Writing assignment in history 2321

China entered into its most dynamic intellectual period in the sixth century B.C.E., during the Zhou dynasty. Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism, the three foundational philosophical schools, were introduced during that period, and the process of refi ning these ideas began almost immediately. Much of China’s intellectual endeav- ors in the future will be linked in some way to one or more of these systems (with the addition of Buddhism in the Han Dynasty, c. third century C.E.). Th e few centuries immediately following the sixth century BCE was also a period of dramatic political events, which would also have a lasting legacy for China. Th e Zhou dynasty ended in a prolonged period of chaos, in which no one dynasty was able to dominate the region that is known as “China.” Th is Warring States Period, from 403 – 221 B.C.E. was not the longest period of disunity China will have, and is most notable for came next. In 221 B.C.E. the Qin Dynasty created the fi rst unifi ed Chinese empire, and introduced the idea of an imperial state to China, an ideal that China will never again step away from. Th e subsequent dynasties of imperial China, including the Han Dynasty of 202 B.C.E. – 220 C.E., would strive to exceed the geographic hegemony of the Qin Dynasty.

Th e documents in this chapter refl ect both the philosophical dynamism and the political turbulence of the cen- turies from the Zhou to the end of the Later Han, roughly the eighth century B.C.E. to the third century C.E.

9.1 Han Fei-tzu, “Selections on Legalism,”

Although Han Fei-tzu (d. 233 B.C.E.) began his studies as a Confucianist, he was a protégé of Hsun Tzu, one of Confucius’s more cynical successors. Th us Han Fei-tzu switched to Legalism, which was less concerned with theo- ries and more concerned with the practical fundamentals of that interaction. Over time, what began as expediency became more deliberate and exhaustive in its att empts to regularize all aspects of civic behavior and thought.

Source: Han Fei-tzu, “Selections on Legalism,” from The Four Books. James Legge, ed. and trans. (Shanghai: The Chinese Book

Company, 1930), 437-442.

HAVING REGULATIONS

No country is permanently strong. Nor is any country permanently weak. If conformers to law are strong, the

country is strong; if conformers to law are weak, the country is weak....

Any ruler able to expel private crookedness and uphold public law fi nds the people safe and the state in

China: Imperial Unifi cation and Perfecting the Moral Order 722 B.C.E. – 618 C.E.

Chapter 9

117China: Imperial Unifi cation and Perfecting the Moral Order, 722 B.C.E. – 618 C.E.

order; and any ruler able to expunge private action and act on public law fi nds his army strong and his enemy

weak. So, fi nd out men following the discipline of laws and regulations, and place them above the body of of-

fi cials. Then the sovereign cannot be deceived by anybody with fraud and falsehood....

Therefore, the intelligent sovereign makes the law select men and makes no arbitrary promotion himself. He

makes the law measure merits and makes no arbitrary regulation himself. In consequence, able men cannot be

obscured, bad characters cannot be disguised, falsely praised fellows cannot be advanced, wrongly defamed

people cannot be degraded. To govern the state by law is to praise the right and blame the wrong.

The law does not fawn on the noble....Whatever the law applies to, the wise cannot reject nor can the brave

defy. Punishment for fault never skips ministers, reward for good never misses commoners. Therefore, to cor-

rect the faults of the high, to rebuke the vices of the low, to suppress disorders, to decide against mistakes, to

subdue the arrogant, to straighten the crooked, and to unify the folkways of the masses, nothing could match

the law. To warn the offi cials and overawe the people, to rebuke obscenity and danger, and to forbid falsehood

and deceit, nothing could match penalty. If penalty is severe, the noble cannot discriminate against the humble.

If law is defi nite, the superiors are esteemed and not violated. If the superiors are not violated, the sovereign will

become strong and able to maintain the proper course of government. Such was the reason why the early kings

esteemed Legalism and handed it down to posterity. Should the lord of men discard law and practice selfi sh-

ness, high and law would have no distinction.

THE TWO HANDLES The means whereby the intelligent ruler controls his ministers are two handles only. The two handles are

chastisement and commendation. What are meant by chastisement and commendation? To infl ict death or

torture upon culprits is called chastisement; to bestow encouragements or rewards on men of merit is called

commendation.

Ministers are afraid of censure and punishment but fond of encouragement and reward. Therefore, if the

lord of men uses the handles of chastisement and commendation, all ministers will dread his severity and turn

to his liberality. The villainous ministers of the age are different. To men they hate they would by securing the

handle of chastisement from the sovereign ascribe crimes; on men they love they would by securing the handle

of commendation. From the sovereign bestow rewards. Now supposing the lord of men placed the authority of

punishment and the profi t of reward not in his hands but let the ministers administer the affairs of reward and

punishment instead, then everybody in the country would fear the ministers and slight the ruler and turn to the

ministers and away from the ruler. This is the calamity of the ruler’s loss of the handles of chastisement and

commendation.

Reading and Discussion Questions 1. How do Legalists distinguish between public and private concerns? Which has priority and why? 2. How do Legalists such as Han Fei-tzu view the ordinary Chinese citizen? What accounts for this attitude? 3. Why were Han Fei-Tzu’s views on government so infl uential during a period when China was undergoing

political upheaval?

9.2 Confucius, Selections from the Analects

Although Confucius may have been a fertile thinker, he was not a prolifi c writer. Th ere is only collection of materi- als att ributed to “the Master:” the Analects. Confucius did not write these; they were gathered from his immediate followers, and read as a collection of profound musings on politics, morality, personal behavior, family, and culture.

118 Chapter 9

Th ere is litt le about Confucius’s personal life in the Analects, and litt le is known of him from contemporary sources. Traditional versions of his life story say that he was born in the sixth century B.C.E., and was an itinerant political advisor. He was, technically speaking, a failure in his lifetime, unable to fi nd permanent employment with any one of the Zhou vassal kingdoms. History would prove him greatly successful, however.

Th e following excerpts give a broad overview of the basic Confucian tenets encapsulated in the Analects, includ- ing the Master’s thoughts on fi lial piety and the junzi, or “superior man.”

Source: Confucius, “Selections from the Analects I,” from The Four Books. James Legge, ed. and trans. (Shanghai: The Chinese

Book Company, 1930), 13, 16, 19, 33, 161-162, 245-248.

FILIAL PIETY

The Master said, “A youth, when at home, should be fi lial, and, abroad, respectful to his elders. He should be

earnest and truthful. He should overfl ow in love to all, and cultivate the friendship of the good. When he has time

and opportunity, after the performance of these things, he should employ them in polite studies.” Mang I asked

what fi lial piety was. The Master said, “It is not being disobedient.” Soon after, as Fan Chi was driving him, the

Master told him, saying, “Mangsun asked me what fi lial piety was, and I answered him, - Ônot being disobedi-

ent.’” Fan Chi said, “What did you mean?” The Master replied, “That parents, when alive, should be served

according to propriety; that, when dead, they should be buried according to propriety; and that they should be

sacrifi ced to according to propriety.” The Master said, “In serving his parents, a son may remonstrate with them,

but gently; when he sees that they do not incline to follow his advice, he shows an increased degree of rever-

ence, but does not abandon his purpose; and should they punish him, he does not allow himself to murmur.”

EDUCATION The Master said, “If the scholar be not grave, he will not call forth any veneration, and his learning will not be

solid.”

The Master said, “If a man keeps cherishing his old knowledge, so as continually to be acquiring new, he

may be a teacher of others.”

The Master said, “The accomplished scholar is not a utensil.”

The Master said, “Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.”

The Master said, “Yu, shall I teach you what knowledge is? When you know a thing, to hold that you know it;

and when you do not know a thing, to allow that you do not know it; this is knowledge.”

The Master said, “They who know the truth are not equal to those who love it, and they who love it are not

equal to those who delight in it.”

The Master said, “The scholar who cherishes the love of comfort is not fi t to be deemed a scholar.”

When the Master went to Wei, Zan Yu acted as driver of his carriage. The Master observed, “How numerous

are the people!” Yu said, “Since they are so numerous, what more shall be done for them?” “Enrich them,” was

the reply. “And when they have been enriched, what more shall be done?” The Master said, “Teach them.”

GOVERNMENT The Master said, “To rule a country of a thousand chariots, there must be reverent attention to business, and

sincerity; economy in expenditure, and love for men; and the employment of the people at the proper sea-

sons.”

119China: Imperial Unifi cation and Perfecting the Moral Order, 722 B.C.E. – 618 C.E.

The Master said, “He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar

star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it.”

The Master said, “If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishment, they

will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to

be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of shame, and moreover will become good.”

Ji Kang asked how to cause the people to reverence their ruler, to be faithful to him, and to go on to nerve

themselves to virtue. The Master said, “Let him preside over them with gravity; then they will reverence him. Let

him be fi lial and kind to all; then they will be faithful to him. Let him advance the good and teach the incompe-

tent; then they will eagerly seek to be virtuous.”

Zigong asked about government. The Master said, “The requisites of government are that there be suf-

fi ciency of food, suffi ciency of military equipment, and the confi dence of the people in their ruler.” Zigong

said, “If it cannot be helped, and one of these must be dispensed with, which of the three should be foregone

fi rst?” “The military equipment,” said the Master. Zigong again asked, “If it cannot be helped, and one of the

remaining two must be dispensed with, which of them should be foregone?” The Master answered, “Part with

the food. From of old, death has been the lot of all men; but if the people have no faith in their rulers, there is

no standing for the State.”

Ji Kang asked Confucius about government, saying, “What do you say to killing the unprincipled for the good

of the principled?” Confucius replied, “Sir, in carrying on your government, why should you use killing at all?

Let your evinced desires be for what is good, and the people will be good. The relation between superiors and

inferiors is like that between the wind and the grass. The grass must bend, when the wind blows across it.”

The Master said, “When a prince’s personal conduct is correct, the government is effective without the issu-

ing of orders. If his personal conduct is not correct, he may issue orders, but they will not be followed.”

Zizhang asked Confucius, saying, “In what way should a person in authority act in order that he may con-

duct government properly?” The Master replied, “Let him honor the fi ve excellent, and banish away the four

bad, things; then may he conduct government properly.” Zizhang said, “What are meant by the fi ve excellent

things?”

The Master said, “When the person in authority is benefi cent without great expenditure; when he lays tasks

on the people without their repining; when he pursues what he desires without being covetous; when he main-

tains a dignifi ed ease without being proud; when he is majestic without being fi erce.”

Zizhang then asked, “What are meant by the four bad things?” The Master said, “To put the people to death

without having instructed them; this is called cruelty. To require from them, suddenly, the full tale of work,

without having given them warning; this is called oppression. To issue orders as if without urgency, at fi rst, and,

when the time comes, to insist on them with severity; this is called injury. And, generally, in the giving pay or

rewards to men, to do it in a stingy way; this is called acting the part of a mere offi cial.”

RELIGION The Master said, “He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray.”

Ji Lu asked about serving the spirits of the dead. The Master said, “While you are not able to serve men, how

can you serve their spirits?” Ji Lu added, “I venture to ask about death.” He was answered, “While you do not

know life, how can you know about death?”

The Master said, “Alas! there is no one that knows me.” Zi Gong said, “What do you mean by thus saying -

that no one knows you?” The Master replied, “I do not murmur against Heaven. I do not grumble against men.

My studies lie low, and my penetration rises high. But there is Heaven; that knows me!”

120 Chapter 9

The Master said, “I would prefer not speaking.” Zi Gong said, “If you, Master, do not speak, what shall we,

your disciples, have to record?” The Master said, “Does Heaven speak? The four seasons pursue their courses,

and all things are continually being produced, but does Heaven say anything?”

The Master said, “Without recognizing the ordinances of Heaven, it is impossible to be a superior man.”

VIRTUE AND GOODNESS The Master said, “Fine words and an insinuating appearance are seldom associated with true virtue.”

The Master said, “See what a man does. Mark his motives. Examine in what things he rests. How can a man

conceal his character?”

The Master said, “I do not know how a man without truthfulness is to get on. How can a large carriage be

made to go without the cross-bar for yoking the oxen to, or a small carriage without the arrangement for yoking

the horses?”

The Master said, “To see what is right and not to do it is want of courage.”

The Master said, “If the will be set on virtue, there will be no practice of wickedness.”

The Master said, “Riches and honors are what men desire. If virtue cannot be obtained in the proper way,

they should not be held. Poverty and meanness are what men dislike. If virtue cannot be obtained in the proper

way, they should be avoided.”

The Master said, “I have not seen a person who loved virtue, or one who hated what was not virtuous. He

who loved virtue, would esteem nothing above it. He who hated what is not virtuous, would practice virtue in

such a way that he would not allow anything that is not virtuous to approach his person. Is any one able for one

day to apply his strength to virtue? I have not seen the case in which his strength would be insuffi cient.”

The Master said, “A man should say, I am not concerned that I have no place, I am concerned how I may fi t

myself for one. I am not concerned that I am not known, I seek to be worthy to be known.”

The Master said, “When we see men of worth, we should think of equaling them; when we see men of a

contrary character, we should turn inwards and examine ourselves.”

The Master said, “Virtue is not left to stand alone. He who practices it will have neighbors.”

The Master said, “Let the will be set on the path of duty. Let every attainment in what is good be fi rmly

grasped. Let perfect virtue be accorded with. Let relaxation and enjoyment be found in the polite arts.”

The Master said, “With coarse rice to eat, with water to drink, and my bended arm for a pillow; I have still joy

in the midst of these things. Riches and honors acquired by unrighteousness are to me as a fl oating cloud.”

The Master said, “Is virtue a thing remote? I wish to be virtuous, and lo! virtue is at hand.”

The Master said, “Respectfulness, without the rules of propriety, becomes laborious bustle; carefulness,

without the rules of propriety, becomes timidity; boldness, without the rules of propriety, becomes insubordina-

tion; straightforwardness, without the rules of propriety, becomes rudeness.”

The Master said, “Can men refuse to assent to the words of strict admonition? But it is reforming the conduct

because of them which is valuable. Can men refuse to be pleased with words of gentle advice? But it is unfold-

ing their aim which is valuable. If a man be pleased with these words, but does not unfold their aim, and assents

to those, but does not reform his conduct, I can really do nothing with him.”

The Master said, “Hold faithfulness and sincerity as fi rst principles. Have no friends not equal to yourself.

When you have faults, do not fear to abandon them.”

The Master said, “The commander of the forces of a large State may be carried off, but the will of even a

common man cannot be taken from him.”

The Master said, “The wise are free from perplexities; the virtuous from anxiety; and the bold from fear.”

The Master said, “To go beyond is as wrong as to fall short.”

121China: Imperial Unifi cation and Perfecting the Moral Order, 722 B.C.E. – 618 C.E.

Zhong Gong asked about perfect virtue. The Master said, “It is, when you go abroad, to behave to every one

as if you were receiving a great guest; to employ the people as if you were assisting at a great sacrifi ce; not to

do to others as you would not wish done to yourself to have no murmuring against you in the country, and none

in the family.”

Fan Chi asked about benevolence. The Master said, “It is to love all men.” He asked about knowledge. The

Master said, “It is to know all men.”

Fan Chi asked about perfect virtue. The Master said, “It is, in retirement, to be sedately grave; in the man-

agement of business, to be reverently attentive; in intercourse with others, to be strictly sincere. Though a man

go among rude, uncultivated tribes, these qualities may not be neglected.”

Zigong asked, saying, “What do you say of a man who is loved by all the people of his neighborhood?”

The Master replied, “We may not for that accord our approval of him.” “And what do you say of him who is

hated by all the people of his neighborhood?” The Master said, “We may not for that conclude that he is bad. It

is better than either of these cases that the good in the neighborhood love him, and the bad hate him.”

The Master said, “He who speaks without modesty will fi nd it diffi cult to make his words good.”

Someone said, “What do you say concerning the principle that injury should be recompensed with kind-

ness?”

The Master said, “With what then will you recompense kindness? Recompense injury with justice, and rec-

ompense kindness with kindness.”

Zigong asked, saying, “Is there one word which may serve as a rule of practice for all one’s life?” The Master

said, “Is not RECIPROCITY such a word? What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others.”

The Master said, “Virtue is more to man than either water or fi re. I have seen men die from treading on water

and fi re, but I have never seen a man die from treading the course of virtue.”

Confucius said, “There are three friendships which are advantageous, and three which are injurious. Friend-

ship with the upright; friendship with the sincere; and friendship with the man of much observation; these are

advantageous. Friendship with the man of specious airs; friendship with the insinuatingly soft; and friendship

with the glib-tongued; these are injurious.”

Confucius said, “There are three things men fi nd enjoyment in which are advantageous, and three things

they fi nd enjoyment in which are injurious. To fi nd enjoyment in the discriminating study of ceremonies and

music; to fi nd enjoyment in speaking of the goodness of others; to fi nd enjoyment in having many worthy

friends; these are advantageous. To fi nd enjoyment in extravagant pleasures; to fi nd enjoyment in idleness and

sauntering; to fi nd enjoyment in the pleasures of feasting; these are injurious.”

Zigong asked Confucius about perfect virtue. Confucius said, “To be able to practice fi ve things everywhere

under Heaven constitutes perfect virtue.” He begged to ask what they were, and was told, “Gravity, generosity

of soul, sincerity, earnestness, and kindness. If you are grave, you will not be treated with disrespect. If you are

generous, you will win all. If you are sincere, people will repose trust in you. If you are earnest, you will accom-

plish much. If you are kind, this will enable you to employ the services of others.”

Reading and Discussion Questions 1. What are the priorities of the state, according to Confucius, and how are they to be reconciled if there are

limited resources? 2. Perhaps the single most important Confucian idea is fi lial piety. What did Confucius mean by that phrase,

and how did it work in the public sphere? 3. What is the purpose of ceremony for Confucius? 4. Why are so many of the ideas in the Analects presented as lists?

122 Chapter 9

9.3 Laozi, excerpt from the Daode Jing, “The Unvarying Way”

“Laozi” is a title meaning “Old Child;” litt le is known about the historical reality that lay behind that accolade. It is perhaps fi tt ing that Laozi is a mysterious fi gure, as the dao that he spoke of was equally enigmatic. If there was a Laozi, he probably lived in the early seventh century B.C.E., which would make him a near contemporary of Con- fucius. Th at is also appropriate, as both schools of thought deal with similar concepts, such as the dao, although they have vastly diff erent understandings of what those terms mean. For Laozi and the Daoists, the dao was a universal force that transcends all. It is essentially unknowable. For Confucius, the dao was a recognizable and knowable force that governed the world and led humanity to strive for moral behavior. Th e following verses are taken from the Daode Jing, the classic of Daoist thought.

Source: Lao Tzu. “The Unvarying Way.” Tao TeChing, trans. by Arthur Waley, 1934

The Unvarying Way

The unvarying way that can be preached is not the enduring and unchanging way. The name that can be na-

medis not the enduring and unchanging name.We look at it, and we do not see it, and we name it ‘the invisible.’

We listen to it, and we do not hear it, and wename it ‘the inaudible.’ We try to grasp it, and do not get hold of it,

and we name it ‘the intangible.’ With these three qualities, it cannot be made the subject of description; blended

together they are a unity.The unvarying way is all pervading, it may be found on the left or the right.The unvary-

ing way is hidden, and has no name; but it is the way things are, which is skillful at imparting to all things what

they need to make them complete. All things depend on it and it does not desert them. Ambitionless, it may be

found in the smallest things. Itclothes all things, but does not act as a master. Always without desire, it may be

called insignifi cant. All things return to it; it may be named great.

Heaven and earth under its guidance unite together and send down the sweet dew, which, without the di-

rectionsof men, reaches equally everywhere as of its own accord. Likewise, the relation of the unvarying way to

all the world is like that of the great rivers and seas to the streamsfrom the valleys.There is nothing in the world

more soft and weak than water, and yet there is nothing better for attacking things that are fi rm and strong.

There is nothing so effectual for causing change. Water has the highest excellence. It benefi ts all things, and

occupies without striving the low place which allmen dislike. Hence it is close to the way things are.The unvary-

ing way relies on non-action, and so there is nothing which it does not do.The way things are is to act without

thinking of acting; to conduct affairs without feeling the trouble of them; to taste without consuming; it considers

what is small as great, and a few as many; and it recompenses injury withkindness.The unvarying way moves

by contraries, and weakness marks the course of its action. As soon as the way is expressed in a creative act, it

has a name. When it once has that name, men can know how to come into equilibrium with it. When they know

how to come to equilibrium, they can be free from risk of failure and error.

Reading and Discussion Questions 1. How does Laozi use oppositions to convey the unknowability of the Dao? 2. Why is Daoism presented in verses that are open to various interpretations? Compare how Doaism is pre-

sented with how Confucius explained his principles in the previous source 3. If the Dao cannot fully be perceived, is it possible to defi ne any of its characteristics?

123China: Imperial Unifi cation and Perfecting the Moral Order, 722 B.C.E. – 618 C.E.

9.4 Ban Zhao, “Admonitions for Women”

Ban Zhao was the daughter and sister of prominent Han historians. She was born in the fi rst century of the com- mon era, during the Later Han Dynasty, and is thus the last of the writers included in this chapter. Her “Admoni- tions for Women” takes a very Confucian approach to defi ning appropriate behavior. If Confucius and Mencius were trying to create the junzi, or superior man, then Ban Zhao was att empting to craft the female version of that.

In addition to this text, Ban Zhao also completed a history of the Former Han begun by her father and brother, and worked as a tutor at the Han court, educating the women of the Han dynasty. Th us she was a professional historian and educator, and unusual occupation for women.

Source: “Admonitions for Women,” from Sources of Chinese Tradition: From Earliest Times to 1600, Second Edition. Wm. Theodore

de Bary and Irene Bloom, eds. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), 823-824

Humility

… Let a woman retire late to bed, but rise early to her duties; let her not dread tasks by day or by night. Let

her not refuse to perform domestic duties whether easy or diffi cult. That which must be done, let her fi nish

completely, tidily, and systematically. [When a woman follows such rules as these] then she may be said to be

industrious.

Let a woman be composed in demeanor and upright in bearing in the service of her husband. Let her live

in purity and quietness [of spirit] and keep watch over herself. Let her not love gossip and silly laughter. Let her

cleanse, purify, and arrange in order the wine and the food for the offerings to the ancestors. [Observing such

principles as these] is what it means to continue the ancestral rites. …

Husband and Wife If a husband be unworthy, then he possesses nothing by which to control his wife. If a wife be unworthy, then

she possesses nothing with which to serve her husband. If a husband does not control his wife, then he loses

his authority. If a wife does not serve her husband, then right principles [the natural order] are neglected and

destroyed. As a matter of fact, in practice these two [the controlling of women by men and the serving of men

by women] work out in the same way.

Now examine the gentlemen of the present age. They only know that wives must be controlled and that the

husband’s authority must be maintained. They therefore teach their boys to read books and [study] histories.

But they do not in the least understand how husbands and masters are to be served or how rites and right

principles are to be maintained.

Yet only to teach men and not to teach women — is this not ignoring the reciprocal relation between them?

According to the Rites, book learning begins at the age of eight, and at the age of fi fteen one goes to school.

Why, however, should this principle not apply to girls as well as boys?

Respect and Compliance

As yin and yang are not of the same nature, so man and woman differ in behavior. The virtue of yang is

fi rmness; yin is manifested in yielding. Man is honored for strength; a woman is beautiful on account of her

gentleness. Hence there arose the common saying, “A man born as a wolf may, it is feared, become a woman;

a woman born as a mouse may, it is feared, become a tigress.”

124 Chapter 9

Now for self-cultivation there is nothing like respectfulness. To avert harshness there is nothing like compli-

ance. Consequently it can be said that the Way of respect and compliance is for women the most important

element in ritual decorum. …

[If a wife] does not restrain her contempt for her husband, then it will be followed by scolding and shout-

ing [from him]. [If a husband] does not restrain his anger, then there is certain to be beating [of the wife]. The

correct relationship between husband and wife is based upon harmony and intimacy, and [conjugal] love is

grounded in proper union. If it comes to blows, how can the proper relationship be preserved? If sharp words

are spoken, how can [conjugal] love exist? If love and proper relationship are both destroyed, then husband

and wife are parted.

Womanly Behavior In womanly behavior there are four things [to be considered]: womanly virtue, womanly speech, womanly

appearance, and womanly work. …

To guard carefully her chastity, to control circumspectly her behavior, in every motion to exhibit modesty, and

to model each act on the best usage: this may be called womanly virtue.

To choose her words with care, to avoid vulgar language, to speak at appropriate times, and not to be of-

fensive to others may be called womanly speech.

To wash and scrub dirt and grime, to keep clothes and ornaments fresh and clean, to wash the head and

bathe the body regularly, and to keep the person free from disgraceful fi lth may be called womanly appear-

ance.

With wholehearted devotion to sew and weave, not to love gossip and silly laughter, in cleanliness and order

[to prepare] the wine and food for serving guests may be called womanly work.

Reading and Discussion Questions: 1. How is Ban Zhao interpreting the Confucian ideals of appropriate behavior and fi lial piety for women? Does

she see them as essentially different for women than for men? 2. Compare Ban Zhao’s list of proper women’s behavior with Confucius’s lists for the proper behavior of the

“superior man” or the junzi, from the excerpt of the Analects. 3. Compare and contrast Ban Zhao’s admonitions with the rules for Hindu women expressed in document

8.4