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Political Science 1

Interest Groups

Lesson goals: To describe what interest groups are, how they operate, and the roles they play in America. To contrast three different viewpoints of interest groups and highlight some criticisms of the pluralistic perspective.

1. Introduction

Organizations that seek to achieve their goals by influencing government decision making are called interest groups. Interest groups are also called special interests, pressure groups, organized interests, political groups, lobbies, and public interest groups. Interest groups differ from political parties in that interest groups do not seek direct control of the government, as parties aim to achieve through elections. Interest groups promote their goals by attempting to influence government rather than nominating candidates and seeking responsibility for the management of government. Interest groups want to influence policy making on issues. Interest groups are more numerous and more important in the United States than anywhere else in the world.

The nineteenth century French historian Alexis de Tocqueville traveled extensively in America and authored the influential book Democracy in America . He labeled our country as a “nation of joiners.” Many believe his observation is true today. Estimates indicate that about 80% of all Americans belong to at least one voluntary group or association. Although many groups are not interest groups, de Tocqueville’s perception remains relevant today. However, some critics disagree. Political scientist Robert Putnam, for example, has argued that fewer Americans are joining groups, a phenomenon he labeled “bowling alone.” Others have faulted Putnam concluding that America is witnessing an explosion of voluntary groups, activities, and charities that are transforming the United States. These observers note that bowling leagues and older organizations, such as the Elks Club and the League of Women Voters, whose membership was tracked by Putnam, are attracting few new members, but contemporary volunteer groups, soccer associations, health clubs, environmental groups, etc. are flourishing. People are not avoiding associating with groups; they are simply joining different associations, online social networks, and internet-based organizations which share their personal and public interests.

2. Types of interest groups

When we think of interest groups, the typical images that come to mind are of wealthy lobbyists “schmoozing” with easily corrupted politicians. This is probably partially due to 19th century muckraking political cartoonists who liked to depict potbellied men in top hats and striped pants to represent big business invariably in league against the public welfare. Today, some people still tend to view interest groups from this perspective: evil, business-dominated organizations plotting against the public. This stereotyped image is rarely the case, as contemporary groups include many “public interest” associations championing the consumer, environment, working class, and common citizen. In fact, interest groups do not require the leadership of the rich and well-connected to be effective. Even the least powerful members of society, through collective action, can influence policy making. Although moneyed interests may sometimes dominate political parties, interest groups play a crucial role in leveling the playing field by providing the opportunity for access for organized, average people.

The types of interest groups are vast but can be divided into three categories based on the type of concerns that drive their efforts to influence government policymaking: economic groups, citizen groups, and single-issue groups.

Economic groups. This type of interest group seeks public policies that provide monetary benefits to its members. Corporations, trade associations, labor unions, and professional organizations are economic interest groups. For example, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) represents the seven major U.S. manufacturers and distributors of movie and television programs. The MPAA lobbies policymakers to enact anti piracy laws, which aim to prevent the illegal copying of movies. This advocacy benefits the group’s members and their employees because antipiracy laws help ensure that any copies of movies sold are legal and thus profitable for MPAA members. The American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO), for another example, is a federation of fifty-five labor unions with more than 10 million members. The AFL-CIO lobbies for laws that make it easier to form labor unions and supports government regulations that benefit workers. The National Beer Wholesalers Association (NBWA) is a trade association comprised of a nationwide group of local businesses that buy beer from brewers and resell it to stores and restaurants. The NBWA’s principle lobbying goal is to ensure that laws remain in place requiring middlemen between beer producers and the stores, bars, and restaurants that sell beer to consumers. Another example of an economic interest group is the American Medical Association, one of the top spenders on lobbying for government policies that financially benefit doctors and other medical professionals.

Citizen groups. Also known as public interest groups, this category captures a wide range of organizations, from those with mass membership (such as the Sierra Club) to those that have few members but claim to speak for large segments of the population. One such group is Public Citizen which was formed by activist Ralph Nader, who initially started out lobbying (successfully!) for changes in automotive design that would make cars safer. Public Citizen now conducts research and pressures Congress, the executive branch, and the courts for openness in government and on a wide range of environmental, health, consumer, and energy issues. Another example is the Family Research Council, which describes itself as “promoting the Judeo-Christian worldview.” This group lobbies for a wide range of policies, including legislation that defines marriage as between a man and woman.

Single-issue groups. These interest groups target their efforts on a narrowly focused goal, seeking change on a single topic, government program, or piece of legislation. One example is the National Right to Life Committee, which lobbies for restrictions on abortion rights. Closer to home, a former student surprised one of my on-campus classrooms by bringing a ferret to a session. She was a member of Ferrets Anonymous, a group promoting the legalization of the domestic ferret in California.

3. How interest groups operate

Interest groups operate in a variety of ways to influence public policy making. These strategies and tactics include:

Mass propaganda. Virtually all interest groups now try to influence public opinion about issues. The goal is not to necessarily motivate citizens to do anything, but to influence public opinion in the hope that elected officials will respond by enacting or opposing new laws or regulations in order to keep constituents happy. Most groups maintain a web page that presents their message. Some associations may also design a media effort to sway public opinion on an issue or to just produce positive community feelings about the group. For example, the National Rifle Association (NRA) is a very active, but controversial, group that focuses on protecting gun ownership. They often run “I am the NRA” ads on television and in print media to improve their image. These ads do not call for any action on the part of the viewer, but merely feature common, next-door-type citizens (or sometimes celebrities with positive reputations) projecting an image of responsibility. This tactic is labeled as “climate control,” the practice of using public outreach to build favorable public opinion of the organization or company. The logic of climate control is simple: if a corporation or organization has the goodwill of the public on its side, enacting its legislative agenda will be easier.

Lobbying. Most interest groups place lobbying at the top of their agendas. Lobbying activities seek to persuade political leaders to support the group’s position. There are multiple ways for an organization to lobby policymakers, including testifying at hearings and contacting legislators. A critical asset for any interest group is to establish access to elected officials. This is simple as making an appointment to visit with a legislator and the aides that assist the official. Providing information that decision makers might not have the time, resources, or interest to gather on their own is another avenue for lobbying. Interest groups also regularly try to inspire their members to engage in grassroots lobbying, hoping that legislators will respond to ordinary voters serving as advocates. This tactic of grassroots mobilization, including grass tops mobilization and deceptive Astroturf lobbying, is described on pages 212-213 in your AMGOV textbook.

Lobbying elected officials can be costly and well-heeled groups have a financial advantage in hiring lobbyists to represent their interests. Follow the Center for Responsive Politics’ link below to see which organizations spent the most on lobbying during the last 15 years.

Lobbying: Top Spenders

Campaign support. Many interest groups become involved in the electoral process by recruiting or endorsing candidates. Some provide financial aid or other forms of support for favored office seekers. EMILY’S List was founded to support pro-choice Democratic women candidates and in 2012 contributed over $8 million in direct contributions and also mobilized volunteers, provided campaign consultants and paid for some direct media. Interest groups are engaged in other election activities, such as launching massive get-out-the-vote (GOTV) efforts, and rating candidates based on their voting records or policy positions.

As discussed in your AMGOV text (pages 206-210), political action committees (PACs) are the financial arms of interest groups used to collect and distribute money to candidates for elective office. Follow the OpenSecrets.org link below to view the top 20 PAC contributors to candidates during various years and election cycles. Who were the top PAC contributors during the 2015-16 election cycle?

Top PACs

Rating candidates (sometimes by issuing “grading cards”) based on their support for interest group policy positions is standard-operating-procedure! Click on the link below to scroll through a compilation of interest group ratings for Congressman Brad Sherman, who represents much of the west San Fernando Valley, including Pierce College. The listing is provided by public interest group Project Vote Smart. You can use their site to input names of other elected officials and view their ratings by interest groups.

Project Vote Smart list of interest group ratings

Court litigation. The courts have proved a useful target for interest groups. By bringing their causes before the courts, groups can shape policy. Generally, interest groups lobbying courts can take two forms: direct sponsorship or the filing of amicus curiae briefs. Sponsorship involves providing resources (financial, human, and informational) to shepherd a case through the judicial system. When a case a group is interested in but not actually sponsoring comes before a court, the organization often will file an amicus brief to inform the justices of the group’s policy preference, generally offered in the guise of legal arguments. One famous example of interest group litigation was the legal battle waged by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) during the 1950’s to desegregate public facilities in southern states. The NAACP focused their efforts on legal actions challenging the constitutionality of laws that allowed separate schools for whites and blacks. The Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education decision declaring segregated schools unconstitutional was the successful result of the NAACP’s litigation. Today, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) utilizes court litigation as their main operational strategy in pursuing their goal of protecting individual freedoms and rights.

Peaceful protest. An occasional and highly visible tactic used by some groups is protest activity. A long American tradition, protest traces its roots to the Revolutionary War. The Boston Tea Party, for example, involved breaking laws, although no one was hurt physically. Peaceful protest marches, sit-ins, and the like can be effective tools for galvanizing public opinion and focusing media attention on an issue important to a group. However, forceful measures that turn violent are usually unsuccessful, casting a negative light on a group.

4. Roles

Interest groups perform three important roles in American policy making:

Supplemental representation. Interest groups provide representation supplementing that provided by elected officials. Busy legislators are unable to bring attention or focus to the incredible multiplicity of diverse issues clamoring for their attention. Priority is placed on matters important to a representative’s own policy agenda, constituents, or political party. Concerns significant to an individual may not be on the proverbial “radar screen” of an elected official. However, an organization reflecting the shared interests of individuals can provide representation for the group members. By utilizing the strategies and tactics described in your AMGOV text and those listed in this lesson, interest groups articulate their members’ policy preferences to government officials.

Watchdog. Interest groups perform a “watchdog function” by sounding an alarm when new governmental policies may injure the interests of their members.

Ideas. Interest groups can generate new ideas that government may adopt as programs or policies.

5. Three perspectives

Interest groups are one of the most visible manifestations of the idea that politics is conflictual. Given the many disagreements in society over what government should do, it makes sense that groups would try to influence policy, laws, and regulations. Groups compete when trying to shape government decision making, both by implementing their own views and preventing opponents from accomplishing their goals. For example, as stated above, the NRA fights to maintain and extend Americans’ ability to own and carry firearms, while other groups, such as Handgun Control, work to impose restrictions on gun ownership. To many people, interest groups exemplify what is wrong with American politics. Citizens who are on the losing side of important policy debates often attribute their defeat to actions taken by opposing interest groups. If you support restrictions on the ownership of assault weapons, for example, you are probably not happy about the NRA’s success at defeating attempts to ban the sale of such weapons.

Reviewing the three viewpoints described below about interest group conflict over government policy can provide a broader perspective to understanding this ongoing serial drama of American politics.

James Madison. As explained in Lesson #2, the most widely accepted explanation of how politics works in the United States is known as pluralism. As defined in your AMGOV text “pluralism asserts that various groups and coalitions constantly vie for government favor.” The father of American pluralism was James Madison who cited politics as “ambition countering ambition.” Madison believed that different interests would develop because they are inherent in the nature of man. He assigned government the task of regulating the competing interests of these groups, stating that “ambition must be made to counteract ambition.”

Contemporary pluralists reflect Madisonian observations that it is natural for different interests, goals, values, ideas, etc. to be present in individuals and groups. It is natural for different factions to exist, for interests to conflict, for varying viewpoints to be expressed. Since this is natural and inevitable, clashing ideas should not be suppressed by the state. Instead, interests should be allowed to peacefully fight it out, with the state supervising the competition and registering in its laws the temporary outcome of the conflict. Society, in other words, consists of competition and conflict and the rightful role of the state is to serve as a neutral mediator in such struggles. Pluralists promote the idea that no single group is intrinsically superior to another. Therefore, there is no absolute moral standard against which competing claims can be measured. Correspondingly, no group should be predetermined to always win. The competition over political ideas should be fair and overseen in an unbiased manner by the state.

Interest groups are viewed by pluralists as essential players in democracy because they ensure that individual concerns are represented in the political arena. Pluralists argue that individuals’ liberties can be protected only through a proliferation of groups representing diverse competing interests, so that no one group dominates. In addition, pluralists believe that interest groups provide a structure for political participation and help ensure that individuals follow the rules for participating in a civil society. Following the rules means using accepted methods for advocacy, rather than extreme tactics such as violence.

C. Wright Mills. A view of interest groups contrary to the pluralistic perspective was presented by Charles Wright Mills, a very influential American sociologist who taught at Columbia University. In his book, The Power Elite , Mills presented the opinion that pluralistic group theory does not explain who really governs… that elite theory is more valid. This school of thought is summarized on page 5 of your AMGOV textbook. According to this perspective a ruling class of wealthy, educated individuals wields most of the power in government. The possessors of power, wealth, and celebrity (i.e. “The Establishment”) govern. Elite theorists claim that top universities, corporations, the military, media outlets, and the wealthy hold a disproportionate portion of power in the United States. They also emphasize that elites commonly use that power to protect their own economic interests, frequently by ensuring the continuation of the status quo. And, if pluralism exists, it really consists of competing groups of elites. Elite theorists cite that there is mobility into the elite structure in America. Talented and industrious individuals from non-elite backgrounds can attain elite status in a democracy (unlike the situation in aristocracies), often through education. This mobility, elites say, give the political system an even greater façade of accessibility.

David Truman. One of the most significant studies of American pluralism was completed by political scientist David Truman. His book, The Governmental Process: Political Interests and Public Opinion, expanded understanding of interest group behavior in the United States. Truman observed that man is by nature a social animal, interdependent on others. He concurred with the view that individuals adopt group values through socialization and acculturation. He shared the perspective of sociologists and psychologists that group experiences and affiliations of an individual are the primary means by which a person knows, interprets, and reacts to society. Truman’s research illustrated that there are two significant elements of political interest groups:

1. Individuals characteristically have multiple and overlapping memberships in several organized interest groups. This is important as a restraint on any one group. For example, the same person who favors new school construction as a member of the PTA may oppose higher taxes to construct the improvements as a member of a local neighborhood association. Each group is comprised of individuals who reflect the sometimes-opposing values of multiple groups. This restrains any one group from being too extreme in its policy goals. Truman also pointed out that cleavages within a group may likewise impose restraints. In other words, groups are comprised of individuals with differences of opinion. These divisions act as a limitation on interest group behavior.

2. Unorganized, potential interest groups act as a moderating influence on established interest groups. Truman found that the potential of previously non existing groups to organize serves as a moderator on other groups. This potential helps keep group activities and methods within broad limits, as established groups may exercise caution that extreme advocacy may inspire individuals to form opposition organizations. For example, a land developer may decide to reduce the maximum density of a project even before it is presented for governmental review, knowing that such a large proposal would generate opposition from established slow-growth organizations as well as likely motivate neighbors to form new opposition groups. Truman also added that widely held beliefs about “the rules of the game” (e.g. egalitarianism, democratic participation, etc.) constrict group activities from violating these values. Using the same example, the land developer would be best advised to encourage rather than suppress public participation in hearings designed to receive community input regarding the proposed development, as our democratic system places a high value on the public’s right to be informed and to voice concerns regarding government decisions.

6. Criticisms of the pluralist viewpoint

The most widely accepted explanation of American policy making revolves around interest group dynamics as viewed from the pluralistic perspective. However, the pluralist viewpoint does have detractors.

As stated above, elite theorists claim that the interpreting the U.S. political scene through pluralistic glasses is unrealistic. As mentioned in your AMGOV text, page 193, those who are better educated and better off financially are more active in interest group politics. The wealthy and well-educated are more likely to be active in these interest groups. Historically, middle or upper class citizens with a high degree of political motivation are disproportionately members of political interest groups, compared to those in lower economic classes. Disadvantaged sectors of the population, such as the poor, slum dwellers, migrant workers, and many ethnic minorities have traditionally had neither the money nor knowledge to organize. Elite theorists point out that business groups are the most influential and tend to be more conservative. Pressure for progressive change must come from outside the structure of such established interest groups.

Other critics suggest that interest group dynamics often reveal a lack of concern with overall public interest as each organization pursues its own narrow goals. They also point out that even the views of an interest group tend to represent the values of the leaders, not the rank and file members.

Some claim that pluralism is, in a sense, amoral because it is indifferent to the content of group goals. When government becomes ensnared in interest group squabbles, it cannot pursue more distant goals. Some say that this is exemplified in the budget crisis, as government is unable to impose losses on various groups, thus the long-term goal of bringing the national deficit under control is not addressed. Others point to Social Security, one of the most popular government programs valued by an overwhelming number of Americans. To ensure its long-term financial stability many analysts believe some adjustments to the program are needed, yet government has been unable to address the need due to interest group resistance or conflict over possible remedies.

Finally, many believe that by focusing on group dynamics, pluralism unfairly rejects the role of the individual apart from the group. Some charismatic leaders, such as Dr. Martin Luther King, for example, are individually instrumental in influencing policy, beyond the impact of the groups that formed around their ideas or inspiration.

7. Conclusions

Although there are competing opinions about the role and value of interest groups in U.S. politics, their influence on policy making is unquestioned. Thus interest groups offer enormous potential for people who wish to become civically engaged. The abundance of groups for virtually every cause means that like-minded individuals can work together to promote their views to government. Today, digital technology and the Internet provide organizational tools and access to information, making it much easier for groups to participate in politics. The widespread use of these increasingly low-cost technological tools may provide the opportunity for political engagement for many in the working class who have been historically marginal participants in interest group dynamics. This will enable pluralism to embrace a broader swath of Americans.

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Sample exam questions

Note: Sample questions are provided at the end of each lesson to help you prepare for the midterm and final exams. They are for your use and do not have to be answered and submitted to Connor Dawson.

1. Ambition must be made to counteract ambition is most closely linked to

a. pluralism b. elitism c. socialism d. pacifism

2. An example of an interest group which pursues its goals primarily through litigation is the

a. ACLU b. American Tobacco Institute c. AARP d. Veterans of Foreign Wars

3. One criticism of the pluralistic viewpoint of interest groups is that the theory is

a. elitist

b. amoral

c. focuses on overall public interest

d. None of the above

4. C. Wright Mills believed that if pluralism exists, it

a. consists entirely of political interest groups

b. really consists of competing groups of elites

c. involves the masses

d. involves predominantly blue-collar workers

5. According to David Truman, a moderating influence on interest group politics is

a. socialization

b. multiple/overlapping memberships

c. potential interest groups

d. All of the above

6. Which of the following roles do interest groups fulfill?

a. Supplement Congressional representation

b. Initiate ideas

c. Perform a watchdog function

d. All of the above

7. Interest groups differ from political parties in that

a. interest groups promote their goals by running candidates for elected office

b. interest groups seek direct control of the government

c. interest groups seek responsibility for the management of government

d. interest groups seek to influence government rather than nominating candidates for

office

8. Which of the following is considered an “economic” interest group?

a. Sierra Club

b. American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO)

c. National Right to Life Committee

d. Public Citizen

9. Which of the following is considered a “single-issue” interest group?

a. Sierra Club

b. American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO)

c. National Right to Life Committee

d. Public Citizen

10. Which of the following is considered a “citizen” interest group?

a. American Medical Association

b. National Beer Wholesalers Association

c. National Right to Life Committee

d. Public Citizen

11. “Climate control” is the label applied to interest group tactics which

a. use public outreach to build favorable public opinion of the organization or company

b. seek to personally persuade political leaders to support the group’s position

c. provide financial aid or other forms of support for favored office seekers

d. are more commonly known as peaceful protests

12. The practice of organizing citizens to exert direct pressure on public officials in support of

an interest group’s policy preferences is known as

a. grassroots mobilization

b. grass tops mobilization

c. Astroturf lobbying

d. coalition formation

13. Which of the following organizations spent the most money lobbying government during the

last 15 years?

a. U.S. Chamber of Commerce b. AT&T c. General Motors d. AARP

14. The filing of amicus curiae briefs is one form of lobbying

a. the President b. Congress c. the courts d. All of the above