Annotated Bibliography

Transformative Learning, Tribal Membership and Cultural Restoration A case study of an embedded Native American service-learning project at a research university

In the United States, there are 565 federally recognised Native

American tribal nations, all of which experience a host of

challenges: lack of economic opportunities (Cornell & Kalt 2006;

Lynch & Stretesky 2012; Tighe 2014; Weaver 2012), increased

rates of mental health and substance abuse (Goins et al. 2012;

Gone 2007; Smokowski , Evans, Cotter, & Webber 2014; West

et al. 2012), and continued cultural loss resulting from historic

practices of genocide and legal and social marginalisation (Evans-

Campbell 2008; Gone 2007; Hartmann & Gone 2014; Ramirez

& Hammack 2014; Writer 2001). Unsurprisingly, these negative

experiences also occur within settings of higher education. Native

American students’ educational expectations are lower than those

of other minority groups (Grande 2004; Thompson 2012) and they

experience the lowest college admission rates and the highest rates

of attrition (Kim 2011; McClellan 2005). Taken in totality, the

social and educational statistics are staggering.

In response, the US federal government and institutions

of higher education have established programs, resources and

services for Native American students aimed at improving

retention and preventing attrition. The US TRIO programs, for

example, are federally funded outreach and support programs

that provide under-represented and financially disadvantaged

students with institutionalised educational support. While the

programs are specifically for first-generation, low-income and

disabled students, many of the participants are Native American.

One such TRIO program is Upward Bound, which targets under-

represented students and provides them with support to help them

complete high school and enter a college program (US Department

of Education 2017).

While these programs are helpful in orienting Native

American students during their first years of college life, they do

not address the specific historic or cultural needs of these students,

which are likely to vary by tribal affiliation. Where these programs

do focus on tribal culture, they are pan-Indian in nature. Thus,

they fail to take into account cultural influences resulting from

the world view of the particular tribal nation. A growing body

Brent E Sykes Randall University

Joy Pendley Zermarie Deacon University of Oklahoma

© 2017 by BE Sykes, J Pendley & Z Deacon. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported (CC BY 4.0) License (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercial, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license.

Citation: Sykes, BE, Pendley, J & Deacon, Z 2017, ‘Transformative learning, tribal membership and cultural restoration: A case study of an embedded Native American service-learning project at a research university’, Gateways: International Journal of Community Research and Engagement, vol. 10, pp. 204–228. doi: 10.5130/ijcre. v10i1.5334

Corresponding author: Brent E Sykes; [email protected]

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/ ijcre.v10i1.5334

ISSN 1836-3393 Published by UTS ePRESS http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/ journals/index.php/ijcre/index

Gateways: International Journal of Community Research and Engagement

Vol 10 (2017)

205 | Gateways | Sykes, Pendley & Deacon

of research illustrates the importance of tribal-specific cultural

support and connection for Native American students to succeed

in college (Grande 2004; Guillory & Wolverton 2008; James,

West & Madrid 2013; Writer 2001). Given that Native American

culture is not homogenous, Fletcher (2010) has challenged tribal

nations to create educational programming based upon their

own epistemological belief systems, as opposed to Westernised

models. It is in this vein that we consider a tribal-initiated service-

learning project as a viable mechanism for linking specific tribal

community needs with academic learning. This case is noteworthy

because it was conceived of and funded by a tribal nation.

PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH We contend that institutions of higher education should respond to

this cultural need by facilitating the adaptation of existing models

of educational resource delivery, namely service-learning, within

Native American communities. Consistent with this view, Benson,

Harkavy & Puckett (2007) argue that it is the moral responsibility

of universities to improve the wellbeing of communities, and

Fehren (2010) considers universities as intermediaries in this

process. Moreover, tribal community strengths (i.e. resources

and needs) should drive the process, and given the unique lived

experiences of each tribal nation, the core values and goals of

tribally directed service-learning projects should vary greatly.

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the

development and implementation of a service-learning project

embedded within a campus-based tribal learning community at

the university. This service-learning project was conceptualised

within the context of a community-based participatory research

(CBPR) collaboration (Figure 1). CBPR involves a partnership that

builds on the knowledge and skills of community members and

researchers in a reciprocal manner to build capacity within the

community. It has also been shown to be an effective strategy

for developing action plans that help communities improve their

health or education system (Adams et al. 2014; Ahari et al. 2012;

Castleden, Morgan & Neimanis 2008).

In this case, the tribal nation sought out researchers at

the university to develop programming and research capacity

within the tribal nation. During this process, service-learning

emerged as a rich means to develop culturally meaningful

learning, and subsequent learning transformation, for all

stakeholders (Tribal Nation undergraduate students and leaders)

involved in the project. The principal research question that

we address in this article is: how did tribal students and leaders

come to understand the educational and cultural significance

of this service-learning project?

206 | Gateways | Sykes, Pendley & Deacon

Tribe-University

Collaboration:

Year 1

Tribal Learning

Community: Year 2

(First Semester)

Service-

Learning

Project: Year

2 (Second

Semester)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Transformative learning theory (Mezirow 2000) serves as the

theoretical framework by which we came to understand the

cultural transformation of tribal members. We assert that service-

learning provided a pathway for Native American tribal members

to collectively experience Indigenous-based transformative

learning. This research advances the service-learning literature by

demonstrating that service-learning is a culturally appropriate,

highly adaptable, non-Westernised option for marginalised groups

to initiate and sustain highly impactful educational experiences.

Transformative learning theory is an adult learning theory

that seeks to understand qualitative changes that may occur across

the life course. It places value on both psychological (individual

differences) and social (belief systems) components of learning

(Mezirow 1991). Habits of mind are the filters by which we process

information and make sense of the world around us. According to

Mezirow (2000), three conditions must be met for a transformation

to occur: a disorienting dilemma, changes in initial frame of

reference, and critical reflection.

Critical reflection is the process by which people make and

ascribe meaning to critical incidents and life events. Perspective

shifts are often the result of disorienting dilemmas, which may

be a singular event such as trauma or an accumulation of

experiences. In the throes of disorientation, individuals must

choose to engage in critical reflection, otherwise transformation

will not occur. If individuals choose to engage in critical reflection,

they may emerge with new perspectives through which they view

Figure 1: Structure of collaboration

207 | Gateways | Sykes, Pendley & Deacon

themselves and their surroundings. According to Mezirow (2000),

behavioural and attitudinal changes serve as evidence that

transformational learning has occurred.

A number of transformative learning theorists have

challenged the theory, as originally conceived by Mezirow,

arguing that it places too much emphasis on rationality and fails

to account for context (Clark & Wilson 1991; Taylor 1997). On

this point, Taylor (2008) and Brooks (2001) have considered the

role of constructivism by placing increased emphasis on the role

of culture and its impact on meaning-making. In addition, two

critical transformative learning theorists, Cunningham (1998) and

Lange (2004), have examined transformations in light of Freire’s

(1970) theoretical conception of critical consciousness-raising.

Freire argues that minorities might become marginalised by

the majority and the social structures that represent majoritarian

views. Over time, marginalisation leads to oppression and false

beliefs, which are created by the majority and become internalised

by the minority in question. Overcoming marginalisation involves

the development of a critical consciousness that will not only make

them aware of the structures that limit their community but will

also give them the tools for fighting injustices (Diemer et al. 2016;

Gutierrez 1995). For Cunningham (1998), the transformative

process remains individualised; however, consciousness-raising

may entail a group of people undergoing similar processes. Lange’s

(2004) prime focus, however, is communal action. As she contends

that transformation goes beyond epistemological shifts, her view is

most conducive to tribal identity and membership.

Service-Learning in Native American Communities

Service-learning is a highly effective pedagogical tool that links

community service with classroom learning. In higher education

settings, it is widely employed in both student affairs and course

curricula (Furco 1996; Stewart & Webster 2011). Through well-

designed service-learning projects, students gain a deep sense of

knowledge and a broadened world view, which may result in their

challenging their own epistemological values and beliefs (Blouin &

Perry 2009). Given the history of forced removal and assimilation

of Native American tribal nations in the US, it cannot be assumed

that tribal members will have access to and knowledge of their

histories, family narratives, culture and traditions.

Indigenous service-learning involves tribal communities

placing emphasis on their own unique values and world view

(Guffey 1997; Roche et al. 2007) and from their tribal point of

view (Lipka 1991; Semken 2005; Steinman 2011). This is especially

salient as institutionalised forms of education may suppress Native

American world views through the promotion of Westernised or

colonised world views (Sykes 2014). In contrast, tribal service-

learning may provide a pedagogical opportunity for tribal

values and traditions to drive learning by providing structured

208 | Gateways | Sykes, Pendley & Deacon

opportunities for increased awareness of cultural traditions,

belonging and civic responsibility that are commensurate with the

values of Indigenous communities (Hall 1991; Steinman 2011).

METHODOLOGY In this section, we discuss why we adopted CBPR as our orientation

towards the research and then describe our thinking behind the

case study approach we embraced after considerable consideration.

In the section that follows we discuss our research positionality

and philosophical orientation as these relate to the investigation.

CBPR as an Orientation

CBPR is an approach or orientation that links community

members and researchers as partners in the research process.

CBPR emphasises the importance of cultural safety and requires

a significant investment of time and dedication from all parties,

as well as ongoing relationship building (Minkler 2005). In

CBPR, the community drives the research process, including

the methods used for investigation, the interpretation of data

and the application of results (Metzler et al. 2003). CBPR is of

particular relevance in Native American communities because

the communities themselves may question Westernised education

models’ devaluation of Indigenous knowledge (Grande 2004).

Historically, Native American communities have been wary of

research as it promotes objective ways of knowing and minimises

particular tribal world views and belief systems (Scheurich &

Young 1997; Smith 1999).

Case Study

Case study is a widely accepted research methodology that places

value on the uniqueness of a phenomenon, event or experience

(Stake 1995; Yin 2009). Stake (1995) provides a three-fold typology

of case study research: instrumental, collective, and intrinsic.

Instrumental case studies advance a field of study, collective case

studies involve a grouping of cases, and intrinsic case studies are

guided by a comprehensive understanding of a case. In the latter,

the case may initially be puzzling, but themes emerge through

analysis. Initially, we focused on the significance of the tribal

learning community; however, through reflexivity and analysis,

we came to appreciate service-learning as the central force in this

intrinsic case.

EMERGENT DESIGN As indicated in Figure 1, this project spanned two years. Through

prolonged exposure and an emergent design, we came to

understand the case through various theoretical lenses. Case study

researcher Bob Stake (1995) proposes that viewing a phenomenon

from multiple perspectives ultimately enhances researcher

understanding. Initially, we understood this project through the

lens of historical trauma, which is the intergenerational transfer of

systemic trauma (Brave Heart & DeBruyn 1998). Decolonisation

literature (Gone 2008; Kirmayer, Gone & Moses 2014) challenged

209 | Gateways | Sykes, Pendley & Deacon

us to become critical of a narrow definition of historical trauma,

as it could further frame the experiences of Native Americans

according to Westernised perspectives (Fletcher 2013).

Through immersion in the case, we came to appreciate

the educational impacts of the service-learning project, especially

given undergraduate students’ testing of tribal identities and

tribal leaders reflecting upon prior conceptions of citizenship.

Charmaz, Denzin & Lincoln (2003) view sensitisation as the

process by which researchers’ senses become attuned to

underlying ideas and concepts. In effect, we became sensitised

to transformations occurring in real time and, ultimately, we came

to understand the case through the lens of transformative learning

theory. Thus, language, tone and analysis reflect renewal. In our

view, this is culturally appropriate as the tribal nation

views education and cultural connections as central values.

As CBPR researchers, we recognise the importance of criticality

in Indigenous research; thus, in the implications of this research,

we consider the possible intersection of transformative service-

learning and decolonisation literature.

Participants

Participants included tribal students involved in the service-

learning project embedded within the learning community (n=24)

and tribal leaders (n= 6).

Sources of Data

As case study research seeks to gain a robust understanding of

a phenomenon, researchers should include two or more sources

of data (Yin 2009). In this case, data came from three broad

sources: direct observations of participants, documents (emails,

news articles and a radio show transcript), and participant

observation and researcher field notes. Sources of data were coded

and categorised independently by all three researchers, thereby

establishing increased credibility. Additionally, triangulation

occurred through cross-analysis between data sources. Data

analysis did not begin until the conclusion of the research team’s

engagement with the partnership, thereby minimising conflicts of

interest and research bias.

Researcher Positionality

Researchers BS and JP worked directly with the learning community

students, keeping field notes. Researcher ZD conducted an

evaluation of the program, which included participants’ interviews

and survey completion. Consistent with CBPR principles, the first

author, BS, is a tribal member and was employed contractually by

the tribal nation to facilitate the learning community and service-

learning project. JP (an anthropologist) represented the university

in the partnership and ZD (a community psychologist) conducted

a first-year process evaluation of the learning community and

subsequent service-learning project.

JP began working with the tribal nation in 2009 to develop

a research program and from that work the idea of developing

210 | Gateways | Sykes, Pendley & Deacon

a learning community emerged. BS and ZD began to work with

the tribal nation in 2010. The first learning community began

during the 2010–2011 academic year and continues to this day.

Researchers still meet periodically with tribal leaders to discuss the

objectives of the learning community, including current iterations

of service-learning projects. The tribal nation chose to be de-

identified because it continues to be engaged in partnership with

researchers and the university.

THE RESEARCH CONTEXT As case study research is highly contextualised, it is imperative to

note the setting in which this research occurred. In this section, we

highlight central features of the two institutions represented in this

research: the Native American tribal nation and the university.

The University

The university is the only ‘very high research activity’ higher

education institution in the state, as identified by the Carnegie

Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. It is also

the largest in the state, with a total undergraduate enrolment

of approximately 30,000, which includes a Native American

enrolment of over 1000. It provides a host of academic and

social support services for under-represented and first-generation

students. Geographically, the university is outside the boundaries

of the collaborative tribal nation jurisdiction.

The Tribal Nation

In the United States, ‘Indian Country’ represents land that has been

placed in a federal trust as the direct result of signed treaties (Baird

& Goble 2008; Davis 2010; Newton 1984; Schneider 2010; Warren

2012). While some trusts are noted as reservations, in which tribal

nations have sole ownership of the land, the majority of trust land

in the US is allotted land. In this latter form, tribal sovereignty

exists provided it is in conjunction with federal laws, and non-

Indians can own property or businesses and operate on the

land. The tribal nation in this case was guaranteed allotted land

(totalling over 18 000 kilometres (7000 square miles) in treaties.

In terms of population size, the tribal nation is quite large as it

falls within the top 10 per cent of membership of all 565 federally

recognised tribal nations. It has a three-tier system of government

similar to the US government (executive, judiciary, legislative).

Historically, the tribal nation was located in what is now

the south-east United States, which resulted in early contact with

Europeans and the mixing of bloodlines. As a result, many tribal

members are phenotypically light-skinned. Forced removal to

Indian Territory (predominantly the state of Oklahoma) resulted in

land allotments, which was a systematic effort to break communal

identity and accelerate assimilation (Davidson 2011; Dippel 2014;

Fletcher 2013; Foreman 1974; Thornton 1997). Today, the effects

of assimilation are evident across Indian Country, as Native

Americans have lost much of their language, rituals and other

forms of culture.

211 | Gateways | Sykes, Pendley & Deacon

For this tribal nation, membership was legally defined by

the US federal government through the Dawes Treaty (1897–1934).

Thus, tribal members are dispersed across a wide geographic

area and have varying degrees of contact with other tribal

members. Moreover, some tribal members (including one-third

of the participants in this study) reside outside these boundaries

altogether. Cultural loss, then, has had significant implications for

the forming of existing tribal world views, as many present-day

tribal members have lost contact with their cultural traditions.

Today, the tribal nation invests heavily in the physical,

mental and social wellbeing of its tribal members through varied

services and programs. As a result of a recent increase in financial

resources, the tribal nation is actively developing educational

initiatives and programs to improve the quality of life and

wellbeing of tribal members, including providing significant higher

education scholarships for all eligible members. The tribal nation

has extensive experience in creating a host of PK–12 educational

programs (Head Start, performing and visual arts academies,

summer programs, mentoring), but has only recently begun to

develop programming for higher education.

PROJECT NARRATIVE: SERVICE-LEARNING TRANSFORMING NATIVE AMERICAN LEARNING This section serves two purposes. First, it discusses the

chronological progression of the case by providing detail on the

learning community and an overview of critical steps in the

service-learning project (Figure 2). Second, it provides a framework

for analysis.

Year One: Collaboration Begins

The larger CBPR collaboration within which this study is framed

began when the tribal nation requested to collaborate with the

university. This relationship focused on developing a culturally

appropriate health-care centre for the tribal nation. The second

and third authors of this article were asked to work with tribal

leaders to develop culturally appropriate health-care programs for

the tribal nation’s department of family services. The researchers

worked with tribal health providers to develop the ‘Strong Family

Survey’ – a brief assets assessment designed to better understand

how tribal members defined a strong tribal family.

The tribal nation desired to reach out to tribal students at

the university. While approximately 180 tribal members attended

Figure 2: Progression of collaboration

Year 1 — Collaboration Begins — Strong Family Survey 1

Year 3 — Tribal Service Learning I — Presentation to Governor — Tribal Service Learning II

Year 2 — Learning community — NAS Course — Service-Learning Project; Strong- Family Survey 2 — Workshops I & II — Administration

212 | Gateways | Sykes, Pendley & Deacon

the university and received tribal scholarships, there were no

tribal-specific programs for students. A faculty member suggested a

learning community as a means to connect with students, provide

them with supports to assist them to be successful at university and

possibly increase their connection to the tribal nation. A learning

community is a cohort model that creates a peer-orientated

community, where members come together to participate in

educational or cultural activities that increase their connectedness

within a larger institution (Tinto 2003). In terms of first-year

college experiences, George Kuh (2008) cites both learning

communities and service-learning as high impact practices for

first-year college students.

Year Two: Learning Community and Service-Learning

The three authors developed a learning community that offered

students access to academic support, group-based social events,

opportunities for professional development with tribal members,

and cultural programming designed to connect them to their

tribal identity. Upon implementation, we discovered that many

of our students were knowledgeable about the process of higher

education. Even first-generation students quickly accessed existing

university resources designed for early academic intervention and

social support, thereby rendering the academic aspects of the

learning community redundant. However, in contrast, the majority

of students had limited exposure to tribal culture and traditions.

Learning Community programming was thus shifted to promote

students’ need for high-impact cultural experiences. Vaughan

(2002) notes the significance of collaborative environments for

first-generation and under-represented groups, as it leads to joint

identity development.

Participation in the learning community was voluntary

and initially open to tribal freshmen at the university. Thus, tribal

students in the project were self-selected. Forty tribal freshmen

were invited to participate via letters, letters to parents, emails

and phone. Ultimately, 24 students participated. Given the unique

lived history of the tribal nation (some tribal members live outside

tribal boundaries and in some cases out of the state), several of the

students had not previously had the opportunity to participate in

tribal activities or events.

Learning community activities took place on a bi-weekly

basis on and off campus. These consisted of social and cultural

activities such as the creation of cultural artefacts, community

service events and field trips to tribal events. Interactive cultural

events such as language classes and dance troupe demonstrations

were included with experiential education in mind. For some of

the students, this was the first time they were exposed to tribal

language and dance. These activities were extracurricular,

which became a problem as students became more involved on

campus and had decreased time for communal activities. We

therefore sought an institutional mechanism to allow for learning

community activities to become part of their accredited coursework.

213 | Gateways | Sykes, Pendley & Deacon

In response to this emergent need, the authors approached

the Native American Studies (NAS) program at the university to

modify one of its four sections of ‘Introduction to NAS’ for our

students. They agreed, and the new course included an emphasis

on this tribal nation’s history and culture. In this class, the

learning community participants were able to complete a research

project on their tribal culture. This class helped deepen tribal

knowledge for these students.

During this time, the authors met monthly with the

executive committee in charge of the collaboration. Tribal leaders

would learn about the progress of the learning community

activities and we would all brainstorm about next steps. Tribal

leaders desired an experiential learning activity to link new-found

cultural knowledge and advance the importance of tribal service.

Incidentally, the timing of the NAS course coincided with the

second iteration of a tribal survey, which was a component of the

larger collaborative partnership. We, the researchers, suggested

that students could play a pivotal service role in developing a new

version of the survey, which sought to assess ‘What is a Strong

Tribal Family’. Tribal leaders agreed, as this was consistent with

goals of the course and learning community. From correspondence

between an author and a tribal professional:

The goal of this project is to create and validate a survey that can be

taken to other meeting points, listening conferences, gatherings, etc.

to develop a broader understanding of strong families and how the

[tribal nation] can provide support for those families...Second, this

project is a pilot for service learning with the [Learning Community]

students. Their participation in the project will be both an

educational process and a service project for the nation. Our goal is

that they will come away from the project with a greater appreciation

of the helping fields and a great appreciation of the [tribal nation]

as a cultural heritage and an institution.

Thus, at the behest of the tribal nation, the authors planned

a two-part workshop over the course of two days. Part I provided

a brief orientation to CBPR, an overview of survey methods and

a seminar discussion on historic trauma. During part II of the

workshop, students worked together to construct the second-year

Strong Family Survey. Students were challenged to conceptualise

their own feelings of tribal identity and cultural loss, and to

understand the impact of historic trauma and their family

history. They learned to critique much of the history they had

been taught in state schools. For instance, there was a prolonged,

critical discussion on the US boarding school movement as a

means to not only assimilate Native American youth but also

annihilate tribal language. More importantly, the students came

to understand the significance of cultural loss. In the process, they

experienced solidarity, which is consistent with Freiean approaches

to consciousness raising (Diemer et al. 2016).

Based upon their physical characteristics and lived

experiences, students developed a question on phenotype for the

214 | Gateways | Sykes, Pendley & Deacon

survey. This was potentially problematic given the sociopolitical

issues of blood quantum and tribal membership (Demallie

2009; Green 2007; TallBear 2003; Villazor 2008). After the

workshop, researchers submitted a completed survey to the tribal

Institutional Review Board (IRB) on behalf of the students. The IRB

considered striking out the question on phenotype. The fledgling

tribal members (students), however, responded by reiterating the

significance of determining if phenotype was an important aspect

of a strong tribal family. The IRB allowed the question to remain.

The tribal leaders suggested the annual Children’s Fair as

the site for data collection. There, various service departments

within the tribal nation set up booths to provide educational

and interactive activities for families, including games. Thus, the

atmosphere was geared towards children and family friendly.

There was a host of traditional exhibitions on areas such as

storytelling, dance and language.

When we arrived, the students were visibly nervous. Student-

constructed surveys in hand, we crossed the red dirt arena. We

brought university t-shirts as an incentive for completing surveys,

which drew strong interest. We administered all one hundred

surveys during the first hour. This positive response helped the

students to feel more comfortable. Children, many of them would-

be first generation students themselves, showered the learning

community students with questions about what college was like.

The students eagerly responded to questions and encouraged

them to do well in school so they could attend college too. Tribal

parents smiled. The tribal dance troupe, consisting of mostly elders,

recognised our students from learning community activities and

invited them to join in.

The group returned to the survey booth and, unexpectedly,

the tribal executive committee approached, meeting the students

for the first time. Up to this point, the committee had been

responsible for administrative duties, but never had they interacted

with participants. We facilitated the interaction by introducing

students to the director and other tribal leaders. The conversation

was lively. Leaders quizzed the students on their majors, previous

experiences with the tribal nation, and most importantly their

views on the service-learning project and learning community.

Students conveyed their shared emotional experiences and newly

formed tribal identities. At that moment, the tribal president (i.e.

Governor) emerged. He too expressed sincere appreciation for the

students making time to be involved in the project; the committee

had been providing him with reports. The students were literally

awestruck. They were astounded that tribal leaders were thanking

them. In a tribal nation of 30,000 plus members, this was a

distinct honour. The students quickly flipped the script by profusely

thanking the tribal Governor and professionals for this opportunity

to serve the tribal nation.

The long van ride back to campus provided the students

an opportunity to reflect on the academic year. It felt like a

commencement celebration. Students’ remarks on being Native

215 | Gateways | Sykes, Pendley & Deacon

American were markedly different from what they were just

nine months ago at the beginning of the semester. Gone was

the mention of blood quantum, replaced with comments such

as ‘I wonder … who [our] common ancestors are?’ ‘What are

we [students] going to do next?’ and ‘I can’t believe the Tribal

Governor thanked us’. Collectively, students reflected upon the

most embarrassing and fun moments of the past year. And in the

process they recounted how they had grown from being nervous

about not knowing their tribal history to being eager to learn more.

Year Two and Beyond

Initial funding plans for the learning community and the

subsequent service-learning project were uncertain; however, based

upon an independent evaluation, the tribal nation extended both.

In order to continue NAS involvement in the project (making the

project co-curricular), the Executive Committee made a remarkable

decision to devote resources to the program in the form of a

financial donation towards the faculty member’s contract and

allocation of tribal staff to serve as cultural experts for the course.

In effect, this institutionalised the service-learning project by

creating an upper-division course titled ‘Tribal Service-Learning’.

Thus, this case illustrates Fletcher’s (2010) assertion that tribal

nations should exert their own sovereignty and create their own

novel programming.

The new tribal service-learning course differed from the

original in a few key ways. First, it was open to university students

of all tribal nations. Second, with the guidance of an instructor,

students examined existing tribal programs and services,

conducted an informal needs analysis and, with the assistance

of cultural experts, were tasked with developing a curriculum

proposal. Ultimately, participants created ‘One Heart, One Beat’,

an experiential program designed to highlight the importance of

social dance and culture. For this tribal nation and many others

that experienced severe cultural loss, social dance is one of the

few practices that has remained intact; thus, it has strong cultural

significance (Axtmann 2001; Murphy 2007; Wilson & Boatright

2011). Tribal leaders gathered for the student presentation of their

final project. Given the service-learning project results at the

Children’s Fair, tribal leaders had come to have high expectations of

the participants. The presentation surpassed them. From field notes:

‘They look so professional,’ a tribal administrator confided to me

[researcher]. I smiled, knowing she was in for a treat. The lights

dimmed and we watched the student-created video ‘One Heart,

One Beat’, which detailed an eight-week social dance program.

The program was inter-generational, connecting tribal elders as

instructors, students as facilitators, and youth as participants. A

student explained, ‘We are not the experts on social dance and

feel like the kids [adolescence] would respond better to an elder

216 | Gateways | Sykes, Pendley & Deacon

who commands more respect. We can identify with them [the

adolescents], so we see our role as bridging the gap between young

and old.’

As evidence of their excitement, tribal leaders arranged for

the distinction of having students present their work to the Tribal

Governor and his executive cabinet.

On presentation day to the Governor and his cabinet,

the students were visibly nervous, yet excited to showcase the

passion they had poured into their work. At the conclusion of the

presentation, tribal leaders provided a standing ovation and the

students beamed with pride. On the spot, the Governor asked the

students to implement the project during the upcoming summer.

Thus, the course ‘Tribal Service-Learning II’ was created for the

summer semester and students prepared a working budget and

implemented the program.

ANALYSIS In this section, we analyse the case through transformative

learning theory. In doing so, we contend that service-learning

became a mechanism to promote cultural restoration for this

Native American community. Kitchenham’s (2008) summative

assessment of Mezirow’s perspective of transformative learning

serves as the basis of the analysis (Table 1). With this as our

theoretical framework, we assess stakeholder experiences as

evidence of transformation (phases categorised by case events in

parentheses). Lastly, we consider institutionalisation as evidence of

organisational transformation.

Phase Transformative learning action

Service-learning activity

Participant quotes as evidence

NA Previous frame of reference

NA (previous views). ‘I had no tribal influences besides mail and financial support… it was not a constant connection’ (Lance 2009).

1 Disorienting dilemma Participants enroll in learning community and ‘Introduction to NAS’ and are confronted with tribal ways of knowing and new cultural experiences.

‘How much are you?’ (referring to blood quantum)

2 Self-examination of feelings of guilt or shame

Workshop I: Participants share oral family histories including guilt and shame over lack of tribal genealogy and culture. Students share stories about suppressed culture.

‘I didn’t know what it meant to be a member of the tribe.’

Table 1: ‘Ten Phases of Transformative Learning & Corresponding Service- Learning Activity’, adapted from Kitchenham (2008)

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3 Critical assessment of epistemic, sociocultural, or psychic assumptions

Workshop I: Participants come to understand that their lack of knowledge is not their fault nor is it the fault of their parents or grandparents, but a product of forced cultural assimilation, i.e. historical trauma.

‘We have our own dress and language….there is more to our tribe, not all Indians are the same’ (Lance 2009).

4 Recognition that one’s discontent and the transfor-mation process is shared; others have negotiated a similar change

Participants experience a collective ‘aha’ moment, in recognising similarities across their stories. Instructor- led discussion on the cultural genocidal practices of land allotment to break communal ties and boarding schools as a means to extinguish language broaden perspectives.

‘We’ve become good friends….it’s amazing to know you have that connection; it helps you realize they are there and you are part of a bigger family’ (Lance 2009).

5 Exploration of options for new roles, relationships and actions

Participants question their role in promoting cultural knowledge and awareness through their responsibility for constructing the survey for the tribal nation’s Strong Family research project.

‘My mom said her parents didn’t want her speaking our language because teachers would punish her.’

6 Planning of a course of action

Workshop II: Participants tasked with developing survey.

Not applicable because this is an action.

7 Acquisition of knowledge and skills for implementation

Workshop II: Overview of survey methods including question development.

Not applicable because this is an action.

8 Provisional trying of new roles

Administration: Participants experience ‘being’ community members by attending Children’s Fair, interacting with tribal members and meeting tribal professionals including Governor.

‘It is really interesting; it’s nice to know where you are from, and to have a cultural identity’ (Lance 2009).

9 Building of competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships

Participants’ reflections on identity and consideration of how they can contribute to the tribal nation.

‘I learned about culture and was able to participate with people from the tribe; all of us are looking for ways to stay active; we don’t want to give it up. It has been a successful pilot run’ (Lance 2009).

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10 A reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s perspective

Year Two and Beyond: Executive Committee continues funding for learning community, participants present to Tribal Governor, tribal nation invests in service- learning project with NAS, participants enrol in Tribal Service- Learning I & II.

‘Through helping us we can help others later; the goal of the 8-week program is foster a network of support …. and to provide the kids a rich, deep cultural experience so they will feel more connected with their culture’ (Lance 2009).

The Learning Community (Laying the Groundwork)

In our view, it is important to note the role of the learning

community, especially cultural activities in creating connection

among participants. Moreover, given the cultural focus of the case,

we consider communal experiences as foundational for collective

transformative learning to occur. Curriculum and cultural

programming were critical, as they challenged participants’ habits

of mind. A student’s quote that exemplifies this process are: ‘I

didn’t know what to expect. I grew up in Dallas and the only other

[tribal] people I ever met were my cousins.…we’ve became good

friends, it’s amazing how we all have that connection’ (Lance

2009). This student felt that the learning community had given

her an opportunity to make connections to other tribal members.

Service-Learning Workshop Part I: Phases 1–4

According to Mezirow (2000), a disorienting dilemma may be

the result of a single traumatic experience or an accumulation

of several incidents. In this case, we assert that the communal

discourse in Part I of the Service-Learning Workshop met the

definition of the latter. This discourse propelled students into

dilemmas. The Executive Committee decided that the Children’s

Fair survey would be an appropriate project for the learning

community students to fulfil their service-learning project. Thus,

the curriculum of Workshop I was deliberately constructed with an

orientation to the Strong Family Survey, and it provided a forum

where participants could share family narratives and reflect on

their significance.

An important feature of this discourse is that participants

came to realise that their conceptions of identity were not unique

to them, but shared among others. Due to forced relocation,

breaking of communal ties and cultural assimilation, there is

historical and cultural loss among many Native Americans

(Evans-Campbell 2008). A by-product of this is an incomplete

and fractured understanding of cultural practices and language.

Through prompts, we asked the students to talk about their

personal and familial experiences and knowledge of their tribal

nation. It was in the telling of these stories that they began

to express discomfort with their histories, thereby potentially

amplifying emotional effects.

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Gradually, participants began to display discontent and

agitation as they shared these stories, which may speak to an

individual’s recognition that one’s discontent and the process

of transformation are shared, and that others have negotiated

a similar change (Kitchenham 2008). Indeed, the emotional

and shared feature of this socially constructed experience seems

to have magnified meaning making. Jointly, students came to

identify and define what constituted a tribal world view for them.

Examples include ‘My mom said her parents didn’t want her

speaking our language because teachers would punish them’

and ‘My grandmother told me the same thing’. Due to the strong

rapport cultivated in the learning community, it is likely they felt

safe in investigating their Indigenous identities by dredging up oral

family histories.

Participants’ willingness to engage in this difficult discussion

challenged deeper underlying assumptions of the world. While

these instances regarding language echo that very first learning

community discussion on blood quantum and phenotype, they

now understood that their plight of identity may not be so different

from that of previous generations. For instance, when discussing

the cultural loss of language, one participant noted, ‘I think my

great grandmother was in a boarding school’, which is evidence

of how the loss of valuable family histories can potentially lead to

an insecure cultural identity.

Service-Learning Workshop Part II: Phases 5–7

This case illustrates that service-learning can play a crucial role

in promoting transformative learning because it provides

curricular pathways for students to test new roles and relationships

and formulate action. The project became a conduit for collective

agency, which is regarded as the efficacious belief of the group

in achieving a similar goal (Goddard, Hoy & Hoy 2004). Due to

collective transformations occurring as a result of disorientating

dilemmas, two student characteristics that had recently served as

a limitation to students’ development (lack of cultural knowledge

and insecurity of blood quantum) became assets. The testing

and exploration of these new-found cultural identities were

strengthened as students developed the survey designed to help

determine ‘What is a strong tribal family?’

From a CBPR perspective, the creation of the survey radically

changed social dynamics by empowering students. Evidence of

critical reflection can be found in their collective reflection upon

their own lived experiences. This was particularly apparent in

the ways that the two surveys differed. The first Children’s

Fair survey was faculty-driven, thus the questions were from

a Westernised perspective. For example, statements like, ‘A

family that maintains traditions and older ways of doing things’

(traditional) and ‘A family that consists only of immediate family

members, a nuclear family (e.g., only parents and children)’

(Western) were both listed. When the students developed the

second survey, it looked very different.

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The student or tribal-driven survey was more focused on

collective history and relationships. For example, the students

developed several questions about history, such as ‘strong

families pass on family history, learn from their elders, participate

in ceremonies and pass on values through storytelling’.

The students were also interested in the relationship between

strong families and their connection to the tribal nation.

Sample questions included: strong families ‘see each other often’

and ‘do activities together’.

Given their ongoing transformation, students created

questions regarding cultural identity and phenotype, which drew

ire from the tribal nation IRB. Upon reviewing the survey items,

the IRB flagged a few of these items and requested revisions.

Students agreed to change every item that the IRB had flagged,

except for the phenotype question, as they believed it represented a

significant issue for tribal individuals and families. Tribal leaders

and the IRB finally agreed to the question. The inclusion of this

sensitive item is evidence of students becoming empowered to

play a role in tribal relations, as well as tribal leaders’ expanded

notions of tribal membership. Ultimately, having tribal members

– the students – develop the survey proved to intensify the

CBPR effects of the collaboration. This second survey serves as

evidence of the students reflecting upon their family histories and

connection to the tribal nation.

Service-Learning Implementation – The Children’s Fair:

Phases 8–9

Survey development provided students with a means to give back

to the tribal nation by trying on the role of citizen. From this

view, approval from the IRB and tribal leaders served as a means

of acceptance and validation. While the workshop experiences

facilitated a collective realisation that they had something of value

to contribute to the tribal nation, implementation of the survey at

the Children’s Fair heightened this sense of civic responsibility and

provided an opportunity for students to interact with tribal youth,

elders and leaders. These interactions reinforced their cultural

identities and validated their perception that they could contribute

to the tribal nation in a beneficial way. One student noted: ‘I

learned about culture and was able to participate with people

from the tribe’. And, another: ‘All of us are looking for ways to stay

active; we don’t want to give it up. It has been a successful pilot

run.’ Thus, developing the survey and implanting it as a service-

learning project helped solidify their transformation from students

to tribal members.

The service-learning project served to raise the collective

consciousness of tribal students, thereby fostering epistemological

shifts in perspectives necessary for transformative learning. This

process of critical reflection resulted in deep cultural connection

and subsequent transformations. Consistent with transformative

learning theory, Martin (2007) weighs the importance of culture,

identity and education. She contends that identity is contextual,

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may take on multiple dimensions and is heavily influenced by

culture. This can be seen in the discussion on the way home from

the community fair, as students actively reflected on tribal culture,

learning and identity.

Year Two and Beyond: Phase 10

As this research is embedded within a larger partnership, in this

section we consider three additional forms of evidence that service-

learning provided a pathway towards cultural restoration in this

case. This approach is consistent with transformative learning

theory as it focuses on psychological, attitudinal and behavioural

facets of change (Mezirow 2000). Thus, it is necessary to look

beyond the service-learning project to seek behavioural evidence of

transformation.

First, at the conclusion of the service-learning project,

students volunteered to become peer mentors and completed

two three-credit hour courses (each three-hour course is one

semester worth of credit) to develop a program for tribal youth.

As they continued coursework and career preparation, they were

fully committed to integrating their new identities with their

former sense of selves. Martin (2007) refers to this process as ‘gift

recirculation’. For her, the linkage of identity and education creates

powerful experiences, and being so moved, individuals yearn to

share them with others.

Over the course of one short academic year, many students

incurred rapid transformations. Initially, a common shared feature

among them was that they perceived little opportunity to give

back to the tribal nation. Recirculating the gift of cultural identity

through collective action (through Service-Learning I & II courses,

presentation to the Tribal Governor and being relied upon to

implement an eight-week summer program) became a powerful

force for solidifying transformations.

Second, the development and implementation of One Heart,

One Beat provided the students with an opportunity to articulate

their vision of a remedy for intergenerational cultural loss.

Engaging in social dance was an emotional experience, which they

wished to share with other tribal adolescents. Viewing themselves

as facilitators and tribal elders as teachers suggests an ontological

shift from Westernised individualised education towards

communal education. This echoes the research on transformative

and restorative learning by Lange (2004). Rendering elders as

teachers is consistent with tribal ontological beliefs in cultural

renewal and in preserving Indigenous ways of knowing.

Third, the service-learning project unexpectedly galvanised

all stakeholders to continue collaborative work: both the tribal

nation and the university institutionalised components of the

project across multiple years. Specifically, the learning community

is now in its fifth year and has expanded to two additional higher

education institutions in the state. The Native American Studies

program at the university extended the permanent service-learning

course, and it remains opens to all students, not just this tribal

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nation. Institutionalisation is regarded as evidence of sustainability

in higher education environments (Yarime et al. 2012). In addition,

as Mezirow (2000) and others consider behavioural change

as evidence of transformation, we highlight the importance of

organisational institutionalisation and consider it further evidence

of cultural transformation. Finally, service-learning has also

become an institutionalised practice for the tribal nation, as it

remains nested within the learning community model.

CONCLUSION This case has significant value for Indigenous nations seeking

to exert sovereignty as well as other communities that, through

oppression, have experienced marginalisation, especially in

educational settings. We contend that service-learning is a

significant mechanism whereby disenfranchised groups can

advance their own values, as well as notions of communal

education and tribal membership, in higher educational

settings and beyond. For Indigenous communities, in particular,

it is important to underscore that service-learning can be

culturally appropriate if it places value on non-Westernised

epistemology and values, and the lived history of specific tribal

nations (or communities).

As discussed in this case, tribal nation community needs

(and thus service-learning projects) will vary based upon

a community’s strengths and challenges. For example, this

tribal nation has exerted its sovereignty by developing a strong

infrastructure and extensive resources; however, the challenges of

developing an educational model appropriate for higher education

and shepherding tribal identity tacitly guided the evolution of

this service-learning project. Thus, for this tribal nation, service-

learning came to foster cultural connection and transformation

by linking life experiences, cultural identity, and views of service

and tribal membership. It is likely that other tribal nations or

communities may choose to focus on economic or health needs, or

a host of other pressing needs.

In our view, this case, in particular, teaches us two key

lessons. First, we cannot assume that students from marginalised

communities possess the cultural knowledge to meaningfully

engage in service-learning, even within their own communities.

As such, to increase the likelihood of service-learning being

transformative, community members and educators should work in

tandem to provide relevant learning experiences epistemologically

grounded in community values (Blouin & Perry 2009; Guffey

1997). Second, tribal identity is cultivated through experiential

activities. Not only did service-learning cement participants’

notions of service and giving back, but it also expanded the

tribal leaders’ views of what young tribal members are capable

of achieving, as evidenced by their willingness to green light the

courses Service-Learning I & II.

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This research also expands upon notions of critical

transformative learning (Cunningham 1998; Lange 2004)

by leveraging CBPR as a means to raise consciousness from

tribal perspectives. Doing so provided a deep learning experience

and cultural connection for the students, and broadened tribal

conceptions of tribal membership. At the outset, cultural

identities were weak, but the service-learning project provided

a means for them to jointly transform and create understanding

of how they contributed to a stronger tribal nation. In addition,

the tribal professionals and the Tribal Governor were appreciative

of the students’ work and institutionalised service-learning in

higher education for students of this tribal nation and others.

These acts provide an opportunity for cultural restoration of the

larger tribal community.

Finally, this case not only represents gains for tribal nations,

CBPR research and service- learning, but provides an alternative

framework to further explore the roles of historic trauma and

decolonisation literature. Initially, we approached this project

as a possible remedy to historic trauma (Duran & Duran 1995;

Gone 2007), but the project evolved to using a transformative

learning theory framework. Transformative learning theory, as a

framework, does not negate the role of historical trauma; rather,

understanding cultural loss creates a disorientating dilemma and

medium for transformation. If the individual engages in reflection,

then cultural connections may ensue.

In this vein, service-learning provides a practical,

educational means to facilitate consciousness raising, which is

consistent with present-day views of the decolonisation literature.

For example, Gone (2008) and Kirmayer, Gone and Moses (2014)

maintain that tribal nations and other marginalised groups

should work towards addressing ongoing sources of exclusion

and discrimination. This case challenges Indigenous educators

to consider the importance of creating epistemological shifts by

building cultural connection in the face of disconnection. For our

participants, this created a strong antidote to colonial viewpoints.

Future researchers could further explore the linkage between

decolonisation, transformative learning theory and service-

learning. Viewed through these lenses, culturally connected tribal

members can become assets in contributing to the remediation of

colonialism and historic trauma by playing a deliberate, formative

role in the construction of their community’s future. This case thus

provides a blueprint for the application of transformative service-

learning projects in multiple other contexts.

Notes: The researchers received no funding for this research.

The Native American tribal nation discussed in this case continues

to implement and expand service-learning projects. For these

reasons it has elected to be de-identified.

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