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Adolescence, 13e

Laurence Steinberg

Chapter 5 – Peer groups

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Chapter 1 Overview 1

The Origins of Adolescent Peer Groups in Contemporary Society

Changes in the Size of the Youth Population.

Why Peer Groups Are Necessary in Today’s World.

The Nature of Adolescent Peer Groups

Cliques and Crowds.

Changes in Clique and Crowd Structure Over Time.

Adolescents and Their Crowds

The Social Map of Adolescence.

Crowds as Reference Groups.

Chapter 1 Overview 2

Adolescents and Their Cliques

Similarity Among Clique Members.

Common Interests Among Friends.

Similarity Between Friends: Selection or Socialization?

Popularity, Rejection, and Bullying

Determinants of Popularity and Rejection.

Relational Aggression.

Bullies and Victims.

Cyberbullying.

The Peer Group and Psychosocial Development

The Origins of Adolescent peer Groups in Contemporary Society

Peer groups: Groups of individuals of approximately the same age.

Educators first developed the idea of free public education, with students grouped by age.

Age grading: The process of grouping individuals within social institutions on the basis of age.

Adolescent peer groups based on friendships formed in school were not prevalent until well into the 20th century.

Changes in the size of the youth population 1

The teenage population grew rapidly between 1955 and 1975, then turned downward.

Baby boom: The period following World War II, during which the number of infants born was extremely large.

Approximately 13% of Americans are between the ages of 10 and 19 today.

Changes in the number of adolescents may warrant changes in the allocation of funds for social services, educational programs, and health care.

Changes in the size of the adolescent population have implications for understanding the behavior of cohorts.

Changes in the size of the youth population 2

Figure 5.1: The proportion of the population that is adolescent varies around the world—it is highest in developing countries, especially in Africa, and lowest in highly industrialized countries, like Japan. This trend is expected to continue. (United Nations, 2014)

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Figure 1

Changes in the size of the youth population 3

Table 5.1: Cohorts, Periods, and Ages in Census Year. (1 of 2)

Cohort Name

Became Young Adults

Key Events at That Time

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

Generation Z

2002–2025

Internet explosion; Great Recession; Covid-19 Pandemic

N/A

16–24

Millennials

1992–2015

Information era: economic growth and global politics

N/A

16–24

25–30

Gen X

1982–2005

Reagan era: economic polarization, political conservatism

N/A

16–24

25–30

N/A

Late baby boomers

1972–1995

Watergate era: economic recession, employment restructuring

N/A

16–24

25–30

N/A

Early baby boomers

1962–1985

Hippies: social movements, campus revolts

N/A

16–24

25–30

N/A

Happy days generation

1952–1975

Family and conformity: baby boom and Cold War/McCarthy era

N/A

16–24

25–30

N/A

Table 1

Changes in the size of the youth population 4

Table 5.1: Cohorts, Periods, and Ages in Census Year. (2 of 2)

Cohort Name

Became Young Adults

Key Events at That Time

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

Happy days/greatest generation

1942–1965

Family and conformity: baby boom and Cold War/McCarthy era

N/A

16–24

25–30

N/A

Greatest generation/ children of Great Depression

1932–1955

Hard times: economic depression and World War II

N/A

16–24

25–30

N/A

Children of Great Depression

1922–1945

Hard times: economic depression and World War II

N/A

16–24

25–30

N/A

Lost Generation

1912–1935

World War I and Roaring Twenties, Prohibition

N/A

16–24

25–30

N/A

No name

1902–1925

Age of invention and World War I

N/A

16–24

25–30

N/A

No name

1892–1915

Age of invention, urbanization

16–24

25–30

N/A

Table 1, continued

Why Peer Groups are necessary in today’s world 1

Less Industrialized Societies (Kinship-Based)

Expected adult behavior depends on family.

People from different families are often expected to live by very different expectations and regulations.

Socialization of adolescents is best accomplished in family groups.

Why Peer Groups are necessary in today’s world 2

Modern Societies

All individuals expected to learn the same set of norms.

Rules governing behavior apply equally to all members of the community.

Socialization of adolescents is not limited to the family.

Society has universal norms for many activities.

Need for universal school-based education creates age-segregated peer groups.

Why Peer Groups are necessary in today’s world 3

Margaret Mead

The best way to socialize adolescents for adulthood depends on the speed of society’s changes.

Postfigurative cultures: Cultures in which the socialization of young people is done primarily by adults.

Contemporary societies have shifted away from postfigurative cultures.

Configurative cultures: Cultures in which young people are socialized both by adults and by each other.

Prefigurative cultures: Cultures in which society is changing so quickly that adults are frequently socialized by young people, rather than the reverse.

The Nature of Adolescent Peer Groups 1

In What Ways Do Peer Groups Change?

There is a sharp increase during adolescence in the amount of time individuals spend with peers.

Peer groups function much more often without adult supervision than they do during childhood.

During adolescence, increasingly more contact with peers is between males and females.

Children’s peer relationships are limited mainly to small groups; adolescents spend more time with larger collectives of peers (crowds).

The Nature of Adolescent Peer Groups 2

Figure 5.2: Both supervised (left) and unsupervised (right) time with peers increase during adolescence. The increase in the amount of time that girls spend with peers is especially steep. (Lam, McHale, & Crouter, 2014)

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Figure 2

The Nature of Adolescent Peer Groups 3

What Causes Peer Groups to Change?

Puberty stimulates adolescents’ interest in romantic relationships and distances them from their parents.

The cognitive changes of adolescence permit a more sophisticated understanding of social relationships.

Changes in social definition may stimulate changes in peer relations as a sort of adaptive response.

Cliques and Crowds 1

Adolescents’ peer groups are organized around two related, but different, structures.

Cliques: Small, tightly knit groups of between 2 and 12 friends, generally of the same sex and age

The clique provides the main social context in which adolescents interact with one another.

Cliques and Crowds 2

How Adolescents Sort Into Crowds

Crowds: “Reputation-based clusters of youths, whose function in part is to help solidify young people’s social and personal identity”.

Crowds include “jocks,” “brains,” “nerds,” “populars,” and “druggies.” (Labels may vary, but the groups are commonplace.)

Membership in a crowd is based mainly on reputation and stereotype, rather than on actual friendship or social interaction.

Changing membership in a crowd can be very difficult.

Crowds likely contribute more to the adolescent’s sense of identity and self-conception than to their actual social development.

Changes in Clique and Crowd Structure Over Time 1

How Romance Changes the Peer Group

In early adolescence, activities revolve around same-sex cliques.

As romantic interest builds, but before romantic relationships begin, boys’ and girls’ cliques come together.

In middle adolescence, mixed-sex and mixed-age cliques become more prevalent. Peer group eventually is entirely mixed-sex cliques.

In late adolescence, peer crowds begin to disintegrate.

Couples begin to split off from larger group.

Structure of peer group changes during adolescence, paralleling the adolescent’s development of intimacy.

Changes in Clique and Crowd Structure Over Time 2

Changes in Crowds

Adolescents become more consciously aware of the crowd structure of their school and their place in it.

Crowd structure becomes more differentiated, more permeable, and less hierarchical, which allows adolescents more freedom to change crowds and enhance their status.

Changes in Clique and Crowd Structure Over Time 3

The Waxing and Waning of Crowds

By ninth grade, there is nearly universal agreement among students about their school’s crowd structure, and the strength of peer group influence is very high.

Both decline between ninth and 12th grades.

The decline is also related to adolescents’ developing sense of identity.

Older adolescents may feel that being part of a crowd is stifling.

The Social Map of Adolescence 1

The social world of adolescence can be classified along two dimensions:

How involved they are in the institutions controlled by adults such as school and extracurricular activities.

How involved they are in the informal, peer culture.

The Social Map of Adolescence 2

Figure 5.3: A model for mapping the social world of adolescent peer groups. (From Brown, 1990)

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Figure 3

Crowds as Reference Groups 1

Reference groups: A group against which an individual compares themself.

Crowds act as reference groups and provide their members with an identity in the eyes of others.

Adolescents judge one another on the basis of the company they keep, and they become branded on the basis of the people they hang out with.

Crowds as Reference Groups 2

Crowd Membership and Adolescent Identity

Crowd membership is often the basis for an adolescent’s own identity.

The nature of the crowd is likely to have an important influence on member’s behavior, activities, self-conceptions, and opinions about others and themselves.

Self-esteem is higher among students who are identified with peer groups that have relatively more status in their school.

Crowds as Reference Groups 3

Adolescents’ behavior is affected by their crowd membership.

They often imitate the crowd leader behavior.

They strive to follow the crowd’s established social norms.

They receive reinforcement for following norms.

Reinforcement for following a crowd’s norms leads to feeling better about themselves and further incorporating crowd membership into their identity.

Crowds as Reference Groups 4

Ethnicity and Crowd Membership

Evidence indicates that adolescents in multiethnic high schools first divide across ethnic lines, then form into the more familiar adolescent crowds within ethnic groups.

Adolescents from one ethnic group are less likely to see crowd distinctions within other ethnic groups than within their own group.

The meaning associated with belonging to different crowds may differ across ethnic and socioeconomic groups.

Values associated with being in one crowd as opposed to another vary from school to school.

Similarity among Clique Members 1

Cliques are typically composed of people who share certain traits:

Age.

Race/ethnicity.

Sex, at least during early and middle adolescence.

Similarity among Clique Members 2

Age Segregation

Age grouping in junior and senior high schools makes it unlikely that an individual will have friends who are substantially older or younger.

Age segregation in adolescents’ cliques appears to result mostly from the structure of schools.

Adolescents’ online friends are less similar in age than the friends they make in school.

Similarity among Clique Members 3

Sex Segregation

This begins in childhood and continues through most of adolescence, weakening later.

It is due partly to early shared activities and interests.

Sex segregation also results from concerns about behaving in sex-appropriate ways.

Once dating becomes the norm, those lacking relationships with peers of the other sex are objects of strong suspicion and social rejection.

Similarity among Clique Members 4

Ethnic Segregation

Ethnicity is not a strong determinant of clique composition in childhood, but by adolescence, it is an enormously powerful determinant.

Adolescents are more likely to have friends of the same ethnicity from a different social class than friends from the same social class but different ethnic group.

This is only partially due to residential segregation.

It may be partially due to differential levels of academic achievement of adolescents from different ethnic groups.

Both adolescent and parental attitudes are factors.

Common Interests among Friends 1

Three factors are important for determining clique membership:

Orientation toward school.

Orientation toward the teen culture.

Involvement in antisocial activity.

Common Interests among Friends 2

Orientation Toward School

Adolescents and their friends tend to be similar in their attitudes toward school, school achievement, course selection, and educational plans.

Students also influence each other’s academic performance.

Common Interests among Friends 3

Involvement in Antisocial Activity

Antisocial, aggressive adolescents gravitate toward each other and form deviant peer groups.

Gangs: organized peer groups of antisocial individuals

Gang members are at greater risk for many types of problems (e.g., antisocial behavior, psychological distress, exposure to violence, victimization).

Adolescent gangs both resemble and differ from other sorts of peer groups.

Gang members tend to be more isolated from their family, have more emotional and behavioral problems, and have poorer self-conceptions than other adolescents.

Common Interests among Friends 4

Parents play a role in socializing certain traits in their children.

Problematic parent–child relationships lead to the development of an antisocial disposition in the child.

Parents manage adolescent’s friendships by monitoring the individuals their child spends time with, but excessive control can backfire.

Group-based interventions for adolescents with conduct problems may not work.

Latrogenic effects: Unintended adverse consequences of a treatment or intervention.

Similarity between Friends: Selection or Socialization? 1

Many adults have concerns over the influence of peers in promoting delinquent activity and drug and alcohol use.

Do adolescents develop interests and attitudes because friends influence them, or do people with similar interests and tastes become friends?

Studies indicate that both selection and socialization are at work across a variety of attitudinal and behavioral domains.

Socialization is far stronger over day-to-day preferences in things like music than over many of the behaviors that adults worry about.

Similarity between Friends: Selection or Socialization? 2

Figure 5.4: Adolescents’ choice of friends both influences and is influenced by their traits and interests.

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Figure 4

Similarity between Friends: Selection or Socialization? 3

Stability of Adolescent Friendships

Cliques show only moderate stability over the course of the school year, although they are more stable later in high school.

Only about one third of students who name a best friend in the fall of a school year rename the same person as their best friend in the spring.

Boys’ friendships tend to be more stable.

The most common causes of broken friendships are jealousy, incompatibility, betrayal, and aggression.

Similarity between Friends: Selection or Socialization? 4

Table 5.2: Summary of Broad Categories of Features That Led to Dislike.

Category	Exemplar Quotes
Jealousy	“She stole my boyfriend and my closest friends. Then got angry when she found out I slept with him.” “This person disliked my boyfriend/date I was going to bring to the prom, which led me to going to the prom with my boyfriend only. I felt that she had ruined my senior life in high school.”
Incompatibility	“An argument started when my friend would just make really loud noises for no reason, and when I would ask her to stop she would just continue.” “This person was loud, annoying, and really had no point of talking because her argument made no sense.” “We stopped talking and hanging out for no apparent reason. All of a sudden it just ended.”
Intimacy-rule violations	“We were best friends, but I couldn’t trust her because she lied to me too many times.” “In the beginning she seemed like an awesome friend but then, after I started getting close to her, I saw her true colors revealed. She had a very evil way of trying to hurt people and put them down. She was also very untrustworthy.”
Aggression	“She spread rumors about me because the guy she liked, liked me.” “She was with a boy at our senior BBQ and was taking her time when we were in a rush. She and the boy went home with someone else instead of me and didn’t tell me. The next day I confronted her and we got into a fight and suspended from school. That’s when she started spreading rumors.”

Table 2

Similarity between Friends: Selection or Socialization? 5

Figure 5.5: Friendships in the seventh grade virtually never survive through the end of high school. Many friendships dissolve between seventh and eighth grade. (Hartl, Laursen, & Cillessen, 2015)

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Figure 5

POPULARITY, REJECTION, AND BULLYING 1

Determinants of Popularity and Rejection

Popular adolescents are more socially skilled than unpopular peers.

However, there is a lot of variability among popular teenagers in other characteristics, making it difficult to predict popularity.

Two forms of popularity:

Sociometric popularity: How well-liked an individual is.

Perceived popularity: How much status or prestige an individual has.

Predicting perceived popularity is further complicated by the fact that peer norms change, and socially competent adolescents are skilled at figuring them out, adjusting their behavior in response to them, and even influencing them.

POPULARITY, REJECTION, AND BULLYING 2

Popularity and Aggression

Some aggressive teenagers are quite popular.

Some popular boys are extremely aggressive, athletically competent, and average or below average in friendliness, academic competence, and shyness.

Some girls are antisocial and antiacademic and sometimes bullies.

Proactive aggression: Aggressive behavior that is deliberate and planned.

Reactive aggression: Aggressive behavior that is unplanned and impulsive.

POPULARITY, REJECTION, AND BULLYING 3

The Dynamics of Popularity

The “too popular” face the possibility of being the object of other classmates’ meanness.

The advantages of being popular far outweigh the disadvantages.

Popular adolescents are more likely to have close and intimate friendships, have an active social life, take part in extracurricular activities, and receive more social recognition.

Teenagers whose peers like them, or who merely believe that their peers like them, have higher self-esteem both as adolescents and as adults.

Having friends outside school can buffer the harmful consequences of having few friends in school.

POPULARITY, REJECTION, AND BULLYING 4

Figure 5.6: It's lonely at the top. Students who are very high in popularity, as well as those who are very low, are less satisfied with their friendships and social life than their peers who fall somewhere in between these extremes. (Ferguson & Ryan, 2019)

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Figure 6

POPULARITY, REJECTION, AND BULLYING 5

Rejected Adolescents

Three types of unpopular adolescents:

Those who have problems controlling aggression.

Withdrawn adolescents who are shy, anxious, and inhibited.

Those who are both aggressive and withdrawn.

Peer rejection in adolescence can often be traced to rejection during earlier periods of development.

Rejection by peers is a major source of stress for adolescents, who have a stronger biological stress response to it than children do.

Relational Aggression

Most studies of aggressive children have paid more attention to boys.

Boys are more overtly aggressive than girls, but girls are more likely to engage in relational aggression.

Relational aggression: Acts intended to harm another through the manipulation of relationships with others (malicious gossip).

“Mean Girls”

Relational aggression was first found in girls, but boys also use it.

More attention has been devoted to physical fighting, though relational aggression also causes suffering.

Those who use it are often more popular.

Consequences of Rejection 1

Being unpopular has negative consequences for an adolescent’s mental health and psychological development:

Depression.

Behavior problems.

Alcohol use.

Interpersonal difficulties.

Academic difficulties.

Many unpopular aggressive children display hostile attribution bias.

Hostile attribution bias: The tendency to interpret ambiguous interactions with others as deliberately hostile.

Unpopular withdrawn children generally display hesitancy, low self-esteem, and lack of confidence that make other children feel uncomfortable, and their submissiveness makes them targets for bullying.

Consequences of Rejection 2

Helping Unpopular Teens

Psychologists have tried many tactics to help unpopular adolescents gain social skills.

Programs designed to teach social skills (self-expression, leadership, and how to converse).

Encouraging unpopular adolescents to join supervised group activities with popular adolescents.

Programs that focus on a combination of behavioral and cognitive abilities.

Bullies and Victims 1

About one third of students report physical bullying in the past year.

Bullying is differentiated by its repetitive nature and by the imbalance of power between bully and victim.

Prevalence of bullying is higher in schools and in countries characterized by greater income inequality.

Direct and indirect exposure to bullying result in similar and dissimilar effects.

Bullies and Victims 2

Figure 5.7: Peer victimization diminishes adolescents’ self-esteem, which often leads to more victimization. (van Geel et al., 2018)

Figure 7

Bullies and Victims 3

Figure 5.8: Rates of bullying vary considerably from country to country. Bullying is more prevalent in countries with greater income inequality. (Due et al., 2009)

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Figure 8

Bullies and Victims 4

Victimization

Victims report a range of adjustment problems: low self-esteem, depression, suicide, sleep difficulties, academic difficulties, loneliness, problems with social skills, and difficulties in controlling negative emotions.

Psychological problems have been shown to be the causes of victimization as well as the consequences.

Public victimization is particularly humiliating.

Victimization undermines academic performance, school attendance, school engagement, and feelings of academic competence, all of which has cascading effects well beyond adolescence.

Many adolescents who report having been victimized also report bullying others.

Bullies and Victims 5

Figure 5.9: A comprehensive study of 12- to 15-year-olds from 48 countries found that adolescents’ suicide attempts increase as a function of how frequently they are bullied. (Koyanagi et al., 2019)

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Figure 9

Bullies and Victims 6

Figure 5.10: Adolescents who have been victimized show heightened activation of brain regions associated with monitoring the behavior of others. (Telzer et al., 2019)

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Figure 10

Bullies and Victims 7

Victimization, continued

School-based anti-bullying programs have a little effect during elementary school but may lead to bullying during high school.

Onlookers are more likely to intervene and defend the victim in schools in which doing so was expected by other students.

A significant amount of bullying occurs outside of school.

Four categories of victims:

Mainly passive (e.g., ignoring the bully or walking away).

Mainly aggressive (e.g., fighting back, either physically or verbally).

Support seeking (e.g., telling a parent).

Those who do a little of everything.

Bullies and Victims 8

Figure 5.11: Evaluations of anti- bullying programs show they are moderately effective in elementary school, but not in high school, where they may even have negative consequences. (Yeager et al., 2015)

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Figure 11

Cyberbullying 1

Cyberbullying: Bullying that occurs over the internet or via cell phones

Less common than in-person harassment.

Affects victims in ways that are similar to physical bullying.

Becomes more common during adolescence.

Associated with both emotional and behavioral problems.

Types of bullying are correlated.

Victims of traditional bullying are also bullied online.

Perpetrators of traditional bullying also engage in cyberbullying.

Cyberbullying 2

Figure 5.12: Adolescent boys and girls deal with cyberbullying in different ways. (Bradbury, Dubow, & Dornoff, 2018)

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Figure 12

The Peer Group and Psychosocial Development

Regardless of the structure or norms of a particular peer group, peers play an extremely important role in the psychological development of adolescents.

Teens with poor peer relationships are more likely to:

Be low achievers in school.

Drop out of high school.

Show higher rates of delinquent behavior.

Suffer from emotional and mental health problems as adults.

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Accessibility Content: Text Alternatives for Images

Changes in the size of the youth population 2 - Text Alternative

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Maps showing 10- to 24-years-old as a percentage of the population of different countries in 1980, 2015, and 2050.

The 1980 map shows that in North America, most of Europe, Russia, Japan, Australia, and select countries in the Middle East, Africa, and South America, 20%–29% of the population was 10–24 years old. In most of Central America, South America, Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia, 30% or more of the population was 10–24 years old.

The 2015 map shows that in Canada, Russia, China, Australia, most of Europe, and select countries in Africa and South America, 10%–19% of the population was 10–24 years old. In the United States; most of Central America, South America, and Southeast Asia; and select countries in Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, 20%–29% of the population was 10–24 years old. In most African countries, and a few select countries in Central America, South America, the Middle East, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia, 30% or more of the population was 10–24 years old.

The 2050 map shows that North America, Europe, Russia, China, Australia, most of Central America and South America, and select countries in Africa, the Middle East, Central Asian, and Southeast Asia, 10%–19% of the population is projected to be 10–24 years old. In some countries in Central America, South America, Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia, 20%–29% of the population is projected to be 10–24 years old. In about one third of the countries in Africa, 30% or more of the population is projected to be 10–24 years old.

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The Nature of Adolescent Peer Groups 2 - Text Alternative

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Two line graphs compare the number of minutes per 7 days supervised and unsupervised peers spend with each other from ages 8 to 18. Supervised and unsupervised same-sex peers tend to not vary widely over the years, from 40 min at age 8 to 100 min at age 13 and back to 50 min at age 18 supervised, and from 90 min at age 8 to 160 min at age 14 and back to 120 min at age 18 unsupervised. In contrast, the supervised and unsupervised minutes girls and boys spend with opposite-sex peers spikes greatly. For girls, supervised minutes range from 40 min at age 8 to 150 min at age 15 to 340 min at age 18, while unsupervised minutes range from 20 min at age 8 to 100 min at age 14 to 330 min at age 18. For boys, supervised minutes range from 50 min at age 8 to 120 min at age 15 to 235 min at age 18, while unsupervised minutes range from 25 min at age 8 to 50 min at age 14 to 140 min at age 18.

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The Social Map of Adolescence 2 - Text Alternative

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A list of peer groups and their level of involvement in peer culture and adult institutions. Involvement in peer culture is charted from low to high on the horizontal axis and involvement in adult institutions is charted from low to high on the vertical axis. Toughs rate low in both categories, druggies rate low in involvement in adult institutions but in the middle in involvement in peer culture, and partyers rate low in involvement in adult institutions but high in involvement in peer culture. Normals rate in the middle in both categories. Nerds rate low in involvement in peer culture but high in involvement in adult institutions, brains rate in the middle in involvement with peer culture and high in involvement in adult institutions, and populars and jocks rate high in both categories.

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Similarity between Friends: Selection or Socialization? 2 - Text Alternative

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Adolescents’ characteristics influence their choice of friends, points to Adolescents’ friends influence each other’s characteristics, and vice versa.

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Similarity between Friends: Selection or Socialization? 5 - Text Alternative

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A line graph shows the relationship between seventh-grade friendship survival and the passage of time.

The y-axis is labeled “Probability that a 7th-grade friendship will survive.” The x-axis is labeled “Grade.”

The line begins at a 1.0 on the y-axis at Grade 7.

At Grade 8, it has dropped to about .24.

At Grade 9, the line has dropped to about .08.

At Grade 10, it has dropped to about .02.

At Grade 11, it has dropped to about .01.

By Grade 12, when the line ends, it is hovering right above 0.

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POPULARITY, REJECTION, AND BULLYING 4 - Text Alternative

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The vertical axis is labeled "Social contentment," ranging from negative 1.5 through positive 1.5, in increments of positive 0.5, for both the graphs.

Left: The horizontal axis is labeled "Sociometric popularity," ranging from negative 0.5 through positive 0.25, in random increments. The curve for "Social satisfaction" starts with data point (0.0, negative 0.25), then steadily increases and bulges at data point (positive 0.10, positive 0.7), and finally decreases to reach the data point (positive 0.24, negative 1.3). The curve for "Social self-concept" starts with data point (0.0, negative 0.2), then steadily increases and bulges at data point (positive 0.10, positive 0.65), and finally decreases to reach the data point (positive 0.24, negative 0.9). The curve for "Best friendship quality" starts with data point (0.0, negative 0.3), then steadily increases and bulges at data point (positive 0.11, positive 1.0), and finally decreases to reach the data point (positive 0.24, negative 0.8).

Right: The horizontal axis is labeled "Perceived popularity," ranging from negative 0.5 through positive 0.20, in random increments. The curve for "Social satisfaction" starts with data point (0.0, negative 0.1), then steadily increases and bulges at data point (positive 0.7, positive 0.55), and finally decreases to reach the data point (positive 0.17, negative 0.75). The curve for "Social self-concept" starts with data point (0.0, negative 0.1), then steadily increases and bulges at data point (positive 0.07, positive 0.75), and finally decreases to reach the data point (positive 0.17, negative 0.6). The curve for "Best friendship quality" starts with data point (0.0, negative 0.1), then steadily increases and bulges at data point (positive 0.075, positive 0.65), and finally decreases to reach the data point (positive 0.17, negative 1.1). The data points in both the graphs are approximate.

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Bullies and Victims 3 - Text Alternative

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A graph charts bullying prevalence on the vertical axis and income inequality on the horizontal axis, comparing over 25 countries. According to the graph, bullying is extremely high (nearly 35%) in Lithuania; high (over 15%) in the Russian Federation, Portugal, Estonia, Latvia, Austria, the Ukraine, and Flemish-speaking Belgium; moderate (over 10%) in the United States, Germany, England, Switzerland, France, Canada, Poland, Macedonia, Norway, Denmark, and French-speaking Belgium; and low (under 10%) in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Italy, Greece, Israel, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Finland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Croatia, and Slovenia, with Sweden being the lowest.

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Bullies and Victims 5 - Text Alternative

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The horizontal axis is labeled "Number of days bullied in past 30 days." The vertical axis is labeled "Prevalence of suicide attempts," ranging from 0 through 40, in increments of 5. The percentage of prevalence of suicide attempts by boys and girls after getting bullied for various groups of days in past 30 days are as follows: 0 days, 5.3 and 6.5; 1 through 2 days, 13.9 and 17.6; 3 through 5 days, 22.1 and 28.5; 6 through 19 days, 26.5 and 29.3; and 20 through 30 days, 30.8 and 34.6.

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Bullies and Victims 6 - Text Alternative

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In all the scatter plots, the horizontal axis is labeled “peer victimization, ranging from 0 through 4, in increments of 1. In the first plot, the horizontal axis is labeled “Amygdala, In-group greater than out-group,” ranging from negative 1 through positive 1, in increments of positive 0.5. The superior view of brain shows an encircled yellow region to the bottom left. In the second plot, the horizontal axis is labeled “Ventral Striatum, In-group greater than out-group,” ranging from negative 1 through positive 1, in increments of positive 0.5. The superior view of brain shows two encircled yellow regions to the bottom left. In the third plot, the horizontal axis is labeled “TPJ, In-group greater than out-group,” ranging from negative 1.5 through positive 1, in increments of positive 0.5. The lateral view of brain shows an encircled yellow region to the center. In the fourth plot, the horizontal axis is labeled “Fusiform, In-group greater than out-group,” ranging from negative 0.5 through positive 1, in increments of positive 0.5. The superior view of brain shows an encircled yellow region to the bottom right. Brain of victimized adolescents shows activation in Amygdala, Ventral Striatum, TPJ, and Fusiform with peer victimization and show direct dependence of activation in all these on peer victimization through increasing trend line of the scatter plots.

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Bullies and Victims 8 - Text Alternative

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The horizontal axis is labeled "Grade Level," ranging from first through twelfth, in increments of 1. The vertical axis is labeled "Anti-Bullying Program Effectiveness," ranging from negative 0.4 through positive 0.4, in increments of positive 0.2. The effectiveness of anti-bullying program increases from 0.1 in first grade through 0.125 in sixth grade, then decrease and reaches at negative 0.21 at twelfth grade. A dashed line is marked at zero for all grade levels. The values used in description are approximate.

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Cyberbullying 2 - Text Alternative

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The horizontal axis shows various methods used by males and females to deal with cyberbullying. The vertical axis is labeled "Mean," ranging from 0.00 through 3.50, in increments of 0.50. The mean is as follows: Distancing, 2.05 and 2.15; Distraction, 2.50 and 2.90; Problem-solving, 2.30 and 2.63; Retaliation, 1.80 and 1.60; Social support-family or Adult, 1.95 and 2.45; and social support-friend, 2 and 2.55. The data points are approximate.

week 6

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