Discussions

T H E B I R T H O F T H E

I M A G I N A T I O N

a

O n e d a y i n t h e a u t u m n o f 1879 a S p an ish n o b le m an an d his d au g h te r set o u t on a

little ad v en tu re. T h e y w ere g o in g to ex p lo re a cave n o t far fro m the fam ily estate at

P u en te S an M iguel, in th e C a n ta b ria reg io n o f n o rth e rn Spain. T h e n o b le m a n ’s nam e

was M arcelin o Sanz de S au tu o la, an d his d au g h te r - n o t yet in h er teen s - was called

M a ria . T o g eth er they m ad e fo r the hillside o f A ltam ira, w hich h ad lately b een re p o rte d

as a site o f p reh isto ric o ccu p atio n . T o u se th e language o f th e tim e, A ltam ira was th e so rt

o f place w here troglodytes o r ‘p eo p le b efo re A d a m ’ w ere th o u g h t to have sheltered.

As a keen a m ate u r archaeologist, de S au tu o la h a d high h o p es o f w h at h e m ig h t find

at A ltam ira. T h e b o n es o f stran g e anim als m ig h t be scattered aro u n d ; p e rh a p s traces o f

fires kindled lo n g ago. W ith an y luck, an d close investigation o f th e cave floor, som e

ru d im e n ta ry tools o r im p lem e n ts m ig h t also b e retrieved.

D e S au tu o la was n o t m erely h u n tin g fo r curiosities. W h e n it cam e to p u b lish in g

his discoveries a t A ltam ira, h e gravely n o te d th a t his u ltim ate m otive fo r m aking the

ex p ed itio n w ith M a ria was to ‘te a r away th e th ick veil th a t separates us fro m th e origins

an d cu sto m s o f th e an cien t in h a b ita n ts o f th ese m o u n ta in s’. O n ce h e an d M a ria were

inside the cave, he c ro u c h ed d o w n an d b eg an to exam ine th e g ro u n d by la n tern light.

It w as cool a n d d am p in th e cave, b u t spacious too. W hile h er fath e r w as poking an d

6 A detail o f th e cave paintings at Altamira, Spain, c. 11,000 BC. which Maria and Marcelino d e Sautuola discovered by chance.

TH E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N

s c ra p in g a t th e floor, M a ria w a n d e re d o f f to d o so m e ex p lo rin g o f h e r ow n. It w as n o t

lo n g b e fo re th e d ark n e ss o f A lta m ira e c h o e d w ith a c h ild ’s w o n d ro u s cry.

‘L o o k , P a p a - p a in tin g s o f o x en !’

So a y o u n g girl w as th e firs t m o d e rn h u m a n to set eyes u p o n th e ‘g allery ’ o f

p re h is to ric p a in tin g s fo r w h ic h A lta m ira w o u ld b e c o m e re n o w n e d (Fig. 6).

B ein g sm all, M a ria h a d a b e tte r view o f th e cav e’s low ceiling th a n h e r father.

H o w ev er, h e r re c o g n itio n o f th e an im als w h o se im ag es w ere ra n g e d o v er A lta m ira ’s

n a tu ra l v au lt was n o t q u ite a c c u ra te . T h e s e w ere a u ro c h s - a ty p e o f b is o n th a t h a d b e e n

e x tin c t fo r th o u sa n d s o f years. H e rd s o f th e m w ere d e p ic te d - sta n d in g , g razin g , ru n n in g ,

sleeping. A n d a ro u n d th e se a u ro c h s th e re w ere o th e r fo u r-le g g e d b ea sts: h o rs e s , ibexes,

b o a r. G a z in g u p a t w h a t his d a u g h te r h a d fo u n d , d e S a u tu o la w as a lm o s t sp eech less

w ith e x c ite m e n t. H e k n ew in stin ctiv ely th a t th is a r t w as v e ry old in d e e d ; b u t it w as m o re

th a n in s tin c t th a t to ld h im so. T h e cave w as litte re d w ith d e b ris b e lo n g in g to w h a t w o u ld

b e c o m e k n o w n as th e S to n e A g e - o r, in a rc h aeo lo g ica l p a rla n c e , th e U p p e r P alaeo lith ic

p e r io d ( 3 5 ,0 0 0 -1 0 ,0 0 0 years ago). M o reo v e r, d e S au tu o la co u ld see sim ilarities b etw een

th e b iso n d ep icted h e re a t A lta m ira a n d so m e b o n e c a rv in g s o f a n im als lately d isc o v ered

in caves in F ra n ce .

T h e g e n tle m a n -s c h o la r lo st n o tim e in c o m m u n ic a tin g th e new s. I t c re a te d a

se n satio n , u n d e r s ta n d a b le even to th is day, a lth o u g h , fo r rea so n s o f p re s e rv a tio n , visitors

a re n o w a d m itte d o n ly to a re p lica o f th e cave. G a z in g o v er A lta m ira ’s ro ck y su rfaces,

th e v iew er so o n a p p re c ia te s th a t th e w o rd ‘p a in tin g ’ is in a d e q u a te h ere . T h e u n e v e n

c o n to u rs o f th e ro ck h av e b e e n in g e n io u sly in c o rp o r a te d to give th e a n im als a bulky,

a lm o s t th re e -d im e n sio n a l p re se n c e . B ig b o v in e sh o u ld e rs lo o m u p in th e h alf-lig h t: a n d ,

w hile th e e x a c t species o f b is o n d e p ic te d is n o lo n g e r to b e seen, w e c a n n o t fail to be

s tru c k b y th e q u ality o f close o b s e rv a tio n o n display. H o w th e an im als s to o d w hile at

p a s tu re , h o w th e y co llap sed w h e n r e c u m b e n t o r w o u n d e d - th e A lta m ira d e p ic tio n s are,

as w e s h o u ld say, co n v in cin g . T h e co lo u rs, to o , are m e m o rab le : p re d o m in a n tly re d a n d

b lack, b u t w ith sh ad in g s o f fo rm also p ic k e d o u t in b ro w n , p u r p le , yellow, p in k a n d w hite.

T h e s e s tro n g o rg an ic p ig m e n ts , d e riv e d fro m v ario u s o x id es a n d c a rb o n s , p la y th e ir

p a r t in g iv in g th e w o rk a p o w erfu lly e a rth y d e p th a n d su b sta n c e . All in all, it m ig h t b e

c o n c lu d e d th a t th e p a in tin g s h e re are to o g o o d to b e tru e .

S ad ly fo r de S a u tu o la , m a n y o f his c o n te m p o ra rie s th o u g h t ju s t th a t. A fte r an

initial a c co lad e fro m th e p re ss, ro y al visits to th e cave a n d so o n , d o u b ts r e g a rd in g th e

T H E BIRTH O F THE IM A G IN A T IO N

a u th en ticity o f th e a r t a t A ltam ira b eg a n to b e voiced. N o th in g c o m p a ra b le to th e ir scale

an d p icto rial delicacy h a d b e e n fo u n d a t p reh isto ric sites th e n k n o w n to archaeological

co n n o isseu rs. O n e p re m a tu re e x p lan a tio n o f A ltam ira su g g ested th a t th e p ain tin g s

h ad b ee n d o n e d u rin g th e R o m a n o c c u p a tio n o f th e Ib erian p en in su la. W ith in a y ear o f

d e S a u tu o la ’s a n n o u n c e m e n t o f th e fin d , how ever, m o re p o iso n o u s ru m o u rs w ere

circulating. A n a rtis t w as seen g o in g in to th e cave (de S au tu o la h ad co m m issio n ed him

to m ake copies o f th e ceiling): w o rd w e n t r o u n d th a t h e was th e o n e w h o h ad p ain ted

it in th e first place. A t h o m e an d a b ro a d , d e S au tu o la fo u n d h im self m o c k ed as a d u p e ,

o r s u sp e c te d o f p e rp e tra tin g a hoax. H e died in 1888, a d eeply d isa p p o in te d a n d widely

disbelieved m an . H is frien d s said h e w as b ro k e n h e a rte d by th e w hole affair.

Y oung M a ria w ould live to see h e r f a th e r’s h o n o u r th o ro u g h ly red eem ed . B u t b efo re

we la m e n t th e scepticism th a t b ro u g h t m isery to a p io n e er ex p lo re r o f p reh isto ric art,

let us a d m it o u r ow n p rim a ry reactio n to w h at we see a t A ltam ira, a n d a t o th e r g rea t

u n d e r g ro u n d sites su b se q u en tly revealed in S p ain an d so u th e rn F ra n c e - m o st notably

th e caves o f L a sc a u x an d C h au v et. ‘A m az in g ’; ‘in c re d ib le’; ‘asto n ish in g ’: we rea ch for

th e clichéd lan g u ag e o f ad m iratio n , a n d fo r o nce it d en o tes a g en u in e m ystery. N o

sam p le o f early h u m a n h an d iw o rk is m o re p e rp le x in g th a n th e large-scale cave p ain tin g s

o f Palaeolithic E u ro p e . W h a t follows h e re is a n a tte m p t to m ake sense o f w h at th e im ages

m ig h t m e an , a n d w hy th ey w ere p a in te d on su b te rra n e a n walls. A p a rtic u la r th e o ry is

p u rs u e d , an d o th e r th e o ries rejected - b u t th ey are th eo ries all th e sam e. In the en d ,

am a z e m e n t m ay rem a in the p r o p e r resp o n se. W h a t we can establish fo r ce rtain , how ever,

is th a t th ese p a in tin g s are n o t localized m iracles. A ltam ira b elongs to a w id er p ro cess o f

h u m a n d ev e lo p m e n t, an d it is all th e m o re exciting fo r that.

T H E CREATIVE E X P LO S IO N

R a d io c arb o n d atin g o f th e p ig m e n ts u s e d in the A ltam ira p ain tin g s has established th a t

th e cave in v estig ated b y M a ria a n d M a rc e lin o d e S au tu o la w as d ec o rate d betw een

13,300 an d 14,900 years a g o .T h is m o re o r less co n firm s th e n o tio n al an tiq u ity assigned

to the im ages by d e S au tu o la b ac k in 1879. B u t b e y o n d th e elem en t o f forgivable

s u rp rise , w hy were th e le arn ed c o n te m p o ra rie s o f de S au tu o la so re lu c ta n t to believe him ?

T h e an sw er is th a t A ltam ira sim p ly d id n o t fit w ith p revailing scientific a n d p o p u la r

views a b o u t the o rig in an d d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e h u m a n species. C h arles D arw in m ay have

TH E BIRTH OF THE IM A G IN A T IO N

cau sed theological co n tro v ersy in V icto rian B ritain w ith his th e o ry o f evolution by

n atu ra l selection - a p ro cess o ften s u m m arize d as ‘th e survival o f th e fittest’, th o u g h

D arw in h im self d id n o t coin th a t p h ra se - b u t so far as it co n firm ed stereotypical

W estern attitu d e s to th e p reh isto ric p ast, D a rw in ’s m o d e l w as w idely accep ted . If

evolution fav o u red th e survival o f th e fittest, a n d h u m a n k in d w as set o n a n u p w a rd

cu rv e o f p ro g re ss in ad a p tin g to u n d e rs ta n d a n d co n tro l th e w orld, th e n th o se h u m a n s

left b eh in d - especially th o se left b e h in d m a n y th o u sa n d s o f years ago - m u s t be

co ngenitally b ack w ard , ig n o ra n t a n d clumsy.

A lready in 1651, th e E nglish p h ilo s o p h e r T h o m a s H o b b es h a d fastidiously

d es crib ed th e ‘ill c o n d itio n ’ o f h u m a n s living in a pre-civilized ‘state o f n a tu re ’. I t was

a situ atio n , h e d eclared , o f ‘co n tin u al fear, a n d d an g e r o f violent d eath ; an d th e life o f

m a n solitary, p o o r, nasty, b ru tish a n d s h o r t’. A t th e tim e w h en th e p ain tin g s at A ltam ira

w ere fo u n d , m o s t p eo p le w ould have im ag in ed th e ty p ical ‘cav em an ’ as so m e shaggy,

low -brow ed creatu re, his g ro u n d -s c ra p in g knuckles clam p e d to a k n o tty club. T h is savage

m ig h t have ch a se d b iso n to fill his belly, b u t to re p re se n t th e anim al in delicate profile,

w ith careful, sensitive h u es - su c h fine aesth etic cap acity w as surely b ey o n d belief?

S o w en t th e logic o f o rth o d o x o p in io n . H ow ever, even th e m o s t ten acio u s

u p h o ld e rs o f this view w ere fo rc ed to rec o n sid er as fu rth e r p ain te d caves cam e to light,

especially in F ra n ce . In 1901, fo r ex am p le, tw o m a jo r sites n e a r L es Eyzies in th e

P érig o rd reg io n - L es C o m b arelles a n d F o n t-d e -G a u m e - w ere c o n firm e d as b o n a fide.

T h e follow ing year, a m ajo r sh ift in attitu d es w as signalled w h en E m ile C a rtailh ac , one

o f th e F re n c h e x p e rts w ho h ad dism issed A ltam ira as a p ran k , p u b lish ed a p en iten tial

essay, a c ce p tin g th a t his d o u b ts h a d b ee n in erro r: th e p ain tin g s at A ltam ira, a n d oth ers

like th e m , really d id b elo n g to ‘th e d aw n o f tim e ’. In th e su m m e r o f 1902, C a rtailh ac

jo in ed o th e r delegates fro m a scientific co n fe re n ce a t M o n ta u b a n in m ak in g a to u r to

in sp e ct th e several p a in te d caves in th e area. A co n sen su s w as declared: a r t in d eed

existed in p reh isto ry , a n d th e science o f u n d e rs ta n d in g it h a d only ju st beg u n .

D iscoveries o f f u rth e r caves p ro liferate d th ro u g h o u t th e tw en tieth century. F ra n ce

yielded n o t only exam ples o f p ain te d surfaces, b u t also relief figures, s u c h as th e ‘frieze’

o f anim als b ro u g h t to light in 1909 a t C a p B lanc, again n e a r L es E yzies, a n d th e tw o

b iso n m o u ld e d in clay a t th e en d o f th e d ee p cave a tT u c d ’A u d o u b e rt in th e Pyrenees.

M o s t stories o f m o d e rn discovery c o n ta in a ratio n o f d ram a. A p p ro p riately ,

p e rh a p s , it w as w hile search in g fo r a lo st d o g th a t several schoolboys cam e across th e

THE BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

sp le n d id m e n a g e rie p a in te d w ith in th e cave a t L a sc a u x , n e a r M o n tig n a c , in 1940 (Fig. 7).

A n d w hile th e fin d in g (in 1994) o f ev e n m o re rem a rk a b le an im al scen es in F ra n c e ’s

A rd é c h e G o rg e c a m e a b o u t fro m d e lib e ra te u n d e r g r o u n d e x p lo ra tio n , th e s u b se q u e n t

d isp u te over o w n ersh ip o f this site - n a m e d C h a u v e t C ave a fte r th e p o th o lin g e n th u sia st

w h o first flash ed a to rc h b e a m o ver it - is s o m e th in g o f a legal so a p o p era.

A p a ir o f rh in o c e ro s e s lo ck h o rn s fo r a fight; a n a tu ra l ev e n t re c o rd e d w ith swift,

c o n fid e n t b ru sh stro k e s. A set o f feline p ro files o v erlap, as if casually an tic ip a tin g the

d ra u g h ts m a n ’s ru les o f d e p th a n d p e rs p e c tiv e by m a n y m illen n ia (Fig. 8). A sto n ish in g ?

In d ee d . B u t n o t ab so lu te ly in c re d ib le - b ec au s e th e p ain tin g s o f C h a u v e t C av e, firm ly

d a te d to o v er 3 0 ,0 0 0 years ago, p ro v id e m erely th e m o s t sp e c ta c u la r in d ic a to rs to d ate

o f w h a t so m e arc h aeo lo g ists re fe r to as a g en e ral ‘C rea tiv e E x p lo sio n ’ o c c u rrin g in th e

U p p e r P alaeo lith ic p e rio d (c. 4 0 ,0 0 0 -1 0 ,0 0 0 y ears a g o ) .T h e p h e n o m e n o n is n o t

co n fin e d e ith e r to F ra n c e o r to c o n tin e n ta l E u ro p e . E ssentially, it m ark s th e a sc e n d a n c y

o f a p a rtic u la r biological sp ecies, H om o sapiens, th e ‘k n o w in g h u m a n ’ ty p e th a t has co m e

to d o m in a te th e E a r th ’s surface.

A s u m m a ry o f th e b a c k g ro u n d to this arriv al o f an a to m ica lly m o d e rn h u m a n s m ay

be fo u n d in a se p arate sectio n o f this b o o k (see p ag e 14). H ere, it is e n o u g h to o b serv e

th a t p ain tin g s o n cave walls b elo n g to a catalo g u e o f telltale relics left by the in g en io u s an d

creative H om o sapiens c. 4 0 ,0 0 0 -3 0 ,0 0 0 years ago. A m o n g th e se relics are th e following:

1 F lin t to o ls, p r o d u c e d in su c h a w ay as to b e ex q u isitely sy m m etric al. S u ch

s y m m e try m a y h ave assisted th e ir fu n c tio n (if, fo r ex a m p le , axes w ere th ro w n

as m issiles); o th e rw ise it exists to in v e st a fu n ctio n al o b je ct w ith a e sth e tic value.

2 P e rfo ra te d te e th a n d shells, co llec te d fo r th e sake o f b o d ily o rn a m e n t. Item s o f

jewellery, s u c h as th e n eck lace o f shells f o u n d at M a n d u M a n d u in W estern

A u stralia, a re su re signs o f p e rso n a l e m b ellish m e n t; p o ssib ly also in d ic a to rs o f

social status.

3 D e p o s itio n s o f fo o d a n d gifts alo n g w ith b u ria l o f th e d ea d . E x cav ated b u rials

at th e C ro - M a g n o n sh e lte r n e a r L es E yzies a n d a t th e site o f D o ln i-V esto n ice in

th e C z ec h R e p u b lic m ay n o t q u alify s tru c tu ra lly as to m b s , b u t th e p re se n c e o f

grave g o o d s is suggestive o f ritu a l, a n d so m e c o n c e p t o f a n afterlife.

4 S c ra tc h in g s o n b o n e a n d a n tle r th a t seem in te n tio n a l a n d o rd e re d . Several

ex a m p le s o f su c h m a rk in g s fro m th e site o f Z h o u k o u d ia n , n e a r B eijing in C h in a ,

7 (to p ) Detail o f th e ‘Salon o f t h e Bulls’ a t Lascaux, n e a r Montignac, France, c. 18,000 bc.

8 (above) T h e m asterfully d e p ic te d feline faces in t h e l i o n Panel’ o f C h a u v e t C ave, France, c. 3 2 -3 0 ,0 0 0 bc.

THE BIRTH O F THE IM A G IN A T IO N

rem a in o p e n to in te rp re ta tio n , w hile an in g en io u s case has b e e n m a d e fo r read in g

n o tc h es on th e h an d le o f a tool fo u n d a t Ish an g o , in ce n tral eq u a to rial A frica, as a

n o ta tio n a l sy stem o f tallies th a t m ark e d tim e acco rd in g to p h ases o f th e m oon.

C e rta in aspects o f this cultural ‘tak e-o ff’, such as vocal co m m u n icatio n (singing in cluded),

d an ce, a n d p a in tin g d o n e d irectly o n to b o d ie s, can n ev er be know n. M u c h sm all-scale

o r p o rta b le a r t m a y have v anished. A n d in m an y p a rts o f th e w orld th e re are m arkings

o n rocks th a t sim p ly c a n n o t b e secu rely d ated by archaeologists. T h e s e a re reaso n s why,

in any investigation o f th e origins o f a rt, atte n tio n focuses u p o n the cav e-p ain tin g s o f

P alaeo lith ic E u ro p e . A cc ep tin g th a t th e y are th e b e s t-p re serv ed an d m o st visible signs

o f th e global creative explosion, h o w d o we sta rt to explain th e ir ap p e aran c e?

A R T FO R ART'S SAKE?

P ablo P icasso, arg u ab ly the m o st illustrious a rtist o f th e tw en tieth ce n tu ry , seem s to have

p a id a visit to th e new ly discovered L a sc a u x cave in 1941. ‘We have le a rn t n o th in g !’ is

re p o rte d as his aw ed, alm o st in d ig n a n t c o m m e n t, im p ly in g th a t th e an o n y m o u s S to n e

Age d ra u g h tsm e n o f L a sc a u x h ad m iracu lo u sly an ticip ate d th e rep rese n tatio n al aims

an d ach iev em en ts o f a r t w ith in m o d e rn , ‘civilized’ society. U n ca n n ily (as it m u s t have

seem ed to h im ), th e p ro m in e n t anim als at L a sc a u x w ere bulls - fav o u red subjects o f

Picasso, a n d in d e ed , fea tu rin g in o n e o f his earliest p ain tin g s as a boy. Also, som e o f the

anim als d ep icte d at L a sc a u x have th e ir f o rm em p h asized in thick black outline. T h is is

also u n c a n n ily sim ilar to a p icto rial device fav o u red at o ne tim e by P icasso an d his p o st-

im p re ssio n ist c o n te m p o ra rie s, so m e o f w h o m w ould b e n ic k n am e d in 1905 as les fauves

(th e w ild o n es). It m u s t have u n n e rv e d th e S p an ish p ain ter, to see a stylistic invention

p re -e m p te d by m a n y th o u sa n d s o f years: ‘th e shock o f th e o ld ’, we m ig h t say. L a te r, at

a P arisian ex h ib itio n in 1953, P icasso re -crea ted fo r his ow n w ork th e flickering, to rch lit

ex p erien ce o f view ing a p reh isto ric cave - su c h w as his e m p a th y fo r an cestral com rades.

P icasso ’s rea ctio n is one th a t m an y o f us w o u ld share. Id en tify in g th e p recise species

o f b iso n , ibex o r m a m m o th m ig h t b e b e y o n d us. B u t, like y o u n g M a ria a t A ltam ira, we

have little essential difficulty in seeing w h a t th ese an c ie n t artists w ere try in g to rep resen t.

Instinctively, th e n , we m ay w an t to ‘u p d a te ’ th e earliest h u m a n a rtists by assu m in g

th a t th ey p a in te d fo r th e sheer joy o f p ain tin g .

T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

T h e p h ilo s o p h e rs o f C lassical G re e c e re c o g n iz e d it as a d e fin in g tr a it o f h u m a n s

to ‘d elig h t in w orks o f im ita tio n ’ - to en jo y th e v e ry a c t a n d tr iu m p h o f r e p re s e n ta tio n .

I f w e w ere close to a real lio n o r sn a k e, w e s h o u ld feel frig h te n e d . B u t a w ell-e x ec u ted

picture o f a lio n o r sn a k e will give u s p le a s u re . W h y s u p p o s e th a t o u r P alaeo lith ic

a n c e s to rs w ere an y d iffe ren t?

T h is sim p le a c c e p ta n c e o f c a v e -p a in tin g s as a r t fo r a r t ’s sake h a s a c e r ta in ap p e al.

T o th in k o f L a s c a u x as a g allery o r salon allow s it to b e a s o r t o f sp e cia l v ie w in g p la ce

w h e re th e h a n d iw o rk o f a c c o m p lish e d artistes m ig h t b e d isplayed. A n d a t L a s c a u x , th e

e v id e n t ca re w ith w h ic h in d iv id u a l an im als h av e b e e n a b s tra c te d fro m an y n a tu ra l

b a c k g ro u n d o r la n d s c a p e m a k es it te m p tin g to s u p p o s e th a t th e p a in te r s s o u g h t to cre ate ,

as it w ere, ‘life s tu d ie s ’ o f th e ir su b jects. P lau sib ly , daily ex iste n ce in p a r ts o f P alaeo lith ic

E u r o p e m a y n o t h av e b e e n so h a r d , w ith a n a b u n d a n c e o f rea d y fo o d , a n d th e re fo re th e

le isu re tim e fo r art.

T h e p ro b le m s w ith th is e x p la n a tio n , h o w ev e r, a re vario u s. In th e firs t p la c e , th e

p ro life ra tio n o f arc h a e o lo g ic a l d isc o v erie s - a n d th is in c lu d e s s o m e o f th e w o rld ’s

in n u m e ra b le ro c k a r t sites th a t c a n n o t b e d a te d - h a s se rv e d to e m p h a s iz e a re m a rk a b ly

lim ite d r e p e rto ire o f su b jects. T h e im a g es th a t r e c u r a re th o s e o f a n im als; a n d ,

c o m m o n ly , sim ilar ty p e s o f an im al. H u m a n fig u re s a re u n u s u a l; a n d w h e n th e y d o m a k e

a n a p p e a r a n c e , th e y a re ra re ly d o n e w ith th e sa m e a tte n tio n to fo rm a c c o r d e d to th e

an im als. I f P ala eo lith ic a rtis ts w ere sim p ly seek in g to re p r e s e n t th e b e a u ty o f th e w o rld

a r o u n d th e m , w o u ld th e y n o t h av e le ft a fa r g r e a te r ra n g e o f p ic tu re s - o f tree s a n d

flo w ers, o f th e s u n a n d th e sta rs?

A f u r th e r q u e s tio n to th e th e o ry o f a r t f o r a r t ’s sake is p o s e d b y th e h ig h in c id e n c e

o f P ala eo lith ic im ag es th a t a p p e a r n o t b e im itativ e o f an y reality w h atso ev e r. T h e s e are

g e o m e tric a l s h a p e s o r p a tte r n s c o n s is tin g o f d o ts o r lines. S u c h m a rk s m a y b e f o u n d

iso late d o r re p e a te d o ver a p a r tic u la r su rfa ce , b u t also sc a tte re d ac ro ss m o r e re c o g n iz a b le

fo rm s . A g o o d e x a m p le o f th is m a y b e se e n in th e geo lo g ically s p e c ta c u la r g ro tto o f P ech

M e rle , in th e L o t re g io n o f F ra n c e (Fig. 9). H e re w e e n c o u n te r s o m e fa v o u rite an im als

fro m th e P alaeo lith ic re p e rto ire - a p a ir o f s to u t-b e llie d h o rses. B u t o v er a n d a r o u n d th e

h o r s e s ’ o u tlin e s a re m u ltip le d a r k s p o ts , d a u b e d in d isre g a rd fo r th e o th e rw ise n a tu ra listic

re p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e an im als. W h a t d o es s u c h p a tte r n in g im itate?

T h e r e is also th e f a c to r o f lo c atio n . T h e ca v ern s o f A lta m ira a n d L a s c a u x m ig h t

co n c eiv ab ly q u alify as u n d e r g r o u n d g alleries, b u t m a n y o th e r p a in tin g s h av e b e e n f o u n d

¿3SSKgm

9 T h e 'S p o tte d H o rse s’ in t h e caves o f Pech M erle, France, c. 20.000 BC, with th e intriguing p a tte rn s o f d a rk spots aro u n d t h e h o rses' outlines.T he hand stencils may b e la te r to u ch es.

T H E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N

in recesses to tally u n su ita b le fo r any k in d o f view ing - tig h t n o o k s a n d cra n n ies th a t m u s t

have b e e n aw kw ard even fo r th e artists to p e n e tra te , le t alone fo r an y o n e else w an tin g

to see th e a rt. F o r ex am p le, a p a in te d cave ad jo in in g P ech M e rle , called L e C o m b e l, can

o n ly b e re a c h e d by sq u eezin g th ro u g h a n a rro w cleft in th e ro ck a n d craw ling alo n g o n

o n e ’s sto m ac h ; th e re was n ev e r an y ro o m to a d m ire th e h an d iw o rk in co m fo rt.

Finally, we m ay d o u b t th e n o tio n th a t th e U p p e r P alaeolithic w as a G a r d e n o f E d e n

in w h ich fo o d cam e readily, leaving h u m a n s am p le tim e to a m u se th em selv es w ith art.

F o r E u ro p e it w as still th e Ice A ge. A n estim ate o f th e basic level o f su sten an c e th e n

n e c e s sa ry fo r in d iv id u al h u m a n survival h as b e e n ju d g e d a t 2 2 0 0 calories p e r da}'. T h is

c o n s id eratio n , c o m b in e d w ith th e stark ic o n o g ra p h ic em p h asis u p o n an im als in th e cave

a rt, has p e rs u a d e d so m e arch aeo lo g ists th a t th e p rim a ry m o tiv e b e h in d P alaeolithic

im ag es m u s t lie w ith th e p rim a ry activity o f P alaeolithic p eo p le - h u n tin g .

A R T A N D H U N T IN G

H u n tin g is a skill. T ra c k in g , stalking, ch asin g a n d killing th e p rey are difficult, so m etim es

d a n g e ro u s activities. W h a t if th e p ro ce ss c o u ld b e m a d e easier - by art?

In th e early d ec ad e s o f th e tw en tieth c e n tu ry , an in flu en tial F re n c h arch aeo lo g ist,

A b b é H e n ri Breuil (1 8 7 7 -1 9 6 1 ), m a d e this su g g estio n th e basis fo r his th e o ry th a t

th e cav e-p ain tin g s w ere all a b o u t ‘sy m p a th e tic m a g ic ’. T h e re a so n w hy P alaeolithic artists

so o ften d e p ic te d an im als w as th a t th e b u sin e ss o f h u n tin g an im als p re o c c u p ie d th e m

a n d th e ir c o n tem p o rarie s. A n d th e a rtists striv ed diligently to m ake th e ir an im al im ages

evocative a n d realistic b ec au s e th e y w ere a tte m p tin g to ‘c a p tu re th e s p irit’ o f th e ir prey.

As B reuil stressed , th ese d e b u ta n t h u m a n a rtists clearly d id n o t d raw like children.

W h a t co u ld have p r o m p te d th e ir stu d io u s atte n tio n to m a k in g su c h n atu ralistic,

reco g n izab le im ages? F o r B reuil, it h a d to c o m e fro m so m e e x tra o rd in a ry b elief a b o u t

th e p o w er o f im ages. I f a h u n te r w ere able to m ake a tru e likeness o f so m e an im al, th e n

th a t an im al w as v irtu ally tra p p e d . Im ag es, th e re fo re, h a d th e m agical cap acity to c o n fe r

su ccess o r lu c k in th e h u n t.

As w ith th e in te rp re ta tio n o f cav e-p ain tin g s as a r t fo r a r t’s sake, th e re is a general

elem e n t to th e th e o ry o f h u n tin g m ag ic th a t is im m ed iately attractive. A fter all, anyone

w h o h as ever kissed a p h o to g r a p h know s th a t im ages c a n serve th e p u rp o s e o f w ishful

th in k in g . M a n y in stan ces are k n o w n o f societies in w h ich im ages are h o n o u re d as

27

T H E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N

p o te n tia l s u r ro g a te s o f reality. V o o d o o -ty p e s u p e rs titio n s , fo r in sta n c e , rely o n th e b elief

th a t stick in g p in s in a w ax effigy o f s o m e o n e will m a k e th a t p e r s o n feel p a in . A r t th e re b y

b e c o m e s a m e d iu m fo r m ag ic. A n d w h ile w e m ig h t a c c e p t th a t th e im ag e o f a lio n o r

a sn a k e d o e s n o t te rrify u s like th e real tilin g , it is also well d o c u m e n te d th a t w e a re q u ite

c a p a b le o f re s p o n d in g to a n im a g e as if it were real. B e in g a C a th o lic p rie s t, B reu il k n ew

well e n o u g h th a t m a n y p e o p le o f his tim e c o u ld s ta n d b e fo re a p ic tu r e o r s ta tu e o f th e

V irg in M a r y w ith all d ie re s p e c t d u e to a n a n im a te p re se n c e .

B reu il co u ld p o in t to f u r th e r sp e cific fe a tu re s o f th e c a v e -p a in tin g s th a t fa v o u re d

h is a p p r o a c h . In n u m e ro u s im a g es, a n a n im a l w as sh o w n a p p a r e n tly s tr u c k b y arro w s

o r s p e a rs , o r else m a rk e d as if w o u n d e d o r s n a re d {Fig. 10). A s fo r th e m a n y an im a ls n o t

sh o w n as d ir e c t v ic tim s o f th e h u n t, th e y c o u ld b e lo n g to a r t ’s m a g ica l p u r p o s e

n o n eth ele ss. L a rg e h e rd s , w ith w ell-fed o r p r e g n a n t b e a sts sig n ified y e t m o re w ishful

th in k in g o n th e p a r t o f h u n te rs h o p in g f o r th e b o u n tif u l in c re a s e o f th e ir p rey . A n d , o f

c o u rs e , it w as th e m y ste rio u s o r o c c u lt fu n c tio n o f th e p a in tin g s th a t, f o r B reuil,

e x p la in e d w h y th e y w ere lo c a te d d e e p u n d e r g r o u n d . M a g ic h a d to b e p e r f o rm e d in

d a rk p la c e s, o u t o f sig h t; it w as a s e c re t o p e ra tio n .

B re u il’s th e o ry a p p e a le d to th o s e w h o en v isag e d th e Ic e A ge in E u ro p e as a p e rio d

o f h a r d su rv iv al, w h e n m a m m o th s r o a m e d th e la n d , a n d fierce b e a rs c o m p e te d w ith

h u m a n s f o r ro ck y sh e lte rs. A n d th e e le m e n t o f s u p e rs titio u s o r irra tio n a l b e lie f su ited

a n y o n e w h o se view o f th e p a s t w as s h a p e d b y th e s o r t o f d e s k -b o u n d a n th ro p o lo g y so

e lo q u e n tly p r e s e n te d b y J.G . F ra z e r in h is m u lti-v o lu m e c o m p e n d iu m , The Golden B ough

( 1 9 0 7 -1 5 ). S u b title d ‘A S tu d y in M a g ic a n d R e lig io n ’, F r a z e r ’s w o rk s e e m e d , fro m

th e p o e tT .S . E lio t’s a d m irin g p o in t o f view , to c re a te ‘an a b y s m o f tim e ’. Yet th e F ra z e ria n

p u r s u it o f d a ta f ro m ‘p rim itiv e ’ so c ie tie s relied u p o n a n ideal o f p ro g re s s c h a ra c te ris tic

o fV ic to r ia n B rita in . F r a z e r h im s e lf sty le d it as ‘th e lo n g m a r c h , th e slow a n d to ilso m e

a s c e n t, o f h u m a n ity fro m sa v a g e ry to civ ilisa tio n ’. T r u s t in m a g ic ia n s w as, fo r F ra z e r,

a key d e fin in g f e a tu re o f ‘sa v ag e’ societies.

A n th ro p o lo g y h a s m o v e d o n f r o m s u c h c o m p lac en c y . B u t th e m a in o b je c tio n to

B re u il’s th e o ry arise s n o t fro m id e o lo g ic al d isd a in ; r a th e r f ro m m o re atten tiv e

arc h a e o lo g ic a l e x a m in a tio n o f th e a n c ie n t d e b ris w ith in th e caves - in p a r tic u la r, analysis

10 (p rev io u s p ag e) W o u n d e d bison fro m N iau x caves, n e a r A riég e, France, c. 14,000 BC.

T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

o f f o o d re m a in s le ft a r o u n d h e a r th s o r in m id d e n s ( ru b b is h d u m p s ) . I f th e p a in tin g s

w e re c r e a te d f o r th e p u r p o s e o f su c c e ss fu l h u n tin g , it w o u ld b e lo g ic al to e x p e c t th a t th e

a n im a ls d e p ic te d o n th e ca v e w alls w e re th o s e f e a tu rin g in th e d aily d ie t o f th e c a v e ’s

in h a b ita n ts . B u t th is c o rre la tio n d o e s n o t h o ld . A t L a s c a u x , th e an im a ls p a in te d w ere b u lls,

h o r s e s a n d r e d d ee r. M o s t o f th e b o n e s d is c a r d e d in th e cav e, h o w e v e r, w e re o f re in d e e r.

A t A lta m ira th e y d re w b is o n , b u t th e a s s o c ia te d b o n e s w ere th o s e o f d e e r, g o a t a n d w ild

b o a r , w ith sh ellfish a d d in g a little variety. M a m m o th s a p p e a r w ith so m e f r e q u e n c y in th e

caves o f th e A rd é c h e a n d P é r ig o rd re g io n s , b u t n o t in th e r e c o r d o f h u m a n s u b s is te n c e

a t th a t tim e. A s o n e a r c h a e o lo g is t p u ts it, ‘th e U p p e r P a la e o lith ic p a in te r s h a d h o r s e s a n d

b is o n o n th e ir m in d , w h e re a s th e y h a d r e in d e e r a n d p ta r m ig a n in th e ir s to m a c h s ’.

I f n o t p ro p e lle d b y h u n g e r , w h y d id th e y p a in t? A lth o u g h th e s c ie n c e o f

n e u ro p h y s io lo g y w as in its in fa n c y , B re u il a n d h is c o n te m p o r a r ie s s e n s e d th a t i t w as

f u n d a m e n ta lly u n n a tu r a l f o r th e h u m a n m in d to p r o d u c e a n d u s e re p r e s e n ta tio n a l

im a g e s in th e firs t p la c e , c itin g th e r e p o r te d ca se o f a T u rk is h M u s lim w h o , h a v in g h a d n o

e x p e rie n c e o f p ic tu r e s o r d ra w in g s , fa ile d to id e n tify a tw o -d im e n s io n a l im a g e o f a h o rs e

b e c a u s e h e c o u ld n o t w a lk a r o u n d it. T h e c a p a c ity f o r im a g e s , th o u g h q u ic k ly a c q u ir e d ,

d id n o t s e e m to b e in n a te . I f w e n e e d to h av e s o m e m e n ta l e x p e rie n c e o r tr a in in g in o rd e r

to recognize s y m b o ls , h o w d id w e e v e r a c q u ire th e ab ility to create th e m in th e f irs t place?

S o th e q u e s t c o n tin u e d - th e q u e s t to e x p la in h o w th is p e c u lia r h u m a n h a b it o f

re p r e s e n ta tio n b e g a n .

A R T A S A S Y M B O L IC SYSTEM

A n y o n e w h o c o n s id e r s th e p ra c tic a litie s o f in te r io r d e c o r a tio n a t A lta m ira a n d L a s c a u x

will s u p p o s e th a t s o m e s y ste m o f sc a ffo ld in g m u s t h av e b e e n e r e c te d f o r th e p a in te rs .

E x p e r ts c o n f ir m th e s u p p o s itio n . Im a g e s w ere n o t ca su a lly s c ra w le d o n th e w alls, b u t laid

o u t as p a r t o f a c o n s id e r e d p r o g r a m m e o r s c h e m e o f d e c o ra tio n .

I t is to th e c r e d it o f a n o th e r F r e n c h sc h o la r, A n d ré L e r o i- G o u r h a n ( 1 9 1 1 - 8 6 ) ,

th a t th e th e o r y h e o f fe re d as a n a lte rn a tiv e to a r t- f o r - h u n tin g w as b a s e d o n a n a c c e p ta n c e

o f P a la e o lith ic im a g e ry as a g r a n d p r o je c t - a n y th in g b u t r a n d o m sk e tch e s. S tro n g ly

in flu e n c e d b y th e S tr u c tu r a lis t sc h o o l o f a n th ro p o lo g y (see p a g e 8 9 ) , L e r o i- G o u r h a n

p r o p o s e d c o n s id e r in g th e c a v e -p a in tin g s as a sy m b o lic sy s te m b a s e d o n b in a ry

o p p o s itio n s o r p a irin g s , w ith th e e s sen tial d iv is io n b e in g th a t b e tw e e n m a n a n d w o m a n .

T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

N o to rio u s ly , th e re a re v e ry few im a g e s o f h u m a n s in th e caves. B u t w h a t if c e rta in

an im als w ere to b e as so c ia te d w ith m a les , a n d o th e rs w ith fem ales? W ith re a s o n s ra n g in g

fro m th e e le m e n ta ry to th e so p h is tic a te d , L e r o i- G o u r h a n a rg u e d th a t h o rs e s , ibexes a n d

d e e r w ere sy m b o lically m a s c u lin e , w h ile a u ro c h s a n d b is o n w ere fe m in in e . H is analysis

defies s u m m a ry : b u t u ltim a te ly - as m ig h t b e g u essed - it le ad s to th e s u p p o s itio n o f

so m e k in d o f fertility rite sta g e d in th e caves, fo r w h ich th e im a g es m u s t s e rv e as liturgy.

S o m e w o u ld say th a t L e r o i- G o u r h a n ’s a p p r o a c h w as m u s ic to th e e a rs o f an y o n e

raise d o n th e p sy c h o lo g ic a l d o c trin e s o f S ig m u n d F re u d . C e rta in ly th e re w ere F re u d ia n

o v e rto n e s to th e w ay in w h ic h L e r o i- G o u r h a n e x p la in e d th e g e o m e tric m o tifs th a t

r e c u rr e d in th e caves. A g ain h e id e n tifie d a m a le -fe m a le g e n d e r d iv id e. S tra ig h t lines

a n d d o ts sig n ified m a le, w h ile c irc u la r o r e n c lo s in g fo rm s w ere e m b le m a tic o f fem ale

fo rm . O th e r arc h a e o lo g ists h a d a lre a d y n o te d c e rta in p a in te d sh a p e s o r g raffiti suggestive

o f o n e p a r tic u la r p a r t o f fem a le a n a to m y - th e v ulva - w h ich fa v o u re d th is sexually

sy m b o lic rea d in g . L e r o i- G o u r h a n h im s e lf, h o w ev e r, re m a in e d r e lu c ta n t to sp ecify th e

im p lied fertility rite.

T o d a y it m a y b e h a r d to re s is t b e in g a m u s e d by th e s o r t o f in te rp re ta tio n th a t sees

ev ery s tra ig h t lin e o r s p e a r as p h allic , ev e ry circle as a w o m b . Yet, as e v e n his c ritic s ag re e,

L e r o i- G o u r h a n w as su re ly r ig h t to p e rs e v e re in his a s s u m p tio n th a t th e P alaeo lith ic

artis ts w o rk e d intentionally, th a t th e re w as a m e th o d a n d a m e a n in g to th e ir w o rk as a

w h o le. B u t if o n e p r o b le m w ith h is th e o ry is th a t it d e p e n d s u p o n a m o d e rn o b se ssio n

w ith sex u ality , th e n th e g en e ral q u e s tio n a rise s o f h o w w e s h o u ld p ro c e e d . W e still n e e d

so m e e x p la n a tio n o f h o w th e k n a c k o r c a p a c ity fo r r e p re s e n ta tio n firs t click ed in to p lace.

C a n an y analysis b rid g e th e d ista n c e b e tw e e n m o d e rn view ers a n d a n c ie n t artists?

O U T O F A F R IC A

In tire age o f o u r g r e a t-g r a n d p a re n ts - th e g e n e ra tio n fo r w h o m th e w o rk o f J.G . F ra z e r

w as e n lig h te n in g - th e re w as little o b je c tio n to m a k in g c o m p a ris o n s b e tw e e n th e

p r e h is to ric p a s t a n d c o m m u n itie s o f so -c a lle d ‘p rim itiv e p e o p le s ’ th a t h a d su rv iv ed

(by iso latio n ) in to th e in d u stria liz e d w o rld . T o d a y , it w o u ld b e th o u g h t o ffen siv e a n d

m is lea d in g to d e s c rib e , fo r e x a m p le , th e e x is te n c e o f A u stra lia n A b o rig in e s a ro u n d

1 800 a d as e q u iv a le n t to th e S to n e A g e. A n d y e t th e im p u lse to d ra w so m e an alo g ies

b e tw e e n a s u rv iv in g o r d o c u m e n te d society7 o f h u n te r- g a th e r e r s a n d th e h u n te r- g a th e r in g

T H E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N

e x iste n ce o f p eo p le in th e P ala eo lith ic p a s t is d ifficu lt to resist, even i f th e d ista n c e is

m e a s u r e d n o t only ac ro ss tim e, b u t also a c ro ss c o n tin e n ts. J u s t su c h a n o n -ju d g e m e n ta l

e x p la n a tio n b y an alo g y h a s lately e m e rg e d , in je ctin g fre s h en erg y in to th e d e b a te a b o u t

th e b e g in n in g s o f h u m a n ity ’s g ift fo r re p re s e n ta tio n . T h e th e o ry co m es fro m A frica,

a n d h o w it evolved is w o rth tra c in g in so m e detail.

T h e D ra k e n s b e rg m o u n ta in s a re th e m a in c o n to u rs o f s o u th e rn A frica. T o th e east,

b e y o n d a co a sta l p la in , lies D u r b a n ; d u e n o r th is J o h a n n e s b u rg a n d th e in te rio r p la te a u

o r veldt; w ith in th e ra n g e , geologically, is th e sm all, s n o w -to p p e d k in g d o m o f L eso th o .

M o s t o f th e D ra k e n s b e rg p ea k s n o w b e lo n g to th e p ro v in c e o f K w a Z u lu -N a ta l. In a n d

a r o u n d th is are a are m a n y p la c e -n a m e s th a t re so n a te in S o u th A fric a ’s m o d e rn h isto ry ,

sites o f co n flict b e tw e e n B o e r se ttle rs, B ritish co lo n ists a n d Z u lu trib e sm e n : S p io n K o p ,

L a d y s m ith , R o rk e ’s D r i f t a n d m o re . B u t b e fo re th e B ritish , th e B oers o r th e Z u lu s

im p a c te d o n th is la n d s c a p e , it h a d b e e n lo n g o c c u p ie d b y a p e o p le w h o se official p lace

in h is to ry is so u n c e r ta in th a t n o o n e is q u ite s u re w h a t to call th e m . T h e y u s e d to b e

re f e r re d to collectively as ‘B u s h m e n ’; lately ‘th e S a n ’ h as b e e n p re fe rre d . In fac t, b o th

n a m e s h av e p ejo rativ e c o n n o ta tio n s , b u t sin ce th e re is n o re a d y altern ativ e, w e shall u se

th e te r m ‘B u s h m e n ’ h e re , fo r th e sake o f c o n v e n ie n ce a n d w ith o u t d isresp ec t.

T h e B u s h m e n ’s m o d e s o f h a b ita tio n a n d su b siste n c e in th e D ra k e n s b e rg c h a n g e d

v e ry little o v er th o u s a n d s o f years. T h e m e n h u n te d an im als, u sin g sp e a rs a n d arro w s

tip p e d w ith p o iso n ; th e w o m e n g a th e re d p la n ts, g rasse s a n d ro o ts, w ith n o o th e r tool

th a n a w e ig h ted d ig g in g -stick . S m all c o m m u n itie s m o v e d fro m u p la n d to lo w lan d areas

as se aso n s c h a n g e d , m a k in g u s e o f n a tu ra l sh e lte rs w h e re available. L ik e o th e r n o m a d ic

p e o p le s, th e D ra k e n s b e rg B u s h m e n n e e d e d v ery few p o sse ssio n s, so o n e m ig h t h ave

g u e s se d th a t th e y left few tra c e s o f th e ir p re s e n c e in th is te rrito ry . T h is is, in d e e d , th e

case - e x c e p t in th e crag s a n d crevices o f th e sa n d s to n e e s c a rp m e n t th e re a re th o u s a n d s

o f p a in te d im ages.

C o m p a ra b le in q u a n tity to th e ro c k a r t sites o f th e K a k a d u are a in n o r th e r n

A u stralia, th e B u s h m e n p a in tin g s o f th e D ra k e n s b e r g a re n o t ca ta lo g u ed ; u n lik e th e

K a k a d u im a g es, th e y are e n tirely a n o n y m o u s a n d im p o ssib le to d ate. P a in tin g s d o n e only

2 0 0 y ea rs ago m a y lo o k b r ig h te r th a n w o rk d o n e 2 0 ,0 0 0 y ears earlier, a n d c e r ta in scen es

(s u c h as m e n sh o w n c a rry in g g u n s ) a p p e a r to b e re fe re n c e s to th e co lo n ial in tru d e rs .

E ssentially, h o w ev er, th e n u m e ro u s im ag es se em v ery sim ilar an d c o h e re n t w ith in th e

re g io n , a n d sim ilar to p a in tin g s left in so m e o th e r p la c e s o c c u p ie d b y th e B u s h m e n .

TH E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

T h e s e w ere n o t always re c o g n iz e d fo r w h a t th e y w ere. In 1918 clim b e rs e x p lo rin g

th e B ra n d b e rg M a s s if (o f m o d e rn N a m ib ia ) c a m e ac ro ss ro ck p a in tin g s in a ce rta in

ravine. C o lo u re d co p ies w ere d u ly m a d e a n d sh o w n so m e y ears la ter to H e n r i B reuil,

th e n a tte n d in g a c o n fe re n c e in J o h a n n e s b u rg . T h e A b b é p ro n o u n c e d th a t n o in d ig e n o u s

p e o p le h a d m a d e th e se im ag es, b u t fo re ig n e rs o f ‘N ilo tic -M e d ite rra n e a n o rig in ’ -

p e rh a p s ém ig rés f ro m B ro n ze A ge C re te , w h o se style se em e d a p p a r e n t in a p a rtic u la r

fig u re d u b b e d by B reu il as th e ‘W h ite L a d y ’. I t h as sin ce tra n s p ire d th a t this fig u re is

m ale, a n d ty p ic a l B u s h m a n w ork; b u t to u p h o ld e rs o f th e a p a r th e id sy stem - w h ereb y

w h ite a n d b lack p e o p le in S o u th A frica w ere k e p t a p a r t - B reu il’s v e rd ic t w as w elcom e

p r o o f th a t th e earliest in h a b ita n ts o f th is la n d h a d b e e n E u ro p e a n s . T h e n o tio n w as

so p le asin g to th e c o u n try ’s colonial a d m in is tra to rs th a t, d u rin g th e S e c o n d W orld W ar,

th e y gave a c ad e m ic refu g e to B reu il in Jo h a n n e s b u rg - s p o n s o re d by n o n e o th e r th a n

th e c o u n tr y ’s p re m ie r, J.C . S m u ts.

B reu il’s p re p o s te ro u s gloss o f th e ‘W h ite L a d y ’ is p e rh a p s su fficie n t in d ic a tio n o f

h o w little specialist atte n tio n w as d ev o ted to th e im ages left by th e B u s h m e n - im ag es th a t

w ere, o f c o u rs e , g rad u a lly fad in g fro m m o d e rn view. T h e n eg lec t m o re o r less p e rsis te d

u n til th e early 19 60s, w h en a y o u n g local sc h o o lm a ster s ta rte d to ex p lo re th e D ra k e n sb e rg

p ain tin g s m o re studiously. H is n a m e w as D a v id L ew is-W illiam s, a n d w h a t b e g a n as

a te a c h e r’s p a s tim e led firs t to a d o c to ra te , t h e n a p ro fe sso rial ch a ir, a n d u ltim ately a

d ed ic a te d R o ck A rt In stitu te (a t th e U n iv e rsity o fW itw a te rs ra n d in Jo h a n n e s b u rg ).

T h e c o n s p ic u o u s su b jects o f B u s h m e n p a in tin g s th r o u g h o u t th e D ra k e n sb e rg

are a n im als (Fig. 11). O fte n e n o u g h it seem s th e re is a scen e in w h ic h so m e fo u r-leg g ed

prey , su c h as an an te lo p e , is s u r ro u n d e d by figures a rm e d w ith b ow s o r sp ears. C asu al

view ers m ig h t read ily su p p o s e th a t th e s e w ere ch a ra c te ristic reflectio n s o f daily life

am o n g th e B u s h m e n , to w h o m h u n tin g w as s u p re m e ly im p o r ta n t (th e ir d is p u te s w ith

th e se ttle rs aro se m o stly fro m access to g am e o r cattle raid in g ). B u t, as L ew is-W illiam s

sh o w ed , o n e d o es n o t h av e to look v e ry h a rd a t th e D ra k e n s b e rg p a in tin g s b efo re

realizin g th a t th e se d ep ic tio n s o f h u n tin g are n o t so stra ig h tfo rw a rd as th a t. S o m e o f the

h u m a n fig u res, on clo ser e x a m in a tio n , a p p e a r to h ave h o o fs fo r feet, a n d an im al h ead s.

O th e r fig u res, seem in g ly realistic a t firs t g la n ce , have th e ir necks r e p re s e n te d in lines

o f m a n y w h ite stipples. A c e rta in la rg e s o rt o f a n te lo p e , th e elan d , d id in d e e d a p p e a r

o fte n a n d p ro m in e n tly in th e p ain tin g s. B u t th e B u s h m e n h a d m a n y o th e r so u rce s o f

fo o d , fo u r-le g g e d o r n o t. W h y so m u c h em p h a sis u p o n th e elan d ? As fo r th e se h y b rid

11 (above) A scene from th e main frieze o f th e G am e Pass Shelter, Kamberg, South Africa. D ate uncertain.

12 (right) A drawing o f a detail from th e main frieze o f th e G am e Pass Shelter; showing a dying eland and a figure with hooves and an animal head.

T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

h u m a n -a n im a l fig u re s - th e ria n th r o p ic is th e official d e s c rip tiv e te rm fo r th e m - w hy

w ere so m e o f th e m a p p e a r in g to s n a tc h a t a n e la n d ’s tail?

L ew is-W illia m s a ire d all th e s e q u e rie s , w h ic h aro se f ro m in te r p re tin g th e

D ra k e n s b e r g im a g e s as sc e n e s o f e v e ry d a y life a m o n g th e B u s h m e n . H e w as also aw are

th a t w h ile h u n te r- g a th e r in g p e o p le s m a y se e m , in W e s te rn eyes, to b e le a d in g re m a rk a b ly

sim p le lives, a t o n e w ith n a tu re , a n th ro p o lo g ic a l re s e a rc h in v a riab ly d e m o n s tr a te d

o th e rw ise . H u n te r - g a th e re rs a r o u n d th e w o rld te n d e d to o rg a n iz e th e ir lives a ro u n d

v e ry p re c ise a n d p re s c rip tiv e sy ste m s o f r itu a l a n d s u p e r n a tu r a l belief. W h y p re s u m e

a n y less o f th e B u s h m e n ?

A n sw ers to q u es tio n s a b o u t tire m e a n in g o f th e D ra k e n sb e rg im ag es w o u ld , n aturally,

lie w ith th e B u s h m e n w h o p a in te d th e m . D e s p ite n e a r-g e n o c id e in th e p a s t, a n d th e m o re

r e c e n t im p o s itio n o f b o r d e r s a n d p a s s p o r ts , B u s h m e n h av e su rv iv e d in th e K a la h a ri

D e s e rt, e sp ecially in p a r ts o f B o tsw a n a a n d n o r th w e s t N a m ib ia . B u t th e p ro b le m fo r th o se

try in g to tra c k d o w n th e m e a n in g o f B u s h m a n a r t is th a t sin ce th e ir d isp la c e m e n t f ro m th e

D ra k e n s b e rg to th e K a la h a ri over a c e n tu r y ag o , th e B u s h m e n h ave n o t b e e n able to su stain

th e a rtis tic tra d itio n . T h e K a la h a ri is a v e ry d iffe re n t te rr a in fro m th e D ra k e n s b e rg : it

o ffers few r o c k s u rfa c e s o r sh e lte rs s u ita b le fo r p a in tin g . W h a t d id p e rs is t a m o n g th e

K a la h a ri B u s h m e n , h o w e v e r, w as a p o w e rfu l s tr a n d o f relig io u s p r a c tic e a n d b e lie f th a t

co u ld b e c o n n e c te d to p re v io u s im a g e s ; also, th e ra re te s tim o n y o f B u s h m e n voices

re c o rd e d d u r in g th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y a n d k e p t in a n a rc h iv e a t C a p e T o w n . C o m b in in g

th e s e tw o so u rc e s , L ew is-W illia m s w as ab le to m a k e a c o n v in c in g case th a t th e th o u s a n d s

o f B u s h m e n im a g e s in th e D ra k e n s b e r g w ere fa r fro m b e in g sc e n e s o f d aily life; r a th e r,

th e y b e lo n g e d to th e s u rre a l e x p e rie n c e o f m in d s a n d b o d ie s in a s ta te o f ecstasy.

A n e la n d is in th e th ro e s o f d e a th (Fig. 12): its h e a d h a n g s h eav y ; its d ew la p - th e

th ic k fo ld o f sk in b elo w th e n e c k - is sa g g in g ; a n d its h in d legs a re c ro ss e d . T h e B u s h m e n

say th a t th e c ro sse d h in d legs o f tire e la n d a re a c lea r sig n o f p o is o n e d d a r ts ta k in g effect.

H e re , h o w ev e r, w e n o tic e s o m e th in g else. T h e th e ria n th r o p ic fig u re h o ld in g th e e la n d ’s

tail in o n e h a n d , a n d a s p e a r in tire o th e r, a p p e a r s to h ave his legs c ro s se d too. H e h a s an

a n im a l’s h e a d a n d ho o fs. C a n it b e , th e n , th a t h e is also d y in g ? I f so, is h e a fig u re w h o

n o t o n ly c o n n e c ts b e tw e e n th e re a lm s o f h u m a n a n d a n im a l, b u t w h o also in te ra c ts

b e tw e e n th e living a n d th e d e a d ?

T r a n s c r ip ts o f B u s h m a n b eliefs a n d p r a c tic e s p o in t to th e reality o f ju s t s u c h a

fig u re in th e p e r s o n o f a sh a m a n : a s e n io r in d iv id u a l e s te e m e d as a h e a le r, a ra in -m a k e r,

T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

a n in s p ira tio n f o r th e h u n t, a n d s o m e o n e w ith a c ce ss to th e s p ir it w o rld . T h is is n o t only

th e s tu f f o f arc h iv es: to th is d ay, s h a m a n s ex ist a m o n g th e K a la h a ri B u s h m e n . B e in g

g o o d - n a tu r e d a b o u t visits f r o m in q u is itiv e r e s e a r c h e rs , to u r is ts a n d film c re w s alike, th e

B u s h m e n h a v e r e p e a te d ly c o n f ir m e d th e c e n tra l s ig n ific an c e o f s h a m a n ic ritu a ls to th e ir

society. B u s h m a n s h a m a n s h av e th e ir o w n m e ta p h o r ic w ay s o f r e c o u n tin g h o w th e y

e x p e r ie n c e th e ir c o n n e c tio n w ith th e s u p e rn a tu r a l; th e y s p e a k in te rm s o f b e in g s tre tc h e d

o n r o p e s , lin e s o r th r e a d s to a n alm ig h ty c r e a to r o r so m e n e th e rw o rld o f a n c e s to rs . B u t

(a g a in th a n k s to a n o p e n d isp o s itio n o n th e p a r t o f th o s e c o n c e r n e d ) it is also p o ssib le

to w itn e ss a ‘tr a n c e d a n c e ’, in w h ic h a B u s h m a n s h a m a n p e rfo rm s .

T h is w as h o w it h a p p e n e d in a sm a ll k raa l o r village n o t fa r f r o m T s u m k w e in

n o r th w e s t N a m ib ia . A t d u s k a fire w as lit, a r o u n d w h ic h th e w o m e n o f th e village, w ith

th e ir in fa n ts , s a t in a circle. T h e y b e g a n to se t u p a rh y th m o f c h a n tin g a n d c lap p in g .

V ario u s o f th e ir m e n fo lk w e re a r o u n d , in c lu d in g th e a g e d h e a d m a n o f th e village; so m e

b e g a n to tr e a d a r o u n d th e circle, h u m m in g a lo n g w ith th e so n g s. T h e s ta r o f th e sh o w

T H E BLEEK A N D

EFINED BY o n e a n th ro p o lo g is t a s 'th e

h arm less p e o p le ', t h e B ushm en co m m u n itie s

o f s o u th e rn A frica w e r e p e r s e c u te d t h r o u g h o u t

t h e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y by w h ite s e ttle r s a n d Bantu

p a sto ra lists alike. M any w e r e e x te rm in a te d : s o m e

w e r e k e p t as co n v icts in C a p e Town. It w a s a m o n g

t h e s e p ris o n e rs t h a t W ilh e lm Bleek (1 8 2 7 -7 5 )

did his rese a rc h . Bleek w a s a philologist, w ith a

p rim a ry in te r e s t in t h e clicking language o f t h e

B ushm en. A id e d by his sister-in-law Lucy Lloyd, h e

filled n u m e ro u s n o te b o o k s w ith tra n sc rip tio n s o f

in te rv ie w s co v erin g all a s p e c ts o f B ushm an life and

folklore. Alas, t w o n o te b o o k s c arry in g in fo rm atio n

a b o u t B ushm an painting a re listed as missing fro m

L L O Y D A R C H IV E

t h e arch iv e k e p t a t t h e U niversity o f C a p e Town.

O th e r s , h o w e v e r p ro v id e a rich v erb atim a c c o u n t

o f hun tin g te c h n iq u e s, stargazing, m ed icin e a n d so

on. It is fro m this r e c o r d t h a t w e c o m p r e h e n d th e

cen trality o f ritual in t h e lives o f t h e Bushm en.

C hristian m issio n aries th o u g h t th e m irreligious.

O n t h e c o n tra ry : t h e m o s t p ow erful figures in any

B ushm an clan w e r e its spiritual lead ers, its ritual

specialists.T hey have t h e ir o w n local titles: t o te r m

th e m ‘sh a m an s' is, f o r t h e sake o f co n v e n ie n c e , a t

least p re fe ra b le t o 'w itch d o c to rs '. W h a te v e r w e call

th e s e e ld e rs, t h e Bleek a n d Lloyd p a p e r s suggest

th a t th e y w e r e v e ry likely t o have b e e n t h e a rtis ts o f

t h e D ra k e n sb e rg a n d o t h e r B ush m an -p ain te d sites.

13 A B ushm an d a n c e a t a village n e a r T s u m k w e . n o r t h w e s t N am ibia, in t h e s u m m e r o f 2004,

If l!

THE BIRTH OF T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

th e n arrived: a d im in u tiv e, sinew y old m a n , w earing only a loin clo th a n d a se t o f rattles

a b o u t his ankles. H e n o w led th e sta m p in g a ro u n d th e circle; a n d fo r th e n e x t tw o h o u rs

o r so h e h ard ly p a u s e d as lo rd o f th e dance. S o m etim es h e rea ch ed fo r th e h ead s o f those

sittin g d o w n , as if to tra n s m it so m e o f his en ergy to th em . O ccasionally, he staggered

away in to th e sh ad o w s, d o u b le d u p an d g asp in g fo r b rea th ; at o ne p o in t, w hile w eaving

across th e circle, h e fell in to th e fire a n d h a d to b e p u lle d out: sa n d w as h ea p ed over him

to cool h im dow n. S o m e o f th e w o m en ro se u p a n d follow ed him . T h e r e was no

w eariness fro m th e m in clap p in g a n d singing. I t seem ed th e ce rem o n y c o u ld go o n as

lo n g as th e fire glow ed u n d e r th e stars (Fig. 13).

It is in su c h situ atio n s th a t a sh a m an ca n go in to a n ‘altered state o f co n scio u sn e ss’.

Physically, this m an ifests itself in vario u s ways: loss o f b alan ce, sto m ac h cram p s,

h y p erv e n tila tio n a n d nosebleeds. M entally, it ca n lead to h allu cin atio n s, th e in ten se

v isio n ary ex p e rien c e o f travelling o u t o f b o d y in to stran g e y et co n v in cin g places. N o one

c o u ld draw o r p a in t w hile in th e m id s t o f th is so rt o f em o tio n al seizure. B u t revealing

o r recalling w h at h a d co m e in to vision d u rin g a n altered state o f co n scio u sn ess ... th a t

w o u ld b e tru ly m arv ello u s, a n d p ro o f, as it w ere, o f th e sh a m a n ’s special status.

F o r several decad es now, D av id L ew is-W illiam s h as arg u e d th e case th a t the

th o u sa n d s o f B u s h m a n im ages left in th e D ra k e n sb e rg are b es t ex p lain ed as ‘sh a m a n ic ’:

directly deriv ed fro m th e h allu cin ato ry ex p erien ces o f sh a m an s w hile in a n altered state

o f conscio u sn ess. T h e r e are, to b eg in w ith, clear signs th a t physiological effects o f th e

tra n c e d an c e are d ep icted : figures d o u b le d u p w ith ab d o m in al spasm s; figures w ith red

lines (blood) strea m in g fro m th e ir noses. T h e m a rk e d elo n g atio n o f m a n y figures m ay

reflect th e r e p o rte d sen satio n o f b ein g stretch ed .

R o ck su rfaces, su c h as th e G a m e P ass S helter, b ec am e in terfaces b etw een reality

an d th e sp irit w o rld , o n w h ich th e im ag ery o f th e tra n c e w as re c o rd e d a n d displayed.

T o call these in terfaces ‘m e m b ra n e s ’ is n o t in a p p ro p ria te . F ig u res o f anim als m ig h t

em erg e fro m cracks in th e sto n e (as th ey d o ), a n d p lacin g a h a n d u p o n th e sto n e, too,

m ig h t give so m e sense o f its p o te n t access to th e d o m a in o f sp irits a n d an cesto rs.

N o s u m m a ry m atch es th e elo q u en ce w ith w h ich L ew is-W illiam s h as p u rsu e d

an d p u b lish ed this th e o ry : w e m ay sim ply state h ere th a t m an y e x p e rts w orldw ide ac ce p t

it. A nthropologically, it is n o t an isolated o r ec ce n tric p h e n o m e n o n . Parallels ca n be

d raw n , for in stan c e, b etw een th e B u sh m a n sh am an s a n d th o se am o n g vario u s in d ig en o u s

trib es o f N o rth A m erica, su c h as theY okuts a n d N u m ic o f C alifo rn ia, w h o se use

T H E BIR TH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

o f hallucinogenic su b sta n ces can be traced in p e tro g ly p h s (rock m a rkin g s) le ft in sites

o f s a c re d sig n ific an c e. E v id e n c e also s u g g e s ts th a t s h a m a n s o r ‘clev er m e n ’ a m o n g

th e A b o rig in a l c o m m u n itie s o f n o r t h e r n A u stra lia p la y e d a p a r tic u la r ro le in c re a tin g

th e m ille n n ia -o ld im a g e ry o f th a t re g io n . E u r o p e a n c o lo n is ts m a y h av e d ism is se d it

all as so m u c h m u m b o - ju m b o , a lth o u g h th e y w ere h a p p y to a c c e p t s to rie s ( a n d im ag es)

o f a m a n w h o c o u ld c u r e le p e rs w ith h is to u c h a n d u n d e r g o a n a g o n iz in g d e a th

w ith o u t d y in g .

W h a t, h o w ev e r, h a s th is to d o w ith th e c a v e -p a in tin g s o f E u r o p e in th e U p p e r

P ala e o lith ic p e rio d ?

T H E N E U R O P S Y C H O L O G IC A L M O D E L

R e a d e rs m a y a lre a d y h av e g u e s se d th e n e x t m o v e in th e L e w is-W illia m s a r g u m e n t. I t is

n o t to s u g g e st th a t B u s h m e n , N a tiv e A m e r ic a n s a n d A u s tra lia n A b o rig in e s a re culturally

c o m p a r a b le to p e o p le o f th e S to n e A g e , b u t to p o in t o u t th a t all a n a to m ic a lly m o d e r n

h u m a n s - in c lu d in g th o s e o f th e P a la e o lith ic - sh a re a b ra in th a t is h a r d - w ire d ( p r e ­

p r o g r a m m e d ) in a c e r ta in way. W h a t o c c u r s w ith in th is b r a in w h e n w e e n te r a n a lte re d

sta te o f c o n s c io u s n e s s is th e re fo re p r e d ic ta b le - a c o m m o n h u m a n e x p e r ie n c e , as likely

to h av e th e sa m e v isu a l a n d visible e ffe c ts to d a y as it w o u ld h av e d o n e 3 5 ,0 0 0 y e a rs ago.

T h e r e a re m a n y w ay s o f in d u c in g th e a lte re d sta te o f c o n s c io u s n e s s : d ru g s ,

d a n c in g , d a r k n e s s , e x h a u s tio n , h u n g e r , m e d ita tio n , m ig ra in e a n d s c h iz o p h r e n ia a re

a m o n g th e m . In th e W e s te rn tra d itio n i t is by n o m e a n s c o n fin e d to h ip p ie s a n d a fa s h io n

f o r th e m in d - e x p a n d in g s u b s ta n c e k n o w n as L S D . O p iu m ta k e rs o f th e R o m a n tic

p e r io d , n o ta b ly th e E n g lish w rite rs T h o m a s D e Q u in c e v a n d S a m u e l T a y lo r C o le rid g e ,

w ere g e n e r o u s in p ro v id in g v e rb a l d e s c r ip tio n s o f th e ir v isio n s. A n d in o u r o w n tim es

s c ie n tists h av e d isc o v e re d sim p le p r o c e d u r e s o f s e n s o ry d e p riv a tio n th a t e n a b le re s e a rc h

in to th e b r a in ’s fu n c tio n w h e n it c o m e s to ‘se ein g th in g s ’. T h e re s e a rc h g o e s o n , b u t

a lre a d y it is c le a r th a t th e h u m a n n e r v o u s s y s te m e x h ib its c e r ta in fe a tu re s o f re s p o n s e

th a t c a n b e g e n e ra liz e d - p r o v id in g , f o r a rc h a e o lo g is ts , a so -c a lle d n e u ro p s y c h o lo g ic a l

m o d e l f o r e x p la in in g th e v e ry b e g in n in g s o f sy m b o lic r e p r e s e n ta tio n .

M ig r a in e s u ffe re rs d o n o t n e e d to b e r e m in d e d o f th e f a c t th a t, e v e n in a c o m p le te ly

d a r k e n e d ro o m , a n d w ith th e ir eyes firm ly s h u t, th e y a re p e r s e c u te d b y fla sh in g lights.

I t is a c o m m o n s y m p to m o f a n a lte re d sta te o f c o n s c io u s n e s s : th e s e n s a tio n o f b r ig h tn e s s ,

TH E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N

o ften fra m e d in k aleid o sco p ic p a tte rn s - d o ts, lozenges, blocks, a p p e a rin g in m ultiple

u n its as n etw o rk s, tessellations a n d suchlike. T h e s e p a tte rn s m ay b e c o n s tru e d as ce rtain

ob jects in th e w o rld - a sp id e r’s w eb, o r a h o n ey co m b . In a d d itio n , th e su b je ct o f an

altered state o f co n scio u sn ess m ay feel th a t h e o r sh e is a irb o rn e , o r in w ater, o r p lu n g in g

th ro u g h so m e v o rtex o r tu n n e l. P a tte rn s slide o n e in to an o th e r, a n d sh ap es are fluently

tra n sfo rm e d ; in so m e h y p n ag o g ic (half-asleep) o r d rea m in g m o o d s w e m ay see anim als

a p p e ar: to follow S h ak es p ea re’s p h ra sin g , we will th in k a clo u d to b e v ery like a w hale,

o r m istak e a b u sh fo r a bear.

W h a t ch a racterize s all th e se sen satio n s is h o w vivid they are. T h e n ig h tm a re v ictim

wakes w ith a scream ; th e L S D ad d ic t m a im s h im s elf terrib ly , co n v in ce d th a t his fingers

are e x te n d in g over th e w indow sill a n d o n to th e ro a d o utside. N o ex tern al reality is there.

O u r rea c tio n is entirely to w h a t we see w ith o u t an y d ire c t p e rc e p tio n o f th e w o rld a ro u n d

us. S u c h im ages have b ee n te rm e d as e n to p tic , ‘w ith in th e eye’.

T h e L ew is-W illiam s h y p o th esis, th e n , is n o t ju s t th a t P alaeolithic cav e-p ain tin g

w as sh a m an ic o r sh am an istic in origin. I t is even m o re m o m e n to u s; su g g estin g th a t th e

h u m a n k n ack o f re p rese n tatio n al im ag ery w as itself initially trig g e re d b y this

n eu ro p sy c h o lo g ic al p ro cess. I n o th e r w o rd s, th e P alaeolithic p a in te rs w ere n o t m aking

o b se rv a tio n s o f th e w o rld a ro u n d th em ; th e y w ere tra n s fe rrin g o n to cave walls th e

im ages th e y alread y h a d b e h in d th e ir eyes. T h e y w ere displaying w h a t h a d co m e to th e m

in an altered state o f co n scio u sn ess; reco llectin g p o w erfu l visions; try in g to re c a p tu re

w h a t th e y h a d seen in th e ir h allu cin atio n s - even w h e n th ese h ad flash ed by as a series

o f a b s tra c t p a tte rn s {Fig. 14).

T h e ac c e p ta n c e o f this m o d e l d o es n o t re d u c e all o th e r ca v e-p ain tin g th eo ries to

n o n sen se. I n societies w h ere sh a m an s are o r w ere e s tee m ed as au th o rities - in c lu d in g n o t

only th e B u s h m en a n d o th e r g ro u p s alread y m e n tio n e d , b u t also th e In u it o r ‘E sk im o s’

o f C a n a d a , trib es o f A m az o n ia n S o u th A m eric a, a n d n o m a d ic societies o f S ib eria, w here

th e te rm ‘s h a m a n ’ o rig in ates - sh a m an s claim p o w er fro m an d over anim als. T h e tran c e

d a n c e o f th e B u s h m en m a y celeb rate a successful h u n t, o r serve to b rin g g o o d fo rtu n e

to an im m in e n t ex p ed itio n ; eith er way, th e n , a m e a su re o f ‘h u n tin g m a g ic ’ is im p lied by

th e s h a m a n ’s ce n tral role. F ro m sh a m an ic lore, to o , it is ev id en t th a t ce rta in anim als

ca n b e in v ested w ith e x tra o rd in a ry p o w er a n d significance. (F o r th e B u sh m e n , th e eland

h as su c h special status.) S ib erian sh a m an s w o u ld say th a t th e ir souls w ere e n tru s te d

to an im al g u a rd ia n s, o r claim som e p e rso n a l fam iliar o r d a e m o n in fo u r-le g g ed form .

14 A b s tra c t cave m arkings in t h e C u e v a d e la Pileta, Andalucia, Spain, c ,2 5 ,0 0 0 b c. Such m arkings a re typical o f e n to p tic p a tte rn s g e n e r a te d w ithin t h e m ind during an a lte re d s ta te o f co nsciousness.

T H E BIR TH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

So it m a y b e r ig h t to s u p p o s e t h a t c e r ta in a n im a ls p o s s e s s sy m b o lic v a lu e , fu ll o f lu c k a n d

fertility , re g a rd le s s o f w h e th e r th e y fe a tu re as re g u la r prey . B u t c a n w e c la im th a t

s h a m a n s e x is te d in p re h is to ry ?

‘L e t m e te ll y o u h o w I b e c a m e a lio n . I t w as a g o o d d a n c e se v e ra l y e a rs a g o ...

I fe lt t h e p u ll o f th e fire ... a n d d a n c e d w h ile s ta r in g a t i t ... I saw th e fire b e c o m e

v e ry la rg e ... I saw a lio n in it. I tr e m b le d w h e n I lo o k e d a t it. T h e n t h e lio n

o p e n e d its m o u th a n d sw allo w ed m e . T h e n e x t th in g I r e m e m b e r s e e in g w as th e

lio n s p ittin g o u t a n o t h e r lio n . T h a t o th e r lio n w as m e . I fe lt th e e n e rg y o f th e lio n

a n d r o a r e d w ith g r e a t a u th o rity . T h e p o w e r s c a r e d th e p e o p le .’

T h e r e c o r d e d e x p e r ie n c e o f a m o d e r n B u s h m a n s h a m a n w h ile in a n a lte re d s ta te

o f c o n s c io u s n e s s m a y d ire c tly illu m in a te , b y an a lo g y , se v eral th r e e - d im e n s io n a l im a g e s

d is c o v e re d in th e J u r a r e g io n , t h e m o u n ta in o u s b o r d e r la n d b e tw e e n S w itz e rla n d

a n d F ra n c e . T h e y e v id e n tly s e rv e d as p e n d a n ts o r a m u le ts , a n d th e ir f o r m is

t h e r ia n th r o p ic - w ith th e b o d ie s o f h u m a n s a n d th e h e a d s o f lio n s {Fig. 1 5 ). T h e

m a te r ia l f r o m w h ic h th e y w e re m a d e is o f a n a n im a l s o u r c e - th e tu s k o f a m a m m o th .

A t th e risk o f b e in g o v e r -fa n c ifu l, w e m ig h t say th a t th e im a g e s w e re ‘s p a t o u t’ fro m

th e m a m m o th .

A n u m b e r o f cav es c o n ta in p a in tin g s o r e n g ra v in g s th a t s e e m to s h o w h y b r id s

o f h u m a n s a n d a n im a ls, o r h u m a n fig u re s w ith a n im a l m a s k s a n d a ttr ib u te s . A t C h a u v e t,

f o r e x a m p le , t h e r e is d e p ic te d a c o m p o s ite c r e a tu r e m a d e u p o f a b is o n ’s h e a d a n d

b o d y , a n d a p a ir o f h u m a n legs. I s th is s o m e k in d o f m in o t a u r o r, as th e d is c o v e re rs o f th e

c a v e p r e f e r r e d to call it, a s o r c e re r? A b b é B re u il h a d u s e d th e s a m e te r m f o r a n a n tle r e d ,

f u r r y fig u re w ith h u m a n leg s a n d fe e t a m o n g th e im a g e s in a r e c e s s o f th e cav e c o m p le x

k n o w n as L e s T r o is F r é r e s , in th e F r e n c h P y re n e e s . S in c e it is w ell d o c u m e n te d th a t

m u c h s h a m a n ic p r a c tic e w o rld w id e e x p re s s e s its e lf in ju s t s u c h a n im a l g u is e , th e

t e m p ta tio n to s u p p o s e th a t s h a m a n s o p e r a te d in P a la e o lith ic E u r o p e is h a r d to resis t.

H a r d to re s is t, a n d h a r d to p ro v e . C o n c e p tu a lly , h o w e v e r, s h a m a n is m o ffe rs a

p e r s u a s iv e r o u te to w a r d s th e n e u r o p s y c h o lo g ic a l m o d e l. T h e im a g e o f a lio n - m a n w as

f a s h io n e d b e c a u s e it h a d b e e n v iv id ly im a g in e d d u r in g a n a lte r e d s ta te o f c o n s c io u s n e s s .

T h e o n u s is u p o n sc e p tic s to p r o d u c e a m o r e p la u s ib le a lte rn a tiv e e x p la n a tio n . S o far,

n o n e h a s b e e n fo rth c o m in g .

THE BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N

FROM A R T T O AG R IC U LTU R E

T h e c a v e-p ain tin g s a t A lta m ira w ere o n c e disbelieved b ec au s e th ey se em e d to o ‘ea rly ’.

In tu r n , arch aeo lo g ists w h o a c c e p te d th e earlin ess o f su c h c a v e-p ain tin g s w ere faced w ith

a p ro b le m o f su ccessio n . In E u ro p e , a t least, th e p ra c tic e o f p a in tin g in caves a p p a re n tly

ca m e to an en d a b o u t 1 2 ,0 0 0 years ago. We know th a t th e em e rg e n c e , several th o u s a n d

y ears la ter, o f th e g re a t civilizations in E g y p t, M e s o p o ta m ia a n d th e In d u s Valley, w as

ac co m p an ie d by an increasing use of, even reliance u p o n , th e sym bolic reso u rce o f images:

th is b o o k m akes f u rth e r refe re n c e to th a t p ro c e ss in d u e co u rse (see, fo r ex am p le,

p a g e 6 1 ). B u t in th e m e a n tim e , w h at h a p p e n e d to th e h u m a n ability to create im ages?

U n til recen tly , th e re w as n o sa tisfac to ry an sw er to th a t q u es tio n . I t w as possible,

a d m itte d ly , to claim th a t in so m e p a r ts o f th e w o rld - n o ta b ly A u stralia - the h ab its

o f r e p re s e n ta tio n th a t c o m m e n c e d a b o u t 4 0 ,0 0 0 years ago n ev er lapsed. B u t this w as

im p o ssib le to prove. In te rm s o f arch aeo lo g ically stratified ev id en c e, a d efin ite gap

ex iste d , b e tw e e n th e e n d o f th e O ld S to n e A ge (th e P alaeolithic) a n d th e early p h as es

o f th e N e w S to n e A ge (th e N e o lith ic ). T h e n a ce rta in h illto p in s o u th e rn T u rk e y

d isclo sed its secret.

T h e T u r k is h - K u rd is h to w n o f U rfa (o r S an liu rfa ), n e a r th e S y ria n b o rd e r, is

to u ristically b illed as ‘h isto ric ’. H e re A b ra h a m , th e p a tria rc h o f th e se co n d m illen n iu m BC,

v e n e rate d by Jew s, C h ristia n s a n d M u slim s alike, is s u p p o s e d to have s o jo u rn e d o n his

w ay fro m th e city o f U r to th e la n d o f C a n a a n . B u t it n o w tra n sp ire s th a t religious

activity a ro u n d U rfa p re -d a te s A b ra h a m by th o u s a n d s o f years.

A n arch aeo lo g ical s u rv e y in th e 19 6 0 s o b se rv e d in th e hills a ro u n d U rfa a p a rtic u la r

site w h e re several knolls o f re d d is h e a rth aro se fro m a lim esto n e p lateau . T h e s e knolls,

a n d th e rocky are a nearb y , w ere co v ered in th e d eb ris o f flin t-k n a p p in g - th e flakes

a n d ch ip s o f flint left by th e p re h is to ric m a n u fa c tu re o f to o ls an d w eap o n s. S o m e large

m a n -m a d e slabs o f sto n e w ere also n o tic e d , b u t a s s u m e d to be o f m u c h la ter d ate th a n

th e N eo lith ic d eb ris. N o f u r th e r in v estig atio n w as c a rrie d o u t u n til 1 9 94, w h e n K lau s

S c h m id t o f th e G e r m a n A rc h ae o lo g ic al In stitu te visited th e site a n d estab lish ed th a t th e

knolls w ere n o t n a tu ra l, b u t p a r t o f an artificial hill, h e a p e d as a p r o m in e n t m a rk in the

local lan d scap e. W ith ex p e rien c e o f o th e r sites in this a n c ie n t area o f U p p e r M e so p o tam ia,

S c h m id t w as im m ed iately able to classify th e site as a tepe o r m o u n d , d atab le to th e early

N eo lith ic p h a s e b efo re the u se o f ce ram ic s (so m etim e s re fe rre d to as th e P re -P o tte ry

15 A lion-m an s ta tu e tte fro m H o h lestein -S tad el, s o u th w e s t G erm any, c . 3 2 - 3 0 ,0 0 0 b c, possibly u se d as a p e n d a n t o r a n am ulet.

16 (to p ) A erial view o f a s to n e circle a t G ó b ek liT ep e, Turkey, c .9 0 0 0 bc.

17 (ab o v e) Animal detail - p ro b ab ly a fox - from G óbekli T epe.

TH E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

N eo lith ic ). H e also s u sp e c te d th a t th e lim e sto n e slabs o n this hill - h e n c e fo rth k n o w n

as G o b e k liT e p e - b elo n g ed to so m e larg e p re h is to ric s tru c tu re .

D ig g in g in to th e m o u n d n o t o n ly c o n firm e d S c h m id t’s in tu itio n s, b u t revealed

a d im e n sio n o f P re -P o tte ry N e o lith ic th a t n o o n e e x p e cted .

T h e ex cav atio n s a t G o b e k liT e p e are o n g o in g , w ith sc o p e fo r m o re su rp rises.

W h a t h as c o m e to lig h t so fa r is a series o f w alled e n c lo su res , o f w h ich a b o u t 20 are

b u ilt a r o u n d m assive s to n e p illars se t in a circle (Fig. 16). T w o se p a ra te p illars o c c u p y th e

ce n tre s o f th e se circles. E a c h o f th e p illars is fa sh io n e d o u t o f solid ro ck in to a T -s h ap e

a b o u t 7 m e tre s (2 3 feet) tall. R e c ta n g u la r c a rv e d d o o rw ay s o n c e p ro v id e d m a rk e d

o r tu n n e lle d access to th e e n c lo su res, a n d in th e flo o r o f o n e circle a sm all in se t b asin

h as b e e n fo u n d , w ith a n a tta c h e d c h a n n e l - possibly, as th e ex c av a to r su g g ests, fo r th e

co llec tio n o f b lo o d . F o o d w as c o n s u m e d h e re , as in d ic a te d b y m a n y a n im al b o n es,

b u t n o w h e re o n th e hillsid e a re th e re sig n s o f d o m e stic h ab ita tio n . S o this w as n o t, it

seem s, a p la ce w h ere p e o p le lived, b u t r a th e r a sp ecial assem b ly p o in t - so m e k in d

o f s a n c tu a ry in th e m o u n ta in s th a t a ttr a c te d p e o p le fro m a ra d iu s o f se ttle m en ts som e

80 k ilo m etres (5 0 m iles) o r f u rth e r afield.

L ik e o th e r p re h is to ric m o n u m e n ts , su c h as S to n e h e n g e in B rita in a n d th e m e n h irs

o f F ra n c e , G ó b ek li T ep e re ta in s a n e n ig m atic sen se o f u n f a th o m e d ritu a l significance.

B u t n o t o n ly is it m u c h ea rlier th a n S to n e h e n g e - b y 7 0 0 0 y ears - it is also m u c h

d iffe re n t in o n e key r e s p e c t.T h e w e ll-trim m e d p illars o f G o b e k liT e p e are n o t ju st

m eg alith s (b ig s to n e s ). T h e y a re decorated - em b ellish ed w ith im ag es eith e r en g ra v ed on

to th e su rfa c e o r else p ic k e d o u t in shallow relief (Fig. 17).

I t m a y c o m e as n o s u rp ris e th a t th e p rin c ip a l su b je cts o f th is d e c o ra tio n are , o n ce

ag ain , an im als. F oxes a n d snakes d o m in a te th e r e p e rto ire , b u t gazelle, a u ro c h s, w ild

b o a r, w ild ass, cra n es a n d a lio n also fea tu re . S p id e rs , to o , a re sh o w n . In a d d itio n o ne

b lo c k ca rrie s th e im age o f a w o m a n s q u a ttin g in a sex u al p o s tu re , th o u g h this m ay be

o f la ter date.

T h e p illars th em selv es a p p e a r sch em atically a n th ro p o m o rp h ic o r h u m a n -s h a p e d ,

th e sh a ft sta n d in g f o r legs a n d to rso , th e T -b a r e q u a tin g to sh o u ld e rs a n d h ea d . C a rv e d

a rm s a re a d d e d to o ne o f th e m , as if to c o n firm th e in te n tio n . T h is in tu r n en c o u rag es th e

p r e s u m p tio n th a t th e im ag es serv e to h a rn e ss fo rm s o f w ildlife w h o se p o w e r b elo n g s to

th e se p illar-fig u res, o r p e rh a p s p ro te c ts th e m . T h e foxes b a re th e ir te e th , th e tu sk s o f th e

b o a r are p ro n o u n c e d , a n d th e snakes h av e b e e n id e n tified as v e n o m -lo a d e d vipers.

T H E BIR TH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

T h e p o ssib ility th a t th e d e c o r a tio n o f th e p illars a t G o b e k liT e p e is s h a m a n ic has

b e e n se rio u s ly c o n s id e r e d b y th e e x c a v a to rs. B u t, as th e y p o in t o u t, th e scale o f

s tr u c tu r a l e n te r p ris e a t th is site p o in ts to a so c ie ty in w h ic h ritu a l w as m e d ia te d n o t so

m u c h by s h a m a n s as b y ‘tr u e p r ie s ts ’. T h e im a g es, a f te r all, w ere th e u ltim a te p h a s e ,

o r fin is h in g to u c h e s a t le ast, to w h a t h a d b e e n a m a ssiv e co llec tiv e e ffo rt. A t a sm all

d is ta n c e aw ay f r o m th e m a in ‘te m p le ’ a re a is th e n a tu ra l lim e s to n e a m p h ith e a tr e fro m

w h ic h d ie p illa rs w ere q u a r r ie d . In th e u p p e r r e a c h e s o f th is q u a r r y th e re is a m a rk e d

c a v ity le ft by th e re m o v a l o f o n e T -s h a p e d p illa r m u c h la rg e r th a n a n y so fa r b r o u g h t

to lig h t a t th e site; a n d r ig h t n e x t to th is s p a c e is a s to n e o f sim ila r size a b a n d o n e d

in a c ra c k e d a n d th e re fo r e u n f in is h e d sta te . H a d it b e e n s u c c e ssfu lly re m o v e d f ro m th e

b e d ro c k , it w o u ld h av e m e a s u r e d s o m e 6 m e tre s (2 0 f e e t), a n d w e ig h e d a b o u t 5 0 to n n e s.

T o s h ift it a c ro ss to d ie m o u n d w o u ld h av e r e q u ir e d th e c o m b in e d tr a c tio n p o w e r o f

a b o u t 5 0 0 p e o p le .

G iv e n th a t th e m o u n d its e lf is m a n - m a d e , b u ilt f ro m th o u s a n d s o f to n n e s o f e a r th

a n d r o c k b r o u g h t u p f ro m th e p la in b elo w , w e a re b o u n d to s p e c u la te th a t th e m e a s u r e o f

h u m a n o rg a n iz a tio n r e q u ir e d to b u ild G ó b e k li T e p e w as so m e w ay to w a rd s th a t re q u ir e d

to b u ild th e E g y p tia n p y ra m id s . G ó b e k li T e p e , in th e w o rd s o f its e x c a v a to rs , th e re fo re

s ta n d s a t ‘d ie d a w n o f a n e w w o rld , a w o rld w ith p o w e rfu l r u le r s a n d a c o m p le x , stratified ,

h ie ra rc h ic a l so c ie ty ’.

S o tiiis is a m a jo r rev e la tio n f r o m c u r r e n t a rc h a e o lo g y ; a n d u n lik e d ie firs t ‘re v e a l’

o f A lta m ira , it c a u s e s tr u e w o n d e r , n o t d isb e lie f. A n d f o r th o s e w h o like to r e g a rd a r t

a s a n o p tio n a l lu x u r y in life, a p a s tim e to b e in d u lg e d o n ly w h e n th e n e c e s s a r y b u sin e ss

o f su rv iv a l a n d s u b s is te n c e h a s b e e n c o m p le te d , G ó b e k li T e p e o ffe rs a p a r tic u la r

ch a lle n g e - w ith w h ic h w e sh a ll c o n c lu d e .

F o r m o r e th a n h a lf a c e n tu r y , a r c h a e o lo g is ts h av e a g r e e d th a t f a rm in g - th e k e e p in g

o f d o m e s tic a te d a n im a ls a n d th e c u ltiv a tio n o f c r o p s - b e g a n in th e N e a r E a s t d u r in g th e

ea rly N e o lith ic p e r io d , c. 9 0 0 0 b c . S h e e p a n d g o a ts w ere th e p r in c ip a l a n im a ls fe a tu rin g

in th is a g ric u ltu r a l r e v o lu tio n , w h ile w h e a t a n d b a rle y w ere th e p r in c ip a l c ro p s . K e y sites

p ro v id in g e v id e n c e fo r a n im a l e n c lo s u re s a n d d o m e s tic a te d g ra in s in c lu d e J a rm o , in

n o r th e r n Ira q ; Q a ta lh o y ü k , in w e s te r n T u rk e y ; a n d J e ric h o , in P a le stin e . T h e J o r d a n valley

a n d th e r e a c h e s o f U p p e r M e s o p o ta m ia h a v e also y ie ld e d sp e cific clu es r e g a rd in g th e

tr a n s itio n f ro m n o m a d ic h u n tin g a n d g a th e r in g to se ttle d fa rm in g . T h e d e b a te th e n a rise s

a b o u t w h ic h c a m e first: a d e m o g r a p h ic s h ift to s e ttle d c o m m u n itie s , le a d in g to a re lia n c e

T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

u p o n f a r m in g f o r f o o d , o r th e in te n s iv e e x p lo ita tio n o f c e r ta in liv e sto c k a n d ce reals,

le a d in g to s e ttle d c o m m u n itie s ?

I n th e b o o k o f G e n e s is , th e c h a n g e o c c u r s as a d ir e c t c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e e x p u ls io n

o f A d a m a n d E v e f r o m th e G a r d e n o f E d e n . T h e s o n s o f A d a m a n d E v e, C a in a n d A b e l,

a re sp e c ifie d as a tiller o f th e soil a n d a s h e p h e r d resp e c tiv e ly , fu lfillin g G o d ’s e d ic t th a t

m o r ta ls s h o u ld h e n c e f o r th s u rv iv e ‘b y th e sw ea t o f th e ir b r o w ’. G o b e k liT e p e raise s a n

a lte rn a tiv e p o s s ib ility - th a t w h a t in s tig a te d th e firs t p r o d u c ti o n o f fo o d w a s a rt.

A b o u t 3 0 k ilo m e tre s (2 0 m ile s) s o u th f r o m G ó b e k li T e p e lies th e K a r a c a d a g ra n g e .

R e s e a rc h a m o n g th e s e hills h a s s h o w n th a t th e y a re h o m e to th e c lo s e s t w ild re la tiv e o f a n

ea rly sp e c ie s o f d o m e s tic a te d g r a in , e in k o rn w h e a t. T h e s u g g e s tio n is t h a t w ild g r a in w as

b r o u g h t f ro m th e K a r a c a d a g , a n d c u ltiv a te d a r o u n d G ó b e k li T e p e in o r d e r to f e e d all th e

h u n d r e d s o f p e o p le b u ild in g o r sim p ly f r e q u e n tin g th e site.

S o th e re is th e m o m e n to u s c o n c lu s io n : th a t s o m e 1 1 ,0 0 0 y e a rs a g o im a g e r y h a d

b e c o m e so p o w e rfu l in th e m in d s o f h u m a n b e in g s th a t it h e lp e d to b r in g a b o u t th e

g r e a te s t tr a n s f o r m a tio n in h u m a n h isto ry .