Chapter 8 Discussion
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Steinberg12_ppt_ch08_ADA.pptxAdolescence, 12e Laurence Steinberg
Chapter 8 –
identity
Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 8 –
identity
Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
1
Chapter 8 Overview (1)
Identity as an Adolescent Issue
Puberty and Identity Development
Cognitive Change and Identify Development
Social Roles and Identity Development
Changes in Self-Conceptions
Changes in the Content and Structure of Self-Conceptions
Dimensions of Personality in Adolescence
Changes in Self-Esteem
Stability and Changes in Self-Esteem
Group Differences in Self-Esteem
Antecedents and Consequences of High Self-Esteem
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2
Chapter 8 Overview (2)
The Adolescent Identity Crisis
Erikson’s Theoretical Framework
The Social Context of Identity Development
Problems in Identity Development
Research on Identity Development
Determining an Adolescent’s Identity Status
Studying Identity Development over Time
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3
Chapter 8 Overview (3)
Identity and Ethnicity
The Development of Ethnic Identity
Discrimination and Its Effects
Multiethnic Adolescents
Identity and Gender
Gender-Role Development
Gender-Role Socialization During Adolescence
Masculinity and Femininity
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4
Identity as an Adolescent Issue (1)
The way young people view and feel about themselves changes over time.
Adolescence marks the first restructuring of one’s sense of self at a time when he or she can appreciate the significance of these changes.
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5
Identity As an Adolescent Issue (2)
Puberty and Identity Development
Fundamental biological, cognitive, and social changes
Fluctuations in self-esteem and self-conceptions
Cognitive Change and Identity Development
Possible selves: The various identities an adolescent might imagine for him- or herself
Future orientation: The extent to which an individual is able and inclined to think about the potential consequences of decisions and choices
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6
Identity As an Adolescent Issue (3)
Social Roles and Identity Development
Self-conceptions: The collection of traits and attributes that individuals use to describe or characterize themselves
Self-esteem: The degree to which individuals feel positively or negatively about themselves
Sense of identity: The extent to which individuals feel secure about who they are and who they are becoming
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7
Changes in Self-Conceptions
As adolescents mature intellectually, they come to conceive of themselves in more sophisticated and more differentiated ways.
More capable of considering abstract concepts than children
More able to process large amounts of information
More likely to use complex, abstract, psychological self-characterizations
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8
Changes in the content and Structure of Self-Conceptions (1)
Differentiation of the Self-Concept
Link traits and attributes describing themselves to specific situations
Take into account who is doing the describing
Organization and Integration of the Self-Concept
Shift toward differentiation in self-conceptions accompanied by better organization and integration
Recognition of multifaceted, contradictory personality
Initial stress about inconsistencies; recognition of advantages in long run
Able to distinguish between one’s self (who one really is), ideal self (who one would like to be), and feared self (who one most dreads becoming)
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9
Changes in the content and Structure of Self-Conceptions (2)
Figure 8.1: During early adolescence, American teenagers increasingly describe themselves with reference to their social and personal characteristics. In contrast, Chinese teenagers use these sorts of descriptions less and less.
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Figure 1
10
Changes in the content and Structure of Self-Conceptions (3)
False-Self Behavior
Adolescents become able to distinguish between their authentic and inauthentic selves.
False-self behavior: Behavior that intentionally presents a false impression to others
They dislike false-self behavior, but also believe it is sometimes acceptable.
Adolescents differ in the degrees of and reasons for presenting false fronts.
False-self behavior is linked to increased depression and hopelessness.
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11
Dimensions of Personality in Adolescence (1)
The five-factor model: The theory that there are five basic dimensions to personality: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience
There are both genetic and environmental influences on personality, although the environment becomes somewhat more important as people age.
Both temperament and personality become increasingly stable as we grow older.
Despite popular stereotypes, research does not show that adolescence is a time of tumultuous upheaval in personality.
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12
Dimensions of Personality in Adolescence (2)
Figure 8.2: Personality becomes increasingly stable over the course of adolescence.
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Figure 1
13
Changes in Self-Esteem (1)
Stability and Changes in Self-Esteem
Stability: The extent to which individuals’ relative ranking within a group on a particular trait stays more or less the same over time
Self-esteem becomes increasingly stable during adolescence.
Self-consciousness: The degree to which an individual is preoccupied with his or her self-image
Self-image stability: The degree to which an individual’s self-image changes from day to day
Self-image fluctuations are most likely between the ages of 12 and 14.
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14
Changes in Self-Esteem (2)
Fluctuations in self-image during early adolescence are probably due to several factors:
Egocentrism may make young adolescents painfully aware of others’ reactions to their behavior.
Adolescents learn that it is not always possible to tell what people are thinking on the basis of how they act or what they say.
Adolescents are especially interested in their peers’ opinions of them.
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Changes in Self-Esteem (3)
The Wrong Question?
Studies of age differences in self-esteem hide differences among people of same age.
Critics question the study of self-esteem in the general sense because an individual may have varied self-esteem levels in different areas.
Components of Self-Esteem
Even within broad domains of self-esteem, adolescents often have differentiated views of themselves.
Some aspects of self-esteem contribute more to overall self-image than others.
Adolescents are often unaware of what contributes most to their self-esteem.
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Changes in Self-Esteem (4)
Figure 8.3: Adolescents’ self-esteem is more linked to their feelings about their physical attractiveness than anything else.
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Figure 2
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Group Differences in Self-Esteem (1)
Sex Differences
Boys’ self-esteem is generally higher than girls’ self-esteem.
Sex differences become smaller over course of adolescence.
Sex differences are more pronounced among White and Hispanic teens.
They are less pronounced among Black teens.
The sex difference is likely linked to the high concern girls have about physical attractiveness.
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18
Group Differences in Self-Esteem (2)
Ethnic differences
Black adolescents’ self-esteem is generally higher than White adolescents’, which is higher than that of Hispanics, Asians, or Native Americans.
Black adolescents generally have support and positive feedback from adults in Black community.
Strong sense of ethnic identity enhances overall self-esteem.
Different ethnic groups have different patterns of change in self-esteem.
Ethnic diversity has substantial impact on self-image. Those in the minority are more prone to self-esteem problems.
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19
Group Differences in Self-Esteem (3)
Figure 8.4: Ethnic differences in patterns of self-esteem over time.
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Figure 5
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Antecedents and Consequences of High Self-Esteem (1)
Influences on Self-Esteem
Approval of others, especially parents and peers, enhances it.
Success in school enhances it.
The same influences are found in almost all ethnic and cultural groups.
When approval of others has too much power, adolescents are at risk of self-image problems.
Self-esteem derived from peers, rather than teachers or parents, leads to more behavioral problems and poorer school achievement.
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21
Antecedents and Consequences of High Self-Esteem (2)
Consequences of High or Low Self-Esteem
Academic success leads to improvements in how adolescents feel about themselves, but the reverse is not true.
High self-esteem enhances adolescents’ well-being.
Low self-esteem may lead to mental health, emotional, and behavioral problems, but the relationship is complicated.
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The Adolescent Identity Crisis
Erikson’s Theoretical Framework
Erikson viewed the person as moving through eight psychological crises throughout lifetime.
Identity versus identity diffusion: According to Erikson, the normative crisis characteristic of the fifth stage of psychosocial development, predominant during adolescence
Not until adolescence does one have the mental or emotional capacity to achieve a balanced, coherent sense of identity.
Developing an identity is a social and mental process.
Adolescent’s identity results from mutual recognition between the young person and society.
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Consequences of High or Low Self-Esteem
Figure 8.5: Low self-esteem often discourages adolescents from seeking out social support from others, which can lead to feelings of loneliness.
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Figure 6
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The Social Context of Identity Development (1)
The course of identity development varies by culture and historical era.
The social context also affects whether the search for self-definition will be a manageable challenge or a full-blown crisis.
The more alternatives are available, the more difficult it is to establish a sense of identity.
Because of the rapid rate of social change, the likelihood of experiencing a prolonged and difficult identity crisis is greater today than previously.
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25
The Social Context of Identity Development (2)
The Psychosocial Moratorium
Psychosocial moratorium: A period during which individuals are free from excessive obligations and responsibilities and can therefore experiment with different roles and personalities.
It is necessary due to complications of identity development in modern society, according to Erikson.
It is an important prelude to establishing a coherent sense of identity.
Some consider it a luxury of the affluent.
According to Erikson, loss of psychosocial moratorium means lost potential.
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The Social Context of Identity Development (3)
Resolving the Identity Crisis
Establishes a sense of sameness, continuity between past and future
Takes a long time
Best viewed as a series of identity crises
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27
The Social Context of Identity Development (4)
Figure 8.6: The process of identity development is a cycle of making commitments, exploring them in depth, reconsidering them, and revising them.
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Figure 6
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Problems in Identity Development (1)
Problems in identity development commonly result when someone has not successfully resolved earlier crises.
They may also happen when the adolescent is in an environment that does not provide the necessary period of moratorium.
Erikson focused on three different problems:
Identity diffusion
Identity foreclosure
Negative identity
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29
Problems in Identity Development (2)
Identity Diffusion
Identity diffusion: The incoherent, disjointed, incomplete sense of self characteristic of not having resolved the crisis of identity
Mild or severe
Disruptions in sense of time
Excessive self-consciousness and difficulty making decisions
Work and school issues
Difficulties forming intimate relationships
Concerns over sexuality
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30
Problems in Identity Development (3)
Identity Foreclosure
Identity foreclosure: The premature establishment of a sense of identity, before sufficient role experimentation has occurred
Some skip exploration and experimentation that leads to sense of identity.
Roles adopted in identity foreclosure often revolve around goals set by parents or other authority figures.
It interferes with individual’s discovery of full range of potential.
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31
Problems in Identity Development (4)
Negative Identity
Negative identity: The selection of an identity that is obviously undesirable in the eyes of significant others and the broader community
Usually, this is an attempt to forge sense of self-definition when it is difficult to establish an acceptable identity.
Most would rather be somebody “bad” than nobody at all.
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Research on Identity Development
Identity status: The point in the identity development process that characterizes an adolescent at a given time
Researchers have used a variety of approaches to determine an individual’s identity status:
Exploration and commitment
Exploration in “depth” and exploration in “breadth”
Dynamic process involving alternating commitment and exploration
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33
Determining an Adolescent’s Identity Status (1)
In identity status research, individuals are assigned one to four identity states based on their responses to questions:
Identity achievement: the individual has established a coherent sense of identity.
Moratorium: the individual is in the midst of a period of exploration.
Identity foreclosure: the individual has made commitments but without a period of exploration.
Identity diffusion: the individual does not have firm commitments and is not currently trying to make them.
Research employing this approach has supported many aspects of Erikson’s theory.
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34
Determining an Adolescent’s Identity Status (2)
Ways of Resolving the Identity Crisis
Individuals may take “informational” versus “normative” versus “diffuse/avoidant” orientation.
Some studies link classifications based on identity development measures to scores on the five-factor model of personality.
Defining characteristic of individuals who achieve a coherent sense of identity is approaching life’s decisions with a strong sense of agency.
Agency: The sense that one has an impact on one’s world
Generally, individuals whose identity development is healthy are more likely to come from authoritative homes.
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Studying Identity Development Over Time
Conclusions of cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies:
Identity is generally not established before age 18.
Identity status changes are less systematic than previously believed.
“Identity achievement,” like “foreclosure,” may be temporary.
Some adolescents and young adults are perpetually confused about who they are.
Some adolescents and young adults constantly explore and experiment.
The factors associated with changing from one identity status to another are not well understood.
The role of college attendance in identity development is also unclear.
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36
Identity and Ethnicity
Ethnic identity: The aspect of individuals’ sense of identity concerning ancestry or racial group membership.
Ethnic identity development in America:
Generally weakest in White youth
White adolescents less likely than Black, Latino, or Asian adolescents to explore their ethnic identity or feel strong commitment to it
Among immigrant adolescents, vacillation between identifying as a member of a broad ethnic category or a group defined by country of origin
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37
The Development of Ethnic Identity (1)
The process of ethnic identity development is similar to the process of identity development in general.
Unquestioning view of oneself is displaced or upset by a crisis.
Period of exploration occurs after crisis.
Development of ethic identity is strongly influenced by context.
Ethnic socialization: The process through which individuals develop an understanding of their ethnic or racial background, also referred to as racial socialization
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The Development of Ethnic Identity (2)
Ethnic socialization generally focuses on three themes:
Understanding and valuing one’s culture
Dealing with racism
Succeeding in mainstream society
Positive mental health among ethnic minority adolescents is associated with biculturalism.
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The Development of Ethnic Identity (3)
Figure 8.7: In the United States, the development of ethnic identity is a far less salient issue for White adolescents than for those from other ethnic groups.
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Figure 6
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The Development of Ethnic Identity (4)
Recent Immigrants
Report high levels of academic, familial, social, and economic stress
Express more positive feelings about mainstream American ideals than counterparts whose families have been in American longer
Perform better in school and are less prone toward delinquent behavior or various problems than adolescents from the same ethnic group with U.S.-born parents
Immigrant paradox: The fact that on many measures of psychological functioning and mental health, adolescents who have immigrated more recently to the United States score higher on measures of adjustment than adolescents from the same ethnic group whose family has lived in the United States for several generations
Identity development influenced by context in which family lives
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Discrimination and Its effects (1)
The development of a coherent sense of identity is far more complicated for adolescents who are members of the minority.
The social context of minority adolescents often includes the following:
Racial stereotypes
Discrimination
Mixed messages about identifying with majority culture
Discrimination has negative psychological effects:
Conduct problems
Depression
Poor sleep
Lower school achievement
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Discrimination and Its Effects (2)
Figure 8.8: One pathway linking perceived discrimination to antisocial behavior is through the impact of discrimination on depression and alienation, which leads adolescents to affiliate with antisocial peers.
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Figure 8
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Discrimination and Its effects (3)
Ethnic identity appears to be an important factor in the following:
The extent to which people feel discriminated against
The extent to which they are adversely affected by it.
Multidimensional model of racial identity: A perspective on ethnic identity that emphasizes three different phenomena: racial centrality (how important race is in defining individuals’ identity), private regard (how individuals feel about being a member of their race), and public regard (how individuals think others feel about their race)
The impact of having race as a central part of one’s identity is complicated.
Makes adolescents more sensitive to discrimination
May make them more able to cope with it
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Multiethnic Adolescents
Multiethnic: Having two parents of different ethnic or racial backgrounds
Numbers have grown in recent years.
Developing consistent ethnic identity is challenging.
Many change their racial identity over time.
They are more likely to have an ethnic identity that doesn’t match their classmates’ perceptions, which can cause distress and low self-esteem.
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Identity and Gender (1)
Three different concepts:
Gender identity: One’s sense of oneself as male, female, or transgender
Sexual orientation: Whether one is sexually attracted to individuals of the same sex, other sex, or both
Gender-role behavior: The extent to which an individual behaviors in traditionally “masculine” or “feminine” ways
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Identity and Gender (2)
There is no one set way for people to discover, come to terms with, and disclose their sexual orientation.
Concerns about identity, intimacy, and sexuality are common challenges for teenagers, but prejudice and ignorance may cause additional psychological distress for sexual-minority adolescents.
Transgender: Having a gender identity that differs from the sex one was assigned at birth
Little research has been done on the psychological development and mental health of transgender adolescents.
Many experts believe gender identity, sexual orientation, and gender-role behavior should be viewed as fluid rather than fixed.
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47
Gender-Role Development
There are far more similarities than differences between sexes.
Gender-Role Socialization During Adolescence
Many people hold beliefs about sex-appropriate behavior.
Gender Intensification Hypothesis: The idea that pressures to behave in sex-appropriate ways intensify during adolescence
Beliefs about gender roles become more flexible as individuals move through adolescence.
Social pressures may drive teenagers toward more gender-stereotypic behavior.
The environment has a much stronger effect on gender-role behavior than biology.
Not all studies find an increase in gender-stereotyped behavior in middle adolescence.
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48
Masculinity and Femininity (1)
Individuals vary in their degrees of femininity and masculinity, but each person is relatively stable over time.
Boys and girls who behave in gender-typical ways are more accepted than their peers whose behavior is more gender-atypical.
Girls are “allowed” to display masculine traits, but boys are strongly discouraged from displaying any traditional feminine traits.
Adhering to gender-typical behaviors can lead to its own set of problem behaviors.
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Masculinity and Femininity (2)
Figure 8.9: During adolescence, boys increasingly avoid displaying stereotypically feminine traits, but comparable pressure on girls to avoid stereotypically masculine traits is much milder. As a consequence, boys show a drop in emotional expressiveness, but girls do not show a similar decline in instrumentality.
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Figure 9
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Accessibility Content: Text Alternatives for Images
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Changes in the content and Structure of Self-Conceptions (2) text alternative
A bar graph compares the prevalence with which adolescents in 7th and 8th grade in China and the United States reference their social and personal characteristics.
The y-axis is labeled “Social/Personal Self-Conceptions” with the numbers 0.05, 0.15, 0.25, and 0.35. Equally spaced points along the x-axis are labeled “Fall, 7th Grade,” “Spring, 7th Grade,” “Fall, 8th Grade,” and “Spring, 8th Grade.”
Before the fall of 7th grade, U.S. adolescents social/personal self-conceptions are rated just under 0.25. The line then rises to a peak of about 0.3 following the fall of 8th grade.
Before the fall of 7th grade, Chinese adolescents social/personal self-conceptions are rated at about 0.21. The line then falls to a low of about 0.11 following the spring of 7th grade, then rises slightly to 0.12 following the fall of 8th grade.
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Dimensions of Personality in Adolescence (2) text alternative
A series of six line graphs. Each one is labeled “Stability Coefficient” on the y-axis, with a range from 0.5 to 1.0. The x-axis of each graph is labeled with ages from 12 to 22.
The first line graph is titled Extraversion. At ages 12 to 13, girls have a stability coefficient of 0.7. The coefficient then generally rises, with minor dips at ages 15 to 16 and ages 19 to 20, to end at just under 0.9 at ages 21 to 22. At ages 12 to 13, boys have a stability coefficient of just below 0.7. The coefficient then generally rises, with minor dips at ages 16 to 17 and ages 19 to 20. It reaches a high of 0.9 at ages 20 to 21, then ends at just under 0.8 at ages 21 to 22.
The second line graph is titled Agreeableness. At ages 12 to 13, girls have a stability coefficient of 0.54. The coefficient then generally rises, peaks around 0.8 at ages 19 to 20, and ends at just above 0.7 at ages 21 to 22. At ages 12 to 13, boys have a stability coefficient of about 0.58. The coefficient then generally rises, peaks at about 0.8 at ages 20 to 21, then ends at just under 0.7 at ages 21 to 22.
The third line graph is titled Conscientiousness. At ages 12 to 13, girls have a stability coefficient of 0.85. The coefficient stays fairly level, with minor dips and peaks, and ends at just above 0.9 at ages 21 to 22. At ages 12 to 13, boys have a stability coefficient of about 0.75. The coefficient then generally rises, and ends at just under 0.9 at ages 21 to 22.
The fourth line graph is titled Emotional Stability. At ages 12 to 13, girls have a stability coefficient of 0.6. The coefficient then generally rises and ends at about .85 at ages 21 to 22. At ages 12 to 13, boys have a stability coefficient of about 0.68. The coefficient then generally rises, peaks at about 0.85 at ages 20 to 21, then ends at about 0.76 at ages 21 to 22.
The fifth line graph is titled Openness. At ages 12 to 13, girls have a stability coefficient of 0.77. The coefficient then generally rises and ends at about 0.95 at ages 21 to 22. At ages 12 to 13, boys have a stability coefficient of about 0.68. The coefficient then generally rises, peaks at about 0.9 at ages 18 to 19, then gradually falls to 0.4 at ages 21 to 22.
The sixth line graph is titled Aggregated Stability Across Traits. At ages 12 to 13, girls have a stability coefficient of 0.7. The coefficient then generally rises, with minor dips at ages 16 to 17 and ages 20 to 21, and ends at about .85 at ages 21 to 22. At ages 12 to 13, boys have a stability coefficient of about 0.68. The coefficient then generally rises, with minor dips at ages 16 to 17 and ages 19 to 20, peaks at about 0.85 at ages 20 to 21, then ends at 0.8 at ages 21 to 22.
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Changes in Self-Esteem (4) text alternative
A line graph shows the correlation between adolescent’s self esteem and different factors between the ages of 13 and 20.
The y-axis is labeled “Correlation with global self-esteem” with a scale of 0.0 to 1.0. The x-axis is labeled “Age” with the ages 13 to 20 labeled.
The line labeled “Physical appearance” begins at about 0.73 at age 13. It rises slightly to 0.76 by age 20.
The line labeled “Close friendships” begins at about 0.2 at age 13. It rises steadily to 0.3 by age 20.
The line labeled “Romantic appeal” begins at 0.27 at age 13. It rises steadily to 0.53 by age 20.
The line labeled “Social acceptance” begins at about 0.44 at age 13. It rises slightly to 0.49 at age 20.
The line labeled “Scholastic competence” begins at about 0.4 at age 13. It decreases only slightly to 0.39 at age 20.
The line labeled “Athletic competence” begins at 0.35 at age 13. It decreases slightly to 0.34 at age 20.
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Group Differences in Self-Esteem (3) text alternative
A line graph compares self-esteem patterns among Black, Bi- or Multi-racial, Latino, and Asian American adolescents from ages 13 to 20. Self-esteem rises for all groups, though at slower rates, which are charted from 3.0 to 4.6 on the vertical axis. The self-esteem of Black adolescents starts the highest, at 4.1 at age 13, but also increases the least, to 4.3 by age 20. Bi- or Multi-racial adolescent self-esteem starts lower, at 4.0 at age 13, but increases to a higher level, at 4.5 by age 20. Latino adolescent self-esteem starts yet lower at 3.7 at age 13, but increases the most of all four groups, to 4.5 by age 20. Asian American adolescents start with the lowest self-esteem, at 3.4 at age 13, and although self-esteem increases, it remains the lowest by age 20, at 3.8.
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The Development of Ethnic Identity (3) text alternative
A bar graph shows the different levels of exploration of and commitment to ethnic identity for different ethnicities during 6th, 7th, and 8th grade on a scale of 2.0 to 5.0.
African American adolescents’ level of exploration in 6th grade is about 2.8, and their commitment is about 3.8. In 7th grade, African American adolescents’ exploration is about 2.7, and their commitment is about 3.6. In 8th grade, African American adolescents’ exploration is about 2.6, and their commitment is about 3.8.
Dominican adolescents’ level of exploration in 6th grade is about 2.7, and their commitment is about 4.0. In 7th grade, Dominican adolescents’ exploration is about 2.9, and their commitment is about 4.1. In 8th grade, Dominican adolescents’ exploration is about 2.8, and their commitment is about 3.8.
Chinese adolescents’ level of exploration in 6th grade is about 2.5, and their commitment is about 3.4. In 7th grade, Chinese adolescents’ exploration is about 2.7, and their commitment is about 3.5. In 8th grade, Chinese adolescents’ exploration is about 2.7, and their commitment is about 3.4.
White adolescents’ level of exploration in 6th grade is about 2.2, and their commitment is about 3.1. In 7th grade, White adolescents’ exploration is about 2.3, and their commitment is about 3.2. In 8th grade, White adolescents’ exploration is about 2.4, and their commitment is about 3.3.
Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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Discrimination and Its Effects (2) text alternative
A graphic consisting of a line of four boxes connected by arrows shows the pathway to risky and antisocial behavior. The box on the left is labeled “perceived discrimination,” which leads to the next box, “depression and alienation,” which leads to the next box “affiliation with antisocial peers,” which leads to the last box, “risky and antisocial behavior.”
Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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Masculinity and Femininity (2) text alternative
Two line graphs compare boys and girls from ages 7 to 19 and their levels of demonstrating stereotypically feminine (expressive) or instrumental (masculine) traits. Expressivity among girls and boys is charted on a scale of 20 to 25 on the left chart, with girls starting at 24.5 at age 7 and staying between 23.5 and 24.5 through age 19, and boys starting at 24.5, gradually declining to 21.5 by age 13, and increasing back to 24 by age 19. Instrumentality among girls and boys is charted on a scale of 17 to 25 on the right chart, with girls starting at 18.5 at age 7 and gradually increasing to 22 by age 19 and boys starting at 22 at age 7 and gradually increasing to 24.5 by age 19.
Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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