Literature Review Prompt

A Cultural Rationale for International Business Internships Author(s): Patricia R. Paulsell Source: Monatshefte, Vol. 83, No. 3 (Fall, 1991), pp. 243-264 Published by: University of Wisconsin Press Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/30166448 Accessed: 25-04-2019 06:51 UTC

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A Cultural Rationale for

International Business Internships

PATRICIA R. PAULSELL

Michigan State University

Introduction:

The International Business Internship and the Student R~sum6

"Business German"' has become an accepted component of Ger- man programs all over the United States. There are as many definitions for "business German" as there are instructors who have developed courses within the parameters of their own individual programmatic and institutional strengths. The curricular responses to the unprecedented increase in the demand for business German have been accompanied by a corresponding interest in obtaining international internship experiences for students who have completed their more formalized classroom study. Much of this interest stems from a sense, both on the part of business German students and their instructors, that the internship increases the student's marketability upon graduation.2 Such international work ex- perience is particularly attractive to future employers whose own expe- rience has led them to value experience abroad in the practical education of American managers for international assignment. Indeed Stephen J. Kobrin, discussing his survey of American multinationals in the research report titled International Expertise in American Business, reveals that American business professionals rate experience abroad as the single most important factor in the development of international expertise. Kobrin writes:

Both the survey and the interviews indicate that it is experience abroad, particularly experience that involves substantial interpersonal interaction, that is most important in developing international expertise. In fact, vir- tually all (95.1%) of respondents who had worked abroad felt that experience was important, and 69 percent rated the experience as critical.3

Monatshefte, Vol. 83, No. 3, 1991 243 0026-9271/91/0003/0243 $01.50/0 A 1991 by The Board of Regents of The University of Wisconsin System

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244 Paulsell

Further recent surveys4 of multinational corporations with regard to their criteria for hiring international managers with foreign language skills sup- port the importance of an internship experience per se on the student's r6sum6. Invariably, survey respondents ranked experience abroad, even if in the somewhat limited form of an internship, far above all other factors in reaching hiring decisions, such as language proficiency certi- fication or type of degree obtained, except for the Master's in International Business (MIB) with applied language training.

Business Internships: Goals, Assessment, and Supervision

Given the demonstrated importance of an international work ex- perience for the marketability of our business German students, it is somewhat surprising to see that very little scholarship in our field has addressed the nature and quality of the internship experience. There have been numerous descriptions, primarily in presentations at professional conferences," of successful procedures for procuring international busi- ness internships,6 but little attention has been devoted to setting goals for the internship experience and assessing the results. From the body of largely anecdotal material concerning business language internship ex- periences, it is evident that business language educators have been almost fully absorbed with procuring internships; we have not yet turned our attention to the matter of establishing concrete and measurable objectives against which the quality of the internship experience might be measured. In examining how we might establish assessable objectives for the

international internship experience within the business German curric- ulum, it may be helpful to look briefly at the goals-assessment process used by companies offering domestic business internships. It has long been the objective of such internships to afford students the opportunity to (1) acquire some technical skills associated with the career for which they are training, (2) develop familiarity with professional situations typ- ical of their chosen career area, and (3) further develop interpersonal skills in a professional milieu which represents a subculture quite different from the student subculture from which they are about to "graduate." Yves Benett has pointed out:

In the last analysis 'practical experience' is about knowing what it's like to be an engineer, a systems analyst, a teacher, an accountant, and so on. It is about developing a view of professional/occupational life born of first- hand contact with the 'realities' of the workplace and of reflection and analysis. Viewed in this way, the assessment of 'practical experience' is indeed a tall order!7

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International Business Internships 245

It is indeed a "tall order," and it is rarely accomplished well. Typically, the assessment of business internships has been left to workplace super- visors who vary greatly in their willingness to participate in the assess- ment process. The quality of the intern experience itself, as well as the assessment, is to a large extent dependent upon the willingness of su- pervisors to see themselves as an integral part of the learning situation. Unfortunately, whether considering the area of domestic or international work experience, it is a lamentable fact that a great many supervisors are less than enthusiastic about the added responsibility of intern training and assessment. Thus, if instructors themselves do not become involved in the quantification of goals and the assessment of learning in the in- ternship programs they organize, the internships are likely to remain in the category of "experience" rather than become opportunities for "ex- periential learning", as they should be if they are part of an academic program.

As Yves Benett points out in his article, mere activity does not necessarily constitute a learning experience. Experience and experiential learning are distinct concepts and as Benett and Evans, also a researcher in the area of experiential learning, agree:

if the 'intellectual test' of moving from a description of experience to iden- tifying the learning derived from that experience cannot be accomplished, there is no learning to assess, however important to the individual that experience may have been.8

Without the establishment of assessable objectives for an internship ex- perience, students are placed in a situation in which their mere presence in a work environment is somehow expected to ensure some sort of learning experience automatically, if only within the parameters of the more traditional business internship goals of refinement of professional/ technical skills.

Just as we cannot assume that a domestic internship will automat- ically lead to learning in the professional/technical skills area, we cannot assume that merely placing a student in a foreign country on an inter- national internship will automatically result in a degree of language skill refinement and intercultural understanding. As the cross-cultural psy- chologist Stephen Bochner has suggested, an unprepared and unmoni- tored internship experience may in fact increase hostility, suspicion, and tension in the new culture. Changes in attitude do not follow automat- ically from mere exposure to another culture. Changes in attitude involve a "reordering of the individual's cognitive structures"'9 which cannot be achieved in a setting from which one is unprepared to extract experiential learning.

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246 Paulsell

Business Internships: The Issue of Academic Integrity

Any internship within an academic program should be far more than "just a job." An "intern" is not yet a full-fledged member of the chosen profession; much like an apprenticeship, an "internship" is still a learning situation in which the intern is being introduced into a profes- sion. Internship experiences should be conceived and implemented in such a way that assessable learning can take place. Such experiential learning should not be left to chance, but should be integrated as an experiential component into the business language curriculum. The in- ternship should be conceived in terms of the same types of quantifiable objectives which are the foundation of an academically sound business German curriculum.

As academic professionals we are all concerned that credit-bearing activities be established on an academically sound foundation. We have all heard the cries of colleagues who do not consider internships valid "academic" experiences. Where students have been left to "experience" the workplace without the benefit of articulated experiential learning goals, such criticism may be justified. In procuring internships for students'0 one is almost always bargaining from the "beggars can't be choosers" position; one must take what is offered, regardless of whether supervisors in the company are willing participants in the "intern ex- perience." This is particularly true with international internships. Suc- cessful arrangements are often dependent on good rapport between the instructor and company supervisors which is difficult to establish without multiple overseas visits. Each internship situation is analogous to a drama with a substantially different script and cast of players. For the most meaningful experience the faculty supervisor must consider all of the variables and ensure that the student intern is appropriately cast and directed.

In a series of three papers presented between 1985 and 1987, Barney T. Raffield discusses his role as a faculty supervisor of internship expe- riences." Raffield places the responsibility for the academic integrity of internship experiences with the faculty supervisor. He notes that faculty supervision should focus

... upon the acquisition and utilization of knowledge, and the application of skills to actual practice. It is essentially a teaching activity, and the assumption is that the intern learns by doing and by integrating his or her feelings, intellect and performance. The intern-faculty supervisor relation- ship is the fundamental catalyst in on-the-job learning situations.'2

Raffield agrees with much of what has been written about supervision of work experience in the social science sector, where the role of the faculty

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International Business Internships 247

supervisor is seen as much more active in helping to shape the learning experience than is normally the case in business internships.

Kadushin (1976)" has suggested that the faculty supervisor must help the intern to take some order and meaning from his or her on-the-job expe- rience. The faculty supervisor can help the intern identify those principles that can provide him or her with an understanding of what he or she needs to do to improve the quality, both academically and professionally, of what he or she is experiencing during the internship.'4

Raffield, however, expects a level of involvement from the faculty su- pervisor, especially in the area of multiple on-site visits with the interns, which is unrealistic for all but a few well-funded international internship programs. Most of us are not only faculty supervisors, but also instructors with teaching and service commitments and very little financial support for internship activities. Nevertheless Raffield's application of social sci- ence principles in his assessment of the business internship environment is well conceived.

International Business Internships: The Cross-Cultural Training Dimension

With the importance of the role of the faculty supervisor and a concern for academic soundness of the internship experience in mind, we should focus our attention on the establishment of objectives for business German internships. All three objectives of domestic internships mentioned above, i.e. acquisition of technical skills, development of fa- miliarity with professional situations, and further development of inter- personal skills in a professional milieu, are also applicable in the inter- national internship situation. These objectives, however, relate to the development of technical and professional skills in specific business-re- lated areas, areas which we as foreign language educators are normally not qualified to objectify or assess. For example, if a student who is a double major in finance and German is placed in an internship at a bank in Berlin, most of us are not qualified to set objectives or assess the experiential learning within the area of the finance skills being used and developed at the bank. However, the fact that this internship occurs in a different cultural environment adds a dimension which offers us a

unique foundation upon which to establish goals for international in- ternship experiences. As professionals in German language and culture, we indeed are qualified to assess internship experiences in the area of language and cultural learning. From this perspective, the integration of the internship experience into the language and cross-cultural training and learning goals of the business German curriculum is self-evident.

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248 Paulsell

At this juncture it might be beneficial to explore briefly the nature of the cross-cultural learning and training component which best serves our business German students in preparing for careers in international business. Since their inception in the late 1970s business foreign language curricula have been justified on the basis ofa need to address the appalling lack of international awareness on the part of American managers. This deficit has been blamed for the continued decline in the competitiveness of American business in both international and domestic markets. This

criticism, leveled largely from the federal government in reports like "A Nation at Risk," appeared at a time when foreign language and culture study in the U.S.A. were reaching alarmingly low levels. "Business lan- guage" courses not only served to attract more students into foreign language study, students who were interested in "more practical" appli- cations of language skills, but also filled the perceived need to raise the level of international awareness of students majoring in fields where lan- guage study had not been encouraged (e.g. business, engineering, etc.), many of whom would become future American managers.

Many of those involved in developing business German courses realized, however, that specialized language study alone would not ac- complish the goal of raising levels of cross-cultural awareness in future managers to the level needed to address seriously the problem of the competitiveness of American business in internationally dependent mar- kets. To address that task it is necessary not only to go beyond language study per se, but also beyond the usual definitions of"culture" with which most of us as professionals in the teaching of "German language, liter- ature, and culture" are familiar. Our discussions within our discipline have traditionally dealt with definitions of"culture" as either "small c," i.e. how to read the train schedule or what color and number of roses to

bring to your hostess when you are invited to someone's home for dinner, or "capital C," i.e. a focus on German philosophy, history, literature, art, etc. While the items contained in both categories undeniably manifest certain aspects of "culture," they are not capable of revealing culture in the degree of complexity which will seriously meet our students' and our nation's needs.

In our discipline we have typically disdained "culture," while tol- erating its ubiquitous presence, particularly in our introductory textbooks and courses. Going to the other extreme, we have virtually mythologized "Culture" in texts and teaching at almost all levels, while, curiously, ignoring the deeper layers of cultural meaning which have traditionally been the domain of our colleagues in the social and anthropological sci- ences.

Indeed, Michael Byram, in his Cultural Studies in Foreign Language Education, laments the fact that "the intuitions of many foreign language

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International Business Internships 249

teachers-trained through the study of literature and linguistics-are un- refined by those academic disciplines which are the most appropriate support for Cultural Studies"."5 If we are now serious about meeting the needs of"a nation at risk," then we must base our cross-cultural training of future managers in international business on much more complex definitions of culture. The task falls, at least at this time, primarily to us as educators in the area of language and culture, because our business schools and business community have not yet fully recognized the need for more sophisticated cross-cultural training for future generations of managers who will be increasingly called upon to function multiculturally.

Despite the fact that recent business periodicals have devoted more attention to the subject of developing international awareness in Amer- ican managers, the statistics do not reveal that any meaningful change has been effected within the past ten years in the actual performance of American managers on international assignment. Many articles in busi- ness publications have decried for the last decade and still decry the lack of international expertise among American managers. The level of ex- patriate failure-indicated by premature returns of expatriate managers after unsuccessful stays abroad-has not diminished but rather remained stagnant or increased in the past ten years. A 1979 survey referred to a failure rate of about 33%,16 while in 1990 the rate was cited as fluctuating between 25% and 40%.'7 The average cost per failure to the parent com- pany was from $55,000 to $150,000, a major contribution to the billions of dollars lost every year, not only through ineffectual and/or failed man- agement, but also in lost contracts, weak negotiations, and other rami- fications of insensitivity to cultural difference.'8

As one might imagine, a similar analysis of our fiercest rivals in the international marketplace reveals a considerably different story. The Jap- anese, who currently outmaneuver us in almost any phase of business in which we compete, also outstrip us in the category of expatriate failure rates. A 1982 survey put the Japanese expatriate failure rate at less than 5%,19 while a more recent survey showed that 86% of Japanese multi- nationals had failure rates below 10% for their expatriates.20 While the two particular surveys do not tell us whether the expatriate failure rate is absolutely increasing or decreasing for Japanese multinationals, the point is that the Japanese rate is significantly lower than the American, running at roughly 1/4 of the cited American figures. Could this difference have anything to do with the fact that, on average, Japanese managers spend two years of company time preparing for their expatriate man- agement role,2' whereas their American counterparts typically receive less than one month of pre-departure training of any kind, with language and culture training coming primarily from contractual arrangement with commercial teaching/training organizations, notably Berlitz and Inlin-

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250 Paulsell

gua?22 In addition, in an astonishing 23% of responses to the 1985 Inman survey (up from 16% in 1977), absolutely no pre-departure training of any kind was offered to those going on overseas assignment or required of them. Inman also reported that less than 4% of the mainly Fortune 500 companies surveyed indicated that language and cultural knowledge were required for expatriate assignment, about 25% felt it was "desirable, but optional," and 30% had no official policy. Those who did require foreign language and cultural knowledge felt that minimal survival skills were all that was necessary.23 The majority of firms still view English as the quasi-official international business language; in the Inman survey, over 70% of companies reported that business was conducted both do- mestically and internationally only in English. Thus, even with increasing global competition, the situation with respect to a perceived need to formally train expatriate managers in foreign languages and cultures has changed very little.24 In characteristic fashion, many U.S. companies re- tain the short-sighted view that "training programs are a waste of re- sources";25 it is a view which will lead to increasing deficits, not only in our balance of trade figures, but also in our ability to compete effectively for smaller and smaller pieces of interdependent market pies which the Japanese and Europeans will increasingly dominate. The prevalence of outdated thinking about language and cultural proficiency within American multinational firms, among cross-cultural training consultants, and in business schools themselves, does not bode well for the future of American competitiveness in international markets. Gary Hogan and Jane Goodson, in "The Key to Expatriate Success," plead for better preparation of American managers for overseas assign- ments, recognizing the deep division between what American firms view as adequate preparation for overseas assignment and what language and culture professionals view as appropriate training for successful inter- cultural communication. They call for U.S. companies to learn from the Japanese when preparing expatriate managers adequately for their as- signments. This is a request with which language and culture professionals can identify:

Managerial training should focus on developing a new set of skills for a new culture. The intensity of the training will depend on the manager's knowledge of and experience with the specific culture and the degree of difference between that culture and the manager's own culture. The first step should be a program that focuses on the specific culture and how its relationships with employees, co-workers, and the environment differ from what the manager is used to. Training should then aim at developing com- munication, leadership, conflict management, and other skills that fit the particular culture. Because language skills improve cultural understanding and business relationships, companies should develop training geared to the person's skill levels.26

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International Business Internships 251

Hogan and Goodson then go on to suggest that American companies have not taken language and culture training seriously; expatriate effec- tiveness is too important to international corporate success to be taken so lightly, they argue. Companies should require sophisticated language and culture training programs "to ensure that their expatriate managers have the skills needed to operate effectively in the new environment."27

Rather than heeding a call for more sophisticated training programs for expatriate managers, however, American companies are much more likely to increase their hiring of host nationals, as Lennie Copeland points out in "Training Americans to do Business Overseas."28 This response to expatriate failure was documented in Kobrin's study, where 50% of the firms surveyed reported a decrease during the last ten years in overseas assignment of American managers, with 26% reporting no change.29 Both Copeland and Kobrin agree, on the other hand, that such maneuvering will not solve the problem, because "no matter what the staffing patterns, somewhere along the line multinational firms, by definition, have people of different cultures in contact with each other."'3 The increase in this contact is what Kobrin refers to as the "internationalization of managers":

American firms have matured internationally during the last two decades. Many no longer see themselves as U.S. companies with some overseas business, but rather as multinational companies serving worldwide markets. The impact of internationalization on the managers of these companies, however, has been paradoxical. On the one hand, opportunities for expa- triate assignments have been significantly reduced. Fewer Americans are stationed abroad now than in the past, both in terms of absolute numbers and, especially, relative to the volume of business done overseas.

On the other hand, in the large international companies that are the subject of this study, the odds that any manager will be involved inter- nationally have risen dramatically. People in "domestic jobs" find them- selves involved in a substantial number of cross-border and crosscultural

interactions. Plant managers in Michigan find that they need to coordinate production with their counterparts in Munich and Mexico City and pur- chase materials from Korea or Taiwan....31

As Kobrin goes on to point out, this situation suggests a potential prob- lem. American managers used to obtain international expertise through their company by living and working overseas, but this option is dis- appearing with the decline in overseas assignments. At the same time, the demand for international expertise due to increased international involvement of American business is increasing significantly. Kobrin ex- plains: "'International' is no longer the arcane purview of a small cadre of managers but is rapidly becoming a component of a wide variety of domestic jobs."32 If companies are no longer willing to finance expatriate experience abroad and this fact necessitates a further cutback on the

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252 Paulsell

minimal language and culture exposure of American managers in the few existing pre-departure training programs, the question arises as to where future managers are going to receive the international training which they will need.

Since American companies have traditionally not heeded the call for more sophisticated approaches to training their international man- agers, it becomes incumbent upon us as educators to prepare our students to enter the international business arena. Obviously, to meet the changing needs of a paradoxically more internationalized American business set- ting in which fewer managers are being assigned overseas, these students must be educated in a sophisticated way which prepares them simulta- neously to function not only in one host environment, i.e. the bicultural competence that we have traditionally sought, but also to function on a level of intercultural competence in a more general sense. The goal of "Multicultural Competence" can be built into the business German cur- riculum, through a three stage approach emphasizing (1) a knowledge and information based component for the classroom, (2) an experiential component built into the international internship experience, and (3) an assessment and integration component achieved through debriefing ac- tivities after the student's return to campus life.

Achieving Multicultural Competence: Goals and Assessment

The explicitly stated strategy of achieving "Multicultural Compe- tence" through classroom, internship, and re-entry components should be to bring students closer to "multiculturalism" as it is understood by cross-cultural psychologists and social scientists. Margaret Pusch, in the introduction to her volume Multicultural Education: A Cross-Cultural

Training Approach, defines "multiculturalism" as

that state in which one has mastered the knowledge and developed the skills necessary to feel comfortable and communicate effectively (1) with people of any culture encountered and (2) in any situation involving a group of diverse cultural backgrounds. (By 'comfortable,' we mean without the anx- iety, defensiveness and disorientation that usually accompany the initial intercultural experience.) The multicultural person is the person who has

learned how to learn culture-rapidly and effectively.3

This is certainly an ideal, but one worthy of approaching as closely as we can, because, as Pusch discusses further, such multicultural individ- uals become "mediating" people capable of bridging the gap between cultures and working out global cultural relationships.

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International Business Internships 253

Integrating such cross-cultural training into the student's business German classroom, internship, and re-entry experiences is greatly assisted by the research of our colleagues in social science, cultural anthropology and cross-cultural psychology. There we find not only information useful for setting goals for the classroom and the experiential learning of the internship situation, but also for planning and implementing learning assessment. Optimally, cross-cultural training within the business Ger- man curriculum should be comprised of three phases: (1) a cultural aware- ness phase which prepares the student to receive input from other cultures in a positive way; (2) a cultural use phase in which the student practices what was learned in the classroom and consciously reflects upon expe- riences in the culture; and (3) a cultural processing phase in which the returned student is assisted in objectivizing and integrating the cultural observations and interactions experienced while on the internship. The cultural use phase can only be fully realized through an internship or a similar immersion experience in the culture. The cultural awareness and cultural processing phases are, in fact, best carried out in the classroom within the native culture.

During the cultural awareness phase, the role of the teacher in the classroom is crucial. As Michael Byram writes:

... the teacher's control over cultural learning is crucial, and..,. the place which teachers most fully control, the classroom rather than the period of direct contract with the foreign culture, has a significant role to play in preparing learners so that their reaction to the direct contact will be a desirable one. What then should foreign language teachers be trying to do? What kind of cognitive and affective changes should they hope for and how should they render the environment and experience propitious for these changes?34

During this phase the goal should be nothing less than a measurable change in student attitudes toward other cultures; such changes can only be brought about, Byram argues further, by changes in cognitive struc- tures. Cognitive structures which reflect cultural meanings must be the focus of the teacher's efforts during the cultural awareness phase. These cognitive structures or schemata not only define what is "foreign," but also determine how individuals view their own ethnic identity. If per- ceptions of others and attitudes toward them are to change, then per- ceptions of one's own self and ethnic identity must change.35 One way to effect change in students' views of their ethnicity is to present them with a new experience of their ethnicity:

This can be done by presenting them with a foreigner's view of their eth- nicity, with the intention that their existing schemata of their own ethnicity shall change when they cannot cope with the new experience. Such new

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254 Paulsell

experience needs, of course, to be agreeable and non-threatening, so that pupils are prepared to change their schemata rather than reject the expe- rience by assimilating it to their existing views of foreigners; they must be helped to take seriously foreign views of themselves which differ from their own, and to adjust their own to give recognition to the foreign views.36

Particularly useful in introducing German views of American ethnicity are German newspaper and magazine articles which deal with German perceptions of American society. Here, the students are on familiar ground, their own ethnicity, and revealing discussions can ensue sparked by the perceptions of the "outsiders." Articles from German business publications which are normally used for their factual content can, thus, be used for the purpose of improving cultural awareness. However, as Byram mentions,"37 these types of materials are not easy to find. It is rare that Germans give accounts of their own ethnicity or write exclusively about their perceptions of others' ethnicity. But one does not need to locate full length articles of this sort to build cross-cultural awareness. Of equal, if not greater value are the bits and pieces of difference in cultural perceptions which constantly crop up in articles of all kinds. One must, first, simply learn to be more sensitive to the existence of cultural bias in writing of all kinds, and, second, be more creative in preparing and incorporating such articles into the course materials. Another excellent technique is to make use of videotaped interviews or to invite native Germans (business people) into the classroom to discuss their perceptions of American culture.

After students have begun to come to terms with their own views of themselves and their values and assumptions, the next step in the cultural awareness phase is to help them reconsider their views of for- eigners, to change their perceptions of foreign cultures in general and of Germans in particular. The cultural awareness phase can only be accom- plished by educating our students in the discipline which focuses upon cultural studies, social anthropology.38 This classroom cultural self-as- sessment phase is best in English; some exercises may be done in German, but use of the native language will allow students far greater freedom to explore their views and will result in much more stimulating discussion. A complete discussion of teaching strategies for the integration of the cultural awareness component into the business German classroom is beyond the scope of this article, but there are any number of excellent texts and handbooks dealing with multicultural education."39 Many con- tain both an introduction to the disciplinary foundation of multicultural education as well as interesting and creative exercises and teaching strat- egies in perception, self-assessment in values and assumptions, listening, communication, simulations, etc. These exercises can bring an exciting new dimension not only into the foreign language classroom in general,

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International Business Internships 255

but into the business German classroom in particular. One need only refine the more general goals discussed here to focus more strongly on the subcultures of the German and American business environments.4"

The goal of the classroom phase in increasing cultural awareness is to bring students to the point where they are fully engaged with their own perceptions and their own communication patterns, where they are able to break through their cognitive defenses and realize that cross-cultural misunderstanding relates to them in their own cultural here and now, rather than to "them," the outsiders out there.41 The students must be secure in their own culture and positively identify with it, must be aware of the degree to which they are culturally conditioned, and must respect and appreciate cultural differences.42 "It is the function of cross-cultural training to provide the framework and content for that kind of learning."43 Provided that we have successfully achieved this goal (and there are ways of assessing it),44 we have prepared students as much as possible to make a positive experience out of the immersion into the German (business) culture which the internship experience will provide.

The second or cultural use phase of the cross-cultural learning com- ponent of the business German curriculum can only be achieved through first-hand experience in Germany. The overseas internship provides the perfect opportunity for the student to put into practice the more general theoretical knowledge gained in the classroom awareness phase. Optimal learning is achieved when students become recorders of their reactions to residence in Germany and to the internship experience in the sub- culture of the business environment. In the classroom, the instructor carefully constructed the "other cultural perspective on new experience"'45 and prepared students to recognize certain coping mechanisms which they would inevitably use when maximally stressed in dealing with that other perspective. In the other culture, students have to massively re- organize cognitive structures on their own-a large-scale undertaking which, even with the best of preparation, will inevitably lead to some "culture shock." "Culture shock" should not, however, be viewed neg- atively. Indeed, if a student recognizes the causes and phases of this cultural disorientation, it can be used as a basis for experiential learning during the internship experience.

There is now considerable debate in progress among professionals in the area of cross-cultural training concerning the nature of "culture shock."46 But most agree that there are four readily identifiable stages through which most "outsiders" pass as they attempt to deal with un- familiar cultural environments. Some outsiders progress through all four, some remain locked in stage one, depending on one's psychological make- up and the specific circumstances one encounters. The terminology var- ies, but the stages can be identified as: (1) "Fight," in which the ethno-

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centric impulse dominates and one defensively over-affirms one's own culture. (2) "Flight," which involves a withdrawal from interaction in the other culture. (3) "Going Native," in which one takes on the values of the other culture and attempts to slough one's own cultural identity. (4) "Adaptation," in which one tries to comprehend the other culture and adapt one's behavior appropriately, while at the same time affirming one's own cultural identity.47 As noted earlier, it is the objective of the "cultural awareness" portion of the curriculum proposed in this article to prepare students before departure to be at stage four, but, realistically, we all know that, no matter how well prepared, students will experience some disorientation, not only from the "other" German culture, but also from the change from the subculture student group to the business sub- culture.

If students have been made sufficiently aware of cultural difference and the phenomena associated with "culture shock," they are prepared to recognize their own protective reactions to cultural stress. Student interns should keep a journal in which they reflect upon these experiences. The journal entries will provide the foundation for the cultural processing phase, which supplies the framework for personal growth at the individual level which transcends any of our more specific goals for intercultural learning. This process could indeed lead to the kind of personal growth necessary to bring our students to the threshold of becoming the "me- diating individuals" we mentioned earlier, individuals who can "select, combine and synthesize the appropriate features of different social sys- tems ... people who have the ability to act as links between different cultural systems, bridging the gap by introducing, translating, representing and reconciling the cultures to each other."48 According to Sharon Rubin, a personal journal provides, "good raw material for helping students demystify an experience through analysis of issues of self-identity, per- ception of the world, motivation, relationship to others, type of activity, etc."49

Rubin is, however, not discussing international internships, but rather domestic internship experiences. The novelty of her approach is to apply, as we have been arguing here, sociological methodology in the preparation for and implementation of the internship experience. She sees cultural difference inherent in the fact that the student is leaving the student subculture behind and entering the business/professional sub- culture. Students therefore will undergo a type of "culture shock" very similar to what a person experiences during an extended stay in a foreign country even in situations within their own culture. Rubin also suggests that students keep journals as a way of monitoring their feelings and reactions and reflecting upon their experiences. Our business German

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students, then, must be sensitized to monitoring reactions to cultural difference and reflecting on experience at more than one level.

For the business German internship to be integrated into our cur- riculum in an academically sound way, it must, as argued earlier, con- stitute experiential learning which has identifiable and assessable objec- tives. Of course, any one of a number of different sets of objectives are possible. However, a natural integration, commensurate with our roles as language and culture instructors, is made possible if the internship is viewed as the cultural use phase of a three stage cross-cultural learning component of the business German curriculum. The cultural use phase must be preceded by a cultural awareness phase in which students are prepared for the cultural immersion experience. The keeping of a journal that is oriented toward cross-cultural awareness is essential to the cultural

use phase and helps students reflect upon their own individual growth and objectify it. At this point, however, the learning experience remains incomplete because most students require feedback and further process- ing of their cross-cultural experience before they begin to approach the goal of "intercultural competence."

A cultural processing phase must follow up on the internship ex- perience. Once again, a lengthy discussion of possible methods which could be used in cultural processing would go beyond the parameters of this article. But, since there has been no discussion of this important station on the road to "intercultural competence" in our professional literature, a few suggestions will be offered here.

During this phase the journal can serve two functions. It can provide the foreign language instructor with a basis for evaluating the internship experience in cross-cultural terms as well as for assisting the student in processing the cross-cultural learning. A first step toward closing the loop in the intercultural learning experience for each intern could be the writing of a longer essay,5" after the student's return to campus, based on the individual incidences and observations recorded in the journal. Here the student would be required to reflect in retrospect on the experience, to identify key incidents, and to summarize in a more general way the cultural learning experience as a whole. In a second step, the essay could then be used as a basis for discussion with the instructor, who would help the student identify her/his coping strategies and problem-solving mechanisms in the intercultural internship situation. The third step could involve presentation of three or four of the key incidents identified by student and instructor as problem-solving situations for group discussion in the classroom. This exercise should be conducted only with advanced business German students who are nearing the end of their cultural aware- ness phase. Each work group in the business German class could be assigned to discuss a different situation, without the coping mechanism

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and problem-solving strategy of the student intern having been revealed. The work group would be expected to discuss several different possible responses to the situation based upon their cross-cultural training. Such a three-step methodology benefits the returning student intern by func- tioning as a mechanism for processing of the cultural knowledge obtained from the internship. But it also benefits those currently enrolled in the business German course by incorporating case studies into their more advanced discussion of cultural awareness.

The instructor should include as many former interns as possible in classroom discussions and presentations, thereby using the interns' experiences to help further the intercultural understanding of peers. In addition, the experience gained by returned interns could be beneficial in a second, domestic internship with companies which may be consid- ering international involvement, but which do not yet possess interna- tional expertise. It is important that the internship experience be con- ceived in stages of(1) pre-departure preparation, (2) monitored internship experience, and (3) re-entry with associated reflection and personal growth related activities.

Such a cultural rationale for integrating an internship into the busi- ness German curriculum can certainly be seen as beneficial from the perspective of American business. As Kobrin points out:

Managers view international expertise from both an informational and an operational perspective. Economic, social and political information is nec- essary for the analysis and forecasting underlying planning and decision- making. An understanding of how to interact with people and organizations in other countries, or how to "move around and get it done," is required outside the United States.'

The designations informational and operational overlap significantly with what Kobrin goes on to identify as general and country-specific inter- national expertise. Specific knowledge ofa country would involve knowl- edge of the language and culture of one country, while general knowledge involves understanding of "what is different abroad and the forms those differences are likely to take."'52

Those in charge of hiring and assigning managers to international positions will always remind us as educators that individuals involved in international business must be able to function multiculturally. Even if American businesses were to continue to assign expatriate managers at one point or another to a country for which their language and cultural background has specifically trained them (which, as we have seen, would run contrary to recent trends), the managers are not likely to remain there for more than a few years before being transferred to another assignment. Therefore, the most important component of international expertise for

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most businesses is what they refer to as "'cultural empathy,' 'wearing the shoes of other people,' sensitivity to differences in the ways places work and the way business is done, knowing where other people are 'coming from,' and understanding 'how to live there'."53 In other words, businesses will be more interested in our students with experience abroad who can demonstrate high degrees of cross-cultural awareness and are multiculturally competent, regardless of the specific country knowledge they may possess. Students must be able to "learn culture, rapidly and effectively." The phrase "rapid and effective learning of culture" under- scores the business perspective in cross-cultural training endeavors quite clearly. Learning culture has always been a question of cost-effectiveness for American business. Businesses and business schools have not nec-

essarily seen the value in students or managers devoting years to the study of the language and culture of specific countries. Yet, as has been discussed, many experts agree that the current level ofmulticultural train- ing of American managers is inadequate. Inman argues that companies "must be helped to understand what realistically is involved in an ade-

quate program of language training and use"'54 because "most people unfamiliar with the challenges and rigors of language learning and teach- ing simply have no appreciation for the length of time and considerable effort required in order for anyone to develop even a working capability in a second language.""

We must strive to educate our colleagues in the business schools and professionals in the business community about the nature of "mul- ticultural competence." Is it possible to "wear the shoes of other people, to know their ways of doing business, to know where they are coming from, and to understand how they live" without ever actually walking in their shoes? As language and culture educators it seems self-evident to us that multicultural competence would be extremely difficult if not impossible to attain without at some point achieving intercultural com- petence. We must strive to convince American business of the need for intimate knowledge of the language and culture of at least one specific country in the education of future international managers. Since Germany is a major world economic power and German a major business language next to English, business German courses provide a solid foundation for study of a specific country for those interested in international business. With a cultural awareness (general/informational) facet, a cultural use (country specific/operational) facet, and a cultural processing (synthes- izing) facet to our cultural component in the business German curricu- lum, our graduates will possess a degree of intercultural competence which becomes the basis for developing true multicultural competence. Strong cross-cultural awareness components in our curricula may help

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justify more sophisticated "language" study of longer duration to business executives who have often viewed language study as unimportant.

Conclusion:

International Business Internships and a Liberal Education

If some colleagues are unwilling to agree with a rationale for the importance of the international internship based upon meeting the need for international expertise in the halls of corporate America, then a second foundation for this rationale may seem more appealing. To quote Sharon Rubin once again:

At its best, it [the internship experience] may help the student move from ethnocentrism toward cultural pluralism, an understanding of the benefits and disadvantages of his/her own and other cultures and a commitment to those aspects he/she believes in within each. If that final sequence re- minds one of the process which such developmental theorists as William Perry define for the intellectual and ethical development of college students,

the similarities, I believe are not coincidental.56

Although Rubin has no "foreign" experience in mind for the internship experience, but rather a reflective, monitored experience within a sub- culture of the mainstream culture, the principles which she has enunciated apply to our discussion as well. The internship experience per se is cur- rently being reformulated and expanded to fit a "completely innovative approach to the acquisition of non-technical skills," as E.L. Corroni-Long has put it.57 In this reformulation, the type of skills and cognitive de- velopment which experiential learning programs promote are seen as directly correlated to a liberal arts education:

If one keeps in mind that at the core of the humanistic approach to edu- cation is an emphasis on "process" rather than "content" and that from John Dewey on American supporters of a liberal arts curriculum have stressed self-realization, in terms of flexibility, objectivity and individual maturity and autonomy, as the major aim of post-secondary education it is easy to see how experiential learning programs dovetail with the current movement toward re-emphasizing humanistic values in American under- graduate education.58

With respect to the integration of the cultural component into business German curricula, it is important here to emphasize once again the pre- paratory classroom activities in cultural awareness and the reflective and monitoring activities associated with extracting experiential learning from an internship placement. Corroni-Long points out:

If the experiential aspect of a field experience is to bring cognitive growth, acquisition of humanistic, non-technical skills such as capacity for analytical

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and critical thinking, objectivity, flexibility, tolerance for ambiguity, a dis- position for human empathy and competence in interpersonal communi- cation, then it seems essential that the student be provided the means by which the placement setting can be analyzed as a complex human system functioning both as a self-contained unit and as part of an articulated social framework. Furthermore, the students must be given a methodology as well as precise techniques with which their own placement experience can be analyzed... .59

A "marriage between theory and practice" is achieved when one lays the proper theoretical foundation from cultural anthropology and related fields in a classroom phase of instruction which precedes the experiential learning phase, according to Corroni-Long. Rubin and Corroni-Long make their arguments from the more general perspective of adding a dimension of individual growth to experiential learning situations. Yet the points are equally valid for our conceptualization of the value of the international internship experience.

Such experiences do not have to be seen merely as facilitators of the needs of American business, or as ways to make our graduates more marketable. They may be seen instead as integral parts of a pedagogical strategy which has as its goal the creation of "mediating individuals." According to Pusch:

If we live in a plural rather than an assimilationist world, this [cultural mediation] becomes a critical function since cultures will not, as the old ideal hoped they would, grow together and become one-even under the leveling impact of technology. As the earth becomes increasingly crowded, the need for more extensive and sophisticated mediation of differences is apparent.60

The skills of such mediating individuals are not only valuable in the business setting, but are also extremely important to human society in general. In working toward training such individuals, we therefore contribute not only to the immediate goals of the business community, but also to the more long-range goals of our "nation at risk" in a mean- ingful way. There cannot be a more humanistic endeavor.

'It would be preferable to move away from this terminology; it carries connotations which tend to diminish, in the eyes of many of our colleagues, the academic legitimacy of academically sound courses which have been developed under this rubric. The term is entirely too close to "business English," which is most often used, in the United States at least, for high school level English courses for pupils who are not college bound. Thus, whether deserved or not, it often has negative associations. If we are to continue in a serious effort to legitimize this undertaking within our discipline, then it is imperative that we move toward different designations of our courses and curricula which are more descriptive of the rigorous academic content which they entail. "German for Business and the Profes- sions" is a more general option; I choose to use "German for Business and Economics."

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2As initial support for this contention, I can only offer evidence from a survey of our own business intern graduates. Of the over 100 students I have placed through the MSU Business German Internship Program over the past ten years, more than 30 have reported that they are actively working in a multinational company and using their German. This figure may be even higher, but we did not receive responses from all graduates; some addresses may have been outdated and the survey questionnaire did not reach some in- dividuals. I cannot say for sure, but I would hazard a guess that very few of the 150 or so students who completed the business German course sequence and did not go on to an internship experience are working in similar positions. 3Stephen J. Kobrin, International Expertise in American Business (New York: In-

stitute of International Education, 1984) 38. 4See Roberta Seabrook and Berardo Valdes, "So You Were a Language Major: Cor-

porate Interviewing and Training in Foreign Languages and Cross-Cultural Studies," Pro- ceedings of the Seventh Annual Eastern Michigan University Conference on Languages for Business and the Professions (ERIC, 1988) 6 (FL 017 846). In Seabrook's survey respondents chosen from Fortune 500 multinationals chose the M.I.B., experience abroad, and intern- ships as their top three criteria for hiring international managers. In another recent broad study of Fortune 500 multinationals, Kobrin relates that the vast majority of respondents rated business travel and assignments overseas as critical in the development of interna- tional expertise in American managers (Kobrin 38). 5For those seeking to establish business German courses and/or internship programs,

a gold mine of program descriptions can be found in the published proceedings of and/or by attending any Eastern Michigan University Conference on Language for World Business and the Professions, which is held in Ypsilanti, Michigan yearly in April or May. It is the only major conference of its kind. 6For specific information on the implementation of our successful Business German

Overseas Internship program at Michigan State, through which over 100 students have received internships during the past ten years, see Patricia R. Paulsell, "The Importance and Implementation of a Business Foreign Language Internship Program," Foreign Lan- guageAnnals 16 (1983): 277-86. Although published in 1983, the information is still largely valid. Considerable attention is devoted to problems associated with intern placement. For a very different approach to establishing internship connections, see, Linda R. Andersen- Fiala, "Generating Internship Opportunities for Business Students with Foreign Language Competency: A Networking Approach," Proceedings ofthe Fourth Annual Eastern Michigan University Conference on Languages for Business and the Professions (ERIC, 1985) (FL 015 887).

7Yves Benett, "The Assessment of Supervised Work Experience (SWE)-A Theoret- ical Perspective," The Vocational Aspect of Education XLI.109 (August 1989): 62.

8Benett 54. 9Stephen Bochner, ed., Cultures in Contact (Oxford: Pergamon, 1982) 23. 'oJust a word here about women and international internship placement: In their

article "Women in Management: Unused Resources in the Federal Republic of Germany" in Women and Management Worldwide, Ariane Berthoin Antal and Camilla Krebsbach- Gnath (1988) report that "compared with other European countries and the United States, the percentage of women in managing positions in West Germany is very small, and has not changed significantly over the past 20 years: only 1.5 percent of the leading positions in West German firms are held by women, and even those are clustered in 'female do- mains' "(141-42). In addition, women in management receive 20% lower salaries than their male counterparts (142) and many social, cultural, economic, educational, sociopsychol- ogical, and systematic barriers still remain for women in management in Germany. Since the large majority of our enrollment in German classes in general and in business German classes in particular is female, these are disturbing figures. Anyone who is involved with German business knows, consciously or unconsciously, the realities of women's place in the German business culture. For American women this presents yet another dimension of the cross-cultural awareness complex and it is only fair that the faculty supervisor make this dimension and its implications for career choices absolutely clear to all potential female interns.

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International Business Internships 263

"These papers were presented at the 1985, 1986, and 1987 Eastern Michigan Uni- versity Conferences and are also available on ERIC microfiche.

'2Barney T. Raffield, III, "The Effective Supervision of Internship Experiences within Multinational Business and Foreign Language Programs" Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Eastern Michigan University Conference on Languages for Business and the Professions (ERIC, 1986) 3-4 (FL 016 623).

'3Alfred Kadushin, Supervision in Social Work (New York: Columbia UP, 1976.) 14Raffield 8.

"SMichael Byram, Cultural Studies in Foreign Language Education (Clevedon: Mul- tilingual Matters, 1989) 7.

'6Alison R. Lanier, "Selecting and Preparing Personnel for Overseas Transfers" Per- sonnel Journal, March 1979: 160.

'7Gary W. Hogan and Jane R. Goodson, "The Key to Expatriate Success" Training and Development Journal, January 1990: 50.

18Hogan 50. 1gJean M. McEnery and Gaston Des Harnais, "An Examination of the Predictors of

Success of Expatriate Student Interns," Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Eastern Michigan University Conference on Languages for Business and the Professions, (ERIC, 1988) 8 (FL 017 850).

20Hogan 52. 2'Hogan 51. 22Marianne Inman, "Language and Cross-Cultural Training in American Multina-

tional Corporations," The Modern Language Journal 69 (1985): 250. 23Inman 249.

24The survey "Foreign language and predeparture training for U.S. multinational firms," appearing in PersonnelAdministrator in 1984 is particularly illustrative of this point. In yet another study of Fortune 500 multinationals, James C. Baker, a professor of finance and international business at Kent State University, also collected data which revealed the inadequate level of international training of American managers. Perhaps the most revealing facet of this study, however, lay more in the silence to items on Baker's questionnaire than in the answers he received. 50% of respondents chose not to answer the query as to whether language is required for overseas assignment; 60% chose not to answer the query as to what training program they use for language training; 63% chose not to answer the query as to whether the training fit the needs of the firm. In addition, Baker notes that most of the responses implied that the companies really did not evaluate the programs they used. If I were a corporate executive involved in a large Fortune 500 multinational, I too might be reluctant to answer questions which would reveal that (1) knowledge of language, even at the simplest level, is not a prerequisite for assigning managers overseas in my company, (2) I had no language training program for those transferred overseas, (3) I did not know whether any training my managers were receiving really fit the needs of my company, and/ or (4) I do not evaluate my training programs.

25Hogan 52. 26Hogan 52. 27Hogan 52. 28Lennie Copeland, "Training Americans to do Business Overseas," Training, July

1984: 29.

29Copeland 43. TMCopeland 29. 31Kobrin 42-43. 32Kobrin 46.

33Margaret E. Pusch, ed. Multicultural Education. A Cross-cultural TrainingApproach (New York: Intercultural Press, 1979) 21.

34Byram 116. "Byram 116. 36Byram 117. 37Byram 118. 38Byram 117.

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39A few excellent texts are, e.g. Byram (Note 15), Furnham and Bochner (Note 46), Pusch (Note 33), Seelye (Note 44), and Marshall H. Segall et al., Human Behavior in Global Perspective: An Introduction to Cross-Cultural Psychology (New York: Pergamon, 1990). 4Such a cultural awareness component is being systematically integrated into a new

textbook/workbook/integrated computer program for German for Business and Economics (third year college level) currently being produced at Michigan State. The materials are scheduled for completion by Fall, 1992.

41Pusch 17.

42Pusch 33. 43Pusch 17. "See H. Ned Seelye, Teaching Culture: Strategies for Intercultural Communication

(Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company, 1984) and Claire Kramsch's discussion (in "New Directions in the Teaching of Language and Culture," NLFC Occasional Papers, Washington DC: National Foreign Language Center, April 1989) of the AATF suggestion to add cultural proficiency to the ACTFL speaking, listening, reading, and writing proficiency guidelines for French. The suggested cultural proficiency levels would be "sociolinguistic ability" (somewhat above the basic survival skills), "knowledge" (at its highest level, roughly equivalent to the "cultural knowledge" level I have proposed as the goal of the classroom phase of the culture component), and "enlightened attitudes" (which presupposes quite sophisticated bicultural communication skills).

45Byram 115. "See, in particular, Adrian Furnham and Stephen Bochner, Culture Shock (London:

Routledge, 1989), in which the authors redefine "culture shock," redirecting our attentions away from older definitions which rely more on illness metaphors and toward explanations which address "psychological reactions to unfamiliar environments."

47Pusch 23-24. 48Bochner 29.

49Sharon Rubin, "The Internship Process: A Cultural Model," Experiential Learning and Cultural Models, Panel Resource Paper #12, Jane C. Kendall, ed. (Raleigh, NC: National Society for Internships and Experiential Education. Peer Assistance Network in Experiential Learning, 1983) 5 (ERIC ED 260 638).

AT'he writing of such an essay is a mechanism which avoids the necessity for the instructor to read the student's journal. The student will probably feel much more inclined to write frankly in the journal if she/he has the assurance of the instructor that the journal itself is a personal document which will not be read by the instructor as a part of the evaluation process. The instructor can evaluate the learning process through the essay and ensuing discussion.

51Kobrin 11. 52Kobrin 12.

53Kobrin 13. 54Inman 254. SInman 253.

56Rubin 20. 57E.L. Corroni-Long, "Experiential Learning and Cultural Anthropology. General

Considerations and Case Study," Experiential Learning and Cultural Models, Panel Re- source Paper #12, Jane C. Kendall,ed. (Raleigh, NC: National Society for Internships and Experiential Education. Peer Assistance Network in Experiential Learning, 1983) 8 (ERIC ED 260 638).

58Corroni-Long 8. 59Corroni-Long 10. 6"Pusch 22.

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