Annotated Bibliography

Section Political Sciences

RIGHT-WING EXTREMISM AS A SOURCE OF SECURITY THREATS

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Peter Ondria, PhD.1

PhDr. Rastislav Malovec2

1 Danubius University, Faculty of Public Policy and Public Administration, Sládkovičovo,

Slovakia

2 Matej Bel University, Faculty of Political Science and International Relations, Banská

Bystrica, Slovakia

ABSTRACT

The concept of political extremism is used by lay and expert public in various contexts.

Because of a diversity of its perception in political, societal, journalist, official,

criminal, scientific, or lay context, it is extraordinary vague concept, which belongs

among the most amorphous concepts in the social sciences. The issue of the extremism

has attracted, during the last 30 years, attention of the major part particularly the

European political science community. Development and research of this phenomenon

is directly proportional to the successes, which the extremism achieved. In this context,

the article is focused on the issue of right political extremism with the accent on the

Slovak Republic.

Keywords: extremism, far right, Slovakia, Slovak Brotherhood, political extremism

INTRODUCTION

In lay communication a concept of extremism is used as concept like racism, fascism,

neofascism, Nazism, neo-Nazism, nationalism, ultra-nationalism, radicalism, right and

left-wing radicalism, right and left-wing populism, far right and far left, antisemitism,

hostility to foreigners, and so on. It means, that it is used as common indication for

many antidemocratic political ideas, set of ideas or activities, which can on the one hand

show some common attributes, and on the other hand can be mutually different. In case

of political extremism, it is not just about one integrated ideological direction, but about

the sum of many ideological fragments on both sides of ideological spectrum, of which

a common start point is based on resistance against free democratic constitutional and

political order and promotion of idea of new social-political establishment. Political

extremism is thus considered as counterpart to democratic constitutional state. [11]

When we look at the origin of the investigated concept, from etymological point words

“extreme” or “extremist” are derived from superlative of Latin word exterus, extremus,

what in understanding of investigated concept means utmost, furthest. [3] In political

meaning we talk about left and right fringe of ideological spectrum, of which center is

accepted by majority.

According to the Ministry of the Interior we can under the concept of extremism

understand “verbal graphical, physical or other activities linked generally with poised

ideological or other context, which are developed by the individuals or groups of people

with opinions markedly beyond of generally recognized social norms with clear

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elements of intolerance, particularly racial, national, religious or other similar

incomprehension, which attack against democratic principles, social organization,

fundamental human rights, life, health, property or public order”. [4] Extremism

(political) though represents an antithesis of democratic constitutional state and

concerns antidemocratic mentality and effort, which refuses constitutional state and its

fundamental values and rules.

For political extremism is characteristic unwillingness to adopt political compromises,

which stems from conviction about exclusive approach to political and historical truth.

Ideology of political extremism contains the elements of intolerance and rejection of

valid legal and moral norms. In order to enforce political goals, it bows down to use

basically all resources, including those undemocratic and violent (in an invasive form

also terrorism). Political extremism is in democratic society and in democratic

constitutional establishment irremovable phenomenon. Where exists social conflict,

there exists also extremism and when this tension retreats in one sphere, it accelerates in

other one. [14]

Even though many authors date creation of extremist political formations in the Western

Europe since the second half of 1980s, the expression itself has got significantly longer

history. In the first half of 19th century were as extreme considered those groupings,

which markedly deviate from dominant political forces. Firstly they emerged as variants

of conservative and socialistic formations, which were formed as reactions on liberal

ideas of enlightenment and French revolution. Political extremism can show off, in

democratic regimes, in various forms: in political opinions of population, in political-

extremist doctrines, in extremist organizations or in extremist actions and strategies.

[11] Among the most often forms within the categorization of political extremism in

professional literature we consider right and left-wing extremism. Although right and

left-wing movements are significantly different in its contents, methods of goals

achieving are relatively similar. Besides that, political extremism is in literature

distinguished as religious, ethnic, or ecological.

Theoretical aspect of right-wing extremism

Right-wing extremism represents “a sum of attitudes, ways of behavior and actions,

which are organized or not, which are based on from racist or ethically conditioned

social inequality of human being, which require ethical homogeneity of the nation and

deny a principle of equality anchored in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,

they justify a priority of society over the individuals, deny a pluralism of values of

liberal democracy and they want to defined democracy as retrogressive”. [4]

Many German political scientists consider right-wing extremism as individualistic,

democratic base of human equality negotiating movement, which denies liberal and

democratic forces and their resulting product, which is democratic constitutional state.

In the center of all right-wing extremist doctrines stands strict denial of principles of

human equality. Among the characteristics of right-wing extremism, we at the same

time include anti-pluralism, anti-communism, anti-parliamentarism, desire for law and

order, desire for authoritative state on the forehead with the strong personality (a

leadership principle). [14] It represents such part anti-societal action with extremist

features, which motive is racist, national, or ethic hate and there is missing other

material incentive for the action. Escalated extreme nationalism, passing to racism, is

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manifested as a main motive of action. The white race stands, according to the followers

of this ideology, on the top of human development and its most perfect leaders are

Aryans. Nowadays it is about an ideology proclaimed by right-wing oriented part of

movement of skins, but also by other groups. The biggest crime is, according to the

followers of this theory, is mixing of white race with other, including Semitic. [2] The

most militant racist, in this sense, talk about necessity of outbreak of “Racial holy war”

or so called “white revolution”. This racist theory has, in the practice, many forms,

typical is although by hate, contempt and hostility against the people of other skin, it is

aimed against immigrants, Gypsies, Jews, but also against so called “white waste”,

where are included all ideological opponents, left-wing oriented youth, anarchists,

humanists, people on the margin of society, homeless, addicts, and so on. [2] Left-

wing extremism is more difficult to define than right-wing extremism. The reason is the

fact, that extreme left comes from much wider spectrum of ideological background,

which contradict each other, and at the same time there is much less obvious border

between radicalism and extremism. Groups and organizations included into left-wing

extremism come particularly from ideas of Marxism, Bolshevism, Trotskyism,

syndicalism, anarchism. (Gujdová, 2012) Ideologically it comes from “anarchistic, anti-

globalist, anti-capitalist and Marxist theories, while it denies outer authority and asserts

ideas of so called free individual. Further it is characterized by social and class

prejudices, it sympathizes with historical communism and anarchism. Followers are

trying for absolute equality in the society. During the 20th century got to the fore issues

of human rights, nature protection and immigration.” [4]

Extremist doctrines (anarchism, communism) agree with democratic constitutional state

in upheaval of fundamental human equality above all. This primary principle tries to

expand on all areas of life – political, economic, cultural etc. They require total

liberation of individual from all societal pressures and consider as viable an

achievement of order without dominion formed by free and equal people. Anarchist and

communist teaching have this common aim, but they differ by the way of its

achievement. Anarchism believes in sensible and spontaneous transition. Communists

require total submission of individual to the common interest and in the outbreak of the

revolution [14]. For left-wing extremists, it is possible to talk about a solid denial of

parliamentary democracy and about promotion of model of direct democracy. Left-wing

extremist scene is perceived by the society as much more tolerant. The reason is an

argument, that these groups do not publicly declare repression of rights and freedoms of

other citizens. Recently we can claim upward tendency of these activities also in

Slovakia – particularly demonstrations and public protests, for example regarding with

operations in Iraq, accession of SR into NATO and European union, etc. Into such

actions is partially included also wider society, and in the end, they provide, except a

platform on the presentation of ideas, also a space for acquisition of new supporters, and

alternatively members. [5] Among the left-wing oriented extremist groups, we can

include anarchists, anti-globalists, radical ecological movements, members of the Punk

movement, anti-fascist movements AFA and ANTIFA and so on. This outlined strict

separation of left and right-wing political extremism is not so clear, because both poles

intersect in many areas and have some features also as common. Today’s right-wing

extremists operate for example with the symbols and turn to tactics and strategy of left-

wing extremism. [13]

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Right-wing extremism in the conditions of the Slovak Republic

Nowadays are right-wing extremist movements organized on diametrically different

level as at the beginning of 1990s. Previously it was more about random groupings

without more permanent course and structure, which public perceived as rioters and

fighters. In last years it has occurred a qualitative change in the activities of these

subjects towards radicalization and efforts to expand of member base. Some groups

have become official and transformed on registered civic societies (for example Slovak

Brotherhood, New free Slovakia or Unity of Slovak Youth). Other form of

transformation is shift to clothing companies. Known brand of clothing, which is made

by companies linked to the extremist movements, is for example German brand Thor

Steinar. In Slovakia was created a brand Eighty-Eight – 88 – which is a number with

strong nationalist symbolism. The eight letter in the alphabet is H and 88 in the code of

neo-Nazist stands for HH, i.e. “Heil Hitler” [1] In the conditions of the Slovak Republic,

within the right-wing extremism are active groups, characteristic by its symbolism, a

regular meeting place (mainly catering facilities), common aim, some hierarchy and

they make itself more visible as a group particularly by physical attacks, foundation of

web-pages with racist, resp. xenophobic content and distribution of books and musical

CDs with racist or xenophobic texts. Mainly we talk about:

• Various Skinheads groups acting in many cities of Slovakia:

o Slovakia Hammer Skins

o Blood and Honour Slovakia

o Blood and Honour Cassoviac

o Slovakia – Engerau Crew

• Slovak Brotherhood – National party, which was constitutionally forbidden

• Various civic associations New Free Slovakia and Unity of Slovak Youth, which member base consists of former or still active members of some right-wing oriented

extremist groups. [2]

Groups, generally denoted as “Skinheads”, act particularly in the cities of Malacky,

Stupava, Trnava, Skalica, Holíč, Prievidza, Topoľčany, Nitra, Žilina, Martin, Zvolen,

Detva, Veľký Krtíš, Prešov, Humenné, Poprad, Bardejov, Košice, Rožňava,

Ružomberok, Trečín. Skinheads are divided into two groups: on Nazis and on

nationalists. Both groups are characterized by racism and anti-semitism. The aim of

Skinheads is a revolution, which ensures a victory of Aryan race. The main enemies are

Jews (they are originators of all evil), slave, not Aryan races, and traitors of the race,

who do not agree with ideology. Nazis and nationalists mostly fight against a common

enemy. [9]

In Slovakia there exist nowadays many illegal groups and organizations, which conduct

and spread fascist and racist goals. Probably the most active are above mentioned Blood

and Honour and Slovakia Hammer Skins. Both are actually branches of organizations,

which operate in many states of Europe or the USA, Australia, South Afrika, etc. Blood

and Honour has in Slovakia, in Bratislava, main office, which works as P.O.Box, where

the members and followers of this group may order and English magazine Blood and

Honour, a Slovakian magazine 1939 and other printed materials. Also, they can order

clothing with their brands. Local branches are also in the other cities in Slovakia (e.g.

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Poprad, Nitra) where they develop their own activities. Blood nad Honour in its

materials clearly promotes racism, violence and anti-semitism. Slovakia Hammer Skins

are also one of the branches of the worldwide organization Hammer Skinheads. It is, on

the territory of Slovakia, the most active and the most dangerous group of this kind. [9]

Slovak Brotherhood in the period of so called silent phase (until 2002/2003) has acted in

public very minimally, it has been activated especially by demonstrations against

NATO during the operation in Kosovo in 1999, by disagreement with the membership

in the EU by the production of a sticker, where the 12 European pentacles were

substituted by David’s stars. They have reported itself to the ideological alliance with

organizations as Blood and Honour. Intensifying of preparation activity of the Slovak

Brotherhood, which took place in 2002, can be understood as the preparation for

establishing of a political party. Leaders of Slovak Brotherhood in that period reflected

on the position of the nationalist stream of the Slovak politics after that, when neither of

the branches of split Slovak national party entered the Parliament [8], and in this

situation decided to break the bonds with the underground far right subcultures, from

which the organization was created, and enter the politics. The organization has become

famous also due to the organization of uniformed marches in various cities in Slovakia.

Slovak Brotherhood has become more publicly aware in years 2005-2006, when it was

registered by the Ministry of Interior as the political party named Slovak Brotherhood –

National Party and tried to participate in the elections into the National Council. This

party was an outcome of the political ambitions of the leaders of a civic society Slovak

Brotherhood, led by “leader” Marián Kotleba. Political program, which has been

presented by leaders of the party, represented in the history of post-November Slovak

political partisanship so far, the most ambitious attempt of the transformation of

political extremism in the sphere of politics and legal electoral competition. [6]

The party itself called it “Folk Program”, which has become a main factor of a

dissolution of Slovak Brotherhood – National party by the resolution of the Supreme

Court in 2006. According to then prosecutor, the party contravened by their statute, their

program and their activity the Constitution of the SR, constitutional laws, general laws

and international treaties. Slovak Brotherhood – National party is the first, and until

now only one political party dissolved by the Supreme Court of the SR. “Folk program”

by its character allowed, further, to study a profile of the whole party, nevertheless, that

firstly in economic or security area it has contained relatively naive passages and

simplified interpretation of the social reality. This intolerant and xenophobic material (it

is not available presently) can be, in short, summarized as a complete attack on the

system of parliamentary democracy, values of democratic constitutional state, and equal

approach to the rights and freedoms for all groups of the population. [6]

The main goal of the political party is to build a new Slovak state of state on the

national and social principle. In this case, a program goal was to enforce the change

from the current system of parliamentary democracy of the political parties on the

vertebrate principle of the arrangement of the new Slovak state. Folk program of Slovak

Brotherhood – National party has declared a vision, that the society will divided, based

on grouping of the citizens according to their occupation, into ten stages:

1. soil, forestry and water management

2. industry

3. education, science and research

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4. defense and security

5. rescue and health service

6. state service

7. trade, services and self-employed

8. money and insurance

9. free occupations

10. national minorities. [10]

Registration of the citizens into the status should be voluntary and only a registered

member of the status would dispose by the right to vote. This regulation is not

consistent of the article 30 of the section 1 of the Constitution of the SR, according to

which the citizens have the right to take part on the administration of the public affairs

directly or by the free choice of their representatives [12], and in addition sorting into

the statuses, where the minorities were forbidden to sort according to the occupation as

the others, were a discriminating step, and suppression of the right on the national

minorities. The role of the Slovak state was, according to the “Folk program” to secure

own Slovak nation in all areas of life and after that to ensure care after other citizens of

Slovak state. Members of national minorities had, according to the statute, option to

leave the territory of the Slovak state and live in their “mother” state, in case that they

will not be satisfied with this principle. [10]

National principle, on which should be based the society of the Slovak republic

according to the program of Slovak Brotherhood – National party, was in a conflict with

the Constitution of the SR, especially with its second title. According to the article 12 of

the Constitution of the SR are the people free and equal in dignity and rights.

(Constitution of the SR, 1992) At the same time this program reckoned on the plan to

leave all organizations, which by some way limit the Slovak nation. Among those

belong of course European Union, NATO, International Monetary Fund, World Bank,

and European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. They did not forget also on

United Nations, which considered as an organization of bureaucrats, who live at the

expense of the Slovak economy. [10]

After 2006, when the Supreme court has dissolved the Slovak Brotherhood – National

party, this party continued in its activity as a civic association Slovak Brotherhood. This

association was dissolved in the November 2008 by the Ministry of Interior. The

Supreme court cancelled this judgment in July 2009 and some right-wing extremists

from this association dominated before the parliamentary elections in 2010 Friend of

Wine Party, which was later renamed to People’s Party Our Slovakia led by Marian

Kotleba. This party, although, in parliamentary elections gained only a week support,

but their members were nominated into the elections into local self-government in

Banská Bystrica and continuously tried to enter politics. This new party - People’s Party

Our Slovakia – formally gave up from open manifestations of anti-Semitism,

sympathies with totalitarian ideologies, or using the uniform, because it would be re-

dissolved. [7]

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CONCLUSION

In the current democratic society is the occurrence of any form of extremism of right-

and left-wing movements many times accompanied by crises in the family, in the

disintegration of ingrained moral principles, and is assessed as undesirable and negative

social phenomenon, although this phenomenon is perceived negatively by the society

when it occurs, thus in its most harmful form, mostly when hitting the fundamental

human rights and freedoms.

In the European states follows the right-wing extremist movement the tradition of

previous nationalist and late racist and anti-Semitists movements, which were aimed on

the change and setting and creating of a new society according to its ideas. Their ideas

about the ways of performing this process are different. Radical right-wing extremists

count on the fight, even with the extermination war, moderate extremists count on the

willingly accepted their ideals by the society. Right-wing extremists are confident about

their precedence, by which they show the world and their surroundings their activities

aimed at the quality of the society accenting the race, ethnics or corporations, which

identifies the people, and at the same time, they differ them from others.

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