Training concept project

HRM355 CASE QUESTIONS AND REVIEW EXERCISES ANSWER KEY

CHAPTER 1

CASE QUESTIONS

1. How did Domtar’s strategies align with its mission? Explain your answer.

As stated in the text, strategies define how the organization will go about accomplishing its mission. In fact, strategies attempt to optimize the match between the organization’s mission, what’s occurring or is projected to occur in the external environment, and the organization’s internal operations. Domtar’s mission is based on the three pillars of the company: “customers, shareholders, and ourselves.”

The first part of Domtar’s mission is “to meet the ever-changing needs of our customers.” This is aligned with Domtar’s strategic goal of becoming a preferred supplier. This competitive strategy focused on being innovative in product design, high in product quality, and unique in customer service while keeping costs down. In order to successfully implement this strategy, Kaizen was introduced and all employees received corresponding training. Kaizen is a process for developing new and more effective ways of doing things and eliminating unnecessary processes (which reduces costs). As a result, Domtar established a culture of continuous improvement which allowed it to address its constantly-evolving customer requirements. Customer service training was also a part of this strategy.

The second part of the mission is “to provide shareholders with attractive returns.” This part of the mission is aligned with the strategic goal of return on investment. Actions related to this strategy were participation in the consolidation of the industry and increasing its critical mass. This was accomplished through sound management policies and through joint ventures and acquisitions. These actions helped Domtar become more competitive and improve its credit rating on its long term debt, returning it to “investment grade.”

The third part of the mission is “to create an environment in which shared human values and personal commitment prevail.” This was aligned with the strategic objectives of improving employee performance, communicating the Domtar values, clarifying individual roles and fostering better communication between employees and managers. These goals were accomplished through the development of a performance management system and through training so that all employees both understood the proposed changes and gained the skills to achieve them.

SP1243(1508)

2 Given the difficulty of organizational change, what factors contributed to the success at Domtar? How did Domtar’s management at all levels contribute to reducing resistance to change? What else might they have done?

A compelling need for change was established. The reasons for change were communicated and in many ways obvious. Essentially, Domtar was in serious trouble, so this made the changes easier to understand by the employees. As Royer noted that “it is only ‘ourselves’ that are able to have any impact on changing the company.”

Domtar recognized the need for and introduced change at all three levels: the organization itself, groups and their interrelationships and individuals within groups. In terms of the organization itself, Domtar deployed a new mission and strategic direction which acknowledged the value of employees while target- ing areas of change. Top level commitment to the changes was demonstrated through the implementation of Kaizen. The introduction of the new performance management system was also evidence of this commit- ment, and represented a system wide change that provided financial incentives for employees to share in the financial growth of the company. This helped to reduce potential resistance to the changes. In addition, through Kaizen, effective training was structured as a continuous performance improvement process to be integrated with other systems and business strategies.

The Kaizen process itself creates change in terms of how groups work together and how individuals within groups interact. Through Kaizen training and applications, a cultural change of continuous improvement and openness to change was introduced. At the individual level, Domtar addressed employee KSAs and motiva- tion through involving employees in the change process and through education and training. Involving employees develops commitment to the change. Training (Kaizen and customer service) assisted in educat- ing employees regarding the mission, strategy, and objectives of the organization, and how these objectives translated to each employee’s job. The training provided the individuals with the KSAs they needed to make the changes successfully.

Other ways Domtar addressed potential areas of resistance include the following:

Domtar’s management further demonstrated commitment by participating in the training, kicking it off and returning to answer questions. As well, lower level management received skill training on how to address employee issues effectively. As a result this demonstrated commitment to the change and emphasized its importance, which in turn facilitated integration.

It’s clear that the changes at Domtar were successfully implemented. One area that doesn’t seem to be fully addressed is the organizational structure and the design of jobs, ensuring that work is allocated appropriately and organizational systems are supportive of the change. In addition to the training, other mechanisms such as facilities, machines, and equipment could have been put in place to enable the desired performance to occur.

3. What were the major HRD challenges associated with Domtar’s acquisitions and joint partnerships? How were these challenges addressed and what were the risks associated with these approaches?

As stated in the case, the major challenge was integrating the new companies and joint ventures into the “Domtar way.” To address this challenge and in order to set the climate for change, a plan was set out for all employees to receive training so they would understand Domtar’s culture and know how to service customers in the appropriate manner. The importance of the training was

reflected in always having a manager kick it off and later return to answer questions about the train- ing. As well, each supervisor received skill training on how to address employee issues effectively. As a result, this showed that the company was truly committed to the program and thus facilitated the integration of Domtar’s culture into the new employees’ way of life.

Risks associated with these approaches include monetary losses if training proved to be unsuccess- ful in developing employee KSAs. Also, there’s risk of rejection of the “Domtar way.” A training failure in this area could result in employees becoming apathetic or resentful, possibly resulting in increased turnover and absenteeism, decreased productivity, or even sabotage.

4 Take the critical facts in the Domtar case and place them into the appropriate phases of the training model presented in the chapter. Begin with the triggering event and provide a rationale for why each fact belongs in the phase in which you have placed it.

The phases of the training process model include needs analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. The training process begins with some type of triggering event, where actual organiza- tional performance is less than expected. In the Domtar case, the triggering event was described in the beginning paragraph of the case. In particular, Domtar had no clear goal, was unable to compete within its industry, had a poor debt rating, and half of the organization was in “trouble areas.”

This then led to the first phase, the analysis phase, which consists of data gathering and causal analysis to determine which performance problems should be addressed by training. The case doesn’t describe how the analysis was conducted, only the actions taken, which, by implication, point to the results of the analysis. Royer determined that the gap was caused by a lack of a clear mission and appropriate strategic direction. He recognized that the tactics of each unit in Domtar needed to be supportive of the strategic direction. In any case, it was determined that the following needs existed:

● Employee understanding of the new mission and strategies and their rationale.

● Employee KSAs in Kaizen and customer service.

● Integration of employees in merged or acquired companies into the “Domtar Way”.

In terms of who needed training, Royer understood that for the new strategic direction and focus to be successful, everyone needed to both understand the changes being proposed and have the skills to achieve them.

The design phase is a systematic process for determining training objectives and the most effective method or methods to use (given organizational constraints) to achieve the objectives. The case doesn’t go into detail in describing any methods used in the training or provide training objectives. No constraints were described in the case. The case states that Domtar hired the Kaizen guru from his former company as well as implemented a performance management system, which would both be considered to be supportive of the training.

The development phase includes program development, which is a process of formulating an instructional strategy where all the relevant material for the training is put together. Again, the case doesn’t describe this process. Of note is the fact that managers kicked off and returned for questions for the training (though it’s not clear if this occurred for all training or only that for employees in merged/acquired companies).

The implementation phase is where all aspects of the training program come together through a dry run, pilot testing, or the actual training. The case doesn’t describe this process.

The evaluation phase involves determining the success of the training based on the training objectives. Since specific training objectives weren’t identified, this can only be implied from overall Domtar success fol- lowing the turnaround. This included increased net earnings and inclusion in the Dow Jones sustainability index. This wouldn’t have been possible unless the training had been successful.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. Describe the relationship between HR and HRD functions in a large organization. How might a small organization handle the responsibilities of these two areas?

In large organizations, the HRD function is a subsystem of the HR function, which is a subsystem of the whole organization. The organization’s mission, strategies, and so on all represent sources of input into the training subsystem that are filtered through the HR function. These inputs are trans- lated by the training subsystem into usable input (organizational and employee needs, training budgets, and so on). This input is then used to produce the outputs of the training system. The train- ing function is typically staffed with specialists, has layers of management, and has greater coordination difficulties between different parts of the training process.

Typically in smaller organizations these two functions will be combined into one function. Smaller organizations can operate effectively with a less formal and systematic approach to training than larger organizations.

2. Consider the following problem-solving model. Based on the discussion in this chapter, describe how the training process model is or is not consistent with this model.

Problem-Solving Model

A. Define and understand the problem

B. Determine the cause of the problem

C. Identify potential solutions to the problem

D. Select the solution providing the most benefits for the least costs

E. Develop an action plan

F. Implement the action plan

G. Evaluate and, if necessary, modify the solutions

Training Process Model

The needs analysis (organization, operations, and person) phase of the training process model (TPM) involves steps A and B of the problem-solving model. The process phase of the TNA identifies prob- lems the organization faces and determines which of these are caused by a lack of KSAs and which are due to other causes. At this point the problem-solving model and the TPM are the same. From this point on, however, the training process model focuses only on problems caused by the lack of KSAs (training needs). The problem-solving model isn’t limited to a particular type of cause.

The Design Phase of the training process model identifies and examines the alternative methods for meeting the training needs. The first step in this process is determining the objectives for the training (reaction, learning, transfer, and organizational outcomes). The second step is identifying the factors that will be necessary to facilitate achieving the objectives and the constraints that the training solution must operate within. This closely parallels step C in the problem-solving model.

The Development Phase of the TPM is where the instructional strategy is formulated. Method(s) for meeting the training objectives are evaluated, and those providing the best likelihood of achieving the objectives within the constraints are included in the strategy. Likewise, the design factors are examined and ways of providing those factors necessary to meet the objectives (facilities, equip- ment, and such) within the constraints are identified and incorporated into the plan. This parallels steps D and E in the problem-solving model.

The Implementation Phase in the TPM is carrying out the plan. This is essentially the same thing as step F of the problem-solving model.

The Evaluation Phase is again a very similar process in both models. However, in the TPM the evaluation component also includes process evaluation. This means that each phase in the TPM is evaluated in terms of how well their outcomes met the needs of the next phase. There’s no similar component in the problem-solving model.

3. What are the significant legal issues that the training unit must take into consideration when conducting training activities? Describe how these issues might create challenges for HRD.

Laws related to equal employment opportunity, affirmative action, and sexual harassment have placed legal requirements on businesses that affect how training is managed. Training that has an impact on employment decisions such as promotion or job placement must demonstrate a clear relationship to job requirements if there are disproportional effects related to gender, age, and other protected classes. In addition to the training that’s provided to prevent sexual harassment and show “good faith effort,” the training environment for all training programs must be free of any forms of harassment. Certain types of training are required by regulatory agencies such as OSHA and state agencies responsible for health and safety. HRD units must understand the company’s liability for any illness or injury that trainees sustain as a result of training or improper training. Likewise, employers are also liable for injuries to non-employees resulting from a poorly or incorrectly trained employee. HRD must also conform to confidentiality regulations and to copyright law.

4. Describe ways in which training units can go about meeting the challenges they face which were described in this chapter. Provide a rationale for your answers.

Examples of Opportunities for Aligning HRD Activities with Business Strategy

● Closer tie to business results

● More strategic role for HRD

HRD opportunities can be realized through:

1. Development of systems/programs that help HRD staff align their activities to strategic goals. This is particularly important for training activities and reward systems.

2. Programs that assist in determining the ROI of HRD activities.

3. Proposals for training should describe the deliverable outcomes, how they link to the business strategy, the anticipated ROI, and the process for measuring outcomes.

Some HRD Opportunities Related to Managing Talent Due to Changing Demographics

● Better retention

● More attractive work place for labor pool

HRD opportunities can be realized through:

1. Programs supportive of diversity.

2. Programs helping employees understand the legal and organizational policy requirements and sanctions relating to discrimination and harassment.

3. Programs helping companies use technology to assist in meeting the lifestyle needs of the younger generations by allowing more employees to work outside company walls. These new work arrangements will require new workflow systems and management processes, and training will be a key tool in this change process.

4. Programs helping companies develop mentoring and coaching programs to fill the knowledge and leadership gaps created by retirements.

5. Programs that focus on the recruiting and selection process

6. Programs that improve retention of knowledge workers

7. Programs that assess and track job requirements and employee competencies (HRIS systems)

8. Development of innovative knowledge delivery systems that create more knowledgeable workers more quickly.

Some HR Opportunities Related to Quality and Continuous Improvement

● HR becomes central to the development of competencies required for key operations.

● HR activities become characterized by their quality and continuous improvement.

HR opportunities can be realized through:

1. Programs helping companies with continuous improvement systems (for example, lean manufac- turing, Kaisen, and so on).

2. Programs helping companies achieve and maintain certification.

3. Programs helping companies integrate training into continuous improvement systems.

4. Programs helping companies integrate quality and continuous improvement into their HR units.

5. Partnerships with academic institutions.

5. Define and provide an example which wasn’t used in the text of the following:

a. Each of the three types of knowledge

b. Each of the two levels of skills

c. An attitude

a. Knowledge (three types)

Declarative Knowledge: A person’s store of factual information about a subject matter. Examples would be knowledge of the legal requirements for hiring, the safety rules in a plant, and the names and titles of a company’s executives.

Procedural Knowledge: A person’s understanding about how and when to apply the facts they’ve learned. Examples of this type of knowledge are

● Understanding of the order and conditions under which the steps in machine troubleshooting are performed

● Understanding how motivation and knowledge are related to human performance

● Knowledge of stress reduction techniques and their advantages and disadvantages

Strategic Knowledge: The highest form of knowledge, this knowledge consists of the person’s understand- ing of what he or she knows and the rules or cues he or she uses to determine whether and how that information is related to other information (for example, a problem or decision he or she faces). This type of information is used for planning, monitoring, and modifying the person’s goal-directed activity. While we engage in this type of learning frequently, it’s difficult to give examples, because it’s essentially learning how to learn. Thus, its effects on behavior are more indirect than direct. However, some examples might be learning how to manage a department or learning how to invest money to achieve a particular lifestyle upon retirement.

b. Skill (two levels)

Compilation (skill): A person’s level of proficiency at something during the time in which they’re acquiring the skill, have recently acquired it, or haven’t used it for a long period of time. It’s characterized by the person consciously thinking about what they’re doing while they’re performing the skill. Examples of skill development at the compilation level consist of any behavior that’s first being learned, such a driving an automobile, riding a bicycle, typing, and so on.

Automaticity (skill): A person’s ability to perform the skill without really thinking about what they’re doing. This is also referred to as skill mastery. Any set of behaviors that has been so well learned that the person doesn’t have to think about them can be said to have been developed to the automaticity level. For exam- ple, the typical person in driver’s education can be said to drive a passenger automobile at the compilation level. A professional stock car racer can be said to drive the same automobile at the automaticity level.

c. Attitude

Attitudes reflect the employee’s beliefs and opinions that support or inhibit behavior. For example, attitudes include employee beliefs about management, unions, and training programs.

CHAPTER 2

CASE ANALYSIS: HERSHEY ALIGNS TRAINING WITH STRATEGY

Aligning training activities with the goals and strategy of the organization has been the top priority of HR and HRD leaders for many years. The Hershey Foods case presented exemplifies this process. Hershey realizes that doing this ensures that training dollars are put to the best use. Answer the following questions:

1. What kind of strategy did Hershey use, a proactive strategy or a reactive strategy?

Hershey used a proactive strategy, which focused on long term and used more analytical and decision-making tools. The purpose of Hershey’s strategy was to build a good fit between the organization and its future environment.

2. How should HRD be involved in shaping strategy in the Hershey case?

The success of the strategy depended on the competencies of the workforce. Without knowing the com- petencies of the individuals, the organization doesn’t know whether it has the capacity to successfully implement the change. The HRD unit should be involved in shaping strategy at all levels.

3. Did Hershey choose a market leader strategy or a cost leader strategy? Why?

Hershey chose a market leaders strategy by focusing on marketing and partnering with its shareholders. The strategic objective wasn’t to be the low-cost provider in the industry, but to find and exploit new product and market opportunities. Success in a market leader strategy depends on the capacity of the organization to survey a wide range of environmental conditions, trends, and events and to move quickly into windows of opportunity.

4. What were the internal and external strategies for Hershey’s Blue Chip?

In the Hershey Foods case, the Blue Chip program was the external strategy. Internally, this meant that sales people would be required to negotiate effectively with their customers and that trade funding allocations would be based on new criteria. Thus, some of the internal changes required were the development of negotiating competencies for the sales force (training needs), the reward system that acted to reinforce the appropriate behavior of the sales force, and the decision-making system for allocating the trade funding dollars (nontraining needs). Two key factors in the internal strategy are the organization’s core technology (how the principal products or services are created) and its structure (for example, division of labor, policies, and procedures). Since the Hershey case didn’t require changes in the product, but only in the behavior of employees, it was only the struc- ture that needed to be changed to align with the new strategy.

CASE QUESTIONS

CASE ANALYSIS: Strategic Planning at MHC

After you have analyzed the case, read what actually took place in the case in the following details:

● MHC’s board of directors intervened two years after this case ended and developed a new strategic plan in which the subsidiaries were spun off as an independent corporation.

● The HRPS had been implemented down through the middle management level and during this process several presidents of the divisions retired or left for other opportunities.

● A standardized executive compensation system was developed which took into account the cost of living and level of responsibility.

● The HRD function was merged with the OD function into a new department called Organizational and Human Performance Systems, which was directed by Ms. Brown, reporting directly to the President and CEO.

● MHC returned to profitability two years following the board’s intervention and is still operating as a successful health-care organization.

1. Describe MHC’s strategy in terms of market position. Also, identify the type of external environment MHC is operating in and the degree to which the strategy matches the environment.

Issues for Analysis

Strategy: The strategy is to be both a market leader and a cost leader. The subsidiaries are to focus on development of new medical technologies (market leader) and transfer those technologies to the divi- sions. They’ll also transfer the costs of development. The divisions are to adopt a cost leader strategy, providing adequate services at the lowest possible cost. The link between the market leader side of this strategy and the corporate mission deserves closer examination. The strategic plan itself has some inherent contradictions. While these can be overcome with some restructuring of the organizations, the transfer of the new technologies and their associated development costs damages the cost leader strat- egy of the divisions. Under this strategy, the divisions must accept the costs they have no control over and will be unable to predict. Cost leader organizations are typically not the first to adopt new technolo- gies or products, even if they lower costs in the long run. This is because the costs are much greater for initial adoption. Efficiencies are higher by waiting until the new technologies are proven and the technol- ogy has been offered to the broader market. MHC’s strategy reduces the return on the subsidiaries’ new technology by requiring it to be first adopted in the divisions with only developmental cost paybacks. This increases the time until the subsidiaries are able to offer the technology on the open market, where they’ll be able to realize substantial profit margins.

Environment: The environment that MHC operates in is relatively uncertain. Key external influences on the organization include the following: technology changes, regulatory changes, changing demands from customers, and changing rules from third party payers (insurers and government). The legal environment is also a major influence, but few changes are occurring in this area. An issue for you to think about with respect to environment is that the environmental factors that are key to research and development com- panies aren’t the same as for health care provider organizations. For example, the legal environment for

health care provider organizations centers on medical malpractice and employment law. The environ- ment of medical R&D companies centers on testing and approval of new technologies and procedures. You should recognize and describe how the differing environments will influence the effectiveness of the dual strategy and the ability of the organizations to work together.

2. Identify the type of structure MHC currently uses in its primary businesses. Describe the fit between the structure and the competitive strategy. Describe any structural adjustments MHC should make to maximize the effectiveness of the strategy.

Issues for Analysis

Organizational Design: MHC has specific rules that prohibit setting up partnerships between the subsidiary and regional offices. The subsidiary corporations will have to pay for development and acquisition costs and the regional offices will have to pay to implement the technology and work out any problems with it. This creates a conflict of interest, because eventually the subsidiaries will sell the product to competitors cheaper than they’ll be able to sell it to the regions. This will result in profits for the subsidiary corporations and losses for the regions. MHC needs to allow the subsidiaries to partner with regions or individual hospitals to provide equity and mutual gains. Alternatively, MHC could make the subsidiaries autonomous units that could partner with any other company, thus relieving the hospitals of the obligation to bear the developmental costs of the new technology.

Decision Autonomy: There’s much decision making autonomy across the divisions resulting in differ- ent policies, office procedures, and pay scales. While this is appropriate for a Market Leader strategy, it’s not consistent with a Cost Leader strategy. Decision making needs to be more centralized in the divisions if the cost reduction strategy is to be successful.

Division of Labor: Labor is extremely divided, with over 30 hospitals and four subsidiary corporations located in 17 states. There are over 10,000 employees, and each hospital has its own functional staff with a CEO that reports to an EVP. Thus, labor is organized by geography and by hierarchical position within the health-care side of the company. This is consistent with a Cost Leader strategy.

3. Identify any areas where current management KSAs aren’t aligned with effective implementation of the competitive strategy.

According to the case, some MHC regional and divisional executives don’t have the KSAs needed to implement the cost reduction strategy. In addition, some of the people in the rural areas haven’t kept up with technology advances. MHC has some managers who know about cost cutting and new tech- nologies implementation, but unfortunately the HR Corporate department hasn’t identified them. Also, the attitude toward the subsidiary corporations needs to change. Regions and divisions need to work together as partners to implement new medical technology innovations. HR processes have many defi- ciencies resulting in the lack of alignment of the KSAs throughout the organization with the strategic plan. People in the same position but at different locations have different skills, knowledge, and attitudes, and there’s no system evaluating the KSA required for each position in one part of the corporation compared to another. Thus, the HR KSAs in the organization are deficient.

4. Describe how MHC should go about addressing the KSA deficiencies you’ve identified in the previous question. Your answer should be consistent with the mission and values of MHC.

Answers to this question will depend on how you’ve approached the previous questions. However, without a clear understanding of the current employee competencies, little can be done by way of matching employee KSAs to the needs of the competitive strategy. Thus, you should indicate that the development of the HRPS would provide critical data for the shaping of the HR strategy and tactics.

In addition, HRD should use the Training Process Model presented in Chapter 1 of the text. Using this model, MHC must first perform a need analysis to identify the training needs; then it must set the training objectives and design the training programs to facilitate learning, and then develop the train- ing so that it applies it to the relevant work activities needed to implement the MHC strategy. Finally, HRD has to evaluate the training results and determine if all the training objectives were met. If not met, then a process analysis needs to be performed to determine which aspects of the process need to be modified to reach the desired outcomes.

5. Assume that you’re the HRD manager and the competitive strategy was given to you prior to its adoption. Using principles and concepts from the chapter, what recommendations would you give to the Strategic planning team?

The HRD manager should advise the Planning Team of the fact that many key players in the imple- mentation of the strategy don’t have the competencies needed to carry out the strategy. At the same time, the manager needs to emphasize to them importance of implementing a system to identify KSA needs for carrying out the strategy. The HRD manager would need to provide the strategy team with timelines for likely completion of such a project. Additionally, the manager needs to advise them of the time it will take to get a sufficient number of key people trained, so that the strategy can be implemented with some assurance of success.

6. Given the strategy, what tactical activities can the HR unit in general, and HRD specifically, develop to support the strategy (be sure to include the implementation of the HRIS)? Identify sources of sup- port and sources of resistance to these tactical activities, and point out any areas in which collaborating with the OD unit would be advisable.

First, HR will need to implement an HRIS system that will help keep track of employees, positions, job descriptions, salary, and performance evaluation data across the regions. Second, they need to create a recruitment and selection process that will also include succession planning. Third, they need to develop the goals, job barriers, and competency requirements for all positions in the organization. Fourth, they’ll need to complete the training process model, which includes a training needs analysis, design, develop- ment, implementation, and evaluation. There will be support from non-management employees because they’ll now have the ability to apply for other positions instead of feeling held back or overlooked. There will be resistance from management because they may feel their positions or power will be threatened while MHC tries to create equitable employment and personnel practices. Organizational Development will be essential in the implementation of the new strategy, because it will require a slight culture change within MHC. Technical design, cultural, and political issues will be apparent throughout the strategy implementation, and Organizational Development should be involved from the first step.

The second half of the case provided information related to support and resistance to changes being planned. In particular the discussion surrounding the survey of the Corporate, Regional, and hospital top management demonstrated their differing views related to the HRIS (for example, who has access, who makes decisions, and so on) and indicated that hospital CEOs were resistant to an HRIS system as this would reduce areas under their control. In addition, driving forces for change are the rapid advancement in medical technologies that reduce the need for inpatient healthcare result- ing in an increase of outpatient services and the history of MHC operating losses. These forces create support from the corporate executives. Barriers or restrainers to the new strategy include cur- rent organizational structure and the undefined needs of the workforce. A major force restraining change is the changing criteria for executive level performance and promotions.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. What factors might inhibit HRD managers from developing a strategic planning approach to training? How might these factors be overcome?

The factors include a belief that there’s not enough time, a lack of knowledge/skills, a lack of support or direction from above, the cultural norms of the organization, a public commitment to a direction (for example, accountability for follow through on the strategy), and a fear of the unknown. There are numerous ways to overcome these factors, and many are obvious and relatively simple to do. For example, lack of knowledge or skills can be overcome through training or education. Others will be more difficult to overcome and may require many years (for example, changing the culture of an organization).

2. Think of possible strategic training alternatives, other than those described in the text. Under what conditions would these be important in developing a training strategy?

Some strategies not mentioned in the text are government funding of training initiatives, formation of small business consortiums for training, and creation of automated training services to both provide and evaluate training.

3. Why do training professionals need OD competencies, and why do OD professionals need trainer competencies?

The answer to this can be found on pages 43–47. A summary of that discussion is that the primary focus of each of these professional groups is different. OD focuses on system-wide change issues, while training focuses on individuals. However, neither group can be effective without considering and addressing the issues of the other. Planned change results in new ways of doing things, and the affected employees will need new KSAs to be effective in the new system. Conversely, it does little good to train employees if the system doesn’t support the new KSAs back on the job.

4. What’s the relationship between competitive strategy, external environment, and internal strategies?

This relationship is depicted in Figure 2-3 on page 34.

CHAPTER 3

CASE QUESTIONS

1. Why do you think Rick was let go? How does reinforcement theory apply to this situation?

Rick was let go because his ideas couldn’t be introduced in a manner in which the other managers weren’t threatened. It seemed that only Val was made aware of the reasoning behind the changes, while the other managers who were threatened by the thought of change were only left to make assump- tions. PPP seemed to have a culture in which all of the managers, except Val, were fearful of change and didn’t see the necessity of change. Rosie and Walter seemed to have a fear of the unknown; Rosie also seemed to have a fear of incompetence. Diane seemed to have a fear of lost influence. From a reinforce- ment perspective, it would be expected that Rick experienced punishment (being let go), so there would be a decreased likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future. In this situation Rick will probably con- sider his behavior, the implementation of his MBA education into the “real world,” as the behavior that was punished. From reinforcement theory, it’s likely that Rick in his next job will be less likely to try and make changes.

2. Explain Rosie and Walter’s reaction to Rick’s computer in terms of resistance to change. How might Rick have used the concepts in this chapter to approach the computer situation so as to gain acceptance?

Rosie and Walter’s reaction to Rick’s computer was one of resistance to change. They recognized neither the need to know new technology nor its potential value, and certainly had little readiness to learn. Both Rosie and Walter had become used to doing things without technological assistance. Now that the market was becoming more competitive instead of looking for new ways of doings things, they were clinging to the ways things were done before. Rick and Val didn’t do enough to ready them for the necessary change, nor did they, in a non-threatening manner, show them the value of change. Rick needed to look at the factors that create resistance to change and determine to what extent they applied to the key people at PPP. Fear of the unknown, incompetence, loss of rewards, lost influence, and lost investments, as well as the group dynamics factors, are all areas that Rick needed to address before attempting to introduce the computers.

3. Explain Rick’s inability to “fit in” using social learning theory. Where did the breakdowns occur?

Rick’s inability to fit in was a result of the behaviors he modeled. Instead of observing the others around him and how they behaved to fit in the organization, he appeared to use Val as his sole ref- erent other. At the attention level of social learning theory, Rick’s attention became focused on Val’s ideas of where the organization was to go and, to a much less degree, recognized the other man- agers’ concerns. At the retention level, Rick only appeared to retain the information coming from Val; the information from the other managers wasn’t as important to Rick. Finally, at the behavioral reproduction level, Rick demonstrated the behaviors that were acceptable to Val but were seen as threatening and unacceptable to the other managers.

4. If Val hired you to develop a management training program for the senior managers at PPP, how would you go about designing the program? Provide appropriate theoretical rationale to support your position.

The first step in designing a management training program for the senior managers at PPP would be a total organizational analysis. Unless you want to face similar resistance and possibly the same out- come as Rick, you must be able to show the relevance and value of the training. The senior managers seem highly resistant to change, so it must be demonstrated to them that there’s a neces- sity to change. The information provided by an organizational analysis will help provide the information needed to convince senior management of the importance of training and change at PPP. Once this has been done, a person analysis must be undertaken and training provided to those employees that need training.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. Explain the behavioral and cognitive approaches to learning. Which is most relevant to training? Explain your answer.

The behaviorist approach to learning defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior. Thus, from a behavioral perspective, the environment controls learning. The cognitive approach defines learning as relatively permanent changes in how information is processed, organized, and stored. Which approach is best depends on the learning situation.

2. You’re a trainer who is explaining expectancy theory to a group of managers so they can better understand and deal with employee motivation problems. One of the managers says, “I don’t have time for this theory stuff. I want real world training that helps me in my job.” How would you respond to the trainee? What’s your rationale for your response?

If a trainer receives such negative feedback, it’s possible that the trainer isn’t focusing his/her train- ing program at the right level. The trainer must show the managers how the theory can and is applied in the “real world,” and preferably in the trainees’ “real world.”

3. List the nine events of instruction as identified by Gagne-Briggs, and indicate how you would use them in a training situation.

The nine events of instruction are listed in Table 3-3. An example of how these are used is provided in Figure 3-6.

4. Explain why different people need different training methods.

Different people require different training methods because there can be large individual learning differences. Examples of this can be considerable differences in knowledge, skills, and attitudes; as well as the differences in the characteristics of instrumentality, skepticism, resistance to change, attention span, expectation level, dominant needs, absorption needs, and topical interest.

5. How does a work group have control over the performance of a worker? Provide a rationale for why this “power” is a positive or negative thing.

The power of the group comes from rewards the group gives to members that follow group norms, or pun- ishment it gives to those who don’t. Group dynamics can be used to support high or low performance. Norms that are developed in line with organizational goals support higher performance.

6. How can training be designed to motivate learning and accommodate trainee differences?

Design training in the following ways:

A. Identify the types of individual learning strengths and problems and tailor the training around these

B. Align learning objectives to organizational goals

C. Clearly define program goals and objectives at the start

D. Actively engage the trainee, thus maximizing attention, expectations, and memory

E. Use a systematic, logically connected sequencing of learning activities so that trainees have mastered lower levels of learning before moving to higher levels

F Use a variety of training methods

G. Use realistic job- or life-relevant training material

H. Allow trainees to work together and share experiences

I. Provide constant feedback and reinforcement while encouraging self-assessment

CHAPTER 4

CASE QUESTIONS

1. Do you agree with Fred’s choice? Why?

Fred should have conducted a needs analysis to see what skills the non-management staff requires. The value of the different training options depends on what needs Fred’s employees have and the degree to which those needs can be addressed by the same training approach. It’s quite likely that many of the employees already have some of the basic skills, and if true, some training could be focused on more advanced training.

2. What else could Fred have done before choosing a training package?

Fred could have conducted a needs analysis to determine what type of training would be most use- ful for each of the non-management employees. Fred could have contacted others who have gone through training with the other vendors. Chapter two discussed many things the training manager could do to insure a vendor was appropriate for the company’s needs.

3. If training went ahead as indicated above, how successful do you think it would be?

It’s difficult to say. It might be reasonably successful if many of the non-management employees weren’t very skilled in customer service. It could also have been a complete failure if the training was on topics and skills already possessed by the trainees. Or it may be somewhere in between depending on the level of skills possessed by non-management employees.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. What’s the purpose of a TNA? Is it always necessary?

The purpose of a TNA is to determine the level of KSAs the target population has so you can assess if training is necessary, and if so, what level and type is required. If you’re changing your organizational culture or climate, or wish to expose everyone to a particular process or new way of responding to cer- tain issues, then a needs analysis may not be necessary. For example, if you wish to expose everyone to the new sexual harassment policies, safety rules, or to the team approach to quality control, then a needs analysis may not be necessary as you want everyone to be exposed to the new information.

2. What’s the difference between proactive and reactive TNA? When is proactive better?

The proactive approach to TNA focuses on future HR requirements, whereas, the reactive approach to TNA focuses on existing discrepancies in job performance. The proactive approach is better when organizations can anticipate their needs, such as companies who have integrated the training function with strategic objectives. However, even in these situations the reactive approach may be required at times as strategic plans aren’t meant to be unchangeable and day to day issues develop that weren’t anticipated in the strategic planning process.

3. What are competencies and why are they popular in training departments? How are competency models related to job analysis?

Competencies are a cluster of job related knowledge skills and attitudes that differentiate high per- formers from average performers. Training departments like them because they’re the “areas’’ that make a difference in performance so training can focus on them. They’re the same (with different focus) for all levels of management, so the decision regarding what to train becomes easier. When developed properly, they’re tied to the strategic direction of the company. Job analysis is a method- ology that can be used to develop the link between competencies and the tasks to be completed and is still important in showing the validity of the competencies that are determined to be needed.

4. Describe how you would go about analyzing the future training needs of your university.

Refer to the analysis phase diagram at the front of the chapter. A complete answer should include the inputs of the phase (organizational analysis, operational analysis, and person analysis), the process of the phase (identify discrepancies), and the outputs of the phase (training needs and non-training needs).

5. To obtain person analysis data, why not just use the performance appraisal completed by the super- visor? How can you obtain the best information possible if performance appraisal must be used? How do self-ratings fit into this approach?

Performance appraisals typically contain errors due to the constraints put on supervisors that complete the appraisal and the quality of the appraisal forms and process. Factors leading to inaccuracy include

● Lack of supervisor training in the appropriate use of the appraisal

● Supervisor doesn’t see much of subordinate’s work performance

● Rater errors such as halo, leniency, etc.

● Poorly developed appraisals and appraisal processes

● Political and interpersonal effects

Addressing the above issues will go a long way toward improving the accuracy of the appraisal information. An additional way to improve the accuracy of the appraisal information is to have an appraisal that’s for development only and won’t influence other types of personnel decisions (for example, raises, or promotions).

Self ratings actually have less error than supervisory ratings. The self-ratings provide another source of data about the strengths and weaknesses of the employee. The best system is the 360 degree feedback in which the supervisor, peers, and the employee him/herself provide assessment information.

CHAPTER 5

CASE QUESTIONS

1. Review the Domtar case from Chapter 1 and answer the following questions:

A. In the implementation of Kaizen, what groups of employees are likely to need training? How should the trainees be organized? Think of this issue from a training design perspective as well as a training content perspective.

It seems clear from the case that all employees will need some level of training. However, training will be different in content for those who are actually implementing the process and those who are man- aging units in which the process is occurring. Thus, training should be organized around level in the organization with the exception of direct supervisors. Since Kaizen is a team based process, intact work teams should go through the training together, even though Kaizen teams may be reconstituted based on projects after training. Thus, first line supervisors and their direct reports should go through training together. First line supervisors may need additional training, depending on how roles and responsibilities are assigned. Managers whose units are closely aligned should also go through training together and the top management team should go through the training as a group.

B. For the type of training envisioned, what are the learning objectives? Write these objectives in complete form.

Objectives for Kaizen teams might include:

● By the end of training a team will have implemented a Kaizen project that improves processes and/or quality so that costs are lowered by at least 15%.

● Each team member will, at the end of training, score above 85% on the Kaizen exam using reference materials provided during training.

● Each team member, at the conclusion of their Kaizen project, will receive a rating of “supportive of the Kaizen approach” or higher, by each of the other team members, on the end of project reaction questionnaire.

Objective for managers might include:

● At the conclusion of training, each manager will score above 85% on the Kaizen exam using reference materials provided during training.

● Six months after the conclusion of training, each manager will receive a rating of “supportive of our Kaizen activities” or higher by each of the teams reporting to that manager.

● One year after the conclusion of training, each team reporting to the manager will have completed a Kaizen project resulting in improved processes and/or quality such that costs are reduced by at least 20%.

Objectives for the top management team might include:

● At the conclusion of training, each manager will score above 85% on the Kaizen exam using reference materials provided during training.

● One year after the conclusion of training, overall costs related to process and quality will have reduced by 20 percent.

C. For each group of employees that will need training, what are the organizational constraints that need to addressed in the design of the training? What design features should be used to address these constraints? Be sure to address both the learning and transfer of training issues.

For Kaizen teams, the following constraints might be listed:

Budget: Since Domtar is struggling financially (at the time training takes place), budget is a key issue. Training must be done in as cost effective manner as possible. Thus, some basic classroom training combined with an actual project will accomplish the KSA acquisition as quickly as possible. The hands-on project will facilitate transfer of training. An in-house expert has been hired, thus reducing the cost somewhat from hiring an outside firm. However, the expert won’t be able to train all teams in Domtar. Rather, he will need to train others to serve as trainers or recruit them from outside the com- pany. Given the budget issues, training insiders seems the most prudent action. However, this conflicts with the next constraint.

Short lead time: Clearly, Royer wants this process instituted quickly. Fortunately, Kaizen is a well established training program, and materials can easily be purchased. Hiring outside trainers is likely to be too expensive, thus lead time will have to be extended to allow for training of trainers from inside the company.

Time available for training: For paper mills to run efficiently, they must run as close to continu- ously as possible. Once the equipment is stopped, it takes many hours to restart and gain stability. Thus, training must occur on off hours. This will increase the cost, as employees will have to receive overtime pay. Related to this is that any projects will need to include all shifts, since the equipment for each shift is the same. Thus, those who operate a process, regardless of shift, must be con- sidered as a team. This means that while the classroom training can be provided separately to different shifts, the “project training” needs to occur together. One solution to this dilemma is for each shift to identify a project, and then have different members of each shift serve on the Kaizen team that researches a project. Enough projects would have to be identified to allow each employee to participate on a team. Research would have to be conducted during off shift time, which means that one member of the team wouldn’t be able to participate on that piece of research, but the steps in the research could be rotated among shifts. An alternative is to get replacement workers for the time the team is doing its research. In any case, this is good training for identifying problems and solutions of implementing Kaizen.

The budget, lead time and availability issues are similar for managers and the executive group. However, they won’t require overtime pay since they’re salaried and they don’t work in shifts (for the most part).

2. Review the Multistate Health Corporation case from Chapter 2 and answer the following questions.

A. In the implementation of the HRPS, what groups of employees are likely to need training? Think of this from a training design perspective as well as a training content perspective.

B. For the type of training you envision for each group what are the learning objectives? Write these in complete form.

C. For each group of employees that will need training, what are the organizational constraints you’ll need to address in the design of your training? What design features will you use to address these constraints? Be sure to address both the learning and transfer of training objectives.

There are many areas in which training will be required and we list only some of them. Clearly the organization must focus on cost reduction. Thus, employees at all levels should be provided with training in whatever cost reduction system(s) MHC adopts. The acquisition of the new sub- sidiaries and how they interact with the hospitals will require training for upper management. Many of the presidents of the hospitals were shown to be deficient in KSAs needed to implement the new strategy. Managers at every level will need training in the new HRIS and succession planning. Because of all the changes in MHC training, focusing on managing change will be important. This type of training would require spaced practice and part learning. A training program such as this would require the support of superiors, peers, trainers, corporate culture, and rewards. Depending on which groups the student identifies, you’ll want to see if they’ve ordered the training so that, where possible, the training needed first is provided first. For example, hospital presidents and upper management will need training in the cost savings systems before those lower in the organization are trained.

In the case analysis of chapter two, it was stated that KSAs and resistance to change might be the two biggest hurdles to overcome in the MHC case. Therefore, the training program must focus on the readiness of trainees to learn. Trainees must be motivated to come to training, and supervisors and trainers must instill positive expectations about successfully acquiring the KSAs and transferring them to the job. Budgets will be a constraint given the financial condition of MHC.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. What’s a learning objective? List and explain its three components.

A learning objective is a description of the KSAs that must be acquired by the trainees throughout the training program and that trainees are expected to acquire throughout the training program and the ways that learning will be demonstrated. The learning objective has three critical components:

● Desired outcome: what’s expected from the training

● Conditions: under which conditions is the outcome to occur

● Standards: the criteria that demonstrate an outcome is acceptable.

2. What can be done long before the trainee attends training to ensure that the trainee will be motivated to learn?

To ensure the employees are motivated to learn, it’s important an organization socialize trainees to training. In order to socialize employees, the organization must show the trainee that he/she has the ability to complete the training, clarify the outcomes associated with completed training, and show that positive outcomes are more likely to occur if training is completed.

3. How does knowledge of classical and operant conditioning assist you in designing effective training?

Classical conditioning theory makes us aware that we must consider the group of trainees’ past experi- ences when designing our training programs. In the text, they give examples of how simple training environmental factors can have strong negative effects on trainees’ motivation to learn. Operant condi- tioning theory can also be applied in training to increase motivation in training. In the text, an example explains how positive reinforcement can be used to improve trainee involvement.

4. How would you present training material in a manner that facilitates retention?

In order to facilitate retention, a training program should be designed so that the trainer stimulates the recall of the relevant prerequisite learning and/or prior supportive learning; the trainer facilitates the encoding process through the technique of guided discovery; and trainees are given the opportunity to perform symbolic rehearsal.

5. If a particular task were critical to saving a life (police officer shooting his gun, pilot responding to an emergency), what factors would you build into the design of training to ensure that the behavior was both learned and transferred to the workplace?

If a particular task were critical to life saving, you would want to have the task over-learned in training. Over- learning is the process of providing trainees with continued practice far beyond the point at which the trainees have performed the task successfully. Thus, trainees must be given the opportunity to continually practice the task until it’s done automatically; this should be stated in the learning objective.

6. To help ensure transfer of training, what would you do outside the training itself? Who would you involve and how? What would you do about the organizational structure/environment?

To facilitate transfer of training it’s important to ensure that the training has the support of the trainees’ supervisors, peers, and trainers. Also, the organization’s climate, culture, and reward system should support the training objectives and the transfer of training to the job.

7. Suppose you have a group of forty employees for which you’re designing a training program. These employees come from a wide range of ethnic and cultural backgrounds and also have different educational and experience backgrounds relative to the content area of the training. What training design features would you use to address these constraints?

It would be critical to determine from a needs assessment exactly what the differences are in terms of knowledge and how the different cultural backgrounds affect their learning style. Depending on what the differences are, the choices are to develop different learning designs for subsets of the trainee population

or have a modular design where some trainees can attend only those modules where the needs assess- ment indicated they need training. As noted in the text, it generally makes more sense to add training rather than have different training for different groups. So, there would be extra modules designed for those with less knowledge or skill to bring them up to speed. Extra training modules might be one way to address cultural differences among trainees. If clear differences in learning styles are a function of cultural differ- ences it might be necessary to provide the training using multiple methods so that each of the different styles is addressed. This would take longer and cost more, however, it’s more cost effective than developing and implementing separate training for each group. In addition, even though people may have a dominant learning style, they can still learn from methods that aren’t focused on the dominant style. Thus, multiple methods would serve as reinforcement of the learning.

8. Discuss Gagne & Briggs’ theory of design and its relationship to social learning theory.

The answer is clearly identified in Table 5.10 and discussed in the related text material.

9. What’s elaboration theory and how would it help you design a training program?

Elaboration theory provides a holistic approach to the part/whole sequencing of training, and it would be helpful in designing a training program for training complex tasks. The concepts of epitomizing and elab- orating are used to design the sequence of training activities. Epitomizing is used at the start by creating a relatively simple learning activity that epitomizes the more complex task to be learned. Each successive activity then elaborates on the first until the whole task is learned. It allows trainees to see and practice the whole task from the start, and thus is more motivating and fosters better understanding.

CHAPTER 6

CASE QUESTIONS

You’re assigned the challenge of designing the training program for the temporary CSS employees who must complete training before they become permanent CSS employees.

Tip: From the case information, it’s clear that the KSAs lacking in the 18 people selected without the full complement of desired competencies, are those associated with problem solving and customer service. Thus, these should be the areas of focus in the questions.

1. What are the training objectives for the CSS training program? Indicate how these are tied to the KSA requirements. Assume that all trainees have college degrees but need KSAs in all other areas listed in the Qualifications section.

Customer service duties would include the following: (see top of page 249)

● Monitor and ensure that customers perceive that customer service staff treats them with courtesy, respect, tact, and a sincere desire to meet their needs.

Related KSAs: Ability to communicate accurately and pleasantly with customers.

● Provide mediation and resolution to customer complaints and requests within delegated authority limits and consistent with departmental policies. Communicate to customers departmental policies and procedures.

Related KSAs: Effective conflict management skills. Ability to communicate moderately to highly complex policies, procedures, and regulations, and ensure customer understanding of these while working under pressure.

● Identify processes and procedures in the department that are causing problems for groups of customers (not individuals) and work with department management toward their improvement.

Related KSAs: Problem-solving skills, communication skills

2. Based on the training objectives, provide a training agenda, indicating the time allocated and order of modules in your program.

Answers will vary.

3. For each module, describe the goals of the module and the training methods you’ll use to accomplish it. Provide your rationale.

Answers will vary. Table 6.9 is a good resource.

4. How will you evaluate whether each person in your training program has mastered the knowledge and skill levels needed to perform as a CSS? Describe the types of questions you would ask of those supervising the CSS employees graduating from your training program.

Answers will vary.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. Supervisors often resist taking on the role of coach. What can organizations do to encourage supervisors to be effective coaches?

Organizations can encourage supervisors to be effective coaches by providing training and giving supervisors the necessary support. The supervisor must be given an opportunity to understand the trainee’s job, the KSAs, and the resources required to meet performance objectives. The supervisor must also be made aware of the trainee’s current level of performance. The supervisor must be given the time and the training so that they can meet with trainees and conduct meetings in which performance objectives are set. Training will also be required so that supervisors are trained to make plans/schedules for achieving performance objectives. The supervisor must also be given time and training so they can demonstrate to the trainee at the work site how to achieve the objectives, observe the trainee perform, and provide feedback. For supervisors to be coaches requires a serious investment by the organization into supervisor training and also increased time spent in interpersonal contact for the supervisor.

2. Go through the different instructional methods and sort them into those you think would be most useful in training someone on the technical aspects of the job and those that would be most useful in the more social aspects of their job. Provide the rationale for your decisions.

When training someone on the technical aspects of their job, Simulation/Cases, Behavioral Modeling, and OJT (JIT, Apprentice, and Coaching) would be appropriate training methods. When training for the social aspects job, Simulation/Cases, Role Play, Behavioral Modeling, and OJT (Coaching) would be appropriate training methods.

3. Why are classroom-based training programs (lecture/discussion, role play, games, etc.) used so much more than individualized approaches to training? Do you think this choice is appropriate?

Classroom-based training programs are used much more than individualized approaches to training because of cost. For an example, look at answer one. The costs of individual training are much higher than classroom-based training. Cost is a valid consideration of any training program. As long as the train- ing program is achieving the required results, and it can be done in a cost efficient manner, then it’s desirable. The goal of training is to have employees performing at the required level. As long as this is achieved, the training has been successful.

CHAPTER 7

CASE QUESTIONS

1. Develop a business solution for STI that addresses all of the challenges they face. Indicate any assumptions you’re making that aren’t directly addressed by the case.

Several key components come into effect for STI and its potential 150 small business owners:

1. There are a large number of consultants that will need to use the training module. The training will have to be portable or available online.

2. The material must be consistent throughout all consultants to demonstrate a fair, equal, and reputable business. A Programmed Instruction program might be able to accommodate all basic business functions when trying to develop scientific ideas into practical business operations.

3. Most businesses will be distributed across the country, which makes it hard for a centrally-located unit to train all small businesses. E-learning through the Web will enhance productivity and cut costs.

4. Customized learning must be available to small businesses. With the PI as the basic delivery of information, the consultant would also be available for private questioning.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. How is CBT different from e-learning?

Computer based training (CBT) is a training technique that uses computers as a means to give instructions to trainees. E-learning is the delivery of training or education through electronic media.

2. What are the basic components of CBT and its delivery?

The components for creating and delivering CBT are identified in Figure 7-2.

3. How does programmed instruction allow the trainee to work at his or her own pace?

PI is the process of leading a trainee systematically through new information in a way that facilitates the most efficient learning. At its most basic level, PI provides the trainee with information, asks a question, and, based on the response, goes to the next bit of information, and so forth. PI allows trainees to learn more material more quickly and retain it longer with less frustration by (1) programming small learning steps resulting in fewer response errors, (2) requiring frequent active responses by trainees, (3) providing imme- diate feedback to trainee responses, (4) allowing trainees to move through the material at their own pace, and (5) frequently reviewing the material.

4. How does ITS differ from programmed instruction?

An Intelligent Tutoring System is a more sophisticated form of programmed instruction. It uses artificial intelligence to assist in tutoring the trainee. An ITS can learn from its own process and provides guidance when selecting the appropriate level of instruction to the trainee. ITS improves upon PI in these ways:

● Generates instruction that matches the individual trainee’s needs.

● Communicates and responds to trainee questions.

● Models the trainee’s learning processes

● Determines what information should follow based on previous trainee responses

● Determines the trainee’s level of understanding of the topic

● Improves its strategies for teaching the trainee based on the trainee’s responses.

5. What learning processes are most influenced by interactive multimedia? Which are influenced the least?

The following is generally true for all CBT methods, but specifically for IM.

Attention: IM is good at capturing and retaining trainee attention.

Retention-Symbolic Coding: IM can provide multiple cues that can be used in the symbolic coding process. Textual, auditory, and oral cues can be integrated to allow trainees to use those that fit best with their learn- ing style to code the content of the training. If IM is designed using programmed instruction principles, it creates a specific organization of the material with each learning segment broken down into small steps, making it easier for the trainee to integrate into his/her existing cognitive organization. Through the accumu- lation of these small steps and their repetition, IM is able to shape the cognitive organization of the trainee in the desired manner. The more self-paced the IM, the more it facilitates cognitive organization.

Retention-Symbolic Rehearsal: Symbolic rehearsal is a strong feature of the IM approach.

Behavioral Reproduction: IM is effective at modeling appropriate behavior and providing simulations in which the trainee can apply knowledge. These components facilitate the development of skills but don’t provide the opportunities to actually reproduce the desired behavior and receive feedback. Blending CBT with some form of on-the-job training will allow trainees to master the more complex skills.

6. What’s the most expensive part of developing a CBT?

The development cost of CBT is the most expensive part. On average, it takes 200 hours of devel- opmental time for one hour of CBT instruction.

7. What are the factors associated with calculating the cost of CBT?

When developing a CBT, one should consider the following parameters:

● number of trainees taking the course

● cost of wages per hour for trainees while they’re taking the course

● cost of wages per hour for course developer

● amortized cost of hardware to support the CBT

● amortized cost of software used in the CBT

● hours needed to complete the CBT program

● hours needed to develop CBT course content

● stability of the course content

● cost of not addressing the training need sooner with some other method.

8. How effective is CBT in maintaining control over learning processes and training content? Provide your rationale.

The CBT has an important advantage in its control over the content of the material, method of presentation, and movement of the trainee through sequentially structured learning episodes based on previous trainee responses. The pace of learning is controlled by the interaction between the software and the trainee. This ensures consistency of topic coverage and topic mastery across all trainees. Also, CBT can be portable to allow trainees to learn at times and places that are most convenient.

9. What’s the purpose of an LMS?

A Learning Management Systems (LMS) is software that manages the delivery of training content and moni- tors and records trainee activity. This system can include such features as: authoring, class management, competency management, knowledge management, certification, mentoring, chat, threaded discussion, video conferencing.

10. How are ITS and LMS related to each other?

Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) consist of shells that house a Learning Management System (LMS) and a knowledge base. The LMS is the engine that delivers the knowledge to the trainee and the knowledge base is the information that needs to be learned.

CHAPTER 8

CASE QUESTIONS

This case occurred a number of years ago, but in checking with some of the workers that are still there the power equipment operator training hasn’t changed very much. The company has invested in training of their service people more extensively, but the power equipment training is still OJT without the trainer. Other interesting facts about the case are added under each of the questions under “additional information.”

1. What are the potential costs to this lack of training? Why do you think the company operated in this manner?

The costs of the lack of training were great. There were charges to the company every time a line was broken and had to be repaired. The potential for a serious accident was great—not only when digging holes, but in driving to and from the job sites. The backhoe is a very unstable machine when being driven, as the back end is heavy, causing the front to lift off the ground from time to time. Steering can be done with the brakes (there’s one for each of the back wheels), but this takes practice.

Additional Information: The cost was much more than what’s mentioned above. In the winter months, Jim would use the boom much like a jackhammer to break through the frost, as he was never taught any other way (below pavement frozen ground would sometimes go down four to five feet). Because of the constant pounding, Jim found himself going at least three times a week to the Massey Ferguson repair depot to have a crack welded, hose replaced, or bucket repaired. To his knowledge, Bill Granger hardly ever went for such repairs. The cost of this must have been great, and Jim expected that he would be called in to explain his high maintenance costs to management. This never happened. The company obviously never did track these costs, and therefore, didn’t realize the lost revenue due to constant repairs. It wasn’t that management didn’t know he was getting these repairs, as such information was on his time sheet and he did have to sign for repairs.

2. What type of training would you recommend: OJT, classroom, or a combination? Describe what the training might entail.

OJT would be a possibility, but a better approach would be to use a simulation with one of the backhoes used as the simulator. As described above, the OJT method could end up being very costly. The training would need to begin using the JIT approach in which the instructor would “tell” and “show” before allowing the trainee to begin operating the vehicle. Issues concerning speed and safety would need to be high- lighted prior to going into the field. Classroom training will be needed to address the safety and some of the maintenance KSAs.

3. What type of training environment would you provide?

The simulation could be done in a training field with steel pipe buried in the ground to allow the trainee to experience what it’s like to hit piping in the ground. Advanced training could use lead pipe like that found in the water services. The classroom environment would be less distracting and allow the trainee to focus on the material.

4. Who would you get to do the training and why?

Bill Granger might have been a good trainer. If so, it would be necessary to provide him with train the trainer sessions to the extent his trainer KSAs were deficient. Another option would be to see if this type of training were available somewhere in the industry. Perhaps the manufacturer provided train- ing or another utility company may do so.

Additional Information: In retrospect, Jim believes that Bill would have been a good trainer. He was very relaxed, and when Jim did go to him for help, the help provided (on his own time) was very use- ful. He always took time to be sure Jim understood what he was saying and, when necessary, would show him what he meant. The other backhoe operator at the time was Mike. He was a nervous indi- vidual who would have been a poor trainer. Not because he wasn’t as good as Bill (although he wasn’t), but because he wouldn’t have had the patience to guide a trainee through the steps.

5. Would you consider purchasing a training program for backhoe operators? Provide your rationale.

As indicated above, it may be possible to find this type of training provided by an outside party. If it was, you would need to make sure the training addressed all the critical issues faced by the gas util- ity (for example, buried utility lines).

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. You’re asked to deliver a two-day workshop for managers on effective feedback skills. It’s focused primarily on performance reviews. There are 100 managers who need to be trained. Describe what the content of the training would entail, methods you would use (for example, lecture, case study, role play), and the instructional media and equipment you would want. Why? Also what type of room setup you would want. Why? Indicate how many sessions you would need based on this number of managers. Why?

Tips: Indicate to the students that there are several reasonable ways to go about this question. Some of the things that they should take into consideration are:

A. Length of time of workshop (2 days)

B. Number of trainees (100)

C. Learning objective (developing effective feedback skills)

Section 1 should consist of some form of presenting knowledge. One example might be lecturettes and discussion. The purpose of this would be to teach declarative knowledge about how to perform effective feedback. Simple overheads would be used. After trainees have declarative knowledge and demonstrate it through testing, they would then move on to Section 2.

Section 2 should consist of some form of case studies and/or role playing. Case studies would provide some practical situations so trainees could see the importance of effective feedback in performance reviews. The media used for the case studies could be either movies or textbook style cases. Role play- ing would allow trainees to practice and demonstrate the techniques they learned through the lectures and case studies and to get feedback.

The room required for section one would be set up in type D format (refer to figure 8.1 in the text). Because discussion is required, class size should be limited to 25 so that the instructor can assure that all students have an opportunity to partake in the discussion. The room should have at least five breakoff rooms so that when groups are divided into five groups, each group has a room. For Section 2, groups of five will partake in the role play, with two to three trainees in the role play and two to three trainees providing feed- back. Based on this design, in order to train the 100 managers, there would have to be four sessions of this training program required.

2. Describe how the experiential learning model relates to the social learning model.

The experiential learning model begins by trainees sharing a common experience. This allows trainer and trainees to “experience” a process related to the current training and then discuss possible options for action. This is similar to the social learning model, where learners observe someone else and then are able to model similar behavior, without having firsthand experience of the situation. Figure 8-2 presents the Experiential Learning Model and can be related back to Social Learning Model.

3. What are some typical difficult trainees and how would you deal with them?

Pages 310–311 provide an effective outline for answering this question. The typical difficult trainees described in the textbook are the Quiet Trainee, the Talkative Trainee, the Angry Trainee, and the Comedian.

4. How do the dry run and pilot training differ? Why?

The dry run is a rehearsal of the training program, to test the new material and firm up the timing of the different sections. The dry run isn’t designed to actually train the participants, who simply assume the role of trainees. The dry run is held in a controlled setting where issues can be discussed and resolved. In general, it will take much longer than the actual training, because the trainer won’t only be delivering the material, but also making adjustments and participating in discussions.

The pilot training is the first presentation of the complete training program. The main difference is that the trainees present in the pilot training are there to actually be trained. The trainer will make adjustments and further assess the timing of the modules and components, but all relevant training is actually provided to the trainees.

CHAPTER 9

CASE QUESTIONS

1. How much does the re-cleaning cost Nicky per year? Show all mathematical calculations.

Number of offices cleaned per year = 6/day × 100 people × 250 days = 150,000 cleanings

“Bad” cleanings = 1/6, so 150,000/6 = 25,000 “bad” cleanings/year

Cost per “bad” cleaning = $20.00

Yearly cost = 25,000 X $20.00 = $ 500,000

Since the training program will reduce bad cleanings to 1 in 12, it will save Nicky $250,000 a year if everyone is trained.

(If you wanted to figure in “opportunity” costs as well, the total cost of bad cleanings is $40.00. The additional $20 in cost is because time spent re-cleaning means time not spent cleaning and earning a $20.00 profit. If opportunity cost is built into subsequent calculations, it will be based on a $40 cost rather than the $20 figure we use.)

2. If everyone is trained, how much will the training cost? How much will it cost if only the group with the most errors is trained? Show all mathematical calculations.

The costs associated with training that are listed on page 346 of the text add up to $17,900.00. This is the cost if everyone is trained (five sessions of 20 employees each).

As stated in the case, these costs are based on conducting five sessions. Thus, if only the 50 employees with the most errors are trained, only three training sessions will be needed (no more than 20 employees/session). The value of this question is to determine if the students are able to see that some costs will be the same (development), some will be reduced by half (cost of employee wages while at training), and some will only be reduced by 40 percent (per session costs).

If only half of the cleaners were trained (those averaging two bad cleanings out of every nine), the $4,000 in development costs would remain the same. Trainer cost would be reduced to $240.00, because three ses- sions would be required instead of five. The reduction in sessions also reduces the cost of the facility and equipment to $300.00. For factors associated with number of employees trained, the cost is cut in half. Thus, the cost of materials is $1,000.00, refreshments are $300.00, and employee costs would be $4,000.00. Indirect costs (evaluation) would also be cut by 50 percent to $1,200. The rationale is that, for the most part, these costs are based on the number of people being evaluated. Since most of the evalua- tion measures are developed in the TNA stage, the vast majority of trainer time is spent in collecting and analyzing post training data.

Thus, total costs for training only 50 employees would be $11,040.00.

Different answers could occur based on different assumptions in the area of indirect costs.

3. If everyone is trained, what’s the cost savings for the first year? If only the group with the highest re-cleaning requirements is trained, what’s the cost savings? Show all mathematical calculations.

Since the training will reduce the number of “bad cleanings” by 50 percent, the yearly cost of “bad cleanings” after training = ½ cost prior to training ($500,000) = $250,000. Thus, the cost savings is $250,000 – $17,900 (cost of training) = $232,100.00.

The group averaging 2/9 re-cleanings generates 2/3 of the re-cleanings, costing the company $333,333/yr. If this group reduces its re-cleaning to 1/12, it will still cost the company $125,000/year in “bad cleanings.” The gross savings will be $333,333 – $125,000= $208,333/year. The cost savings is $208,333 – $11,040 (the cost of training) = $197,293.

4. What’s your recommendation based on the expected return on investment? Should both groups be trained, or just the group with the 2/9 re-cleaning ratio? Provide a rationale that includes both financial and other factors. Show any mathematical calculations.

Since the gross savings if everyone is trained is $250,000, this means that training the group averaging 1/9 re-cleanings will result in a gross savings of $41,667.00 ($250,000 – $208,333=$41,667).

The cost of training only the 2/9 group is $11,040.00. The additional cost to train the 1/9 group is $6,860. The percent return on investment for the 2/9 group is [($208,333 – $11,040)/$11,040] x 100, or 1787.07 percent. For the 1/9 group, the return on investment is [($41,667 – $6,860)/$6860] x 100, or 507.39 percent.

Thus, from a financial perspective, both groups should be trained, even though one’s ROI is consid- erably higher than the other.

From an employee relations standpoint, training both groups has the advantage of giving both groups the increased KSAs and equal treatment.

5. Let’s back up and assume we’re still at the needs analysis stage. Assume that employees had the KSAs needed to clean the offices effectively. What other factors might you look at as potential causes of the re-cleaning problem?

Motivational factors such as pay, working conditions, group norms, etc. Opportunity factors such as equipment, procedures, etc.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. What’s the relationship among the four levels of evaluation? Would you argue for examining all four levels if your boss suggested you should look only at the last one (results) and that if it improved, you would know that training had an impact?

The four outcome measures of Kirkpatrick’s four levels of evaluation are reaction, learning, behavior and organizational results, in that order. Reaction comes first and will influence how much can be learned; learning outcomes determine how much behavior can change back on the job; behavior on the job determines how much organizational impact the training can have; and organizational results are the changes in the bottom line related to the reason for the training in the first place. If you only

looked at the last level (organizational results) and there wasn’t any impact, you won’t know if it was the failure of the training or some other cause. Similarly, if there’s a positive impact on organizational results and you don’t evaluate at any other level (than at the organizational results level), you can’t be sure it was the training that caused the change.

2. What’s the difference between cost/benefit analysis and cost/effectiveness analysis? Which would you use and why?

Cost-benefit evaluation compares the monetary costs of training to non-monetary benefits such as attitudes and relationships. Cost-effectiveness evaluation compares the monetary costs of training to the financial benefits accrued from training. Both are important, however—strategic decision makers are interested in seeing that HR and HRD efforts lead to monetary gains when competing for funds; therefore, cost-effectiveness evaluation should be used as much as possible when proposing a training program.

3. What’s the difference between cost-savings analysis and utility analysis? When, if ever, would you use utility rather than cost savings? Why?

In the text example, it’s shown that utility analysis allows us to estimate the increased results of training, whereas cost-savings evaluation calculates the cost savings of the training. The research isn’t definitive about whether becoming more quantitative in the assessment and description of training outcomes leads to more acceptance of training as a unit that adds value to the bottom line. The textbook indicates that utility analysis can put the training manager on equal footing with the other managers in the organization. However, this will depend on the culture and values of the organization.

4. Assume you were the training manager in the Westcan case (in chapter four). How would you sug- gest evaluating the training, assuming they were about to conduct it as suggested in the case? Be as specific as you can.

As the training was to focus on skills development (how to run an effective meeting), the focus needs to be on behavior. Data from the case suggests they have the knowledge. Sitting in on some meetings and docu- menting what’s actually done would provide a baseline for assessing skill development after training. Once this baseline was obtained, the test of learning could be a “mock meeting.” At this meeting, the team could have an agenda of their choosing (hold an actual meeting) and you would have designed into the meeting specific problems to determine how the team deals with them. This could be done by having a “confeder- ate” be a part of the meeting and interject specific problems (interrupting, changing the subject, pretending to not pay attention, etc.) at certain times to see how they’re handled by the team. The exact problems would be a function of what was actually trained. To assess “behavioral” change, you could have assessors attend actual meetings with the similar rating scale they used for assessing learning and in this way assess the transfer. If transfer occurred, assessment of results could be done a number of ways. Results measures are often a reflection of what the reason was for the training in the first place. In this case it was the boss, but when he told managers about it, they were also eager to have the training. So, one method of “results” could be manager satisfaction with their meetings or the whole team’s satisfaction with the meetings. If sat- isfaction measures were obtained pre training and again some time interval after the transfer had occurred, hopefully the satisfaction with meetings measure would be higher. Other important results could be “effec- tive use of time in meetings” on particular topics (measured pre- and post-training). Better attendance at more effective meetings is likely, so attendance might also be an important measure.

5. Of all the designs presented in the appendix, which one would you consider most effective while also being practical enough to convince an organization to adopt it? If your design involved random assignment, how would you accomplish this? If your design included representative sampling, how would you accomplish it?

There’s no real right or wrong answer to this question. Students must demonstrate they know the inter- nal and external validity issues associated with the design they select. Students must also demonstrate an understanding of the term representative sampling and the issues associated with it.

CHAPTER 10

CASE QUESTIONS

1. Would a TNA be needed in this situation? Why or why not? If yes, who would you want to talk to?

In this case, a TNA is unnecessary, as the court has ordered all employees to receive training. However, a TNA would prove useful in terms of in what areas employees are particularly weak or strong. It’s likely that there are differences in needs among the management staff and hourly work groups.

2. Based on the case as presented above, what KSAs need to be trained?

Knowledge: The most obvious area for training is what constitutes sexual harassment and the process for reporting and investigating claims. Additionally, the company needs to develop and communicate its policy on sexual harassment, including sanctions on perpetrators.

Skills: Skills need to be developed in how to handle sensitive situations and how to respond to instances of possible sexual harassment.

Attitude: All employees need training on attitude change towards the way in which women are treated in the work place.

3. Why has the Commission insisted on training for the whole company when the problem is clearly only Mr. Pettipas? Elaborate.

First, it’s not clear that the problem is only Mr. Pettipas. When Ms. Dillman went to others in authority, her issues weren’t addressed appropriately. It didn’t seem that management took her claims seriously. Employees at all levels did nothing to address the inappropriate behavior of Mr. Pettipas. In fact, when a letter was finally put in his file, the President and CEO had it removed. Thus, the court must have felt that a culture had developed in the company which allowed such inappropriate behavior. Training for the entire company must have appeared to the court to be the best avenue for changing that culture.

4. In order for the training to be effective, what other things do you think need attention?

Table 10-4 provides a list of effective strategies for dealing with sexual harassment, in addition to the initial training.

This case appears to deal with a situation where the problem isn’t a lack of knowledge or skills, but a problem of attitude. Attitude change is more difficult than learning knowledge and skills, and there are different training methodologies that can be used to better approach the issue in this company.

This is an example of where training might provide a change in behavior but still not achieve a change in attitude.

5. What would you suggest in the way of evaluation of the training? How would you convince top management that it would be worth it?

The most obvious evaluation criterion is that the court is satisfied with the training and that all employees attend. Beyond this, there are many approaches that might be taken. Certainly an employee satisfaction questionnaire that included questions related to sexual harassment would provide a time-based way to evaluate improvements in the company culture. Tracking of incidents and claims is another option. Attitude surveys might be taken pre and post training. Presumably, all things being equal, productivity should improve as employees (women) become more comfortable in the work environment. However, it’s very diffi- cult to demonstrate a direct connection between workplace atmosphere and productivity. This is also a situation where the use of an external trainer and/or consultant might be advised due to the culture that has seemingly permeated the organization.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. What’s an orientation designed to do? What are the characteristics of an effective orientation?

An orientation is designed to provide new employees an opportunity to learn about the way the organization works and what it values as part of a socialization experience. It’s designed to reduce anxiety, clarify role expectations, improve start up job performance, increase commitment to the organization, and reduce the likelihood of new employees leaving the organization within the first year of employment. All of these lead to a more effective organization.

2. How are organizations dealing with diversity? Are they effective? Why or why not?

Generally companies have implemented policy and/or training programs to deal with diversity issues, but these often don’t change anything. Like any intervention, training is only a part of it. Much of this may have to do with lack of support from top management. Without strong support from upper management, many will see the training and policy as something the company has to do from a legal standpoint, but not some- thing that’s really valued. What the successful companies have in common is their understanding that training alone isn’t enough. Two key additional elements are:

● Top management commitment/involvement

● Tying diversity success to performance appraisals and reward systems

3. What are the important components of an effective sexual harassment strategy?

Table 10.4 (page 376), Effective Strategies for Dealing with Sexual Harassment, provides most of the compo- nents of an effective strategy. Prior to any training, however, a harassment policy and guidelines for a complaint process need to be in place.

4. Why is team training necessary? What are the seven components of effective teams? What are some of the KSA’s that are required of team members in effective teams?

There’s a great deal of evidence that effective teams can significantly improve the effectiveness of an organization. Effectively implementing the right kind of team concept can make the organization more responsive to customer needs, reduce manpower by requiring fewer levels of management, reduce waste, improve quality and productivity, and make the company more competitive in other ways. Work teams are also a benefit to employees who have the opportunity to be involved in more meaningful work. More meaningful work leads to other positive organizational outcomes:

● Improved employee satisfaction and commitment

● Increased motivation

● Lower absenteeism and turnover

● Improved performance.

The seven components of effective teams are:

1. Clear sense of direction

2. Members with the talents necessary to achieve the team’s purpose

3. Clear and enticing responsibilities

4. Reasonable and efficient operating procedures

5. Constructive interpersonal relationships

6. Active reinforcement systems

7. Constructive external relationships

The KSAs below are required of team members if the team is to be effective:

● Active listening skills

● Interpersonal skills

● Techniques for seeking input from others

● Communicating positively in conflict situation

● Conflict resolution

● Problem-solving techniques

● Consensus decision making

● Conducting an effective meeting

5. How can training affect the selection of competent candidates for vacant positions? What would you recommend an organization do to ensure that everyone receives equitable opportunities for promotions?

Even if the promotion or transfer is based on who has the best set of KSAs for the new job, the company can be found guilty of unfair discrimination. This happens when one group of employees (for example, minorities) aren’t provided with the same opportunities for training as another group (for example, non- minorities). Training is an important part in the development of employees, whether they want transfers, promotions, or simply to be better at what they do. It’s the management’s responsibility to ensure that all employees are given equal access to improvement opportunities to prepare for advancement.

In addition to the traditional performance review for the purpose of compensation and promotion deci- sions, many companies are conducting a separate developmental review. This must be accompanied by procedures to make sure all supervisors understand the importance of providing all employees with opportunities based on their current capabilities and developmental readiness, not on their gender, race, age, or other irrelevant criteria.

6. In today’s environment, why is it important for organizations to focus on training of basic literacy skills?

Literacy levels in the workforce are declining because of lower standards in many high schools today. In addition, an increase in minorities and immigrants that aren’t native English speakers are entering the workforce. At the same time, job requirements for literacy are increasing. In Canada, about 22 percent of adults struggle with a severe literacy problem, which results in a productivity loss of about $4 billion (Canadian) per year.

7. Why is safety training an important component of the training mix in so many companies? What’s the biggest concern regarding safety training that was noted in the survey referenced in the chapter? Is it fixable, and if so, how?

Accidents and injuries cost industries billions of dollars each year, so any reduction can have a positive result on the bottom line. For many organizations, a culture of safety is a requirement to be competitive in the global marketplace. In a survey of organizations that are considered on the cutting edge of safety training, it was noted that they’ve developed this “culture of safety” rather than a number of different train- ing courses on safety. In such an organization, training isn’t considered a cost, but an investment. This may seem minor, but it changes the focus by looking at the benefits of safety training, rather than seeing it as forced compliance with OSHA or provincial health and safety legislation. By evaluating training at the “results” level and identifying the cost savings in fewer accidents, less machine wear, lower compensation costs, and so forth provides continued support for this proactive approach to safety.

CHAPTER 11

CASE QUESTIONS

1. What’s the managerial context in which these managers will be operating? Do you think training designed to help managers understand the context they’ll be operating in will be helpful? Why or why not?

The managerial context that APM is trying to create is team concept. The managers at APM have been selected for their ability to operate in a traditionally structured organization. Therefore, it will be neces- sary to provide training for these managers so they can learn how to function in an organization that operates in a team concept structure. There are many differences between a traditional structure and a team concept structure, and the role of managers is very different in both. Typically managers are very resistant when changing from a traditional structure to a team concept, in fact, this resistance is consid- ered to be a leading cause of team concept implementation failures. Therefore, training will be beneficial if resistance can be overcome.

2. What types of competencies should be developed in the management training? Give your rationale.

The management training must include technical, interpersonal, and leadership training. It states in the case that the managers have little knowledge of the machinery. If managers are to function in a team concept, they must have the technical knowledge to be able to perform the work and contribute to problem solving. Additionally, managers must be trained in interpersonal skills. Up to now, managers have used a confronta- tional style in dealing with their subordinates. If they’re to establish a team concept, they need to develop other ways of dealing with conflict and/or problem solving. Lastly, if the problem-solving team initiative is to succeed, the managers can’t continue to perform their function from a traditional perspective. They need some training on leadership in order to evolve from a more transactional style of leadership to being able to participate as a member of the team.

3. What types of training should be used to provide the different competencies? How long will it take to provide this training? Give your rationale.

The technical training can be provided through workshops and seminars. It may even provide an excellent team building opportunity if non-managers who had the technical knowledge were given the opportunity to help provide some of the training. OJT would also be beneficial if managers were allowed to perform some of the work on the machinery alongside with non-management employees. Interactive skills training using simulations, feedback, and grid management should help develop the required interpersonal skills. Grid management training will develop the manager’s ability to display concern for work outcomes and concern for people. Leadership skills can be developed through simulations and role play. Effective feedback will be necessary so that managers can learn how to operate in a team concept effectively.

4. What are the alternatives to management development? Do you think one of these alternatives should be used? Why or why not?

Two other alternatives are 1) try to improve quality without implementing problem-solving teams and 2) hire a new management team who can function in a team concept environment. If resistance by managers is very high, one of these options may have to be used. If it’s thought that quality can’t be

improved through traditional methods and team concept is the only solution, the second option may be required. It should be noted that the cost of replacing the management team would be very high. Training is probably the most economical approach, assuming that supervisory resistance can be overcome.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. Why is employee development so important in today’s organization?

● Employees have less loyalty to organizations and may be willing to move to another organization if there’s no opportunity to advance their careers

● There’s currently a shortage of skilled workers in the labor pool

● Skilled employees are becoming more and more important in today’s competitive marketplace.

● To attract and retain high quality employees, organizations must offer quality employee development.

● Having employees who are able to do more than one job provides flexibility for the organization

● Employee development leads to potentially lower voluntary turnover and more committed employees

2. Why is it necessary to have so much of this chapter devoted to management training?

Management training and development is a very important part of the organizational community and environment. Evidence indicates that those companies that align their management development with their strategic planning are generally more competitive. Also, managers get a lot of training, are accountable for success, and have complex jobs.

3. Compare and contrast the skills, traits, and management style for the manager in a cost leader vs. market leader organization.

Table 11-4 describes the differences between effective cost leader and market leader managers.

Effective managers, regardless of market strategy, possess technical, interpersonal, and conceptual skills. Market leader managers require more technical sophistication because they operate on the leading edge of technology. These managers also need more interpersonal skills because they use a more organic, less formalized design that requires managers to interact with more levels within the organizational. These interactions are critical to coordinating activities within their units. Again, mar- ket leader managers need greater conceptual skills to be able to adapt to non-routine situations.

Other factors such as drive, flexibility, and leader motives are important traits for a manager to be effective. No compelling evidence suggests that managers high in these traits will be more or less effective in any particular organizational context.

There are four different management styles: participative, supportive, achievement and directive. Participative styles are more effective in market leader organizations because a decentralized struc- ture promotes higher levels of participation in decision making. A supportive leadership style is effective in both market leader and cost leader environments. The market leader needs a higher achievement style compared to the cost leader. Market leaders need to reduce some of the ambiguities of their unit’s

tasks. They’re able to clarify goals, parameters and performance expectations. The directive leader- ship style is more important for the cost leader. It’s important for the manager of a cost leader to monitor and ensure that the right people are doing the right things at the right time.