Discussion Thread-Scholarly Article Review of Integration

O R I G I N A L P A P E R

Spirituality, Anger, and Stress in Early Adolescents

Barbara L. Carlozzi • Carrie Winterowd • R. Steven Harrist •

Nancy Thomason • Kristi Bratkovich • Sheri Worth

Published online: 6 November 2009 � Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2009

Abstract The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship of spiritual beliefs and involvement with anger and stress in early adolescents. Early adolescents (n = 53) com- pleted the Spiritual Involvement and Beliefs Scale (Hatch et al. 1998), the State-Trait

Anger Expression Inventory (Spielberger 1999), and the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen and

Williamson 1988). Contrary to expectations, spirituality was significantly and positively

related to anger and stress. Implications and possible explanations for the unanticipated

findings in this study are discussed.

Keywords Spirituality � Anger � Stress � Early adolescents

B. L. Carlozzi (&) School of Applied Health and Education Psychology, Oklahoma State University, 416 Willard Hall, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA e-mail: [email protected]

C. Winterowd School of Applied Health and Education Psychology, Oklahoma State University, 409 Willard Hall, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA e-mail: [email protected]

R. Steven Harrist School of Applied Health and Education Psychology, Oklahoma State University, 419 Willard Hall, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA e-mail: [email protected]

N. Thomason � K. Bratkovich � S. Worth School of Applied Health and Education Psychology, Oklahoma State University, 434 Willard Hall, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA

K. Bratkovich e-mail: [email protected]

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J Relig Health (2010) 49:445–459 DOI 10.1007/s10943-009-9295-1

Introduction

Violence among youth related to rage, culture, and religion has captured domestic and

international attention in recent years. A number of factors have been associated with

adolescent violence including environments in which force and coercion are a way of life,

inadequate social skills, the lack of meaningful relationships, shame, unhealthy lifestyles, a

lack of meaning or purpose, as well as certain parenting practices (Allen and Allen 2000;

Fraser. 1996; Lewin et al. 1999; Sandhu et al. 2001; Silver et al. 2000; Spiegel and Alpert

2000; Vernberg and Jacobs 1999; Wauters and Moser 2000). The relationship between

anger and youth violence is still a poorly understood phenomenon, as is the relationship

between anger and potentially exacerbating or mitigating factors such as spirituality and

stress. In this study, we investigated the relationships of spirituality and stress with anger

experience and expression among early adolescents.

Adolescence

Adolescence has often been described as a period of storm and stress, a period of mar-

ginality, and a period of transition without turmoil (Petersen 1988). It is not surprising that

much remains to be learned about the even less studied period of early adolescence, usually

defined as the period between 11 and 14, though some have included either 10-year-olds or

15-year-olds in this period (Irvin 1996; Lipsitz and Jackson 1997; Silberman and Snarey

1993). Most individuals move through early adolescence without a great deal of stress, but

a sizeable minority encounter significant turmoil during this stage in adolescent devel-

opment (Irvin 1996; Petersen 1988).

Adolescents face important developmental tasks including identity formation (Erikson

1968), the development of social skills, autonomy, responsibility, and the development of a

set of values (Irvin 1996). These developmental tasks impact the level of stress adolescents

experience and influence emotional states, including anger. Other significant develop-

mental events during this period include increasing cognitive development, developing a

sexual identity, adjusting to a more mature body, developing academic competence, and

exploring career options (Flavell 1963; Kegan 1998).

Anger

While behaviors and cognitions have been studied more extensively than emotions

(Kassinove and Sukhodolsky 1995), the research on anger has lagged behind research on

other emotions (Deffenbacher et al. 1996; Eckhardt et al. 2004; Kassinove and Sukhod-

olsky 1995; Sharkin et al. 1996). Anger is an emotion that can fuel violence and other

behavioral problems. The expression of anger can also negatively impact self-esteem,

relationships with others (Kassinove 1995), and health (Lepore and Smyth 2002).

Spielberger (1999) conceptualized anger in terms of anger experience, expression, and

control. Anger can be experienced as a temporary reaction to situations (i.e., state) as well

as a chronic tendency or predisposition (i.e., trait). It can be expressed outwardly in healthy

as well as abusive ways (i.e., anger-out); it can also be squelched or suppressed (i.e., anger-

in). Attempts to control anger involve outward efforts to avoid expressing anger as well as

internal efforts to calm down or cool off (i.e., anger control-in; Spielberger 1999).

One of the developmental tasks of adolescence is learning how to manage/regulate

emotions, including the experience and expression of anger (Calamari and Pini 2003).

Adolescents who are chronically angry, prone to anger, and/or have anger problems tend to

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experience health problems (e.g., high blood pressure and heart problems; Hauber et al.

1998; body fat, Mueller et al. 2001), emotional distress (e.g., dissociation, Calamari and

Pini 2003; hopelessness, Kashani et al. 1995; suicidality, Goldston et al. 1996), and

interpersonal difficulties (i.e., insecure attachments with others, Calamari and Pini 2003;

Muris et al. 2004; Winterowd et al. 2009b); experience parents as less warm and more

rejecting and controlling (Muris et al. 2004). See Kerr and Schneider 2008 for a review of

the literature on anger expression in children and adolescents.

More research is needed to understand the factors that influence the experience and

expression of anger in early adolescents given the lack of knowledge in this area and its

relevance to aggression as well as other personal and interpersonal problems (Eckhardt

et al. 2004; Kerr and Schneider 2008; Sharkin et al. 1996).

Stress

As mentioned earlier, stress, in part, defines the developmental stage of adolescence. Stress

can be defined as feeling overwhelmed and/or unable to cope effectively with people or

events in one’s life. Researchers have found developmental differences in coping with

stress. Older adolescents tend to use a greater array of coping strategies, especially cog-

nitive-oriented strategies, to reduce the impact of the stressor compared to younger ado-

lescents (Williams and McGillicuddy-De Lisi 1999). However, even early adolescents use

a variety of coping strategies, such as seeking support and using social relationships,

ruminating, venting, distracting, problem-solving, as well as using humor (Broderick and

Korteland 2002; Plancherel and Bolognini 1995). Research findings are mixed regarding

gender differences in coping during adolescence (Broderick and Korteland 2002;

Plancherel and Bolognini 1995; Williams and McGillicuddy-De Lisi 1999).

Previous researchers have investigated anxiety and stress in relation to the experience

and expression of anger in adult samples (e.g., Spielberger 1999; Winterowd et al. 2009a).

Stress is related to anger in that the more distressed a person is, the more likely she/he is to

feel angry and express it or control it in some way. A person’s worldview, including his or

her spiritual beliefs, may also influence stress (i.e., anxiety; Beck et al. 1985) and the

experience and expression of anger (i.e., anger and hostility; Beck 1999).

Spirituality

Spirituality is an important aspect of the worldview of many adults and young people, and

most often refers to a search for transcendence, meaning and purpose in life, and a sense of

connection or unity among all living things (Adams et al. 2000; Emmons et al. 1998;

Pargament 1997; Plante and Sherman 2001; Stanard et al. 2000).

Adolescents face the developmental tasks of developing autonomy and responsibility,

and adopting a personal belief system with religious and spiritual values that may differ

from the values/beliefs of family and peers (Kegan 1998).

In terms of spiritual and religious belief systems, Fowler (1981) theorized that people

experience stages of faith starting in early childhood and continuing through late adulthood

which involve identifying, evaluating, and reforming beliefs, values, and functions of

religion/spirituality in their lives. Fowler’s six stages of faith (1981) are (1) Intuitive-

Projective Faith, (2) Mythic-Literal Faith, (3) Synthetic-Conventional Faith, (4) Individual-

Reflective Faith, (5) Conjunctive Faith, and (6) Universalizing Faith. Early stages are

relatively simplistic, e.g., Stage 1 emphasizes fantasy and does not distinguish between

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fantasy and reality; Stage 2 is constrained by very concrete and literal thinking, and ignores

issues of motivation, intent, and situational differences. Individuals in Stage 3 begin to

consider issues of intent, motivation, and situational differences, as their faith becomes

more reflective and complex. Interpersonal relations are of prime importance in this stage

and, as the name of the stage implies, individuals in the Synthetic-Conventional Faith

Stage base their beliefs on the values and opinions of respected others. In Stage 4, indi-

viduals begin to break from convention by building a faith based on personal experiences;

however, this faith system is restricted to the rational, conscious mind, and cannot yet deal

with the nonrational, or with paradox and contradiction. Stage 5 is characterized by the

ability to combine rational and nonrational and to appreciate contradiction and paradox.

Individuals at this stage value dialogue with others and understand the complexity of truth.

Individuals in Stage 6 believe in a set of universal values such as compassion, love, and

justice; and individuals at this stage of development are able to live their values regardless

of the personal cost.

Fowler’s theory shares many of the characteristics of other developmental theories

(Kegan 1980; Kohlberg 1981; Piaget as cited in Flavell 1963) in that early stages are more

simplistic than later stages, and later stages demand more advanced cognitive ability than

early stages. As individuals move into more complex stages, they encounter difficulty in

dealing with that complexity and react by restricting inclusiveness, e.g., reliance on the

familiar, one’s personal experience, the rational, and the comfortable.

Individuals in early adolescence would typically be in Fowler’s Mythic-Literal Faith

Stage or transitioning to the Synthetic-Conventional Faith Stage. The Mythic-Literal Faith

Stage corresponds to Piaget’s concrete operational stage and is characterized by a literal

interpretation of religious works and a general disregard for issues of intent, motivation,

and individual differences when considering moral issues. Individuals in the Synthetic-

Conventional Faith Stage rely on trusted others to guide them in decisions of moral and

religious values and beliefs. Interpersonal relations are of primary importance as indi-

viduals at this stage look to a group or organization where the beliefs and values feel right

to them. Not until late adolescence or young adulthood do people typically adopt a per-

sonal belief system based on their own unique experiences.

While stages of faith have been identified, little is known about spirituality as a coping

strategy for early adolescents, which is one of the foci of the present study. Spirituality and

spiritual practices may mediate experiences of anger by providing sources of social sup-

port, psychological resources, as well as an opportunity for healthy expression of emotions

(e.g., Ellison 1998; Seybold and Hill 2001). It seems plausible that adolescents might turn

to spiritual beliefs and practices as one resource for coping with stress or uncomfortable

emotions such as anger.

There is some research to support the relationship of spirituality and coping responses

in adolescence and early adulthood (e.g., Emmons et al. 1998; Krause et al. 2001;

Markstrom 1999; Schafer 1997; Seybold and Hill 2001; Young et al. 2000). However, in

one study, spirituality was not found to be a source of support in coping (Plancherel and

Bolognini 1995). In another study, spirituality was significantly and positively related to

anger in a sample of college students (Winterowd et al. 2005). The college students who

reported higher levels of spirituality also reported more anger. No researchers to date

have explored the relationship of spiritual beliefs and involvement with the experience of

anger in early adolescent girls and boys. More research is needed to understand the

relationship of spiritual beliefs and involvement with anger as well as stress in early

adolescents.

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Purposes of the Study

The purposes of the present study were to explore the following research questions: (1)

What is the relationship of spirituality (i.e., external, internal, existential/meditative, and

humility/personal application) with the experience of anger (i.e., state and trait anger) and

anger expression (i.e., anger-in, anger-out, anger control-in, anger control-out and general

anger expression) among early adolescents? (2) What is the relationship between spirituality

and stress (overall score) among early adolescent boys and girls? (3) What is the rela-

tionship between spirituality and anger for early adolescents when controlling for stress?

It was hypothesized that spirituality would be significantly and negatively related to

anger, anger aggression, and general anger expression; whereas we predicted spirituality

would be significantly and positively related to anger suppression and anger control efforts.

Stress and anger were expected to be significantly and positively related. Last, we

hypothesized that spirituality would significantly contribute to the relationship between

anger and stress when stress was statistically controlled. Gender differences in spirituality,

anger and stress were not expected.

Method

Participants

Participants in this study included 53 eighth and ninth grade students from a southwestern

state. The participants were predominantly Caucasian (43; 81%), with a few racially

diverse participants including African American (n = 1; 1.9%), Hispanic (n = 4; 7.5%), or Multiracial (n = 5; 9.4%). Girls and boys were fairly equally represented in this sample (girls, n = 29; 54.7%; boys, n = 24; 45.3%). On average, the students were 14 years old (m = 14.15, SD = .53; median and mode = 14). Four were 13 years old (7.5%), 37 were 14 years old (69.8%), and 12 were 15 years old (22.6%). The majority of the students were

in 8th grade (n = 44; 83%), with some in 9th grade (n = 9; 17%). The sex, race, and age demographics of this sample appear to be representative of the demographics of the student

population in the part of the country sampled. A variety of religious affiliations were

represented in this study, including Baptist (n = 17, 32%), Other (n = 12, 22.6%), Catholic (n = 9, 16.9%), Methodist (n = 4, 7.5%), Presbyterian (n = 3, 5.6%), None (n = 2, 3.8%), and Atheist (n = 1, 1.9%), Buddhist (n = 1, 1.9%), Jehovah’s Witness (n = 1, 1.9%), Jewish (n = 1, 1.9%), Mormon (n = 1. 1.9%), and Nondenominational (n = 1, 1.9%) that appears to be representative of students in this part of the country. See Table 1 for the sample demographics.

Procedure

Participants were recruited at a mid-high school in a southwestern state. They completed a

packet including a demographic sheet, the Spiritual Involvement and Beliefs Scale, the State-

Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2, and the Perceived Stress Scale during one class period.

Measures

The Spiritual Involvement and Beliefs Scale (SIBS; Hatch et al. 1998). The SIBS is a 26- item measure of spiritual beliefs and level of involvement in spiritual activities. Items are

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rated on a five-point Likert-type scale (i.e., 1 = never, 5 = always for the first 23-items;

1 = 0 times, 5 = 10 or more times for the last two items).

There are four subscales on the SIBS: External/Ritual, Internal/Fluid, Existential/

Meditative, and Humility/Personal Application. The External/Ritual subscale assesses

one’s participation or involvement in spiritual activities or rituals as well as beliefs in a

power greater than oneself (e.g., ‘‘During the past week, I prayed…10 or more times, 7–9 times, 4–6 times, 1–3 times, 0 times.’’). The Internal/Fluid subscale assesses one’s internal

spiritual beliefs and personal growth (e.g., ‘‘My spiritual beliefs continue to evolve.’’).

‘‘Internal beliefs refer to believing in the qualities that reside within the self’’ and ‘‘personal

Table 1 Demographic of the sample

Age

13 years old 4 (7.5%)

14 years old 37 (69.8%)

15 years old n = 53 M = 14.15 SD = .53

12 (22.6%)

Sex

Male 24 (45.3%)

Female 29 (54.7%)

Grade

8th 44 (83%)

9th 9 (17%)

Race

Black 1 (1.9%)

Asian 0 (0.0%

Hispanic 4 (7.5%)

White 43 (81.1%)

Multiracial 5 (9.4%)

Religious affiliation

Agnostic 0 (0%)

Atheist 1 (1.9%)

Baptist 17 (32.1%)

Buddhist 1 (1.9%)

Catholic 9 (17%)

Episcopalian 0 (0%)

Hindu 0 (0%)

Jehovah’s Witness 1 (1.9%)

Jewish 1 (1.9%)

Lutheran 0 (0%)

Methodist 4 (7.5%)

Mormon 1 (1.9%)

Muslim 0 (0%)

Nondenominational 1 (1.9%)

Presbyterian 3 (5.7%)

Unitarian 0 (0%)

None 2 (3.8%)

Other 12 (22.6%)

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growth refers to developing the self, reaching or moving toward maturity, cultivating one’s

beliefs’’ (Wertheimer 2003, p. 15–16). The Existential/Meditative subscale assesses one’s

reflection on purpose or meaning in life (e.g., ‘‘I can find meaning in times of hardship.’’).

The Humility/Personal Application subscale assesses one’s humility and daily application

of spirituality (e.g., ‘‘When I am ashamed of something I have done, I tell someone about

it.’’).

These scales were based on theoretical formulations and confirmed via factor analytic

procedures. The SIBS has been found to be a reliable (e.g., test–retest reliability esti-

mates = .92, internal consistency alphas = .92) and valid measure of spiritual beliefs and

involvement (e.g., convergent validity with the Spiritual Well-Being Scale; Hatch et al.

1998).

State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI-2; Spielberger 1999). The STAXI-2 is a 57-item measure of the experience and expression of anger. The STAXI-2 subscales

include State Anger, Trait Anger, Anger Expression-In, Anger Expression-Out, Anger

Control-In, Anger Control-Out, and Anger Expression Index. State Anger refers to how

angry people are at a particular moment (e.g., at the time of testing, ‘‘I feel like shouting

out loud.’’). Trait Anger refers to the tendency to feel angry across situations (e.g., ‘‘I am a

hotheaded person.’’). Anger Expression-In refers to anger suppression (e.g., ‘‘I keep things

in.’’), whereas Anger Expression-Out refers to expressing anger in an outwardly aggressive

way (e.g., ‘‘I strike out at whatever infuriates me.’’). Anger Control-In refers to one’s

efforts to calm down or cool off (e.g., ‘‘I try to soothe my angry feelings.’’) whereas Anger

Control-Out refers to one’s efforts to outwardly control the expression of anger (e.g., ‘‘I

control my urge to express my angry feelings.). The Anger Expression Index refers to how

often people express their anger in general.

The reliability and validity of the STAXI-2 has been demonstrated in previous research

(Spielberger 1999). The subscales were developed based on the results of principle com-

ponents analysis procedures. In terms of validity, the STAXI-2 anger and anger suppres-

sion subscales have been associated with hostility, anxiety, health-related problems (e.g.,

elevated blood pressure, hypertension, cardiovascular reactivity), neurotic and psychotic

symptoms, and post-traumatic stress (evidence of convergent validity); these scales were

not significantly correlated with measures of curiosity (divergent validity; Spielberger

1999).

The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS; Cohen and Williamson 1988). The PSS is a 10-item scale that assesses perceptions of stress over the past month. Each item is rated in terms of

its frequency (e.g., of being ‘‘upset,’’ ‘‘nervous’’ and one’s ability to cope) on a 5-point

Likert scale (0 = never to 4 = very often). Higher total scores indicate higher levels of

perceived stress. The construct and convergent validity of the PSS has been evident in that

it is moderately correlated with other measures of stress and self-reported health (Cohen

and Williamson 1988). For example, PSS scores have been correlated with the number of

significant life events in the previous year reported by a sample of students adjusting to

college. The PSS asks respondents about perceived stress over the past month and mea-

sures of significant life events that use similar time references show even higher correla-

tions with PSS scores. PSS scores have also been found to be correlated with scores on

self-reported health and utilization of health services measures; poorer perceptions of

health and greater use of health services were related to higher perceived stress. Overall,

the PSS has been found to be a psychometrically sound measure of appraised stress in

studies using large national samples to assess the reliability and validity of this instrument

(e.g., Cohen and Williamson 1988; Cole 1999).

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Results

Preliminary analyses were conducted to assess the internal consistency reliability of the

measures for this early adolescent sample. For the SIBS, the External Spirituality subscale

(Cronbach alpha = .90) and the overall score (Cronbach alpha = .88) were internally

consistent for this sample. The Existential subscale had fair internal consistency reliability

(Cronbach alpha = .62). However, the Internal Spirituality and Humility/Personal Appli-

cation subscales were not internally consistent for this sample (Cronbach alphas of .52 and

.50, respectively). Therefore, the analyses of this study included all of the scores except the

Internal and Humility/Personal Application subscales of the SIBS. All of the STAXI-2

subscales, except Anger Expression-In (anger suppression; Cronbach alpha = .69), had

internal consistency reliability estimates of .70 or higher. The PSS overall score (Cronbach

alpha = .82) had good internal consistency reliability.

See Table 2 for the means and standard deviations of the SIBS, STAXI-2, and the PSS

scales for this sample.

Exploratory analyses were conducted to assess whether there were any gender differ-

ences in spiritual involvement and beliefs, anger, anger expression, and stress. Results

indicated no significant gender differences on any of the main variables of the study.

Pearson correlational analyses were conducted (one-tailed). There were significant

positive correlations between spirituality (External and Existential subscales and overall

score) and the anger subscales. Adolescent girls and boys who reported more spiritual

beliefs and involvement (overall score) reported more trait anger (r = .29, P \ .05), more anger expression (anger-out, r = .29, P \ .05; anger expression index, r = .39, P \ .01), and less anger control efforts (anger control-out, r = -.36, P \ .01; anger control-in, r = -.37, P \ .01) than those who reported less spiritual involvement and beliefs. Ado- lescent girls and boys who participated in spiritual practices more often (External sub-

scales) tended to experience more anger (trait anger, r = .30, P \ .05) and anger expression (anger-out, r = .30, P \ .01, anger expression index, r = .34, P \ .01) and

Table 2 Means and standard deviations for the Spiritual Beliefs and Involvement Scale, the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory, and the Perceived Stress Scale

Subscales M SD Range Min/max

Spiritual Involvement and Belief Scale

External/Ritual 30.60 9.26 34 15–49

Existential/Meditative 19.83 3.91 18 10–28

SIBS Total Score 65.02 13.40 48 42–90

State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory

State Anger 21.63 9.77 44 15–59

Trait Anger 18.15 6.18 24 11–35

Anger Expression-Out 17.04 4.94 18 11–29

Anger Expression-In 15.09 3.95 20 9–29

Anger Control-Out 20.98 4.91 22 10–32

Anger Control-In 20.09 5.29 19 12–31

Anger Expression Index 39.06 14.04 57 10–67

Perceived Stress Scale

Perceived Stress Total Score 17.72 6.59 26 7–33

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less anger control efforts (anger control-out, r = -.29, P \ .05; anger control-in, r = -.26, P \ .05) than girls and boys who did not participate as often in spiritual practices. Adolescent girls and boys who reported more existential spirituality (i.e., feeling a sense of

purpose or meaning in life) tended to experience more anger (trait anger, r = .27, P \ .05) and anger expression (anger-out, r = .27, P \ .05, anger expression index, r = .32, P \ .01) and less anger control efforts (anger control-out, r = -.32, P \ .01; anger control-in, r = -.30, P \ .05).

There were also significant correlations between the spirituality subscales and perceived

stress. Pearson correlational analyses revealed that overall spirituality score (r = .32, P \ .01), external spirituality (.29, P \ .05), and existential spirituality (r = .28, P \ .05) were significantly and positively related to perceived stress. Thus, adolescent girls and

boys who reported higher levels of stress tended to be more involved in external aspects of

spirituality, tended to be existential in their thinking, and tended to be more spiritual in

general than those who reported lower levels of stress.

There were significant correlations between stress and the anger subscales. Stress was

significantly related to all of the anger subscales, with overall anger expression index and

trait anger having the highest correlations with stress (state anger, r = .33, P \ .01; trait anger, r = .49, P \ .01; anger aggression, r = .28, P \ .05; anger suppression, r = .42, P \ .01; anger control-out, r = -.47, P \ .01; anger control-in, r = -.35, P \ .01; anger

Table 3 Correlation matrix of spirituality, perceived stress, and anger scores

SIBS EXTER EXIST PSS SANG TANG AXO AXI ACO ACI AXIND

SIBS 1.00 .96** .89** .32** .11 .29* .29* .09 -.36** -.37** .39**

EXTER 1.00 .87** .29* .18 .30* .30* .12 -.29* -.26* .34**

EXIST 1.00 .28* .19 .27* .27* .01 -.32** -.30* .32**

PSSTOT 1.00 .33** .49** .28* .42** -.47** -.35** .51**

SANG 1.00 .71** .67** .59** -.27* -.18 .57**

TANG 1.00 .79** .70** -.33** -.22 .67**

AXO 1.00 .55** -.46** -.24* .76**

AXI 1.00 -.22 -.12 .60**

ACO 1.00 .68** -.83**

ACI 1.00 -.73**

AXIND 1.00

SIBS = Total score on the Spiritual Beliefs & Involvement Scale (SIBS)

EXTER = External subscale of the SIBS

EXIST = Existential subscale of the SIBS

PSSTOT = Perceived Stress Total Score

SANG = State anger subscale of the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory

TANG = Trait anger of the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory

AXO = Anger Expression-Out of the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory

AXI = Anger Expression-In of the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory

ACO = Anger Control-Out of the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory

ACI = Anger Control-In of the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory

AXIND = Anger Expression Index of the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory

** P \ .01 * P \ .05

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expression index, r = .51, P \ .01). Higher stress levels were associated with more anger in the moment and across situations, more anger aggression and anger suppression, less

anger control, and overall more anger expression.

See Table 3 for the correlation matrix.

Discussion

Spirituality and spiritual practices were predicted to be a means of coping with stress and

anger. From this perspective, one might hypothesize that spiritual practices such as prayer

and meditation might moderate feelings of stress and anger and lead to more desirable

emotional states. Perhaps, those students who are involved in spiritual beliefs and practices

and who seek to make sense of stressful events in their lives might be more able than others

to rise above the frustrations of daily living by transforming the meaning of stressful events

and emotional states such as anger. Thus, we expected to see an overall negative corre-

lation between spirituality and anger. The results of this study, however, are inconsistent

with this picture.

To the contrary, we found that spiritual beliefs and involvement were positively related

to anger and anger expression and negatively related to anger control efforts. These

findings are similar to a previous study conducted with college students (Winterowd et al.

2005). One possible explanation for these findings is that early adolescents with higher

levels of stress and anger compared to their peers may turn more to spiritual beliefs and

practices to cope with their anger and stress. People often turn to prayer and other forms of

religious or spiritual observance in times of sickness, death, and other types of adversity,

and they often report finding a sense of comfort in such practices. Spilka and Werme

(1971) argue that religion may be a haven from stress – a resource for coping. The results

of the present study, however, do not allow us to identify causality in the relationships

between spirituality, stress, and anger. In other words, we cannot know whether stress and

anger influence adolescents to seek out spiritual practices for coping, or whether spiritu-

ality or some spurious relationship causes emotional distress.

Another possible explanation for the present findings is that, for early adolescents,

spiritual beliefs and involvement may exacerbate stress and anger. The relationships

between stress, anger, and spirituality, as evidenced by the findings from this present study,

may be complicated by the multiple roles spiritual beliefs and practices play in people’s

lives and by the cognitive ability and psychosocial development of early adolescents. We

might expect that in early adolescence spiritual beliefs and practices may be seriously

challenged by peers and by encounters with differing belief systems. Additionally, we

would expect young people challenged in this way to have difficulty resolving conflicting

viewpoints because of the same challenges that most of us face in sorting out our beliefs,

but also due to the cognitive developmental functioning of early adolescents. Many of the

young people in grades eight and nine are cognitively operating either at the concrete

operational stage or are transitioning into the stage of formal operational thinking

(Moshman 2005). One of the hallmarks of concrete operational thinking (Flavell 1963) is

the reliance on reality-based thinking as opposed to the more advanced capacity for

abstract, hypothetical thinking characteristic of formal operational thought. Resolving

conflicting beliefs about spirituality requires advanced cognitive abilities that may be

beyond many of these young people.

Furthermore, moral reasoning in early adolescence is often characterized by the con-

ventional stage of moral development, where adolescents try to live up to the expectations

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of those close to them; or for the more advanced, obedience to the law is the expectation

(Crain 2000). Adolescents are faced with conflicting alliances as peers gain in importance

compared to family and as peer groups’ change. Religious laws place God before family

and friends, creating further complexity, and these doctrines may engender confusion and

frustration in adolescents’ struggles with competing loyalties and in their desire to live

exemplary lives. It is conceivable, then, that early adolescents who value spirituality or

religion encounter frustration due to their spiritual/religious views, and as a result dem- onstrate higher levels of anger than individuals who ignore or reject such belief systems.

Further research is needed, however, to sort out the relationship between anger and spir-

ituality in this early adolescent population.

It is interesting that the SIBS Internal Spirituality subscale (i.e., internal spiritual beliefs

and personal growth) and Humility/Personal Application subscale (i.e., one’s humility and

daily application of spirituality) were not internally consistent for this sample of early

adolescents. These subscales were internally consistent in a similar study with a sample of

young adults (Winterowd, et al. 2005). In view of developmental theories of cognitive

development, however, we might expect these scales to have poor internal consistency for

early adolescents. Young adolescents may lack the cognitive skills and reflective ability to

meaningfully interpret and respond to questions about internal spiritual development,

humility, and the daily application of spiritual beliefs, the foci of the Internal Spirituality

and Humility/Personal Application subscales.

Individuals who are transitioning from concrete thinking to formal operational thinking

do not transition in a holistic, sudden transformation (Rique and Camino 1997). Instead,

level of cognitive functioning varies across time and across domains during transition

periods. Scales that would exhibit differences dependent upon level of cognitive func-

tioning would, therefore, be expected to confront reliability problems when the research

participants lack stability of cognitive functioning. Based on these suppositions and

findings from the present study, we recommend considering the overall scores on the SIBS,

rather than subscale scores, as the most reliable way to measure spirituality beliefs and

practices of young adolescents. Alternatively, other measures of spirituality could be

developed for early adolescents.

The implications of the findings of this study for practitioners working with adolescents,

particularly early adolescents, will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

Implications for Professionals Serving Early Adolescents

Educators, counselors, psychologists, and other helping professionals need to be aware of

the stressors early adolescents experience and how these stressors might impact their anger

as well as their spirituality. Many helping professionals routinely assess, either formally or

informally, students’ level of depression, anxiety, and levels of stress that may contribute

to adjustment difficulties. The findings of this study emphasize the importance of assessing

anger that students may experience when stressed, as anger and anger expression may

impact coping and interpersonal relationships. Likewise, educators, counselors, psychol-

ogists, and other helping professionals may also need to assess the spiritual issues early

adolescents might be facing during this stage in their lives because spiritual issues could

positively and/or negatively impact their levels of emotional distress (i.e., stress and anger)

when making academic, career, personal, and interpersonal decisions. Finally, it is

important to understand the impact that developmental level of cognitive functioning may

have upon the way stressors are experienced and on appropriate coping strategies for

adolescents. Strategies that emphasize reflection upon abstract, hypothetical, and/or higher

J Relig Health (2010) 49:445–459 455

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order thinking strategies may be ineffective with early adolescents who lack the pre-

requisite cognitive abilities for abstract thinking.

Helping professionals should consider addressing the issues highlighted in this study

related to stress, anger, spirituality, and cognitive functioning when working with ado-

lescents. For example, stress management programs might be expanded to include special

attention to coping with anger concerns. Religious and/or spirituality program developers

should consider the potential positive and negative impact of their programs on adolescents

who may be unevenly transitioning to higher levels of functioning across different

developmental domains.

Limitations of the Study

The participants in this study were all from one southwestern state and were representative

of the demographics of the student population in the part of the country sampled. However,

the number of participants was relatively small and, thus, the number of minority partic-

ipants was also especially small. Similarly, although a variety of religious affiliations were

represented in this study, the geographic area is considered part of the ‘‘Bible Belt,’’ so

there were more Baptists and fewer non-Christians than in more diverse cultures. These

findings may be more reflective of early adolescents in the southwest who are Caucasian

and primarily Christian. Therefore, the findings of this study may or may not generalize to

early adolescents from other regions of the United States as well as more culturally diverse

early adolescents not represented in this study.

Although most of the measures used in this study were very reliable for this sample,

only two of the four subscales of the SIBS were reliable, as was the overall SIBS score.

These subscales have demonstrated good internal consistency reliability in other samples.

Further research is needed to measure the internal consistency reliability of these subscales

in other early adolescent samples. As mentioned earlier, using the overall score of the SIBS

might be the best approach in practice and research endeavors with early adolescents until

further spirituality measures for this developmental stage can be developed and validated.

Implications for Further Research

It is hoped that this research will promote further study on the protective factors (such as

preventative programs for adolescents) as well as the contributors to anger and stress in

early adolescents. In addition, more research is needed to examine the role(s) of spirituality

in early adolescents’ lives, including its potential benefits and risks. This information will

guide educators, counselors, psychologists, and other helping professionals who assist early

adolescents during this very important time in their lives. Finally, research is needed to more

accurately understand the period of early adolescence; how change occurs across this period

and into later adolescence; what coping strategies are useful for individuals who vary in

terms of gender, age, cognitive development, supportive environments and life stressors.

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