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CHAPTER 7 – WORK, LEISURE, AND MEDIA
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A D O
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CHAPTER 7 OVERVIEW
Adolescents’ Free Time in Contemporary Society
§ Patterns of time use in contemporary America § Patters of time use in other countries
Adolescents and Work
§ The rise and fall of the student worker § Teenage employment in other nations § The adolescent workplace today § Employment and adolescent development § Youth unemployment
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CHAPTER 7 OVERVIEW
Adolescents and Leisure
§ Adolescents’ free time and their moods § Structured leisure activities § Unstructured leisure time § Promoting positive youth development
Adolescents, Media, and the Internet
§ Patterns of media use § Theories of media influence and use § Adolescents’ exposure to controversial media content § Electronic media and adolescent development § Mass media and adolescent girls’ body image § The adolescent consumer
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
CHAPTER 7 OVERVIEW
Adolescents and Leisure
§ Adolescents’ free time and their moods § Structured leisure activities § Unstructured leisure time § Promoting positive youth development
Adolescents, Media, and the Internet
§ Patterns of media use § Theories of media influence and use § Adolescents’ exposure to controversial media content § Electronic media and adolescent development § Mass media and adolescent girls’ body image § The adolescent consumer
Free Time and Adolescent Development
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ADOLESCENTS’ FREE TIME IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY
Abundance of free time in the lives of contemporary adolescence has several origins:
§ compulsory schooling. § post–World War II affluence.
As adolescents gained more autonomy, they became consumers with plenty of discretionary income.
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PATTERNS OF TIME USE IN CONTEMPORARY AMERICA
From the late 1970s to early 2000s, there was a significant decline in the proportion of time devoted to paid jobs and a significant increase in time devoted to leisure.
Regarding leisure activity, the average girl reported spending more than 6 hours a day in leisure activity, and the average boy reported spending more than 7 hours daily.
§ More than 1/3 of all girls and ¼ of all boys reported spending all of their leisure time in passive activities.
§ Should be cautious of group averages.
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PATTERNS OF TIME USE IN CONTEMPORARY AMERICA
Most studies find that relatively busier adolescents are better adjusted and more accomplished than their classmates.
In a study of low-income minority youth, some forms of engagement were associated with positive outcomes when combined with a second type of activity (e.g., athletics and academics), but with negative outcomes if it was the only activity an adolescent was involved in (e.g., athletics only).
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PATTERNS OF TIME USE IN CONTEMPORARY AMERICA
Figure 1: In recent decades, there has been a decline in the amount of time adolescents spend in paid jobs and an increase in the amount of time they devote to leisure activities.
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PATTERNS OF TIME USE IN CONTEMPORARY AMERICA
Figure 2: Adolescents’ leisure time is dominated by passive activities, such as watching TV or talking to friends. Far less time is spent in activities thought to be beneficial to intellectual or physical development.
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PATTERNS OF TIME USE IN CONTEMPORARY AMERICA
Figure 3: Studies of extracurricular participation generally find that there are large numbers of students who participate in multiple activities, large numbers who participate only in sports, and large numbers who are nonparticipants.
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THE RISE AND FALL OF THE STUDENT WORKER
Before 1925, most entered the workforce by 15 years of age.
Adolescents were either students or workers, not both.
Compulsory education laws and child labor laws:
§ restricted adolescents’ work opportunities. § Decline in adolescent student workers § In 1940, only about 3% of high school students worked during the
school year.
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THE RISE AND FALL OF THE STUDENT WORKER
Growth of retail and service sectors of the economy
§ Teenagers were called upon to fill these positions. § Work for relatively low wages and short work shifts. § Proportion of American high school students with part-time jobs rose
dramatically during the 1970s.
Decrease in adolescents student employees in the last 15 years.
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THE RISE AND FALL OF THE STUDENT WORKER
Past two decades, educational reformers called for tougher standards in high schools.
Recession—unemployed adults were hired over teenagers.
Immigration brought many willing and able adults.
Growth of new technologies expanded potential leisure activities for teens.
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SCHOOL AND WORK IN THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY
Figure 4: A smaller proportion of adolescents have after-school jobs today than at any time in recent history. A bad economy, more demands from schools, and an expanding universe of leisure activities have all been factors.
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TEEN EMPLOYMENT IN OTHER NATIONS
Nonindustrialized societies
§ generally leave school at ages 15 or 16 § common for adolescents to work for their families
Industrialized countries
§ Teen employment varies from country to country. § About 50% of students work in Canada and Australia while it is
virtually nonexistent in Japan or Korea. § Western Europe—varies between countries § rare in France, Italy, and Spain § common in Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Sweden
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THE ADOLESCENT WORK ENVIRONMENT
Figure 5: As adolescents age, they become less likely to work in informal jobs, like babysitting, and more likely to enter the formal labor force, mainly I retain stores and restaurants.
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THE ADOLESCENT WORKPLACE TODAY
Job opportunities for after-school work are plentiful in the United States.
§ Range of available jobs is very limited.
Type of job depends on region, gender, or age.
§ rural regions: agricultural jobs § among younger teens: babysitting (girls) and yard work (boys) § among older teens: retail and service jobs
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EMPLOYMENT AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
Researchers have addressed three broad questions:
§ Whether working helps adolescents develop a sense of responsibility § Whether working interferes with other activities, such as school § Whether working promotes the development of undesirable behaviors,
such as drug and alcohol use
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EMPLOYMENT AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
Popular belief that working helps teens build character, teaches them about the real world, and prepares them for adulthood.
§ Not supported by research § In fact, intensive employment during the school year may negatively
affect development and preparation for adult work.
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EMPLOYMENT AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
Little support for the view that holding a job makes adolescents more responsible.
Some data indicate that adolescents engage in high rates of misconduct on the job.
Opportunities to learn how to manage a budget?
§ Few save income for future education. § Premature affluence
§ Having more income than one can manage maturely, especially during adolescence.
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EMPLOYMENT AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
Drawbacks of most teen jobs:
§ Few permit independent behavior or decision making. § Little instruction is received from supervisors. § Skills learned in school rarely used at work . § Jobs often are repetitive or boring, sometimes stressful, leading to
injury and accidents.
Despite these drawbacks, the majority of teens describe their jobs positively.
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EMPLOYMENT AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
In general, whether (and in what ways) working impacts maturity depends largely on the nature of the job.
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THE IMPACT ON SCHOOLING
Issue is how many hours an adolescent works, not whether an adolescent has a job.
Working 20+ hours/week may negatively affect school performance and engagement.
Working long hours is related to:
§ being absent from school. § spending less time on their homework. § earning slightly lower grades.
Intensive part-time employment may even increase likelihood of dropping out of school.
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THE PROMOTION OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
Work and Problem Behavior
§ Belief that working deters teens from criminal activity by keeping them out of trouble.
§ Working long hours may actually be associated with increases in aggression, school misconduct, precocious sexual activity, minor delinquency.
Differential Impact of Work
§ Middle class: working associated with problem behaviors. § Poor youth: working may not lead to problem behaviors.
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YOUTH UNEMPLOYMENT
Although relatively rare, some young people who wish to work are unable to find jobs.
Except for summer months, youth unemployment is not a pervasive problem.
The majority of unemployed youth are high school dropouts.
In 2014, 29% of recent high school graduates who were not in college were unemployed, compared with 30% of high school dropouts.
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YOUTH UNEMPLOYMENT
Figure 6: Most 16-to 19-year-olds are students. The percentage of young people who are not in school, unemployed, and looking for work is very small.
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ADOLESCENTS AND LEISURE
Adolescents in the United States spend almost 50% of their waking hours in leisure activities.
Teens report being in a better mood during leisure activities than during school or work.
Difficult to study adolescents moods.
§ Individuals’ emotions change throughout the day. § Experience Sampling Method
§ ESM: Adolescents carry pagers and booklets; teens respond to questions each time their pager beeps.
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EXPERIENCE SAMPLING METHOD
Results indicated that:
§ moods are generally most positive when they are with their friends; least positive when they are alone.
§ moods when they are with their family fall somewhere in between. § between grades 5 and 9, adolescents’ moods while with friends
become more positive. § moods while with their family become more negative between grades
5 and 7 and then rise between grades 8 and 9.
Flow experience
§ The experience of high levels of both concentration and interest at the same time.
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STRUCTURED LEISURE ACTIVITIES
Two-thirds of American high school students participate in one or more extracurricular activities.
Athletics most popular in the United States.
Other popular activities
§ music (band, chorus, orchestra, glee club) § academic (science club, language clubs)
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POSITIVE IMPACT OF EXTRACURRICULAR PARTICIPATION
Studies indicate that participation in extracurricular activities improves students’ performance in school and reduces likelihood of dropping out, deters delinquency, reduces drug use, and decreases other types of risk taking.
Participation may also enhance students’ psychological well-being and social status.
No empirical support for the idea that extracurricular overscheduling of youth has negative effects.
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EXTRACURRICULAR PARTICIPATION
Positive impact most likely due to:
§ increased contact with teachers and other school personnel who may reinforce the value of school.
§ participation may improve students’ self-confidence and self-esteem. § increased contact with peers who influence them in beneficial ways. § Extracurricular activities may also bond students and parents to their
school.
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UNSTRUCTURED LEISURE TIME
Routine Activity Theory
§ A perspective on adolescence that views unstructured, unsupervised time with peers as a main cause of misbehavior.
§ Leads to delinquency and problem behaviors.
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TIME AFTER SCHOOL
§ Self-care children and their peers do not differ in psychological development, school achievement, or self-conceptions.
§ Self-care children may be more socially isolated, more depressed, more likely to have problems at school, be sexually active at younger ages, engage in other problem behavior, and use more drugs and alcohol.
§ Important to keep in mind that there are significant differences within self-care populations.
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TIME AFTER SCHOOL
Figure 7: More arrests occur during school afternoons than at any other time, presumably because this is the time when adolescents are least likely to be supervised.
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PROMOTING POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT § Experts have called for better and more readily available after-school
programming for adolescents. § Well-designed programs:
§ deter problem behavior with adult supervision. § promote positive youth development in the following areas: § competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring and
compassion.
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PROMOTING POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT
Table 1: The Five C’s of positive youth development.
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ADOLESCENTS, MEDIA, AND THE INTERNET
New media
§ Digital media typically accessed via computers, smart phones, or other Internet-based devices.
We live in a “media-saturated” society.
§ Virtually all American households have TVs, computers, and Internet access (regardless of family income).
§ More than 90% of American teens go online daily, and about 25% report being online almost constantly.
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ADOLESCENTS, MEDIA, AND THE INTERNET
Most popular social media sites: Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat.
§ Almost ¾ of adolescents have their own cell phone. § The average teenager sends about 70 text messages each day. § The average adolescent spends nearly 8 hours each day using one or
more media. § When media multitasking is taken into account, the amount of time
teenagers are exposed to media each day is close to 11 hours.
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ADOLESCENTS, MEDIA, AND THE INTERNET
Figure 8: Virtually all American teens are online daily. One-fourth report being online “almost constantly.”
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ADOLESCENTS, MEDIA, AND THE INTERNET
Some research indicates that close to 10% of preadolescents and adolescents devote so much energy to playing video games that their behavior is “pathological.”
Online gaming is especially problematic.
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THEORIES OF MEDIA INFLUENCE AND USE
Cultivation theory
§ A perspective on media use that emphasizes the impact media exposure has on individuals.
Uses and gratifications approach
§ A perspective on media use that emphasizes the active role users play in selecting the media to which they are exposed.
Media practice model
§ A perspective on media use that emphasizes the fact that adolescents not only choose what media they are exposed to but also interpret the media in ways that shape their impact.
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THEORIES OF MEDIA INFLUENCE AND USE
Figure 9: Two things can be correlated because the first causes the second (the hypothesized correlation) or some third factor causes both of them (spurious causation). Research on media “effects” on adolescent development has a hard time separating the three.
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ADOLESCENTS’ EXPOSURE TO CONTROVERSIAL MEDIA CONTENT: SEX
More than 70% of all shows popular among teenagers contain sexual content.
§ Nearly 7 sexual scenes/hour
Most common sexual messages concern men seeing women as sex objects–which is a message that teens are especially susceptible.
Relative absence of messages concerning the possible physical consequences of sex.
There are cross-cultural differences in the ways in which messages are expressed.
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ADOLESCENTS’ EXPOSURE TO CONTROVERSIAL MEDIA CONTENT: SEX
Whether (and to what extent) exposure to sexual media affects adolescents’ sexual development is controversial.
§ However, repeated exposure does affect adolescents attitudes, beliefs, and intentions.
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CONTROVERSIAL MEDIA CONTENT: VIOLENCE
More than 60% of TV programming contains violence; young people see 10,000 violent acts/year.
Adolescents who spend a lot of time playing video games get into more fights and arguments than do their peers.
§ Difficult to know whether playing games makes adolescents more hostile or whether adolescents who are more aggressive are more likely to play games
Careful studies find that playing video games does not make adolescents more aggressive.
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CONTROVERSIAL MEDIA CONTENT: VIOLENCE
Figure 10: The proportion of male and female characters who engage in violence in top-grossing films has been increasing.
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CONTROVERSIAL MEDIA CONTENT: DRUGS
Alcohol, tobacco, or illicit drugs are present in nearly ¾ of prime- time network dramatic programs, nearly all popular movies, and half of all music videos.
Nearly 10% of commercials that young people see on TV are for beer or wine.
Ads promoting alcohol and tobacco use, as well as antismoking ads, may change teenagers’ attitudes.
§ Not clear whether they change behavior.
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ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND THE INTERNET
Adolescents who spend a lot of time on the Internet are less likely to spend time in physical activity.
§ Detrimental effect on physical health.
Internet use can be positive if it helps adolescents acquire accurate information.
Social communication on the Internet, just like in person or telephone interactions, creates both positive and negative experiences.
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ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND THE INTERNET
Internet addiction
§ A disorder in which an individual’s use of the Internet is pathological, defined by six symptoms: salience, mood change, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, and relapse and reinstatement.
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ADOLESCENTS’ ONLINE EXPERIENCES AND SEXUAL PREDATORS
There has been a decline in unwanted online sexual solicitation.
§ Currently, about 9% of young people receive unwanted sexual attention each year.
“Sexting” is also pretty rare and has been exaggerated in the popular press.
§ Only 1% of adolescents had sent or appeared in naked photos.
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MASS MEDIA AND ADOLESCENT GIRLS’ BODY IMAGE
Research indicates that adolescent girls who frequently read fashion magazines are more dissatisfied with their body than are girls who do not.
Controlled experiments have indicated that showing girls images of thin models increases their body dissatisfaction.
Frequent reading of magazine articles about dieting or weight loss leads to increases in unhealthy weight-control behaviors.
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THE ADOLESCENT CONSUMER
Teenagers spend more than $90 billion per year, and the total amount of money spent by and for adolescents between 12 and 17 exceeds $200 billion annually.
Much of adolescents’ money is spent on purchases related to leisure activities.
§ Many adolescents also spend money on alcohol and cigarettes.
Viral marketing
§ A way of promoting products or services by encouraging individuals to pass information on to others.
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FREE TIME AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
Adults are ambivalent about adolescents’ leisure time.
§ Partly the result of misconceptions regarding the pros and cons of various uses of free time.
Leisure time plays an important role in healthy psychosocial development.
§ Helps adolescents develop a sense of themselves, explore their relationships with others, and learn about the society around them.
