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Doughnut Chart
A doughnut chart is a pie chart without a middle. Instead of pie
slices representing parts of a whole, portions of the circle provide
the parts of the composition. The graph below uses two doughnut
charts to compare spending on education and training in 1998 and
2008.
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Another way to use a doughnut chart is to “nest” additional
doughnuts in the center for comparison. As you can see in the
example below, by moving from the center doughnut to the outer
you can see the changes in values. But as Kaiser Fung argues, the
structure misrepresents the data in a variety of ways. For example,
the total data set increased by 20% (but appears more significant)
and the data for “Added fats and oils” of the outer circle comes
from a different year than the rest of the data (mixing data sets in a
potentially misleading way).
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While doughnut charts are becoming more common, the writers
at Data Revelations argue there are better ways to represent the
same data. As they point out, while the doughnut chart in the first
example may offer visual appeal, the scannability of the two
horizontal bar charts provides greater clarity for the overall
argument.
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Waterfall Chart
FusionCharts describes a waterfall chart as a visualization designed
to “show how an initial value is increased and decreased by a series
of intermediate values, leading to a final value.” In the example
below, the waterfall chart begins with total revenues and walks the
reader through to the company’s final net profit.
Tip: Follow the advice of Jan Schultink and organize the variables
of your waterfall chart to tell the story of your process.
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Demonstrate Process:
Organizational Chart
Organizational charts provide a visual representation of a group,
organization, or company’s structure. The first example reflects the
most common version of organizational chart design, highlighting
the hierarchy of the organization. However, the second example is
also an organizational chart—but its design reflects a much different
relationship between top employees. If you were to use the more
top-down hierarchical structure to represent Apple Inc. under its
former CEO Steve Jobs, the traditional graphic might misrepresent
the true structure of the company.
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Timeline/Gantt Chart
Gantt Charts are effective in presenting complex project plans and timelines. Not only does a Gantt chart clearly identify key deadlines, it helps you and your team, client, and supervisor see all elements of a project, highlight the busiest periods of a project, and provide accountability with clarity of project deadlines.
Reviewing the Gantt chart below, you can scan the visual and easily
describe the details of the strategy and its elements and milestones.
The writer uses the structure of the chart, highlighting, and
hierarchy to make it easy for the reader to follow.
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Smart Art
You can use simple shapes, smart art, and colors to represent
difficult concepts and processes clearly. For example, using only
squares, colors, black highlights, and limited text, the Washington
Post’s Wonkblog explains the process of gerrymandering political
voting districts to favor specific political parties.
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Identify Location/Comparisons:
Maps
Maps serve to identify location and, with the addition of other
graphical elements, can highlight movement and direction.
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Maps can also show data comparisons, as seen in the example
below. The legend tells the reader specific population and land area
statistics in text, while the map shows the visual representation of
the extreme difference in size of each equally populated area.
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Maps also appeal to your reader’s spatial reasoning. Similar to
pictures and images, maps (such as the floor plan highlighted below)
substitute text to allow your reader to quickly envision and navigate
within a clearly identified area. Time spent by the writer in
creating the simple image means time saved by the reader in
understanding the complex data.
266 | Use Visual Argument in Your Business Writing
A strategic business writer should consider a range of options available to enhance the visual argument of a document. The writer’s decision to include any visual element must be driven by the writer’s understanding of purpose, design, and context combined with a careful analysis of the reader’s needs, values, and expectations.
Use Visual Argument in Your Business Writing | 267
PART XI
COMPLEX ARGUMENT / REPORT WRITING
Write a report document to guide your reader toward a clear understanding and best future action within a complex business environment
When a reader—possibly your employer or a client—needs your
guidance to understand a complex situation or to recommend a
future course of action within a complex environment, you will
analyze and research the situation and environment carefully and
then write an informative or persuasive professional report to guide
your reader’s knowledge and future action.
Know the risks of poor planning and execution
Before writing your report, consider the risks of poor planning and
Complex Argument / Report Writing | 269
execution of a complex document to ensure every member of your
team commits to executing a flawless process. Skipping a step in the
meticulous process of developing an effective complex argument
could lead to several negative outcomes. Less severe or short-term
negative impacts of poor planning and writing could mean
additional time spent revising the report document, missed
opportunities for additional clarity or persuasive argument, a less
cohesive and less fun team experience, and diminished reputations
for teammates as writers and critical thinkers. Failing to meet the
expectations of your intended reader could lead to a document
with unclear argument, long-term friction between teammates, and
damage to your professional reputation. Plagiarism and other forms
of deception (whether intentional or not) can lead to a severe loss
of credibility and trust, long-term damage to your professional
reputation, loss of clients and possibly your job, and occasionally
even criminal investigations and legal sanctions.
Within a risky and complex environment, what process can lead to the best outcome for you, your team, and your reader?
To achieve the best potential outcome and mitigate the risks, you
and your colleagues will think, research, plan, and work strategically from the initial request to the final document.
Similar to writing a routine business document, you’ll begin the
Complex Argument writing process with the key question “Who am
I writing to and why?” Strategically and carefully analyzing your
reader’s needs and expectations before you write will lead to your
report’s content development and organizing principle selection.
Because of the complexity of the argument, you’ll weigh additional
variables in your initial analysis, considering areas such as
secondary audiences, visual requirements, final deliverables,
printing vs. digital options, team writing, deadlines, and costs.
From the moment you learn of the need for a strategically
270 | Complex Argument / Report Writing
developed and well-written complex argument to your final
deliverable for your reader, you will:
1. select the best report type
2. plan your project
3. create a cohesive team
4. conduct research
5. analyze your research
6. plan and organize your complex written argument structure
7. design and brand your report
8. plan and design complementary persuasive visuals
9. write and revise your credible argument for conciseness, tone,
and perfect mechanics.
Follow the process described step-by-step in the Complex
Argument chapters of Strategic Business Writing to ensure you and your team develop a report that meets the needs and expectations
of your client, exhibits your professional ethics and personal
integrity, and demonstrates your best critical thinking, research,
analysis, planning, writing, design, and revision—the critical
professional skills resulting in your long-term career success.
Learning Objectives
• Select the best report type to fit the needs and
expectations of your readers
• Analyze the audience and purpose to begin the report
planning process
• Analyze the data from your research using thinking
tools that help you organize a meaningful and
complete report
Complex Argument / Report Writing | 271
• Use a checklist your complex argument to ensure
strategic choices in design, visuals, credibility,
conciseness, tone, and perfect mechanics
272 | Complex Argument / Report Writing
53. Analyze Your Report’s Audience and Purpose
As you plan your complex argument with your team of writers,
begin with the same strategic business writing process you
follow with individual documents. Ask yourself “Who is your audience, and what is your purpose for writing?” Analyze your intended audience and purpose carefully, and aim your Complex
Argument document (often a report) to meet the needs, values,
branding, resources, and expectations of your intended reader.
What does your reader want and expect from this report? What are
your persuasive objectives with this complex message?
Your team’s Complex Argument planning phase will require careful research of your Primary Audience plus research
and considerations for possible Secondary Audiences. Who else
might read your document? How will it be shared intentionally and
unintentionally? How will various audiences respond?
Along with careful consideration of intended and unintended audiences, you can plan your Complex Argument by considering:
1. Your team’s intended final deliverable (or report type)
2. The best processes to follow for team planning, analysis,
writing, and revision to meet your team’s deadlines and best utilize
your team’s strengths
3. The research that supports your eventual Complex Argument
report document
4. Tools your team can use to complete a thorough analysis of the
data meant to support your Complex Argument
5. The best organizational pattern to tell the story of your
team’s analysis to your readers
6. The visual argument and design of your deliverable
7. The eventual delivery of your document (printed, digital, or
both, and the likely devices where it will be accessed)
Analyze Your Report’s Audience and Purpose | 273
You may review each of these seven considerations in the
following Complex Argument chapters. To highlight the meaning
of each chapter, you may examine sections and pages from three sample reports published in 2016: (1) The Sustainable Development Goals Report from the United Nations, (2) 2016 Banking Sector
Briefing: Banking the Customer Experience Dividend from KPMG and
Nunwood, and (3) Sample EY Report Enjoy Variety – Crimson
Consulting by a Kelley School of Business student team named Crimson Consulting.
From each sample report, a brief analysis of the audience and
purpose reveals the following purpose statements:
The purpose statement from the UN’s Sustainable Development report written to inform “all societies in the world”: “This agenda is a road map for people and the planet that will build on the success
of the Millennium Development Goals and ensure sustainable social
and economic progress worldwide. It seeks not only to eradicate
extreme poverty, but also to integrate and balance the three
dimensions of sustainable development—economic, social and
environmental—in a comprehensive global vision.”
The purpose statement from KPMG’s Banking Sector briefing written to persuade “the UK banking sector”: “We need to build a distinctive customer transformation mindset within the heart of
retail banking culture, one that affects thinking from the
boardroom, to the branch. We need to take lessons from the brands
and sectors around the world that have learned how to delight
customers, eliminate wasted expenditure and turn that experience
into better businesses. And we need to act soon.”
The purpose statement from Crimson Consulting’s Enjoy Life report written to persuade “the CEO of Enjoy Life Foods”: “Enjoy Variety offers a comprehensive solution driving long-term growth
for both Enjoy Life Foods and Mondelez maintaining its leadership
position in the snack food marketplace. Enjoy Life Foods will
leverage Mondelez’s existing products and Smart Bridges to grow
Enjoy Life Foods’ brand awareness.”
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54. Analyze the Meaning of Your Evidence
As you select credible and sufficient evidence to support a complex
argument recommendation report, the results of your research (your “data”) will come to you in a random order. As the thinker
and writer of the future Complex Argument (or team report), you
must make sense of the data before you present it to your
intended reader.
The best solutions arise from a broad foundation of credible, well organized, and thoroughly analyzed evidence. When writers begin with a preselected solution and work backward—looking for
evidence to support a preselected idea—they can certainly speed up
the research, analysis, and writing process, but at what cost?
To feel the benefits of developing research-based solutions,
imagine yourself and your team in the final stage of the recommendation process: Your audience has read your entire report, listened to your team presentation, reviewed your slides,
and now you are answering the audience’s questions about your
recommendation. The audience is likely asking you questions like
these: “Why did you select this solution and all of its components?
Which credible sources and foundational data led you to decide on
this recommendation? What alternative solutions did you consider
and why did you reject those alternatives in favor of this approach?
How does your recommendation fit with our brand, values,
strategies, and resources, and why are other solutions a poor fit?”
As you imagine this future scenario, consider your certain
embarrassment as your team offers empty responses. See
yourselves struggling to justify your choices because of little
foundational data and a lack of systematic, thorough analysis.
Imagine this scenario taking place instead in your future workplace,
as your supervisor, company executives, and key clients ask you
Analyze the Meaning of Your Evidence | 275
questions and you cannot justify your choices or explain your
processes. The best course of action in college and in your career is to research thoroughly and analyze systematically to ensure your ideas arise from real, credible, and varied data.
Carefully organize and analyze your research to make sense of the data
You can begin your data analysis by listing and prioritizing criteria
for a good solution, then organizing and analyzing your data, and
finally drawing conclusions from the data to lead to best solutions.
List and prioritize the criteria for the best solution your reader can DO
1. List criteria for a best solution from the reader’s perspective
(the Critical Success Factors) and set measurable success
metrics
2. Prioritize the criteria list according to your reader’s needs,
values, brand, and resources
Use the best Analytical Thinking Tools to understand your reader/ client’s background information, current situation, and factors
influencing the reader/client’s business decisions. Read about these
tools and how to use them at QuickMBA.com and CGMA, then use
these tools to organize and analyze your team’s data.
1. SWOT Analysis: Categorize claims and data into Internal Factors (Strengths and Weaknesses) and External Factors
(Opportunities and Threats)
2. Risk Analysis: Calculate the potential likelihood and negative impact of the threats facing the organization and create a risk
heat map
3. Porter’s Five Forces: Determine the Competitive Power in your client’s current business situation to determine areas in which
your client is most at risk (supplier power, buyer power,
competitive rivalry, substitution threat, and new entry threat)
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4. PEST Analysis: Consider factors outside your client’s control within a global business environment (Political, Economic,
Socio-Cultural, and Technological)
Although Analytical Thinking Tools are rarely inserted into
recommendation reports, occasionally a client may request an
opportunity to review the writer’s analysis. Here are two SWOT
Analyses from Crimson Consulting’s client recommendation report
reflecting the team’s analysis of the client before and after
implementing the team’s recommendation:
Analyze the Meaning of Your Evidence | 277
278 | Analyze the Meaning of Your Evidence
Draw Conclusions and Develop Solutions
1. Write your specific opinions/claims based on your analysis of the foundational data—add your value here (anyone could
Analyze the Meaning of Your Evidence | 279
likely do the research and gather good data—your critical
analysis of the meaning of the data offers your reader the greatest value).
2. Compare results of the thinking tool analyses to your list of best-solution criteria to begin solution ideation
3. Narrow and Test Ideas with Decision Trees: Use Issue/HOW trees to develop ideas and Hypothesis/WHY trees to test each
idea
4. Business Model Canvas: Categorize your Recommendation or Business Plan into nine segments to thoroughly understand
and describe your solution.
Decision Trees (Issue Trees ask “How?” to brainstorm new ideas, and Hypothesis Trees ask “Why?” to test new ideas) from
the Strategy Hub blog, following the McKinsey Problem-Solving
Method:
280 | Analyze the Meaning of Your Evidence
To use the decision tree model effectively, items at each level should
be MECE (Mutually Exclusive—all ideas different from each
Analyze the Meaning of Your Evidence | 281
other—and Collectively Exhaustive—all ideas are present). The examples above include MECE answers to the How? and Why?
questions. As your team invents and tests ideas, you’ll need
considerable time to review all the options as you move through
the general to specific levels. Eventually using this process, you’ll
develop many alternatives you can continue to test using the
Business Model Canvas and organize using the tools in the next
chapter.
Business Model Canvas: This diagram from Strategyzer reveals nine building blocks to invent and describe a specific
Recommendation or Business Model: Key Partners, Key Activities,
Key Resources, Value Proposition, Customer Relationships,
Channels, Customer Segments, Cost Structure, and Revenue
Streams. Filling in a canvas for each good idea will help your team see the best solutions from your alternatives and help your team explain your choices in your report, presentation, and Q&A.
282 | Analyze the Meaning of Your Evidence
Analyze the Meaning of Your Evidence | 283
55. Select the Best Report Type
Early in the planning phase of your team’s Complex Argument, you’ll
consider the type of deliverable you intend to send to your reader. Reflect on your team’s purpose in writing this document: Do you
intend to inform, persuade, or move your reader to action? Will you
create the parts of the report that make it a “formal” document or
keep the format informal? What software will you use to create the
document and eventually deliver the document?
Your report may be informative, persuasive, or include
recommendations. These categories of argument have existed since
classical times, when Aristotle outlined them as Fact, Value, and
Policy.
Report Categories, Classical Argument: Fact, Value, and Policy
1. FACT: Organized information shared without opinions
2. VALUE: Information plus the writer’s analysis of the meaning or
value of the data
3. POLICY: Information plus the writer’s opinions and the writer’s
recommendations based on the data analysis
When your team has decided the extent of the information and
persuasion of the document, you’ll know the best report type to
write:
Report Types: Informative, Analytical, and Recommendation
1. Informative Reports emphasize accurate, verifiable fact-based
data. Examples include Situational Reports (e.g., meeting or
project progress, conference reviews), Investigative White
284 | Select the Best Report Type
Papers, Compliance Reports, and more
2. Analytical Reports emphasize conclusions drawn from analysis
of credible data (e.g., comparison of alternatives and feasibility
reports)
3. Recommendation Reports emphasize reader action based on
careful information review, data analysis, and writer-developed
conclusions
If you decide to write a Recommendation Report, you will likely
include these parts and write in this order: Recommendation Report Parts: An Informal Recommendation
Report will often include an Executive Summary, Introduction,
Recommendation, Analysis/Discussion/Reasons, Implementation,
Further Research/Look to the Future, Appendix, and Works Cited/
Consulted. A Formal Recommendation Report will include the same
parts as the informal report and often add these parts before the
Introduction: Cover Page, Title Page, Letter/Memo of Transmittal,
Table of Contents, and List of Figures.
Often the parts of a Formal Report are written in these five logical phases: (1) Recommendation, Implementation, Analysis, and Works Cited/Consulted; (2) Introduction, Further Research, and
Appendix; (3) Cover, Title, and Transmittal; (4) Executive Summary;
and (5) Table of Contents and List of Figures.
You can decide as a team if you’d like to write and/or publish your
report using Word, GoogleDocs, PowerPoint, Publisher, InDesign,
Illustrator, or other software. You might also decide to develop
a Team Charter (or Contract) to help your team norm its
communication and processes. You may want to create a detailed
Work Plan with your team outlining the team’s writing
process across multiple meetings according to deadlines.
Select the Best Report Type | 285
Typically in this sequence:
Three examples of Cover Pages and Tables of Contents
In the UN, KPMG, and Kelley student report samples, the reports
begin with attractive cover pages and informative tables of contents
that reflect the branding of the writer (and often the reader) and the
headings that explain the report’s argument organization. Here are
three samples to review (search for numerous samples of reports
online to see multiple approaches to design and organization).
The informative UN report The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2016 Cover Page and Table of Contents:
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Select the Best Report Type | 287
The analytical KPMG report Banking the Customer Experience Dividend Cover Page and Table of Contents:
288 | Select the Best Report Type
Select the Best Report Type | 289
The recommendation Kelley student report Sample EY Report Enjoy Variety – Crimson Consulting Cover Page and Table of Contents:
290 | Select the Best Report Type
Select the Best Report Type | 291
292 | Select the Best Report Type
56. Structure Your Argument with Claim + Evidence + Source Paragraphs and Slides
As explained in Strategic Business Writing‘s paragraph revision chapter, each paragraph in your report represents one specific
argument within an organized series of arguments that expand
upon your Motivated Sequence, SCIPAB, or Pyramid outline in the
most persuasive order. Your slide deck also includes one specific
argument on each content slide expanding upon the organized
storyline for your deck.
Each paragraph and slide in your written or presented Complex Arguments should adhere to this formula:
Claim + Evidence + Source (+ Conclusion)
Review the structure of an argument paragraph
1. A Claim is the opinion you formed by reviewing the credible evidence. It leads the argument (even if you thought of it last).
2. The Evidence can be logical (reflecting broad data represented by facts, numbers, and statistics) or emotional (reflecting narrow
data represented by examples and stories). The most persuasive
arguments contain both kinds of evidence.
3. The Source reflects your primary research (a person you talked with in person or in writing OR people you surveyed personally)
and your secondary research (a source you found online or on
paper). For your source to be credible, your reader must trust
your source with sufficient certainty that the facts, numbers, and
statistics are current, verifiable, and true and that the stories and
examples are representative enough to support the claim.
Structure Your Argument with Claim + Evidence + Source Paragraphs and
4. You may choose to make your argument even more audience-
centered by ending with a Conclusion briefly explaining the relevance of the opinion and evidence to this reader’s needs.
Poor writers of complex argument paragraphs tend to omit one
or more parts of the formula, calling the credibility of the entire
argument into question. As a reader, you might see a poorly written
argument paragraph packed with evidence, for example, and
wonder: What does all of this evidence mean? Where is the claim? You might see another poorly written argument paragraph that’s
full of opinions. As a reader, you would likely ask: Based on what evidence? Or see a poorly written argument paragraph lead with an opinion followed by what seems to be solid evidence, but without
any source you wonder: Who says that’s true? Is the source of this evidence credible? Or in some cases, you may read a claim + evidence + source argument paragraph and wonder: What does this argument have to do with my needs?
To improve your ability to review arguments critically and write them well, too, review these four argument paragraphs to determine what’s missing and the best fix for each paragraph:
On average, 26% of American adults are obese, according to
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The CDC
defines obesity as having a body mass index greater than or
equal to 30 and argues obesity is a major risk factor for
cardiovascular disease, certain types of cancer, and type 2
diabetes. As explained by NPD Group Market Research,
Americans are aware of the obesity problem, and their buying
patterns reveal that weight management and healthy eating
are among their top consumer concerns.
This paragraph sounds confident and contains credible evidence
from excellent sources. So what’s wrong with the paragraph? The
reader will probably wonder: Where is the claim? What does this evidence mean? To add value to the reader, the writer must analyze
294 | Structure Your Argument with Claim + Evidence + Source Paragraphs and Slides
the meaning of the data and introduce the evidence with a relevant,
honest, and persuasive claim. The revised argument paragraph
should lead with a claim before introducing its evidence and
sources: “Obesity in the United States is arguably the nation’s
number one health problem. Currently 26% of American adults are
classified as obese. . .”
Pink Ice is seen as a hip and trendy company geared toward
a younger generation. Why not take advantage of this
competitive strategy and tackle the ever-growing
tween consumer market? The Nina line will help aid Pink Ice’s
transition to becoming the standard for trendy teen shopping.
We are confident that upon seeing Nina tags throughout the
store, tween customers will begin to associate
trendy shopping with Pink Ice.
This paragraph sounds positive and reader-focused and includes
many persuasive claims with a clear target market and idea
branding. So what’s wrong with the paragraph? The reader will likely
ask: Based on what evidence? To build a complete argument, the claims must be supported by logical evidence about the market
trends (perhaps from Mintel Reports) and include image samples of
the Nina line, and possibly add emotional evidence from competitor
benchmarks and/or primary source surveys of potential tween
customers testifying that they like the Nina line.
Free shipping tops the list of perks offered by the Venture
Rewards Card. In a survey by Steelhouse, free shipping (a top
pick by 18% of survey respondents) and discounts (favored by
13%) were cited as the top influencers in motivating shoppers
to spend more money online. Amazingly, the Rewards
Card offers Venture customers both benefits, and can help
it regain the 20% loss of marketshare to online retailers like
Amazon, as cited by Invest.
This paragraph seems to have it all—claim, evidence, sources, and
relevance. So what’s wrong with the paragraph? A careful reader
would likely ask: Is the source of this evidence credible? Who are Steelhouse and Invesp? Should we risk our money and our brand
Structure Your Argument with Claim + Evidence + Source Paragraphs and Slides | 295
on a recommendation supported by evidence from these unknown
sources?To strengthen the argument, the writer should clarify the
credibility of lesser-known sources. In this case, the writer could
add clarifying phrases such as “In a 2015 survey by Steelhouse, a
marketing and sales spinoff of Oracle. . .” and “. . . as explained by
Khalid Saleh, CEO of Invesp and author of Conversion Optimization:
The Art and Science of Converting Visitors into Customers.” The industry encompasses a broad array of health-related
products, incorporating variety along with quality. Studies find
that there are 10 different areas of wellness: social,
occupational, spiritual, physical, intellectual, emotional,
environmental, financial, mental and medical wellness
(Definition of Wellness). Therefore to attract the wellness-
conscious customer, CVS must consider all aspects of wellness
and target specific profitable areas to generate maximum
profit.
This paragraph is full of noncontroversial facts from a seemingly
good source, and it begins with a claim. So what’s wrong with the
paragraph? The reader will likely ask: What does this argument have to do with our needs? Would decision makers at CVS truly need to read the definition of wellness and its ten parts to make a business decision? Do they need to read a general conclusion
inviting them to “target specific profitable areas”? Keeping
this irrelevant argument and its patronizing tone in the report could
alienate the reader. To improve the report, the writer should delete
this paragraph entirely.
View credible arguments from the sample reports
The UN report, The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2016, offers this credible argument paragraph, including Claim + Evidence
+ Source:
Coastal regions are particularly vulnerable to pollution. Since
296 | Structure Your Argument with Claim + Evidence + Source Paragraphs and Slides
river basins, marine ecosystems and the atmosphere are all part
of hydrological systems, the effects of pollution are often felt far
from their source. In many coastal communities, pollution and
eutrophication—excessive nutrients in water, frequently due to
runoff from land, causing dense plant and algae growth and the
death of animal life from lack of oxygen—have been key factors
driving detrimental changes. According to the Transboundary
Waters Assessment Programme global comparative assessment in
2016, the five large marine ecosystems most at risk from coastal
eutrophication are the Bay of Bengal, East China Sea, Gulf of Mexico,
North Brazil Shelf and South China Sea, areas which provided
ecosystem services for coastal populations of 781 million in 2010.
The KPMG report, 2016 Banking Center Briefing: Banking the
Customer Experience Dividend, offers this credible argument paragraph, including Claim + Evidence + Source:
Demographic change might be the most compelling way to
answer this question [whether investing heavily in customer
differentiation is worth the risk]. Millennials—those born between
the early 1980s and the early 2000s—are forecast to account for
30% of all global spend by 2020. And worryingly, they really don’t
like the big banks. Scarred by the financial crisis and the resultant
recession—which occurred at a formative period for many of
them—a recent survey in the U.S. (Harris Poll Reputation Quotient,
2015) showed that all the major banks are in a top 10 list of brands
millennials most hate.
The Kelley student report from Crimson Consulting, Sample EY
Report Enjoy Variety – Crimson Consulting, offers this credible argument paragraph, including Claim + Evidence + Source:
In 2016, the free-from market grew faster than any other part
of the U.S. retail sector. The free-from market is currently worth
$12 billion, according to Nielsen, and could potentially grow to $18
billion by 2016. The market research firm Packaged Facts argues
that the growth of the health food market—alongside the free-from
market—outpaced the growth of the overall food and beverage
Structure Your Argument with Claim + Evidence + Source Paragraphs and Slides | 297
industry. The rapid expansion of these markets indicates a shrinking
market concentration for basic foods.
When writing your own Complex Argument, follow your team’s planned storyline as you write persuasive argument sections supported by credible argument paragraphs emphasizing claim, evidence, source, and relevance.
298 | Structure Your Argument with Claim + Evidence + Source Paragraphs and Slides
57. Use the Complex Argument/Report Checklist
Checklist your Complex Argument/Report before submitting it to your reader
1. Complete Report: Review the parts of the report (Cover, Title, Transmittal, Table of Contents, List of Figures, Executive
Summary, Introduction—Recommendation—Implementation,
Appendix, Works Cited, Works Consulted)
2. Organization: Check the descriptive headings and transitions to ensure they reveal your strategic, concrete, persuasive,
reader-centered storyline
3. Visual Argument: Check for complete argument—figure number, claim title, visual or graphical evidence, labels, legend,
and source(s) for each visual contributing to argument
4. Credibility: Check the argument paragraphs and visuals for source citations and ensure each source cited in the report
is also listed as a citation in the Works Cited
5. Concise Style: Remove unnecessary words (e.g., helping verbs, indefinite pronouns) and wordy phrases (e.g., it seems that,
when it comes to); cut vague or general sentences and
combine sentences with the same or closely related ideas
6. Audience-Centered Tone: Remove negative words, extreme language, overly general statements, and personal pronouns
7. Mechanics: Proofread all text aloud including words in headings and visuals
8. Report Design: Select the best software to meet your reader’s needs and expectations, design to emphasize your client/
team/idea branding, carefully use white space/shapes/lines
and align visuals for best design, select the best font/color
choices, cluster and design your text for impact, and
emphasize and highlight the language and data you most want
your busy reader to see when skimming the document.
Use the Complex Argument/Report Checklist | 299
58. Organize Your Complex Argument into a Reader-Centered Story
After (1) gathering, organizing, and analyzing the evidence, (2)
forming opinions from the evidence, (3) comparing the opinions to
your best solution criteria, and (4) developing your reader’s best
solution, you will be ready to organize and outline your Complex Argument. Consider your Audience and Purpose to select the Report Parts you need and the best Organizing Pattern to follow.
Refresh your memory on Report Types, Parts, and Process, if
needed.
Organizing your Complex Argument in the right pattern will help your writing team achieve its purpose while empowering your intended reader to skim and read efficiently, understand the complex argument, and remember the storyline of the report.
Informative Report Organization Patterns
Outline the main ideas and subpoints of your Informative Argument
into a pattern that is clear and meaningful to your reader.
• Chronological/Process: an order a person could do or
experience
• Spatial/Geographic: a location or geographic order
• Compare/Contrast: an order emphasizing similarities and
differences
• Cause/Effect: an order showing causal relationships
• Importance/Categories: an order of items categorized from
300 | Organize Your Complex Argument into a Reader-Centered
least to most OR most to least important
The sample informative report by the United Nations, The
Sustainable Development Goals Report 2016, organizes by order of
importance.
A common simple and brief chronological document critical for relationship building is a Thank You Note or Email, which typically follows a Past-Present-Future chronological pattern. The past section highlights the concrete action and context the writer is grateful for; the present section tells the reader how the past action is positively impacting the reader today; the concluding future section looks to the future of the writer/reader relationship, always re8ecting goodwill and often suggesting a future action step for the reader.
Recommendation Report Organization Patterns
Outline the main ideas and sub-points of your
Recommendation Argument into a pattern that is clear, meaningful,
and persuasive to your reader. Read from the links to learn more
about each useful strategy, then select the organization pattern that best fits the needs and expectations of your reader.
Motivated Sequence: Attention, Action
Organize Your Complex Argument into a Reader-Centered Story | 301
The visual shows the five stages of the Motivated Sequence of organization: Attention, Need (describe the need for change), Satisfaction (describe the best solution), Visualization (what will the result look like?), and Action (request immediate action).
Mandel Communication’s SCIPAB: Situation, Complication,
Implication / Position, Action, Benefit
302 | Organize Your Complex Argument into a Reader-Centered Story
The analytical report by KPMG, Banking the Customer Experience Dividend, follows the SCIPAB model.
Minto Pyramid: Introduction (Situation, Complication, Question,
Answer), Recommendation (WHAT), Support (WHYs), and
Implementation (HOWs)
The recommendation report by the Kelley student team Crimson Consulting, Enjoy Variety, follows the Pyramid Principle pattern of organization.
As you review this sample student report, read the title page,
transmittal, table of contents, list of figures, and Executive
Summary to know the authors, reader, outline, visuals, and the basic
overview of the idea.
Then begin to read the report, which follows a Pyramid structure.
You’ll first read the Introduction explaining the client’s Situation,
Complication, Question, and Answer—telling a story the client will
agree with in the order the client would likely ask questions. Next
you’ll read the team’s Recommendation (WHAT the client should
do)—the elaborated answer or solution to the client’s key question.
Once the client knows WHAT it should do, its next question will
be “WHY should we do it?”, followed by “HOW should we do it?”
Organize Your Complex Argument into a Reader-Centered Story | 303
This SCQA-WHAT-WHY-HOW storyline is easy for the client to
follow and remember because it follows the natural order of
a reader’s likely questions.
The WHYs and the HOWs should follow a Process Order
reflecting the reader’s future action steps to implement the team’s
recommendation.
Careful organization of your claim + evidence + source argument paragraphs and persuasive visuals into a motivated sequence, SCIPAB model, or pyramid will increase the likelihood your intended reader will eagerly read your entire complex argument, understand it, and remember it well after the first reading.
304 | Organize Your Complex Argument into a Reader-Centered Story
PART XII
SUPPLEMENTAL
Additional strategies for successful Strategic Business Writing
This Supplemental portion includes an overview of relevant
strategies and guidelines that will help you as you strive to become
a successful business writer and business person.
• Basic team roles and stages, team planning (charter/contract
and work plan)
• Productive, effective meeting strategies
• Brief and complete report overview in an Executive Summary
• Public relations and branding efforts in a Press Release
• Condensed grammar/punctuation/commonly confused words
review
• Asking and answering questions in business contexts,
including Q&A
• Presentation skills refresher
Supplemental | 305
59. Develop Successful Teams
Understanding and following basic teamwork guidelines of team models, stages, and rules will help ensure a successful team experience
When a team forms, whether a one-project team or a standing
team, members come with different strengths, expectations, and
experiences. Teams that have a clear team purpose, understand the
necessary task and relationship roles, and recognize and address
dysfunctional behavior are better able to meet the team’s goals.
Developing a team charter (or contract) helps teams address goals
and expectations at the beginning of a team project so that all team
members have a common understanding of the task.
Team members need to understand that a team is not the same as
a group—a team works together for a shared goal. Teamwork skills
are enhanced by recognizing that each team member may have one
or more relationship roles and task roles.
Successful team members are aware of team stages and of what
happens in each stage. One of the most common models is the
“Orming” stages: forming, storming, norming, and performing.
Team members who recognize and understand typical team
member behavior in each stage are better able to understand the
team dynamics as the stages occur.
A team charter or contract, prepared in the forming stage, is
valuable for strengthening team operations by identifying and
clarifying procedures and expectations at the beginning of a team
project. Teams often create work plan tables to guide them through
an organized process of meetings with clear objectives for each
meeting.
Develop Successful Teams | 307
Team roles and stages
An important step in forming a successful team is to develop and
emphasize a “team” mentality. Groups and teams differ.
• Groups: Individuals work together, but each individual’s
performance is measured separately. For instance, a business
is a group—individuals hired to perform their jobs—with
individual raises and promotions.
• Teams: Members work together to achieve a shared goal. For
example, a workplace team might be tasked with writing a
report to identify the most important drivers of product
sales—every team member is equally responsible for the work
quality of the report. As teams develop, members must
communicate internally, agree on work outcomes and
processes, make decisions, deal with conflict, and
communicate with others outside the team.
Understanding the difference is crucial as your team moves forward
to accomplish its task.
To help ensure team excellence, you can work on your teamwork
skills by learning teamwork roles and stages of teamwork and by
applying strategies for successful teamwork. Necessary teamwork
skills include both relationship-related and task-related roles.
• Relationship roles largely deal with team communication and relationship development: making sure the team’s processes
contribute to inclusive participation and to achieving team
objectives. When exhibiting relationship-related teamwork
skills, you are most concerned with respect, trust, clear
communication, commitment, and good feelings in the team.
• Task roles relate to work outcomes: making sure the team produces high-quality work. When exhibiting task-related
teamwork skills, you are most concerned with following
project plans and reaching agreed-upon work quality.
308 | Develop Successful Teams
“Orming” model
Teams go through four stages of development, according to a well-
respected theory called the “Orming model.” Each stage of the
“Orming model—Forming, Storming, Norming, and Performing,” is
defined by specific behaviors, including obstacles to continued
team development. In each stage, relationship roles and task
roles have characteristics that can help or hinder team
development. Part of having a successful team experience is to be
able to identify obstacles in each stage and know how to overcome
them. For example,
• Excitement and anxiousness are expected in the forming
stage—shyness or showing dominance may surface but can be
mitigated by knowing one another outside the work-related
project
• Competition and disagreement surface during the storming
stage—pushiness or personality conflicts are common but
having open discussions can lessen these issues
• Accepting different work styles and feedback occur in the
norming stage—unequal sharing of responsibilities may occur
but reviewing responsibilities and expectations can be helpful
• Commitment and success goals are evident in the performing
stage—unexpected setbacks (for example, illness of a team
member) are possible but the impact must be monitored and
mitigated quickly
The following table describes each stage and the ways relationship
roles and task roles can help team development.
Team Relationship and Task Roles Helpful for Team Development
Develop Successful Teams | 309
Typical behaviors
Obstacles to development
Helpful relationship-role behaviors
Helpful task-role behaviors
Forming
Hesitation Excitement
Doubts about the task and people
Anxiousne ss
Shyness Domineering behaviors
Cultural differences
Confusion about task
Confusion about teammates’ personalities and work ethic
Hurried approach
Get to know one another outside the work related task, especially as an icebreaker Communicate openly, honestly, and respectfully
Set ground rules for respectful discussions to encourage a balance of assertive sharing of ideas and cooperative decision making
Be on time Listen actively Do not send
signals that you are ignoring the team
(Note: except for the need for an icebreaker—the relationship-related behaviors used in the forming stage are useful in all stages of team development)
Discuss your overall objective Discuss task-related strengths and weaknesses of team
Define responsibilities
Discuss business rules for completing work such as timeliness and expected work quality
Use agendas and meeting minutes
Draft a project plan
(Note: in peer-level groups, you may not have a defined leader, which means you share leadership)
310 | Develop Successful Teams
Storming
Competition for leadership Zeroing on exact process and focus to complete work
Resistance to others’ ideas Arguments that derail discussion, leading to personality conflicts
Pushiness Divides in
the team Feeling
overwhelmed by a lack of progress
Follow ground rules for respectful discussions Communicate carefully—discussions must focus on team goals and objectives, not on people
Monitor assertive and cooperative behaviors
Discuss differing ideas openly, meeting with the whole team present
Make sure everyone participates in discussion—both seeking and sharing information
Appreciate and acknowledge differing points of view
Face each other when you meet
and remove barriers such as computers so that you have appropriate eye contact
Celebrate success in completing tasks
Complete assigned tasks competently Start meetings by reviewing progress
Share responsibility to create agendas and meeting minutes
Reach decisions
Define tasks Review your
project plan Avoid
groupthink, which is when everyone agrees without critical thinking
Develop Successful Teams | 311
Norming
Cooperation is above competition Team members become accepting of differing skills and personalities
Giving and receiving feedback becomes easier
Renewed excitement is evident
Avoiding needed conflict about ideas Unequal sharing of task-related responsibility
Unequal sharing of relationship- related responsibility
Constructively discuss team development, getting unresolved issues on the table
Continue to make sure ideas are sufficiently challenged Constructively, review task-related work for quality and equality of time on task of work
Review if tasks should be delegated differently, according to developing team member strengths
Performing
Commitment to the team and its success is a high priority Performance reaches its most effective level
Surprises, such as illnesses, can throw the team back into the storming stage
Attend to any regression in team development
Monitor tasks and task distribution
Reference Tuckman B. W. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups.
Psychol. Bull. 63:384-99
Team charter
Establishing business rules with a team charter or a team contract
is important.
This team charter or contract, developed by the entire team during the forming stage, focuses on the team’s purpose, goal, and
direction, how it will function, and expectations so that all team
312 | Develop Successful Teams
members have input and a clear understanding of the team project
and procedure. It is also useful if a team experiences shifting
expectations or levels of commitment and needs to review the
original plan and purpose. The Charter also identifies how team
members are accountable to one another.
Team Charters might include:
• Team procedures such as required meeting dates/times,
decision-making policies, and meeting agenda and note-taking
responsibilities.
• Team expectations such as desired work quality and standards,
participation strategies for cooperation and tasks distribution,
and personal accountability and ethics.
• Task and relationship roles of each team member
• Individual consequences for not fulfilling the team’s
expectations or not meeting the agreed-upon standards
A team contract/charter helps the team to accomplish its mission
and to form its structure.
Other team-building models
Some companies and industries require a specific team model. The
STAR model and Scrum teams are two additional examples of team
strategies.
The STAR model focuses on members identifying their individual strengths, while promoting a team mentality, an alignment of team goals and resources, and achieving meaningful results.
Scrum teams are an example of another team structure. These teams are cross-functional, including software engineers,
architects, programmers, analysts, QA experts, testers, UI
designers. All team members are generally together in a team room and collaborate, lead by an Agile coach, more intensely than a
traditional team.
Develop Successful Teams | 313
In the Harvard Business Review paper that inspired the creation
of Scrum, The New New Product Development Game, Professors Hirotaka Takeuchi and Ikujiro Nonaka observed great teams were:
1. Transcendent: They have a sense of purpose beyond the ordinary which allows them to move beyond the ordinary into
the extraordinary. The decision to be great rather than average
changes the way they view themselves and what they’re
capable of.
2. Autonomous: Because the teams are self-organizing and self-managing, they have the power to make their own
decisions about how they do their jobs. This empowerment
helps the team “buy in” to make the decisions work.
3. Cross-Functional: The teams have all the skills needed—planning, design, production, sales, distribution—to
complete the project. These diverse skill sets feed and
reinforce each other.
Regardless of which team framework is followed, team
behaviors—both relationship and task—and obstacles to team
development must be analyzed.
References Cole, B. (2001). When You’re in Charge. Kiwanis Magazine,
retrieved at https://www.teambuildersplus.com/when-youre-in-
charge-tips-for-leading-teams/
http://scrummethodology.com/
Write a team project plan
Develop a team report writing process your team can DO by
Creating a Work Plan Table (individually or as a team):
• List all deliverables and deadlines
• Share strengths and decide roles and responsibilities
• Explain team members’ challenges / time constraints /
schedule conflicts
314 | Develop Successful Teams
• Look at the final due date and work backward to decide what
needs to be done and by when (resulting in a detailed Work
Plan that keeps all teammates equally informed, motivated, and
on task from the beginning to the end of the project).
Sample Work Plan Table
Additional resources for team management
The following resources will help your team develop positive team
processes.
Identifying team roles:
Tools for Developing Teams and Team Players
Team Interaction Styles
Functional Roles of Group Members
Team charter/contract:
Sample Contract
Develop Successful Teams | 315
Components of Team Charters
Writing project schedules with milestones:
Basic Project
Writing meeting agendas, basic techniques and advanced
techniques
316 | Develop Successful Teams
60. Evaluate Meeting Guidelines
To help you have a productive, cost-effective meeting, consider if
the meeting is necessary, have an agenda, be sure the necessary
people attend, identify a minute taker, and incorporate a follow-up
plan.
Evaluate the meeting before and after
Up to 50% of a workweek may be spent in meetings but close to
$40 billion per year is spent on those 70% of meetings that are
identified as unproductive. In fact 47% of employees considered
meetings—on average 62 a month—to be the number one time-
waster in the office. Before the meeting is scheduled, analyze if it is
necessary. This flow chart model from Harvard Business Review can help answer that question.
Every meeting has room for improvement. To continue to
improve meetings:
1. Solicit feedback from meeting attendees (Length? Shared
participation? Clear agenda items? Follow-up?)
2. Collect feedback face to face or electronically
3. Use Plus/Delta as a quick, easy evaluation process
Evaluate Meeting Guidelines | 317
Prepare the agenda
If a meeting is necessary, then the next step is to prepare an agenda.
Create and distribute the agenda at least two or three days in
advance, so attendees have time to read it and to prepare by
assembling relevant materials for assigned tasks and for discussion
topics.
A meaningful agenda will
1. gather input from invited meeting attendees to help promote
buy-in and completeness
2. focus on specific actionable items. Instead of listing vague
general topics, list topics as questions. For example, instead of
“Employee incentives,” use “What new employee incentive should
we promote in the next six months?” Both the goal and the
deliverable are clear
3. Include specifics
• Date
• Purpose/Objective/Goal/Deliverable
• Leader
• Starting and ending times
• Attendees
• Location and/or dial-in information
• Minute Taker
4. List the discussion items—arrange the key discussion points in
a logical sequence—for example, prioritize from most to least
important or from least to most controversial
• Housekeeping items (for example: welcome, introductions)
• Estimate time for each topic
• Limit the number of topics (4-6)
318 | Evaluate Meeting Guidelines
Conduct the meeting
An agenda is one step to a productive meeting, but the meeting
must also be conducted efficiently. The meeting “chair” should
1. prepare to conduct and facilitate the meeting
2. make the objectives clear
3. guide the discussion
• stay on topic and schedule—adhere to start/end times
• control participation
4. avoid distractions
• ban unnecessary technology
• avoid disruptions
5. clarify follow-up
• summarize important decisions
• assign deliverables
• give timeline
Clarify minute taker responsibilities
The meeting minutes, the essence of the meeting, need to be
recorded as a permanent, official record of what was discussed/
decided and as a summary for those who were unable to attend.
To help create and preserve meaningful minutes 1. Clarify with the meeting chair the depth of notes expected
2. Determine “recording” method (write or record electronically or
both)
3. Use the agenda as an outline, and include:
Evaluate Meeting Guidelines | 319
• Date, beginning and ending times, and place of meeting
• Names of attendees as well as names of those who did not
attend
• Acceptance or corrections to previous meeting minutes
• Decisions reached on each agenda item (for example, actions,
voting results, motions, items tabled, next meeting date/time)
4. Record decisions/action items immediately
• Write motions, who made them, result of votes
• Ask for clarification if necessary
• Record only important material
• Include follow-up items with due dates
5. Clarify action items
• Summarize aloud the action item, the specific deliverable
(including responsible person and due date)
• Prepare minutes (edit for conciseness, clarity, and objectivity)
• Ask chair to review and approve (will also be approved/
amended at the next meeting)
• Distribute the minutes (paper or paperless) within 24 hours
and attach meeting handouts
• Save for future reference (Cloud or other digital location)
Resources https://www.themuse.com/advice/how-much-time-do-we-
spend-in-meetings-hint-its-scary
https://www.atlassian.com/time-wasting-at-work-infographic
https://hbr.org/2015/03/do-you-really-need-to-hold-that-
meeting?
http://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/plus-delta-evaluation/
22865
Additional Resources for Successful Meetings
320 | Evaluate Meeting Guidelines
These resources provide more in-depth guides to help you
achieve a successful meeting: plan, conduct, and follow up.
http://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesleadershipforum/2014/
02/05/seven-steps-to-running-the-most-effective-meeting-
possible/#535090401054
http://projectmanagementhacks.com/meeting-tips/
https://hbr.org/2015/07/the-condensed-guide-to-running-
meetings
https://hbr.org/2015/03/how-to-design-an-agenda-for-an-
effective-meeting
https://goodmenproject.com/guy-talk/run-meetings-like-
google-fiff/
Evaluate Meeting Guidelines | 321
61. Write an Executive Summary
An executive summary is a one- or two-page document that appears at the beginning of a longer report or proposal. The
purpose of an executive summary is to provide the reader with a
brief yet complete overview of the report’s purpose and content.
This short document, which appears between a report’s table of contents and its introduction, is critically important for two reasons. First, the executive summary is the reader’s initial
encounter with your report’s argument and objectives. This is your
earliest opportunity to excite and persuade. Second, an executive
summary may be read in place of your longer document. In fact, major decisions may be made based solely on this short document.
Therefore, this condensed version of your report must be tightly
written and must accurately communicate the breadth and depth of
your longer document.
Unlike a preview or preface, your executive summary introduces
every major aspect of your report, including your recommendations and conclusions. As a result, your reader should leave your executive summary with a clear understanding of the purpose, context, recommendations, and outcomes that will be detailed in
the body of your proposal.
Format
Length: One-to-two single-spaced pages, although your
executive summary may be longer depending on the length
and purpose of your report. Your paragraphs should be short
and direct.
Design: Your template, font, and color scheme should
coordinate with the rest of your report. However, this is a
text-driven rather than image-driven document. Keep visuals
322 | Write an Executive Summary
and logos to a minimum in order to not distract from the
directness and clarity of the summary.
“Executive Summary” should appear prominently at the top
of the page, and each section should begin with a heading. Content: In terms of structure, your executive summary
should introduce content in the same order as your report.
Do not add any content that is not in the actual body of your
longer document.
Your first section is titled “Purpose of the Report” or “Main
Objective of the Report.” This initial paragraph will introduce
your purpose statement, which articulates your core reason for writing and your intended outcomes.
Your second section, often dedicated to describing the
situation, will likely present background information on the company, market or particular problem that your report
focuses on. This provides your reader with necessary context
for understanding what you intend to accomplish. You may
wish to include evidence and major data points. However, your
use of outside sources, quotations, and statistics should be
kept to a minimum since you will feature these in the body of
your report and in your appendices.
Your third section will likely introduce your complication, if not stated in the previous section, along with your question and answer(s). This is the section where you outline your recommendations. Do not skip over any of your solutions and
their justifications.
Your fourth section is your conclusion. Here you will state
the intended outcome(s) of your proposal.
Language: Your executive summary should include
audience- and industry-appropriate language. You should be aware, however, that secondary and unintended audiences will possibly encounter this document.
Your sentences should be direct (minimize use of clauses),
and you should use active and action-oriented verbs.
Tip: Your executive summary should be the last document that
Write an Executive Summary | 323
you write when drafting a report or proposal. Since your executive
summary must overview your entire report, this task will
be challenging if you have not yet finished drafting or revising the
final product.
324 | Write an Executive Summary
62. Prepare a Press Release
A press release is a news story that will contribute to a company’s
public relations and branding efforts. To get the press release
published, you need to convince an editor that your information
about an upcoming event, a recognition, or newly released product
is news worthy. To write an effective press release, you should
follow all the guidelines for writing other business documents in
addition to following a specific structure and guidelines for press
releases. An effective press release will “pitch” your news in a
compelling way through a powerful journalistic voice.
Plan
Follow these steps to help you plan your press release:
• Determine your target audience.
• Consider the target audience’s knowledge about your
company, your product, your brand. What language will that
audience understand?
• Answer the “journalistic” questions: who is involved and/or
who will benefit; what is the news; why is the information
important, where is the news happening, when is the event/
news, and how did the news come about?
• Think about using subheadings and bullet points to help guide
the reader.
Structure
The Press Release has a standard structure:
Beginning:
• Identify the release day—generally, the press release will say
Prepare a Press Release | 325
“For Immediate Release” and provide contact information
(name, phone, email).
• Compose an attention-getting headline/title. Use all capital
letters (editors may change the title). Add a subtitle in italics.
Body:
• First paragraph: identify city, state, and date. Then use the
direct approach by answering the “journalistic questions”—the
“What” of the pyramid argument structure.
• Second paragraph: add factual detail/support to the
information in the first paragraph.
• Third paragraph: consider using a quote from one of the key
players—a stakeholder, the owner, or the CEO; often a quote is
taken directly from the Press Release and used in an article.
• Fourth paragraph: include follow-up information such as links
to websites.
Ending:
• Center ### or End to indicate the end of the press release. • Add “For further information, please contact. . . ” (may or may
not be the same info given at the top of the release). A notes-
to-editor section may be included if supplemental information
needs to be added.
Next steps
As with all business documents, the press release should be
revised/proofread for
• third-person writing
• a concise, clear writing style
• grammatical correctness
• readable length sentences (average sentence length around 20
326 | Prepare a Press Release
words)
• overall length (usually limited to one page—300–400 words)
• double spacing and wide margins
• a photo (if necessary)
Send the press release, with or without a pitch letter (on company
letterhead), by regular mail, email (include Press Release in subject
line), or fax.
Reference https://blog.hubspot.com/marketing/press-release-template-
ht
Prepare a Press Release | 327
63. Eliminate Biased Language
Non–discriminatory language is essential in today’s business world. The language used should include no value judgements of a
person or a group of people. All races, cultures, sexual orientations,
ages, ethnicities, national origins, genders, economic backgrounds,
political and religious beliefs, physical/psychiatric disabilities, and
marital status need to considered in using non-discriminatory
language.
Written communication needs to show equity and fairness toward
all employees and customers. Business writers need to be aware of
prejudicial and derogatory words that will offend others. Numerous
articles and resources are available to guide business writers on
how to use non-discriminatory language.
The following links provide information on reducing bias in
language.
https://www.ius.edu/diversity/reduce-bias.php
This link identifies how to show respect and gain credibility
through reducing bias in language. The information is
included in “The Reducing Bias in Language Campaign” at
Indiana University Southeast. The campaign emphasizes
guidelines from the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th ed.). These guidelines are
provided to help treat others fairly to help avoid biased
assumptions in spoken and written communication. http://smallbusiness.chron.com/ways-reduce-bias-business-
communications-2826.html
Ways to reduce bias in written communication are discussed
at this link. Today’s business world demands equal
opportunity and inclusion of all races, sexual orientations,
ages, ethnic backgrounds, national origins, and both genders.
https://academicaffairs.ucsd.edu/_files/aps/adeo/
Article_Guide_to_Bias-Free_Communications.pdf
328 | Eliminate Biased Language
The University of Wisconsin Madison internally provides
this pdf “A Guide to Bias-Free Communications: A Reference
for Preparing Official University Publications.” The guide also
contains relevant examples for external business
communication.
The words we use should always respect the identity of the people
with whom we are communicating. Managers, leaders, and/or
employees should refrain from discriminatory terminology for a
variety of reasons:
• employees and clients might feel offended or belittled
• employees might become unmotivated, resulting in decreased
productivity, and have decreased morale if they perceive they
are undervalued as a result of a bias
• the business may get a reputation of being an unprofessional
or unethical place to work resulting in a loss of credibility
• complaints may be filed with the Equal Rights Commission
resulting in legal ramifications
Being aware of and using non-discriminatory language is essential
in today’s business environment.
Source: https://brainmass.com/english-language-and-
literature/language/importance-of-using-non-discriminatory-
words-in-business-354736
Eliminate Biased Language | 329
64. Use Correct Grammar and Punctuation
This is a brief overview of the basic parts of speech and common
errors and the most frequently used punctuation rules. It is not
intended as a comprehensive review. You will need to refer to
online resources such as GrammarBytes! or lynda.com courses and/or purchase a paper style manual such as How 14 for complete explanations and specific examples. Exceptions are possible, not all
experts agree on every rule, and the English language continues to
evolve.
As you proofread in the revising/editing stage of preparing a
document, be sure to choose the correct word and insert the
correct punctuation mark. Follow the standard English rules for
correct grammar and punctuation to give your reader a professional
first impression, to avoid possible misunderstanding, and to
establish credibility as a skilled writer.
Parts of speech and sentence structure
1. Noun—Name of a person, place, thing, or idea. Common noun: Refers to general items and
is capitalized (boy, town)
Proper noun: Refers to specific items and is capitalized (Tyler, Bloomington)
Special concerns:
• Number Agreement: A noun must agree in number (singular or plural) with the sentence’s verb (boy is, towns are)
• Collective nouns: Collection of things taken as a whole—may be singular or plural (The jury is deliberating. The class start their
research projects after Spring Break.)
330 | Use Correct Grammar and Punctuation
◦ Note: these nouns are often written incorrectly and should always be singular–research (never researches), advice
(never advices), feedback (never feedbacks)
• Capitalization: Cardinal directions—upper case if referring to a specific part of the country; lower case if referring to a
direction (I live in the East. Go east at the next stoplight.)
2. Verb—Main element of a sentence. Action: Shows action—what is happening (The
students drove to the store.)
Linking (state of being): Connects the subject with its
complement—any form of the “be” verb—am, were, has
been (The students were excited.) Special concerns:
• Consistent Verb Tense: You are in the room (present); you were in the room earlier today (past); you will be in the room
tomorrow (future).
• Regular/Irregular: Regular verbs form past tense with ‘ed’ (work/worked); irregular verbs change form for past tense
(write/wrote).
• Past Participles: The ending -ed is preferable over -t in U.S.
business English (dreamed instead of dreamt and learned instead of learnt).
• Active/Passive Voice: The accountant balanced the books (active—the subject is “acting”). The books were balanced by
the accountant (passive—the subject is receiving the action or
being acted upon). Active voice is a stronger construction;
however, passive voice can be used when the actor is unknown
or deemphasized (The door was left unlocked), the action is
more important than the actor (The new policy was passed by
90% of the voters.), or a more tactful tone is needed (Your
score is 59%; 70% or higher is necessary to pass).
3. Adjectives and Adverbs—describe, modify, explain
Use Correct Grammar and Punctuation | 331
Adjectives: Modify nouns and pronouns (smart student; she is smart)
Adverbs: Modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs (studied hard; really motivated; extremely, quickly)
Special concerns:
• Linking verbs (those referring to feel, look, smell, sound, and
taste) are modified by an adjective (He felt bad [NOT badly] that you didn’t win the award.)
• Action verbs are modified by an adverb (He played defense poorly in the game.)
• Good versus well: Good is an adjective (You did a good job); Well
is an adverb (He played the game well). Exception: well is an adjective when used to describe the state of health (I don’t feel
well).
• Articles: A special type of adjective, can be indefinite (a, an) or definite (the). Learn how to use these necessary but confusing
adjectives at Purdue OWL.
• Compound adjectives/adverbs: Use the hyphen for adjectives (up-to-date report); do not use the hyphen for modifiers that
follow the word they modify (She is well known. He is fully
employed.)
• Misplaced Modifiers: The modifier should be placed as close as possible to the word/clause/phrase it modifies.
He was nearly certain that he passed the test (he thought he passed). He was certain that he nearly passed the test (he thoughthedidn’tpassthetest,butwasclosetopassing).
While waiting on the customer, the computer shut down (the computer wasn’t waiting on the customer). While I was waitingonthecustomer,thecomputershutdown.
He served the refreshments to the participants on paper plates (the refreshments were on the paper plates, not the participants). He served refreshments on paper plates to the participants.
332 | Use Correct Grammar and Punctuation
4. Preposition—Shows a relationship between other words in a sentence—to, on, in, for, around
Time: He likes to do his homework in the evening. Movement: She’s going to the Dean’s Conference. Place/Location: The Dean’s office is down the hall on the
right.
Special concerns:
• Between/Among: Between refers to two (divide the money
between the two committees); among is used for three or more (divide the money among all the committees)
• Agree on/agree to/agree with: You agree with someone/ something if you accept that point of view (I agree with your
answer for the test question); you agree on some issue or point (Your team all agreed on the recommended actions); you agree
to someone’s demands or requests (The CEO agreed to the employees’ demands.)
• Differ with/differ from: Differ with means a difference of
opinion (I differ with you on that recommendation); differ from means things/people are dissimilar (The Accounting Club
differs from the Marketing Club.)
• Wait on/wait for: Wait on means to serve or help (You will have
to wait on me until my leg heals); wait for means to stay until an event occurs (Will you wait for me before you begin the
meeting?)
• Off of: (of is superfluous)—slang/not acceptable in business writing (We will get off the bus in an hour.)
In general, avoid unnecessary prepositions added to verbs and other
prepositions.
Examples:
• Get the report finished quickly, so we don’t miss out on the meeting. (delete out on)
• The fact that only half of our employees were interviewed
Use Correct Grammar and Punctuation | 333
around the middle of the month was a reflection of the fact that many of the employees were on vacation. (Revised: Only fifty percent of employees were interviewed mid-June because the rest were on vacation.)
5. Conjunction—Functions as a connector between words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.
Coordinating: Connects equal clauses—and, but, nor,
for, so, or, yet. (Jill and Jeff will go to the meetings in Boston and in New York, but they will not attend the meeting in Dallas).
Subordinating: Connects unequal clauses (a dependent clause to an independent clause)—which,
where, while. (When we were at the conference, the amendments were approved).
Correlative: Word pairs that connect one idea to another—not only/but also, either/or. (She led the
committee not only in her work effort but also in her positive attitude).
Conjunctive Adverb (technically an adverb): Joins two independent clauses—therefore, however. (The new
building will be open next week; therefore, we will start
packing tomorrow.)
Special concerns:
• Relationships: Use correct coordinating conjunction to show
relationship, for example, and to add information; but to show
a contrast; so to indicate a result; for to express a cause/effect relationship.
• Sentence fragment: putting a period rather than a comma after a dependent clause—one that begins with a subordinating
conjunction.
• Simple transition: We will, therefore, start packing tomorrow.
6. Pronouns—Personal pronouns replace a noun (antecedent); a
334 | Use Correct Grammar and Punctuation
nonspecific pronoun does not refer to a specific noun (anybody,
someone, none); relative pronouns connect a clause or phrase to
a noun or another pronoun (who and whom refer to people;
which and that refer to things).
Number: Singular (he, it, she), Plural (they, our)
Gender: Feminine (she, her), Masculine (he, him), Neutral (it)
Case: Subjective (I, she, he, they), Objective (us, her, him, them), Possessive (mine, hers, his, theirs, its, whose)
Special concerns:
• Agreement of number: indefinite pronouns are singular and need a singular pronoun (Everyone will need to submit his or
her report). A current trend is to use “they” to replace he and
she, so gender identity is not specified.
• Agreement of number: a company name refers to
one company, so it needs a
singular pronoun (Ryal, Inc.
will reveal its new logo at
the conference.)
• Possessive case: never needs an apostrophe (The
committee made its
decision. Whose book is
this?)
• Reflexive and intensifier
pronouns: end with -self or
-selves. Correct: Frank bought it for himself. I,
myself, would like that office. Incorrect: Terri and myself will carpool. Please let Brad and myself know your decision.
• Possessive case: used with nouns ending with ‘ing’ (gerunds).
Correct: I appreciate your taking time to meet with me.
Use Correct Grammar and Punctuation | 335
Incorrect: I appreciate you taking time to meet with me. • Clear antecedent: the word which the pronoun replaces must
be clear. Correct: Peyton told Tyler that Dr. Smyth thought Peyton should win the award. Incorrect: Peyton told Tyler that Dr. Smyth thought that he should win the award. (The
pronoun he could refer to Peyton or to Tyler.)
Punctuation
1. Comma Items in a Series. Commas should separate three or more
equally ranked words, phrases, or clauses. These words,
phrases, or clauses should be in parallel grammatical
structure. The “Oxford comma” (or serial comma)– the comma
following the second-to-last item in the list before the
conjunction (and, but, or) adds clarity and should be included in business writing.
Example: Bring your uniform, shoes, and glove to
baseball practice.
Coordinating Conjunctions. Place a comma before and, but, or, and nor when these words separate two independent clauses (each clause is a complete sentence) in a compound
sentence.
Example: She prepared for the exam, but she still left
many questions unanswered.
Parenthetical Expressions. Use commas to separate transitional words and expressions that are not necessary to
complete the sentence thought and that interrupt the flow of
the sentence.
Example: In addition, you may have to answer some
questions.
Independent Adjectives. Use commas to separate two or more independent adjectives that modify a noun.
336 | Use Correct Grammar and Punctuation
Example: She maintains a healthy, active lifestyle.
Introductory Phrases and Clauses. An introductory phrase may be an infinitive phrase that begins with To or a prepositional phrase of more than three words; a comma
follows each type of phrase. Use a comma after an
introductory clause that contains a subject and a verb. Infinitive Phrase Example: To provide the best service,
we called in our technology specialist.
Prepositional Phrase Example: Between Tuesday and
Friday, please complete the client question list.
Introductory Clause Example: Although we are unable
to ship your complete order, we are shipping three of the
four chairs today
Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Phrases and Clauses. A restrictive phrase or clause is essential to the sentence main
idea and is not set off by commas. A nonrestrictive phrase or clause adds some information but this information is not
significant enough to change the main idea of the sentence.
Restrictive Example: Employees who work full time
qualify for employee-sponsored health insurance.
Nonrestrictive Example: Full-time employees,
employees who work 35 or more hours per week, qualify
for employee-sponsored health insurance.
NOTE: Careful writers use that for restrictive clauses
with no comma and which for nonrestrictive clauses with a comma (the writers that use commas; the edited
sections, which could now be sent to the printer).
Address. Separate parts of an address by commas when the address is written in sentence form. Use commas to separate
the city and state.
Example: She lives at 526 N. College Street,
Bloomington, IN.
Direct Address/Appositives. When addressing a person directly a direct address, set off the name and title of the
person with commas.
Use Correct Grammar and Punctuation | 337
Example: You, my fellow team members, have always
listened to my opinion.
Adding Information to Appositives. When adding extra information to rename or describe previous content (an
appositive), use commas.
Example: Our company president, Jeremy Doyle, will
speak at Friday’s meeting.
2. Semicolon Independent Clauses without a Conjunction. Two or more
independent clauses without a conjunction (and, but, or, nor) require a semicolon between the clauses.
Example: Three of your four chairs are ready for
delivery; the fourth chair will be delivered on Friday,
March 16.
Independent Clauses with a Conjunction. If one or more of the independent clauses already has a comma, use a semicolon
rather than a comma to separate the clauses.
Example: When we finish repairing the fourth chair, we
will send it to you; the other chairs were shipped Friday,
March 9.
Independent Clauses with Transitional Expressions. If an independent clause contains a transitional expression, place
a semicolon after the first independent clause and a comma
after the transitional expression.
Example: We make every effort to ship a complete
order; however, we do ship a partial order if delivery of
the complete order is going to be more than a few days.
3. Quotation Marks/Parentheses Always place a comma inside the closing quotation mark (in
U.S. English).
Always place a period inside the closing quotation mark (in U.S. English).
Example: His supervisor remarked, “Your insight
about the Meek case was exceptional.” I’m happy to earn
an “A.”
338 | Use Correct Grammar and Punctuation
Always place a semicolon outside the closing quotation mark or closing parentheses.
Question marks may be placed inside or outside the closing quotation mark.
Inside: Place the question mark inside the quotation if the quotation is a complete question contained within the
quotation.
Example: “What is the extent of his injuries?” asked the
doctor.
Outside: Place the question mark outside the closing quotation if the entire sentence, not just the quotation, is a
question.
Example: Did you finish the article, “Medical
Miracles”?
If the words in parentheses are a complete sentence, put
the period within the closing parentheses. If an incomplete
sentence is within the parenthesis, put the period outside the
closing parenthesis.
Example: Investment Friends Inc. just opened its office
in January. (This new company is a combination of two
former companies.)
Example. Investment Friends Inc. just opened its office
(January 17).
4. Period Put a period at the end of a declarative sentence and a polite
request (one space after period).
Example: She maintained a 3.6 grade point average
throughout her college career.
Example: Please submit your application by Tuesday,
July 14.
Put a period after an abbreviation unless the organization
prefers no period (no space after).
Example: Investment Friends Inc. just opened its office
in January.
Use Correct Grammar and Punctuation | 339
Generally omit periods in acronyms written in all capital
letters (CPA, MBA, IU).
Use periods to show decimals (no space after).
Example: A $155 price for the textbook is a 10.3 percent
increase (or a 10.3% increase, depending on audience).
5. Apostrophe When a noun (singular or plural) does not end in an s, form
the possessive ’s (apostrophe s). Example: The company’s financial report will be ready
next week. (Or “companies’ financial reports)
When a noun (singular or plural) does end in an s, form the
possessive by adding ‘ (apostrophe).
Example: The Jones’ mailbox was knocked over again.
Show possession with nouns that represent people, animals,
and other living entities and nouns related to time, distance,
value, or celestial bodies with an apostrophe.
Example: (dog’s owner, year’s interest, angel’s wings)
The possessive forms of personal or relative pronouns do
not use an apostrophe (its, yours, hers, their, or whose).
Many organizations with plural possessives have omitted
the apostrophe in their names. Organizations with singular
possessives have kept the apostrophe (Kohl’s, Macy’s). Use
an apostrophe in the organization’s name if the organization
does.
Use an apostrophe to form contractions such as it’s, you’re,
we’ve. Use an apostrophe to form the plural of isolated lowercase
and capital letters (three s’s, B’s).
6. Colon Use a colon after an independent clause that introduces a
listing or implies a listing.
Example: The Punctuation Guide should include the
following items: comma, apostrophe, semicolon, and
colon.
Do not use a colon if a transitional expression introduces the
340 | Use Correct Grammar and Punctuation
listing or if an intervening sentence separates the introductory
sentence and the listing. In addition, the listing/listed items
must be in the same grammatical structure (parallel: all nouns,
all phrases, all partial sentences, or all sentences).
Use a colon after the salutation in a mixed punctuation
business letter (Dear Mr. Keen:).
Use a colon to separate hours and minutes (3:15 a.m.)
Confusing Words
Accept/Except Accept is a verb and means to take or to receive. Except is a
preposition and means not including. Example: I accepted the agreement except for the completion
date.
Advice/Advise Advice is a noun and means an opinion or suggestion. Advise is a
verb and means to give an opinion or suggestion. Example: The principal advised the student to accept the
teacher’s advice.
Aisle/Isle Aisle is a noun and means a passage where people walk. Isle is a
noun and means an island. Example: Often grocery stores have wide aisles to make the store
appealing. The Caribbean isle is beautiful.
A lot/Allot A lot is always two words and means a large quantity (lots) or
extent. Allot is a verb and means to allocate. Example: Instead of allowing each presenter to have a lot of time,
the organizer allotted time on the popularity of the topic.
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Are/Our Are is a verb form of to be. Our is an adjective meaning belonging
to us. Example: Our group will combine our money and buy pizza; we
are all hungry.
Can/May Can is an auxiliary verb meaning to know how, is physically or
mentally able, is possible. May is an auxiliary verb that means to have
permission. Example: Can you prepare your own tax statement? May I plan
the next meeting agenda?
Complement/Compliment Complement is a noun and means something that completes or
makes something else better or a verb and means to
complete. Compliment is a noun or a verb and is a remark that
expresses something positive about someone or something. Example: Her handbag and shoes often complement her outfit;
her boyfriend gave her compliments about her fashion style.
Farther/Further Farther is an adjective and means a measurable distance. Further
is an adverb and means to a greater extent or an adjective and means
additional. Example: My father’s family lives 70 miles farther from me that my
mother’s family. As I continue research on my family heritage, I want
to do further research to learn as much as I can about my ancestors.
It’s/Its It’s is a contraction and means it is. Its is a pronoun used as an
adjective and is a possessive form of it. Example: It’s challenging to decorate my home and update its
contents.
342 | Use Correct Grammar and Punctuation
Led/Lead Led (which rhymes with red) is the past tense of the verb to lead
(rhymes with deed), which means to guide or direct. Lead (rhymes
with red) is a noun or an adjective that refers to the metal (as in “a
lead pipe”). Lead (rhymes with deed), also a noun, refers to a position
at the front (“in the lead“). Example: Alan wanted to lead the team, but Sam led us through
the visual aid construction. The person with the lead samples will
lead us through the experiment.
Less/Fewer Less is an adjective and means a smaller amount that cannot be
counted. Fewer is a pronoun and means a smaller countable number
of persons or things. Example: You should spend less time on the revised exam; the
revision has fewer questions.
Lose/Loose Lose is a verb and means to be unable to find something or to fail
to win something. Loose is an adjective and means that something is
not tightly fastened or that clothing is not tight fitting. Example: The loose uniforms didn’t cause us to lose the game.
Manner/Manor Manner is a noun and refers to a way of doing something. Manor is
also a noun that refers to houses or land. Example: When you visit the governor’s manor, be certain to use
good manners.
Moral/Morale Moral is an adjective and means right or wrong behavior. Morale
is a noun and means the mental and emotional condition of an
individual or a group such as the employees in an organization. Example: The morale of the group was extremely low, but the
group members maintained their strong morals.
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Number/Amount Number is a noun and means a countable quantity. Amount is a
noun and identifies a quantity not easily counted. Example: The number of people who attended the meeting was
35; the amount of food purchased was enough for 45 people.
Personal/Personnel Personal is an adjective and means belonging to a particular person
or is private. Personnel is a noun and identifies the people who work
for a department, company, or organization. Example: The personnel were allowed to make personal calls only
on their personal time, not on company time.
Principle/Principal Principle is a noun and means a rule, a belief, a basic
truth. Principal is a noun and means the leader of a school or a capital
sum or an adjective meaning highest in importance. Example: The school principal was very clear when he identified
the principles of good behavior.
Site/Cite/Sight Site is a noun and means a location, a place. Cite is a verb and
means to quote an author or name a source. Sight is a noun and
means vision or a view or a verb and means to see. Example: The mayor cited the committee’s report naming the
chosen site for the clinic. The clinic’s architecture will be a positive
sight.
Their/There Their is a pronoun used as an adjective and is the possessive form
of they. There is an adverb and means in that place, in that location,
at that point in the process. Example: My best friend was always there to help me when other
friends had their own things to do.
344 | Use Correct Grammar and Punctuation
Then/Than Then is an adverb and means at the time. Than is a conjunction
used to show comparison.
Example: He auditioned for the part, and then he returned home
to wait to see if he was selected. This audition was more strenuous
than the previous one.
Unique/Unusual Unique is an adjective and means something or someone is unlike
anything or anyone. Unusual is an adjective that means something or
someone is not normal, is different, or is strange. Example: The dresses in the boutique were unusual, but the dress
Mary made was unique.
Your/You’re Your is a pronoun used as an adjective and is the possessive form
of you. You’re is a contraction that means you are. Example: You’re important to the project because of your
experience in design.
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65. Write Numbers, Fractions, and Quotes Correctly
Numbers
Write numbers zero through nine in words; write numbers ten
and above in figures (six girls, 22 cents).
If a number begins a sentence, put it in word form of one or two
words. If more than two words are needed, rearrange the sentence
so it doesn’t begin with a number. (Fifty-two members attended the
conference.)
Numerals of more than three digits require a comma (19,642).
Two independent consecutive figures require a comma between
them. (Of the stolen $465,000, $250,000 has been returned.)
Round numbers in million or billion are shown in figures and
words (6 million).
Related numbers are expressed in the same form. (They ordered
25 chairs, and 5 of these chairs are on back order.)
Express the following in figures:
Money ($15.62, $110)
Money less than a dollar (78 cents)
Clock time (8:10 p.m., 5 p.m.)
O’clock: Use either word (six o’clock) or figure (6 o’clock) with
o’clock.
House numbers other than One (520 Main Street, One Main Street)
346 | Write Numbers, Fractions, and Quotes Correctly
Percentages followed by word percent (16 percent). The percent symbol (%) is used only in technical forms.
Ampersand
Use the ampersand (&) in a company name only if the company
prints its name with the symbol. Do not use the ampersand to
replace the word and in sentences.
Fractions
If a simple fraction can be written in two words, use word form
(one fifth of the budget).
If the simple fraction is used as a compound adjective, hyphenate
it (two-thirds majority vote).
If the fraction is long, combined with whole numbers, or used for
technical purposes, use figures (30/200, 6 2/3, ½-inch trim piece).
Quoted Material
Sic is a Latin term meaning “thus.” It is used to indicate that something incorrectly written is intentionally being left as it was
in the original. Sic is usually italicized and always surrounded by brackets to indicate that it was not part of the original.
“Its [sic] not clear when the new policies will take effect.”
Ellipsis is a term meaning “omission” or “falling short.” A series of three dots indicates an intentional omission of a word, sentence, or
whole section from a text without altering its original meaning.
“Twenty years from now you will be more disappointed by the
Write Numbers, Fractions, and Quotes Correctly | 347
things that you didn’t do than by the ones you did do, so . . . .
Explore. Dream. Discover.” –Mark Twain
(“throw off the bowlines, sail away from safe harbor, catch the
trade winds in your sails” were omitted to shorten the quote)
Texting
Abbreviations in texts should be used carefully. The client or
customer may be unfamiliar with AAMOF (As a matter of fact). Avoid
informal shortcuts like “u” (you). Texts in business should convey
professionalism and be clear.
348 | Write Numbers, Fractions, and Quotes Correctly
66. Write Ethically and Persuasively About Statistics
You may enjoy the quote often attributed to American author Mark
Twain who himself attributed it to British Prime Minister Benjamin
Disraeli:
“There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics.” Business writers must write about numbers, and as we write,
we do our best to present numbers clearly and ethically. When writing about numbers, the writer is responsible for accuracy,
completeness, and honesty, while also considering the reader’s need
for an easy-to-visualize-and-understand persuasive argument.
To learn the least to know about writing with statistics:
“7 Common Errors” by Alan Dix, Professor of Computer Science,
University of Birmingham, UK
“Statistics” by the University of North Carolina Writing Center
To learn more about writing statistics ethically, consult these
excellent resources:
“Ethics in Statistics” by Explorable, a research summary collection
online resource
“Ethical Guidelines for Statistical Practice” by the American
Statistical Association’s Committee on Professional Ethics
“Ethics and Statistics” by Penn State’s Eberly College of Science
Write Ethically and Persuasively About Statistics | 349
67. Ask and Answer Questions Effectively
Interactions requiring Q&A surface constantly in business, so do the
risks associated with failing to prepare good questions and provide
sufficient responses. To prepare questions, you will need to review
documents, conduct research, talk to people, and think. To be
responsive, you will need familiarity with your audience, purpose,
content, and context—and to think; during live Q&A you will need to
troubleshoot and think on your feet. When you fail to manage and
maintain a questioning and responsive mindset, you may run into
problems that you could avoid.
For successful, professional communication, you will want to
understand the contexts giving rise to Q&A, characteristics and
strategies for asking good questions, and characteristics and
strategies for effective responses (evidence-based opinion,
evidence, word choice, and structure of answer).
“Great managers ask great questions. That’s why strengthening
students’ questioning skills should be an essential part of every
business school’s core curriculum.”
—David C. Steinberg, BizEd
Contexts when Q&A is the channel
Meetings: Many Q&A activities take place related to meetings. Effective agendas communicate meeting topics as questions.
Activities associated with meetings, such as soliciting input, sharing
important information, and brainstorming ideas, involve questions
and answers. Meetings often include brief presentations followed by
Q&A.
Interviews: We often think about the hiring process when we
350 | Ask and Answer Questions Effectively
think of interviews, because hiring interviews are often designed as
conversational Q&A. Once you start working, you will conduct many
more interviews for non-hiring reasons than for hiring reasons.
Many interviews will take place through informal phone calls or
impromptu conversations designed to gather information or
conduct research. Other interviews may be more formal client
interviews.
Formal and informal presentations: You may pitch a product to a customer or a recommendation to a client. You may update your
company’s Board of Directors on a project. You may present an
idea to a regulatory board or congressperson. You may give a pitch
while negotiating a contract. You will encounter numerous types of
presentations with a wide variety of formats and levels of formality.
Some will require you to stand and deliver in a traditional
presentation format followed by Q&A. Some will take place in
meetings at which you share ideas and talk the meeting attendees
through a slide report responding to questions throughout.
Contexts when individual questioning leads to strategy
Research: The research process begins with analyzing your audience, the business context, and the purpose of your task. This
process involves many of the questions used during the planning
process. As you move further into the research process, you will
formulate research questions and seek answers to help you
complete your task effectively and strategically. You will conduct
research to answer simple questions and to make complex
arguments.
Planning: When planning documents or communication strategy, you will ask questions about your purpose, audience,
content, and context.
Brainstorming: You can brainstorm individually or in a group. Brainstorming techniques, such as starbursting, explicitly involve
Ask and Answer Questions Effectively | 351
asking and responding to questions. In general, brainstorming is
facilitated by identifying a question or questions to consider and
listing a breadth of answers without critiquing the answers during
the brainstorm. Don’t be satisfied with your first answers to the
question(s). Continue to push a broad brainstorm deeper by asking
reporter’s questions multiple times, such as who, what, where, when,
why, and how.
Asking effective questions
“We run this company on questions, not answers.”
—Eric Schmidt, CEO Google
Questions lead to learning. Learning leads to well-supported
decisions. And learning that seeks and respects multiple viewpoints
is more likely to lead to a positive business culture. In contexts that
involve your asking questions, you will vary the form, purpose, and
sequence of your questions. Questions have two main forms, close
ended and open ended. Either form of question can serve factual,
convergent, divergent, or evaluative purposes. The information
gathered in the responses should clarify information, investigate
specifics or the big picture, and connect multiple perspectives.
Close ended versus open ended questions
Close ended questions seek yes, no, or a specific answer without
elaboration such as: Did we make more money this year than last
year? You could ask this another way: Did we make more money
this year or last year? Closed ended questions often begin with do,
did, does, will, or would.
Open ended questions require elaboration such as Why did our
profit margin decrease from last year? Open ended questions
typically begin with who, what, when, why, where, or how.
352 | Ask and Answer Questions Effectively
Factual, convergent, divergent, integrating, and evaluative questions
When you engage in business conversations, meetings, presentation
Q&A, client interviews, job interviews, message planning, formal or
informal research, you will ask factual, convergent, expansive, and
evaluative questions to clarify information, to investigate specifics
and the big picture, and to gather and learn from multiple
viewpoints.
Factual questions tend to be the simplest to phrase. Close ended example: In which month last year did we earn the most
revenue?
Open ended example: Why are you planning to leave our company?
Convergent questions dig deeper than factual questions. They require a response that synthesizes information.
Example: After reviewing our last two years’ purchase orders, what do
you think were the drivers of our success in Portland, Oregon?
Divergent questions seek to explore or create different ways of thinking.
Example: How might we bring in new revenue in Portland?
Evaluative questions ask for comparisons, contrasts, and judgments.
Example: How do the demographic differences between Miami and
Portland affect our sales?
Sequencing Once you make an observation that requires questions, you can
sequence questions deductively or inductively; in a longer Q&A session or interview, you might blend deductive and inductive sequences.
To compare the deductive and inductive approaches, hypothesize
that lawn chair sales rise at Walmart in December. You want to test
your assumption that the rise in sales occurs because of the holiday
gift-giving season. Both the deductive and inductive sequence begin
with an observation.
Ask and Answer Questions Effectively | 353
Deductive sequence Inductive sequence
Observation: lawn chair sales increase in December
Observation: lawn chair sales increase in December
Theory: people want to gift chairs for the holidays
Questions:You will ask a series of questions about consumer behavior regarding lawn chair purchases.
Have your sales people commented on their interactions with customers who purchase lawn chairs in December?
What do customers say in online reviews and ratings about lawn chairs purchased in December?
What indications do you have that customers are purchasing lawn chairs as gifts?
Questions:Are gift receipts available year round for lawn chair purchases at your store? (Yes)
Do you keep records of gift receipt requests? (Yes)
By quarter, what percentage of customers request gift receipts for lawn chair purchases? (Assume the answer shows that during quarter 4 there is an increase in the percent of gift receipt requests for lawn chair purchases.)
Analysis: You then identify themes and trends in the answers to ascertain reasons for December purchases of lawn chairs.
Conclusion: Assuming gift receipt requests reflect consumer intent, then the increase in the sales of lawn chairs during quarter 4 is likely related to the holiday gift-giving season.
A common theme emerges in ratings and reviews referring to December lawn chair purchases: a majority mention a gift recipient’s satisfaction with the chair. Additionally, December lawn chair purchasers frequently mention gift giving and request gift receipts.
Conclusion: lawn chair purchases in December are driven by holiday gift- giving.
The sequence you follow will depend on context. If you know or
believe that you know general truths or rules about the context, you
likely will follow a deductive sequence. If you don’t know general
truths or rules about the context, you likely will need to inquire
354 | Ask and Answer Questions Effectively
about specific relevant information to ascertain the general truths
that create the context: the inductive sequence takes you from
specific information to a higher level understanding.
Q&A in more formal situations requires preparation and excellent presentation skills
Prepare for Q&A when you should expect questions. You should expect Q&A as part of presentations. You should always review
meeting agendas in advance to determine the types of questions
that will likely arise during the meetings.
1. Identify your audience’s interest in the content presented or
discussed and be aware of audience agendas and biases.
2. Plan a presentation or materials for a meeting to inspire curiosity.
Time constraints usually mean you address highlights of your
argument, and your audience will follow its curiosity to ask you
questions. Curiosity opens the door to a conversation with your
audience.
3. Anticipate that your audience will seek elaboration and
clarification of your evidence and conclusions.
4. Expect your audience to challenge your evidence and
conclusions.
5. List questions that seek elaboration, clarification, and
justification.
6. Prepare to insert additional evidence and information into your
answers. You can use the Q&A to address information that came up
in the presentation, if it wasn’t sufficiently addressed, connecting
the additional information to the audience’s questions.
Answers have a usual structure. The structure will depend on the context of the Q&A.
During consulting and sales pitches that take place in small rooms
with small audiences:
1. If you understand the question and have an answer, answer the
question in the first sentence using words from the question. Follow
Ask and Answer Questions Effectively | 355
the direct answer with details from your evidence.
2. If you do not understand the question, seek clarification of the
question. You can rephrase it and ask if you understand. You can ask
to have it repeated.
During addresses before large audiences:
1. Repeat the question so the whole audience can hear it.
2. Answer the question in the first sentence using words from the
question. Follow the direct answer with details from your evidence.
3. If you don’t have an answer, indicate that you don’t have an
answer. Be helpful. You can state (1) a resource or resources that you
believe relevant and (2) that you will get back to the asker as soon as
possible.
Use interpersonal communication and presentation skills:
1. Direct your answer to the person who asked the question by
using your eye contact and body positioning. Only then should
you attend to other members of your primary audience—if you are
presenting to a panel of judges, for instance, the panel is the primary
audience.
2. Take a step toward the person who asked the question if you are
giving a standing presentation, the room is big enough, and it is easy
to do.
3. Maintain a professional demeanor.
4. Be aware of piling on if you are on a presentation team. Not every
team member has to answer every question. Establish a signal to
indicate that the team is piling on.
5. Assure every team member participates in the Q&A. Help
teammates who struggle to participate. One person should not
dominate.
Q&A in informal situations follows a more conversational protocol
1. Be in the moment, which means you have to adapt to your
audience with flexibility
356 | Ask and Answer Questions Effectively
2. Listen actively
3. Clarify questions
4. Be helpful with your answers, which means you use the language
and address the intent of the question early in your response
Ask and Answer Questions Effectively | 357
68. Refresh Your Presentation Skills
Consider context, audience, and desired outcomes as you plan your message, slides, and presentation.
Faced with a valuable opportunity to present a message personally
to an audience, a speaker must first consider the context, needs
of the audience, and the speaker’s own goals. Careful planning and
rehearsal for the presentation and Q&A help a speaker connect with
an audience and deliver a positive message.
To prepare well for an individual or team presentation, a speaker must first prepare thorough research, argument, organization, visual aids, and delivery.
We often hear “It’s not what you say but how you say it that matters.”
In reality, both points are important. Effective speakers are
prepared with verbal and nonverbal messages that appeal to the
needs of audiences and that can respond to changing contexts and
expectations.
As with written messages, an impactful speaker begins the
communication event by asking “Who am I speaking to and why?
What do I want and what do they want? How can this presentation
and Q&A help everyone get what they want?” Answers to these
questions can form the PURPOSE of the speech.
Initially a speaker must conduct thorough research to know the
content of the message well, forming credible, audience-centered
arguments of CLAIM + EVIDENCE + SOURCE that support the
speech’s purpose.
The speaker then plans the message and storyline to meet the
needs of the stakeholders, organizing arguments using an
organizing pattern such as the Pyramid Principle to convey WHAT
the message is, WHY it’s important, and HOW to do it, and
358 | Refresh Your Presentation Skills
addressing overall questions of FACT, VALUE, and/or POLICY to
inform, persuade, and/or call an audience to action.
The speaker often creates visual aids to benefit the audience.
These visuals—PowerPoint slides, handouts, physical items, brief
demonstrations—help audiences follow, understand, and remember
the argument and can help a speaker return to the storyline easily
when interrupted with questions.
Ultimately, the prepared delivery of the message ensures the
speaker connects with the audience—the most important goal of a
presentation.
When you are a speaker, you can best prepare by knowing your material and sincerely caring about the needs and values of
the people you will speak with. You can best prepare your material
in two ways: (1) talk with your friends and coworkers about
your arguments in advance to gain comfort and informal familiarity
saying your claims, evidence, and sources out loud, and (2) prepare
thoroughly for questions and best responses by brainstorming all of
the questions you will likely receive for each argument and decide
how you will address the questions persuasively. Once in the
presentation space, you can begin connecting by talking with
people in the room before your presentation begins and developing
a genuine rapport that continues throughout your presentation.
Troubleshooting a presentation
Before you deliver a presentation, you should learn as much about
the presentation context as possible beforehand: people, time,
place, technology, and context. Then imagine that every factor you know about the speaking event could change. Expect the unexpected:
1. More or fewer people will likely attend along with unexpected
decision makers and/or audience members using
videoconference technology.
2. The presentation time may be unexpectedly shortened or
Refresh Your Presentation Skills | 359
occasionally lengthened, requiring the speaker to reorganize
quickly, possibly cutting slides and sections or adding
examples.
3. The location and the visual delivery may change, offering less
space, requiring the speaker to sit at a table, perhaps with a
screen or with laptops or requiring handouts.
4. The presentation format may change to include more time for
questions and discussion and less time for prepared
comments.
5. A presenting team may be missing one or more teammates and
will still need to present as planned.
The speaker may expect one context and yet must be prepared for
all others. Knowing the content and storyline well, adapting to the
needs of the audience and the constraints of the event will lead the
speaker to success. Your goal is not to perform for an audience;
a business presentation is not theater. The goal of a business
presentation is to connect with the people who need to hear your
message and to share your persuasive argument effectively
within an ever-changing context.
360 | Refresh Your Presentation Skills
Author Bios
Clark Barwick, Ph.D., is a Senior Lecturer of Business Communication in the Kelley School of Business and has taught
writing and cultural studies at Indiana University for fifteen years.
He publishes extensively on race and pedagogy, and he has held
research fellowships at Emory University, the University of Florida,
and Atlanta University. Barwick has received numerous honors for
his teaching, including the IU Trustees Teaching Award, and teaches
honors-level courses in Kelley and the Hutton Honors program. He
is a member of IU’s Faculty Academy on Excellence in Teaching
(FACET).
Jeanette Heidewald is a Senior Lecturer of Business Communication with over 20 years of teaching experience at
Indiana University, emphasizing argumentation, honors-level
business writing, presentations, visual argument, team
development, and intercultural communication. Heidewald received
several teaching awards at IU, including Kelley’s Panschar Award,
the Trustees’ Teaching Award, the Innovative Teaching Award, and
Kelley’s Most Memorable Professor Award. Heidewald collaborates
with the University of Cologne and Hochschule Heilbronn in
Germany (leading a Kelley course to Germany each spring) and
consults for Kelley Direct, Kelley Executive Partners, and Kelley’s
Institute for International Business. Outside of teaching, Heidewald
travels extensively to build her intercultural knowledge and her
global network.
Michael Morrone, J.D., is a Senior Lecturer of Business Communication in the Kelley School of Business and Director of
Indiana University’s Faculty Academy on Excellence in Teaching
(FACET). Morrone is the editor-in-chief of the Journal of the
Scholarship of Teaching and Learning and the Journal of Teaching
and Learning with Technology. He has received numerous grants and awards for innovative uses of technology and course
Author Bios | 361
development. Morrone also practiced immigration law for over
twenty years, successfully representing clients before a variety of
administrative agencies and tribunals and the United States Courts
of Appeals for the 3rd, 5th, and 7th Circuits.
Judy Steiner-Williams, with over four decades of teaching experience at Indiana University, is a Senior Lecturer of Business
Communication at the Kelley School of Business. She teaches and
consults in various areas of business communication for Kelley
Direct MBA students, Kelley undergraduates, and a variety of
companies and organizations. Steiner-Williams has authored twelve
courses for Lynda.com including Writing in Plain English, Business
Writing Strategies, Speech Writing, and Business Writing
Fundamentals and twelve modules for Kelley Direct Executive Education—all related to increasing communication effectiveness in
the workplace. She has been a guest speaker for Women in Business,
Junior Achievers, Women in the Workforce, Indiana University Mini
University, South Central Indiana Corporate Training Partnership’s
Leadership Development Series, and Workforce Development.
362 | Author Bios
A
Answer / Solution / Recommendation
APA
Apology
Approach
Area chart
Argument Formula
Aristotle
Assessment
Assumption
Attention
Audience-centered / Audience
Audience analysis
Audience-centered slide
Audience-centered strategy
B
Bad news
Bar chart
Brainstorming
Buffer
Build rapport
Bulleted lists
Business Crisis
Business Email Format
Business Letter Format
Business Memo Format
Business relationship
C
Categories of argument
Search key terms of Strategic Business Writing | 363
Category Title Slide
Certified letter
Channel
Charter / Contract
Claim heading
Claim letter
Claim Title Slide
Claims / Opinions / Conclusions
Clarity
Cliff Atkinson
Close-ended question
Coach
Colors
Communication Model / Communication Process
Communication strategy
Company policy
Complex argument
Complex sentence
Complication
Composing
Concept-Driven Visual Argument
Conciseness / concision
Contact information
Content
Connotation
Context
Counterargument
Credible
Credibility
Crisis
Cross-cultural
Cultural background
364 | Search key terms of Strategic Business Writing
D
Deadline
De-emphasize/De-emphasized
Deliverable
Delivery
Dependent clause
Design
Diagonal communication
Direct inquiry
Direct order
Direct approach / pattern / order
Document Design
Document purpose
Downward communication
Drafting
E
Emotional appeals
Emphasis techniques
Employers / Employment
Ethics
Evidence / Support
Excel
External audience
External factors / Opportunities and Threats
External audience
External Communication
Expository writing
F
Search key terms of Strategic Business Writing | 365
Fact/fact based
Feedback
Field of Experience / Filters
Flickr
Flow Charts
Fonts
Format
Frame/framing
G
Garr Reynolds
Generic message
Goals
Goodwill ending
Goodwill
Grammar
Guy Kawasaki
H
Headings / subheadings
Hierarchy
Highlights
Horizontal communication / Lateral communication
Hypothesis Trees / Solution Trees
I
Implementation / Implementation Strategy
Implementation Timeline
Indirect approach
Indirect pattern
Infographics
366 | Search key terms of Strategic Business Writing
Informative Heading
Informative Report
Informational interview
Intended outcome
Internal audience
Internal factors / Strengths and Weaknesses
Introduction
Issue Trees / Decision Trees
K
Kenneth Davis
Key Words
L
Language
Letterhead
Library Resources
Line chart
M
Marketing
Mass email
MECE
Mechanical emphasis
Meetings
Message
Millennials
Minto Pyramid Principle
MLA
Motivated Sequence
Search key terms of Strategic Business Writing | 367
N
Nancy Duarte
Narrowing
Negative words/language
New York Times
Noise
Non-apology
Non-specialized audience
Numerical data
O
Open-ended question
Oral Communication
Organization
Organizational chart
Organizational pattern
Organizing principle
Outline
P
Parallel headings
Personalized
Persuade / Persuasion
Persuasive claim
Persuasive message
Picture / Image
Pie chart
Place / placement
Plagiarism
Planning
Planning Guide
368 | Search key terms of Strategic Business Writing
Policy
Position
Positive tone
PowerPoint
Presentation Slides
Presenter
Press Release
Professionalism
Purpose
Pyramid Principle / Minto
Q
Q&A
Qualitative
Quantitative
Question
Quotation
R
Rational appeals
Readability
Reader benefit
Reader focus
Reader objections
Reader reaction
Receiver
Reception
Recommendation / Solution / Answer
Recommendation Report
Records
Relationship
Reply / response
Research
Search key terms of Strategic Business Writing | 369
Research questions
Revising / revision
Routine inquiry
Routine response
S
SCIPAB
SCQA
S-V-O
Salience
Secondary audience
Secondary channel
Secondary purpose
Screenshotting visuals
Sender
Sentence structure
Seth Godin
Signature block
Sit-down Presentation
Situation
Skeptical Reader
Skimming Reader
Slide:ology
Slideshare
Slideument / Slidedoc
Smallest shared community
Social Media / Social Networks
Solution / Answer / Recommendation
Sources / Source credibility
Space
Speaker’s Notes Slide
Stacked bar chart
Stand-up Presentation
Stock phrase
370 | Search key terms of Strategic Business Writing
Stories
Storyboard
Storyline
Strategic / Strategies
Style
Subject line
Surveys / Survey Questions
SWOT Analysis
T
Table
Teams
Team Work Plan
Technical vocabulary
Testimony
Timeline / Gantt chart
Timing
Tone
Topic
Topic sentence
Topic heading
Transition
Trigger words
U
Unintended audience
Unsolicited
Upward communication
V
Value/Values
Search key terms of Strategic Business Writing | 371
Visual Argument
Visual Design
W
What’s in It for Me (WIIFM)
What’s in It for Them (WIIFT)
What’s in It for You (WIIFY)
Work Plan
Working purpose statement
Works Cited / Works Consulted
Writing Process
Written Communication
Y
You-focus
372 | Search key terms of Strategic Business Writing
