Sport Facilities VII

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Journal of Sport Management, 2004, 18, 425-430 © 2004 Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Media and Spectators

Based on the premise that media can be both a competitor and a facilitator of opportunities for people’s leisure time, the purpose of this article was to investi- gate the relationship between media use and participation in leisure activities. The authors presented the results of two studies undertaken in 1993 (N = 320) and 1996 (N = 377) on how engaging in leisure activities (e.g., attending professional foot- ball, basketball, and baseball games, attending the theatre, going to a museum, and going to the zoo) in one U.S. metropolitan area was affected by media use (e.g., reading newspapers, watching television, listening to radio). Results demonstrated that there is a strong relationship between media use and leisure participation. In other words, the more individuals use media, the greater they participate as specta- tors in leisure. In addition to uncovering the implications of this finding, the au- thors discuss the complexity of the interrelationship between media use and lei- sure activities.

Jeffres, L.W., Neuendorf, K., & Atkins, D. (2003). Media use and participation as a spectator in public leisure activities: Competition or symbiosis. Leisure Studies, 22(2), 169-184.

Media and Perceptions of Body Image

The purpose of this article was to explore perceptions of body image by two gen- erations of Hispanic women. A total of 27 women (17 women from Generation X and 10 women from the Baby Boomers) participated in focus groups and inter- views in which they were exposed to images from popular magazines and were asked to comment on how these images relate to their concepts of body image. Results revealed that Hispanic Generation Xers were preoccupied with body im- age, weight, and physical appearance, whereas Hispanic Baby Boomers empha- sized health and well-being over thinness. Baby Boomers, however, identified the image of the skinniest women as the “ideal body image.” The authors discuss the role that language, cultural factors, and family values play in Hispanic women’s perceptions of body image.

Pompper, D., & Koenig, J. (2004). Cross-cultural-generational perceptions of ideal body image: Hispanic women and magazine standards. Journalism and Mass Com- munication Quarterly, 81(1), 89-107.

Media and Market Profile: The Case of Baltimore

This brief article outlines the case of Baltimore as the center of a highly competi- tive media industry. The author reviews various strategies undertaken by local newspapers, television, and radio to retain and enhance viewership. Among some of these strategies, the examples of Comcast SportsNet and local television

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affiliates are presented. The strategy involves these companies’ decision to broad- cast 90 MLB Baltimore Orioles games as well as NBA games involving the Wash- ington Wizards and the NHL’s Washington Capitals hockey games. Comcast is also involved in broadcasting University of Maryland football and basketball games. Other strategies are also covered that contribute to Baltimore’s status as a media hub.

Davis Hudson, E. (2004, April 12). Market profile: Baltimore. Mediaweek, 14(15), 12-16.

Media, Sport Participation, and Body Image

This study sought to explore the link between media exposure during the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games and body-image distortions. Several hypotheses were iden- tified in which women’s attitudes about body image are predicted based on expo- sure to certain sports, sport participation, and exposure to media. A total of 324 women took part in the study. The findings revealed how body dissatisfaction is evident among young women and older women alike. In addition, the relationship between exposure to lean sports such as diving, gymnastics, and figure skating and body image is discussed. The author concludes by discussing strategies to counteract body dissatisfaction for all women regardless of their age. One of these strategies includes increasing sport participation among girls and young women as one method to downplay negative messages from the entertainment media.

Bissell, K.L. (2004). What do these messages really mean? Sports media expo- sure, sports participation, and body image distortion in women between the ages of 18 and 75. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 81(1), 108-123.

Satellite Television and Football Attendance

The factors that affect fan attendance at football (soccer) matches in England have been studied extensively within the sport economics literature. In this study, Allan focuses on the relationship between fan attendance and the televising of football matches via satellite television. Using attendance data from 1995 to 2001 for the Aston Villa football club in the English Premier League, the author found a nega- tive impact on attendance for games that were broadcast via satellite television. Allan uses a semi-logarithmic functional form in his regression analysis and found that in-stadium attendance fell by approximately 7.75% for games that were tele- vised. This study also found that game attendance was positively affected when the English national football team was successful. Thus, it appears that some type of spillover effect existed between Premier League attendance and national team success. The findings of this study call into question the effect on attendance of the new 3-year television-rights deal signed by the English Premier League. It must be noted that a major limitation of this study was that all empirical work was limited to one team in the Premier League, Aston Villa.

Allan, S. (2004). Satellite television and football attendance: The not so super effect. Applied Economic Letters, 11(2), 123-125.

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Disability Lessons in Higher Education

This article provides a comprehensive examination of the prohibitions imposed on colleges, universities, and professional schools under the Rehabilitation Act and ADA. Both the nondiscrimination prohibitions and mandate of reasonable accom- modations for students with disabilities is addressed. Of particular interest is the discussion concerning the impact of the federal disability laws on the NCAA and student athletes with learning disabilities, including a discussion of the Consent Decree between the NCAA and the Department of Justice. Court decisions in re- sponse to lawsuits filed by student athletes are also examined. The author also recommends several strategies for universities and the NCAA to meet their obliga- tions under the federal disability laws such as the designation of an ADA compli- ance officer and the development of comprehensive written policies on disability issues.

Denbo, S.M. (2003, Fall). Disability lessons in higher education: Accommodating learning-disabled students and student-athletes under the Rehabilitation Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act. American Business Law Journal, 41(1), 143-203.

The Control of Externalities in Sports Leagues

The authors present one of the first successful models of the efficiency of organi- zational restrictions in the context of joint ventures through the analysis of the National Hockey League. Given the nature of sports leagues as joint ventures, the NHL provides a rare opportunity to analyze the economic efficiency implications of industrial rules that limit market competition. Specifically, the NHL rule limit- ing franchise movement was tested to determine its effect on league attendance. The authors provide both a theoretical model and empirical analysis to explain the economic outcomes of team relocation rules. Using data from the 1980s, when the NHL was a 21-team league, the empirical results showed that team relocation had a small but statistically significant negative relationship to attendance. A team that relocated to a new market may have lowered attendance at away contests, thus creating a negative externality for all other teams in the league. Thus, it may be economically prudent for professional sport leagues to limit the level of team relo- cation.

Carlton, D.W., Frankel, A.S., & Landes, E.M. (2004). The control of externalities in sports leagues: An analysis of restrictions in the National Hockey League. The Journal of Political Economy, 112(1), S268-S288.

Remedies Involving Gender Discrimination by Private Clubs

This article examines the constitutional issues arising when constitutional freedom- of-association issues collide with the discriminatory practices of a private golf club. It identifies possible remedies that may be sought by those who find them- selves victims of discrimination by private clubs. Several recent Supreme Court decisions, as well as the history of gender discrimination in private golf clubs are

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examined. The author also identifies obstacles faced by women subjected to gen- der discrimination by private clubs in Georgia, specifically at Augusta National, including inadequacy of federal laws and the absence of a public accommodation act in Georgia. Alternative avenues are recommended to prevent discrimination including IRS regulations, state tax codes, and state liquor laws.

Charpentier, C.P. (2004). Comment: An unimproved lie: Gender discrimination continues at Augusta National Golf Club. Villanova Sports & Entertainment Law Forum, 11(1), 111-138.

Presidential Involvement in Intercollegiate Athletics

This article provides a brief history of Presidential involvement in collegiate ath- letics and NCAA governance. The author also discusses several court decisions supporting his argument that university presidents should be held more account- able for their decisions and for actions taken by their athletic departments. Accord- ing to the author, the Presidents’ Commission of the NCAA did not wield much influence over governance of intercollegiate athletics until after the publication of the Knight Foundation Report with its continued support for tracking and publish- ing graduation rates. University presidents are now represented on the NCAA Board of Directors. A few instances of presidential involvement in NCAA violations are also examined.

Smith, R.K. (2003). Increasing presidential accountability in big-time intercolle- giate athletics. Villanova Sports & Entertainment Law Forum, 10(2), 297-325.

Sport Management Internships

The author introduces a special segment addressing the role of sport management internships in sport management curricula. The best practices of sport manage- ment programs with rigorous and meaningful internship experiences for students are summarized. The author also identifies the major focus of the special segment, which is to explain the rationale for experiential learning in sport management programs, internships search and selection strategies, quality control issues, legal issues, and perspectives of industry representatives. The article is among a number of other articles addressing each of these areas.

Cuneen, J. (2004, January). Adding rigor to the sport management internship. Jour- nal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 75(1), 20-22.

Determinants of Customer Satisfaction

Given the saliency of services in today’s economy, especially in the sport industry, it is paramount to understand antecedents of customer satisfaction. Susskind and colleagues examine several factors in their multilevel examination of various banks in the American Midwest. Results indicate that organizational standards for ser- vice excellence were strongly related to both coworker support and supervisor support. In turn, coworker support was reliably related to a positive customer ori- entation among bank employees that was subsequently associated with customer

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satisfaction. The findings have possible implications for the delivery of sport prod- ucts and support provided to front-line employees delivering said services.

Susskind, A.M., Kacmar, K.M., & Borchgrevink, C. P. (2003). Customer service providers’ attitudes relating to customer service and customer satisfaction in the customer-service exchange. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(1), 179-187.

Success of NFL Coaches by Race

The author uses economic theory to analyze the role of race in the market for African American head coaches in the National Football League. The author made racial comparisons on performance measures such as overall season record, record in the first employment year, and record in the final year of an involuntarily de- parting coach. Using data from 1990–2002, Madden found that African American coaches outperformed White coaches with respect to the regular season perfor- mance measures. The African American coaches, however, were not as successful in the playoffs. The empirical results also showed that the African American coaches were held to a higher standard when decisions were made to retain the head coach for an additional season. It appeared that an African American coach had to be more successful than a White coach to retain his coaching position with the team. The findings were consistent with the conclusion that racial discrimination against African American coaches existed in the NFL over the time period studied.

Madden, J.F. (2004). Differences in the success of NFL coaches by race, 1990– 2002: Evidence of last hire, first fire. Journal of Sports Economics, 5(1), 6-19.

Radical Change in National Sport Organizations

The authors conducted a longitudinal analysis of radical organizational change among Canadian national sport organizations from 1984–1996. The pace, sequence, and linearity of the radical change were evaluated. Contrary to much of the current literature, the authors found that radical change was not accomplished at a rapid pace. With respect to the sequential nature of the change, the authors found that most important aspects of the transformation, which in this case were the decision- making structures, were the first to change. Finally, the authors found that the parts of an organization undergoing radical change did not change in a linear pattern. This study provides a comprehensive assessment of changes in Canadian sport organizations.

Amis, J., Slack, T., & Hinings, C.R. (2004). The pace, sequence, and linearity of radical change. Academy of Management Journal, 47(1), 15-39.

Consumer Attitudes Toward Advertising and the Brand

The author of this article conducted an experiment using television commercials to examine the immediate and delayed effects of consumers’ attitudes toward ad- vertisements and the brand involved. The study also examined the effects of ad- vertising repetition on consumers’ evaluations and processing. The results of the study did not support the existence of a familiarity-based sleeper effect (i.e., the

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linear relationship between attitude toward the advertisement and attitude toward the brand that exists immediately after exposure to the advertisement) as hypoth- esized. Limitations of the study were addressed, and the implications of the find- ings were discussed relative to advertising strategies.

Pashupati, K. (2003). “I know this brand, but did I like the ad?” An investigation of the familiarity-based sleeper effect. Psychology & Marketing, 20(11), 1017- 1043.

Customer Relationship Management

The focus of this article is on customer winback—a process of revitalizing rela- tionships with customers who have defected (e.g., no longer patronize the organi- zation) as a critical component of customer relations management. The impor- tance of customer profitability (based on their net present and second lifetime values) is also discussed. The authors developed and tested a split-hazard model using data obtained from a newspaper subscription database. Their findings highlighted the salient role of dynamic pricing and consumer-targeting decisions (based on customers’ patterns and prior history with the organization) in recapturing lost customers.

Thomas, J.S., Blattberg, R.C., & Fox, E.J. (2004). Recapturing lost customers. Journal of Marketing Research, 41(1), 31-45.

Compiled by Ketra Armstrong, George B. Cunningham, Timothy D. DeSchriver, and Anita Moorman

Edited by Carol A. Barr