Sociology Academic writing

Academic Writing Is Different

Academic writing is an important and necessary skill set. Many people are not formally trained in this professional writing style, or consistently exposed to it in their daily lives. Most writing instruction in high school and college is structured around producing descriptive, creative, persuasive, or personal narrative-style writing products. Similarly, people are constantly exposed to the fictional and journalistic writing styles of popular media with little regular contact with formal academic text. Academic writing is also very different in form and structure compared to speech and writing patterns used in everyday communication. Unfortunately, many of the techniques utilized and learned from these more common writing styles work directly against the demands of good academic writing.

Developing an effective academic writing style means recognizing how and why academic writing is different from other forms of written communication. First and foremost academic writing is a form of technical writing. Unlike other forms of communication, the underlying purpose of academic writing is to convey specific, and factually accurate, pieces of objective information. Second, the content of an academic paper is not something generally being created or derived from the author directly. Instead, academic writers largely work to organize, explain, and clarify pieces of external information for the reader. Third, academic writing allows the author very little room for making claims to knowledge without requiring some type of formal reference or citation indicating where information is derived from. To accomplish these tasks, several things are fundamentally different about the form and style of academic writing.

The Form and Style of Academic Writing

B1: Academic Writing is Created and Consumed for Fact Driven Content

All academic papers are a one-way transfer of information from the author to the reader. Ideally, authors write academic papers because the content of the paper does not already exist and creating it will fill some void in the existing literature. People read academic papers because they have a predetermined need for the technical content of the paper. To facilitate this process academic writing states as clearly and early as possible what a reader can expect to find within each paper. This information is found in the title, abstract, and introduction so interested readers can quickly identify relevant sources. This information also tells uninterested readers to not waste their time and move on to other references.

When writing an academic paper it is inappropriate and unnecessary to use creative writing techniques to catch the reader's attention or "sell the paper". There is no place in academic writing for things such as rhetorical questions or grand and exaggerated opening statements. These types of techniques are elementary gimmicks often used to trick people into reading papers.

B1a: Rhetorical Questions

Rhetorical questions are questions posed with the intent of making some point, rather than receiving an answer. Rhetorical questions should never be used in academic writing. There is no conversation between the author and the reader. The reader literally has no way to respond to the question. The author has no way of receiving or anticipating every single reader's response to the question.

Examples of Rhetorical Questions:

A: Why in today's society are race and ethnicity so misunderstood?

B: Have you ever wondered why race and ethnicity are different?

In these examples the purpose of the paper is to inform the reader about technical differences between the concepts of race and ethnicity. The best and most appropriate way to do this is to simply state it.

Improved Example:

Race and ethnicity are not a single thing. Race is defined as a group of people with shared physical characteristics. Ethnicity is defined as a group of people with shared cultural characteristics.

Tips and Pointers:

The best way to eliminate rhetorical questions from writing is to never use a sentence requiring a question mark.

Prior to submitting any paper use the "Find and Replace" function of the word processing program to search for question marks and make corrections as necessary.

B1b: Hyperbole

Hyperbole is the use of grand or exaggerated statements. Hyperbole is often used to catch reader’s attention, over emphasize the importance of a topic, or justify the content of a paper. These techniques are not needed or appropriate in academic writing.

Examples of Hyperbole:

A: Teenage pregnancy is out of control in America and is eroding the moral fabric of the country.

B: Never before have so many American children had their lives ruined by teenage pregnancy.

Hyperbolic statements are seldom factually or technically correct, and should never be used in technical writing. The purpose of academic writing is to ground and restrict the investigation of any topic to only those aspects which are accurate and verifiable. As an author, making hyperbolic claims is deceptive and potentially a form of punishable academic misconduct. As a consumer of information it is also important to recognize these tactics are generally not used to inform readers. They are meant to sway opinion, alarm readers, or present misinformation.

Tips and Pointers:

The best way to avoid the problem of hyperbole is to read and write claims to knowledge critically.

As an author, if the statement being made cannot be backed up by a specific piece of published literature do not make the claim.

As a reader, if the claim is not supported by a specific piece of published literature do not believe, internalize, or pass along the information.

A Practical Way Around Them:

Most students have been taught to use the techniques of rhetorical questioning and hyperbole as a form of introduction to their written work. After years of developing this habit they often find it difficult to start writing without using them. Rather than sit frustrated staring at a blank page, the best way to compensate for this problem is to simply write the introductory paragraph using the techniques. Once the remainder of the paper has been started, go back and simply delete the first paragraph. After years of reading and grading undergraduate research papers, often the most effective and clear academic introductions show up half-way through the first page. One tap of the delete key can eliminate the nonsense and bring the academic content to the front of the paper where it belongs.

B2: Academic Writing is a Direct Writing Style

Academic writing needs to get to the point as clearly and directly as possible. Rhetorical questions and hyperbole are removed from scientific writing because they are meaningless filler. A clear transfer of information is also facilitated by using a more basic and simplified sentence structure. Unlike the flowing narrative of creative writing, academic writing often feels short, choppy, and dry.

Clarity of meaning is created in academic writing by substituting longer compound sentences with multiple short sentences. A compound sentence is created by linking two or more ideas into a single sentence. The ideas are linked using punctuation and/or conjunctions such as: and, so, or, but, and therefore. Compound sentences potentially create three problems. First, they may confuse the intended point of the sentence. Second, they may link two ideas which are not technically related. Third, when joined the two original ideas may create a new and independent meaning which is not factually correct. To avoid these errors academic writers often work to unpack ideas one small piece at a time.

Examples:

Compound: The respondent indicated attending church events and helping care for other elderly people who do not have the ability to care for themselves.

Simple: The respondent reported attending church events. She also reported volunteering to help other elderly people who do not have the ability to care for themselves.

Compound: Emile Durkheim was a Functional theorist who considered suicide rates to be an indicator of social deviance because they increased and decreased along with changes in the structure and function of social institutions.

Simple: Functional theorists Emile Durkheim considered suicide an indicator of social deviance. He showed rates of suicide increased and decreased with changes in society. His work linked suicide rates to the structure and function of social institutions.

Compound: Chronological age is the actual numerical value in years of a person’s age which in itself is divided into subcategories which are young-old, middle-old, and oldest-old

Simple: Chronological age is measured by the numerical years a person has lived. Elderly people are divided into three subcategories of chronological age: Young-old, Middle-old, and Oldest Old.

B3: Academic Writing Uses Third-Person Voice:

Academic writing is almost always written using a third-person narrative. Third-person narrative means authors do not make direct reference to themselves (I, Me, We, Us, Our) or the reader (you) in the body of the text. There are several key reasons why third-person narrative is used in academic writing.

First, third-person narrative creates and maintains a more objective perspective of the paper's content. Instead of reading like a personal reflection on the topic, third-person narratives read as if they were written by an impartial outside observer. In the following examples the exact same information is being conveyed using both first and third-person narrative. In the third-person narrative, attention is turned away from the authors and onto the formal content of the sentence. Changing from first to third-person also makes the statements more direct and definitive.

Examples:

First Person: I downloaded and analyzed data from the 2010 U.S. Census.

Third Person: Data were downloaded and analyzed from the 2010 U.S. Census.

First Person: Based on our statistical models, we found no relationship between the death penalty and homicide rates.

Third Person: Statistical models showed no relationship between the death penalty and homicide rates.

Second, third-person narrative is used within academic writing because authorship is automatically attributed to those listed on the paper. In scientific writing all content, except for material which is formally cited and referenced to someone else, is assumed and expected to be the product of the authors. In this context, authorship is simply understood, and the use of a first person pronoun like "I" or "We" becomes redundant and unnecessary.

Example:

First Person: After examining initial results, I removed respondents below the age of 18 from the sample.

Third Person: After examining initial results, respondents below the age of 18 were removed from the sample.

Third, using third-person narrative removes any direct reference to the reader. In academic writing a parallel to using “I” or “Me” is writing to a “you” or “the reader”. In academic writing the reader is an understood recipient of information. The reader is also unknown to the author and cannot be directly addressed or spoken for by the author.

Examples:

First Person: Sociology allows you to see society from an outsider’s perspective.

Third Person: Sociology allows people to see society from an outsider’s perspective.

First Person: In this paper the reader will see how race and ethnicity are two distinct things.

Third Person: In this paper race and ethnicity are presented as two distinct things.

B4: Academic Writing is Not a Conversation

Academic writing is made more direct by excluding the common statements and phrases used in verbal communication. In conversation these types of qualifying statements often help to provide context and facilitate communication. Scientific writing is not a conversation. When these phrases are used in technical writing they add unnecessary filler and work against providing clear explanation of content.

Examples:

A: Do not misunderstand me, all children regardless of race, religion, or background should be allowed an education.

B: All children regardless of race, religion, or background should be allowed an education.

A: Social gerontology is really just a smaller component of gerontology as whole.

B: Social gerontology is a subfield of gerontology.

A: As previously stated, gerontology is the study of aging.

B: (take out the entire sentence because "As previously stated" actually means "I am about to repeat myself and write something that has already been read"

A: If you simplify the definition of birth cohort, it ultimately means, a group of people born during the same time period.

B: A birth cohort is defined as a group of people born during the same time period.

A: Family is important for teaching children many things like values, work ethic, trust, etc.

B: etc. is really a high minded way of saying "a bunch of other stuff not worth spelling out" no academic paper should be using this type of meaningless filler.

These types of statements are generally inserted into academic writing when authors attempt to verbalize the content of their papers, like a speech, as they are typing. Academic papers are not speeches, and they are not intended to be read aloud. They should never be written as if they are. Learning to verbalize in a formal written academic voice is possible, but takes time and attention to detail.

These problems also appear when writers use "stream of consciousness writing". This is a form of writing where authors simply type as they are thinking of the ideas. This approach to writing can be helpful at the very beginning stages of paper construction to help get text on the page. Without heavy editing and the creation of a formal writing plan, stream of consciousness writing roams aimlessly and is painful to read. Sentences appear as if they were started without knowing how they were going to end. Paragraphs bounce from topic to topic with no central purpose or point. No writing of this kind should ever be submitted as a final draft for evaluation.

Tips and Pointers:

Practice distilling the meaning of sentences by using as few words as possible to convey the same meaning.

Consciously monitor writing for excessively long sentences and break them into component pieces. Realistically, no sentence at this stage in the academic process should be over two lines long.

Actively work to use more periods and less commas.

Write with purpose by having a clear idea of what is trying to be conveyed before typing.

B5: Vernacular, Slang, and Contractions

Technical writing is not a conversation and should not sound like the author talks. All papers are expected to be written in standard and proper English. Everyone has common sub-cultural (age based, racial/ethnic based, country/urban based, gender based, texting/email based) sets of phrases and slang that they use in everyday speech patterns. None of this can show up in academic writing. The further the author's native/common language patterns fall from standard English, the more of an effort/problem this can be in writing. Ideally, all papers should read like they were written by the same robotic machine.

Academic writing does not allow the use of contractions. Don't, can't, won't, shouldn't must all be spelled out as Do not, cannot, will not, should not. If "Can't" is too informal to be used in an academic paper, then certainly U R (you are) is not going to be accepted.

Tips and Pointers:

Effective use of spell check and grammar check can help to eliminate these problems. Another way to check for them is to save the paper as a PDF file. In Adobe Acrobat, the free program on nearly every computer that opens PDF files, there is a tool called "Read Out Loud". When enabled "Read Out Loud" will have a computer generated voice read the paper exactly as it technically appears. This voice is monotone without inflection, and makes common forms of verbal expression sound unusual and out of place.

B6: Academic Writing is a Very Literal Writing Style

Scientific writing has to mean exactly what it says, nothing more or less. Academic authors must ensure the content of their writing will be consistently and objectively understood by all readers. Conveying objective information in this way requires word usage that is intentionally selected for its formal and technical meaning. Each sentence used in academic writing is evaluated based on an exact literal interpretation of its meaning.

Passing the test of literal interpretation means academic writing cannot utilize analogies, fictional or anecdotal examples, subjective evaluations, and informal or colloquial terminology. Each of these creative forms of expression rely heavily on a reader's subjective interpretation and cannot ensure a consistent clear transfer of information.

B6a: Analogy

An analogy is a writing technique used to transfer known information about one object onto another. Analogies draw parallels between two things using qualities of a known object to describe or explain attributes of an unknown object.

Examples:

A: At birth the mind is like a blank slate.

B: Adolescence is an obstacle course with many potential hazards.

C: Working at the youth development center was like working at a circus.

In each of these examples the author does not directly describe or define the object of interest (mental state at birth, adolescence, or youth development centers). The author assumes the reader has knowledge of the alternative concepts (blank slates, obstacle courses, and a circus), and forces them to infer some connection to the intended subject. This introduces an infinite number of potential interpretations depending on the perspective of the reader. In addition, each statement is literally not true. An undeveloped brain is not a cleaned chalkboard. Adolescence is a stage of life course development, not a series of organized physical challenges.

Analogies are often used by novice writers because many of the concepts they are writing about are relatively new and may not be well understood. The writer may have a general idea of what they would like to say about a topic and an analogy is a convenient way to capture this idea. Analogies are also a tactic used by lazy writers who simply do not conceptually understanding their topic or what they should be objectively writing about it.

Tips and Pointers:

The best way around the use of analogy is to stop actively writing immediately after one is introduced into a paper or essay. Instead of attempting to write through the analogy, first identify a formal definition of the object or term being written about. Second, make a brief set of bullet points which objectively list ideas or characteristics of the object that need to be conveyed to the reader. Third, turn this information into a paragraph of full sentences.

Fixing Example B: Adolescence: a developmental period following puberty when children physically and socially transition into adults.

increased independence

formation of lasting work and study habits

increased exposure to substance use

onset of intimate dating relationships

As a consumer of information it is also important to be very cautious of when and where analogies are being used by others. Generally when someone is asked a direct question and their response beings with "Well, it's like.............." it actually means "I do not really know a simple and direct answer, but I am about to make up something."

B6b: Fictional and Anecdotal Examples:

Both literal and technical accuracy is compromised whenever an author incorporates content into an academic paper that is not scientifically based. To ensure the direct transfer of objective information, technical writing does not use fictional or anecdotal examples. Fictional examples are stories made up or created by the author to illustrate a particular point.

Examples:

A: Children who join gangs often do so seeking acceptance and security. Imagine a young man, living in a small apartment with no father. His mother works many long hours. He has an older brother who is abusive to him. On the way home from school one day..........

B: People have always been racist and always will be. Even if blacks and whites got along both groups would be racist against a green person if they showed up.

C: Racisms would not be a problem if people realized we are all created equal by God, and commanded to love one another.

Anecdotal examples are stories based upon the author's personal experience. Even though they may be real and true, anecdotal examples assume the personal experience of the author is representative of the entire issue or significant enough to base scientific claims upon.

Examples:

A: On average women earn less money than men. This is starting to change because of household arrangements like my sister's. She has a college degree and her husband does not.

B: Rural areas often lose young intelligent people who move to urban areas for better economic opportunity. This is true because nearly everyone I graduated from high school with moved away to attend college.

Fictional and anecdotal examples are commonly used by inexperienced authors to help emphasize a point, make an abstract concept more concrete, or validate some claim. They are often constructed and used to simply support an author’s position. They do not force legitimate evaluation of the claims being made or make an author consider alternative perspectives. These types of examples also find their way into novice academic writing when authors attempt to write without performing necessary background research and have nothing else of value to fill space with.

Tips and pointers:

Stop actively writing immediately after an example is introduced into a paper or essay. Isolate and clarify the technical claim which is being supported by the example and retain it. If the claim requires additional support, identify scientifically based evidence to achieve this. Delete the example.

B6c: Technical Terms and Vocabulary

Academic writing often requires the use of technical terms and scientifically based vocabulary. Any author new to a topic quite frequently is required to use a host of these terms which are unfamiliar to them. One way to check if these terms are being used accurately and literally is to insert the full definition of the term into the sentence where they are being used. If the term is being used correctly, inserting the definition should not significantly change the meaning of the sentence.

B6d: Adjectives and Improper Nouns

Academic writing is intended to convey clear objective information. Adjectives are words used to describe objects. Adjectives generally lack the universal objective meaning required for effective scientific writing. Huge, extreme, scary, small, strange, tragic, a long time ago, good, bad, interesting, important, sad, poor, or old, are all subject to personal interpretation. When description is necessary in technical writing is should always be done using specific and measurable information. The intended description is still conveyed to the reader without relying on personal assessment. If specific and measurable observations cannot be made, take out the value laden adjective completely.

Examples: Subjective Adjective Objective replacement

A long time ago 80 years ago

Huge impact Reduces risk by 80%

Poor Household income below $19,000

Improper Nouns

A noun is a word which refers to a person, place, or thing. In technical writing the use of improper nouns is often problematic because they refer to persons, places, or things, generally. They provide limited information to the reader, and can be interpreted to mean a variety of different things. When possible, improper nouns should be replaced with the proper nouns, or the specific name or thing being referenced.

Examples:

Improper: The author states

Proper: Grannovetter (2011) states...

Improper: In the city, crime rates went up in the past decade.

Proper: Detroit's homicide and violent assault rates increased 15% during the years 2000-2010.

Improper: The text defines race as........

Proper: Parrillo (2010) defined race as

(In this case the use of book or article titles should are not used in academic writing. Proper citation is done by referencing the author and year the text was written. This information is then used to list the title of the book or article on a bibliography page.)

The Structure of Papers

Academic papers are structured to control the flow and systematic presentation of information. This structure is defined for the reader through the effective use of section headings and paragraph breaks which divide the paper into distinct and meaningful components. For authors, section headings and paragraph breaks ensure the proper placement of necessary paper content, intentional order of presentation, and the elimination of redundant information. For readers, section headings indicate major transitions in thought, content, and information, without the need for explanation by the author.

Academic papers are structurally created and evaluated on two levels; the micro-structural level and the macro structural level. Micro-structure refers to the form of sentences and paragraphs within a paper. Macro-structure refers to the overall order of sections and paragraphs which make up the entire paper itself.

C1: Micro-Structure:

Each sentence, paragraph, and section of a paper ideally should be self-contained and meaningful stand-alone products. Each sentence should contain one, and only one, complete idea. Each paragraph should address one, and only one, complete idea. Each section should have one and only one, central purpose. If isolated and removed from the rest of the paper, the central meaning of any sentence, paragraph, or section should remain intact and understandable to the reader.

Sentences in academic writing are structured to be concise, direct, objective, and clearly stated.

Paragraphs in academic writing are most effectively structured with a strong central thesis statement in the first sentence of the paragraph. This central thesis statement summarizes and tells the reader, as directly as possible, what the entire paragraph is about. The remaining sentences of the paragraph provide supportive information which explains, describes, or illustrates the central point stated in the opening sentence. Paragraphs in academic writing rarely use summary statements, or transition sentences at the end of the paragraph which link to the next paragraph.

There is no standard or set paragraph length in academic writing. Appropriate length is determined by the amount of content required to convey the information to the reader. Short paragraphs are completely acceptable if all necessary information is contained in the paragraph. Long paragraphs are completely acceptable if all sentences are contributing directly to the understanding of the central thesis statement of the paragraph. When paragraphs are exceptionally short, authors should consider consolidating information into another paragraph of the paper or removing the isolated idea if necessary. When paragraph are exceptionally long, authors should consider dividing and organizing the information into multiple paragraphs.

C2: Macro-Structure:

The overall structure of an academic paper works to funnel and guide the reader from general to specific information. Early sections and paragraphs provide basic and necessary information that the reader will need to understand later parts of the paper. Subsequent sections of the paper logically flow from this general information into the more specific and detailed components of the topic. Creating this logical flow is not accidental or natural, and requires active manipulation of the paper's macro-structure to create it.

Effective macro-structure can only realistically be constructed through the use of outlining. A macro-structure outline can be created both before and during the writing process. Often having a clear vision of what the final paper will contain is rare at the start of the project. Many times it helps to simply begin writing, and create the rough outline of contents after the paper is underway. Doing this allows the author to unload quickly what they know and have to say about the topic and gain an early sense of accomplishment. As this initial burst of writing winds down, the author can go back to examine and organize the content. This process of macro-organization should not be confused with the micro-process of word or grammar editing. The goal here is to: A) Objectively examine the major concepts or ideas present in the paper and the logical order they are presented in, and B) Identify what pieces are missing and need to be created in the future.

One way to quickly move through this process is to create a list of key sentences for the paper. If constructed properly, each paragraph in the paper has a single key sentence expressing the central meaning of the entire paragraph. Extracting the key sentence for every paragraph in the paper and reading them in order should ideally reveal the central narrative and flow of the entire paper. Evaluating and adjusting the macro-structural organization of a paper can be done by simply moving and editing the order these key sentences. Once the key sentences are properly in place the body of the paper can then be adjusted to reflect this organizational structure.

Writing and Technology

Word processing and email programs have become increasingly effective in helping to identify and correct errors in writing. It is important to remember, these tools are not perfect and they can never replace the skills and judgment required of a professional writer. Learning how these tools work, being able to adjust their settings, and adapting the writing process around them can make them even more effective.

Most computer programs have been developed for a very wide and general audience of writers. As writers move further into their academic and professional careers, the default settings of these programs often need to be adjusted. For example, every field of study has a fairly complex and specialized set of vocabulary associated with it. These types of words are often not included in standard spell-check dictionaries and will be flagged as misspelled or misused by the program. Similar problems are also encountered when writing requires the use of in-text citations and the names of authors are used. If tools such as autocorrect are activated, these terms can quickly be replaced with inappropriate or incorrect words without consulting the author.

There are several ways to avoid these problems and customize the way computer programs help individual authors. Working on a single dedicated personal computer allows writers to systematically make changes to how these programs function and continue to improve their overall effectiveness. Public-use computers can also be adjusted but may require changing program settings each time the writer sits down to work. Mobile devices are now equipped with very similar editing features and should also be examined for optimum performance.

First, turn on and use spell-check and grammar-check for every document created. Submitting any paper, report, or email with basic and obvious spelling and grammar mistakes should never happen. The availability of correction tools and the ease of editing errors only makes these types mistakes and writers look worse. Repeated problems make authors look fundamentally flawed.

Second, turn off any and all autocorrect functions. In academic writing the author is responsible and accountable for each and every word on the page. Intellectually and intentionally assessing potential problems forces writers to consider word choice, word meaning, spelling, academic intent, and grammatical context. Allowing the computer to identify potential mistakes is hugely helpful. Having the program adjust this text is hugely irresponsible. Autocorrected text is generally indistinguishable from other words on the page, and will be similar in length and appearance to intended word choice. Unaware that an incorrect word has been inserted into the text by a computer, readers will be confronted with what appears to be a random word choice or worse yet a fundamental limitation in the author's use of the English language.

Third, add regularly used specialty vocabulary, author names, or acronyms into the computer program being used. Nearly all word processing programs allow writers to add specialty language into the spell-check dictionary of the computer being used. When computer programs repeatedly identify words that have been verified as correct and necessary by the author it will save time and energy by simply adding them to this dictionary.

Forth, do not ever rely exclusively on these tools to edit and proof read written work. A paper without any computer identified spelling or grammar mistakes can still be very poorly written and incorrect. The types of mistakes identified by computer-based tools tend to be micro-technical problems in words and sentences. Spell-check and grammar-check are generally incapable of assessing macro-issues such as: the structure and organization of the paper, the logical flow of the document, and the clarity and accuracy of the paper's content. The only way to minimize these potential mistakes is to have the paper read, as many times as possible, by the author of the paper and other similarly qualified and critical human beings.

Citations and References

There are few intellectual offenses more serious than plagiarism in academic and professional contexts. This section offers advice on how to avoid plagiarism in your work and demonstrates the appropriate method for ASA citation, which, as Sociology majors, you all should be using from here forward.

Research-based writing in American institutions, both educational and corporate, is filled with rules that writers, particularly beginners, aren't aware of or don't know how to follow. Many of these rules have to do with research and proper citation. Gaining familiarity with these rules, however, is critically important, as inadvertent mistakes can lead to charges of plagiarism, which is the uncredited use (both intentional and unintentional) of somebody else's words or ideas.

While some rhetorical traditions may not insist so heavily on documenting sources of words, ideas, images, sounds, etc., American academic rhetorical tradition does. A charge of plagiarism can have severe consequences, including expulsion from a university or loss of a job, not to mention a writer's loss of credibility and professional standing. This section is designed to help you develop strategies for knowing how to avoid plagiarism.

Rules of the Road:

1) ANY PART OF YOUR PAPER WHICH CONTAINS THE EXACT WORDS OF AN AUTHOR MUST APPEAR IN QUOTATION MARKS, WITH THE AUTHOR'S NAME, AND THE DATE OF PUBLICATION AND PAGE NUMBER OF THE SOURCE ATTACHED.

a) Examples:

According to Smith (1977), "The child may be father to the man but the man is also father to the child" (p. 43).

Bower (1949) has stated that "Life is for the living" (p. 53).

It is as true today as 100 years ago that "Psychology is no science; it is only the hope of a science" (James, 1892, p. 311).

b) However, a quotation of more than 40 words is reproduced in an indented paragraph without quotation marks but with the necessary identifying information.

c) Use quotations only in special cases, such as when the information is particularly concise or striking in its original form. Excessive use of quotations suggests that the student does not understand the material sufficiently well to provide an effective paraphrase or is simply attempting to use up space in the paper.

2) MATERIAL SHOULD NOT BE ADAPTED WITH ONLY MINOR CHANGES, SUCH AS COMBINING SENTENCES, OMITTING PHRASES, CHANGING A FEW WORDS, OR INVERTING SENTENCE ORDER.

a) It is a common but serious student error to submit a paper which consists of a pieced-together collection of writings from various sources, in which sentence structure and a few words here and there have been altered, and in which the source author's name has been inserted at irregular intervals. EVEN THOUGH THE AUTHOR HAS BEEN CREDITED, THIS IS STILL PLAGIARISM, because there is nothing to indicate to the reader that the style and phrasing are those of the source author and not the student.

3) AVOID USING SECONDARY SOURCES

a) A "secondary source" differs from a "primary source" in that the information comes from one author writing about what another author said, rather than directly from the original author.

b) A student will sometimes try to create the impression of having read widely by citing a large number of papers, none of which have actually been read. Instead, the citations are obtained from a review article or a textbook, and it is the review author's statements about these studies that are the source of the information. In order to avoid plagiarism, the secondary source that was used MUST BE READ IN ORDER TO BE USED IN YOUR PAPER. Moreover, simply reading the article over in the original does not then give you the right to borrow comments about it from a secondary source unless that secondary source is fully acknowledged in your paper.

4) DO NOT HAND IN FOR CREDIT A PAPER WHICH IS THE SAME OR SIMILAR TO ONE YOU HAVE HANDED IN ELSEWHERE.

a) It is dishonest to claim course credit more than once for essentially the same work. In addition, it deprives you of the opportunity of researching and gaining knowledge on different topics, one of the aims of a university education. It also goes without saying that you must not submit (wholly, or in part) the work of another student as your own, or purchase papers for submission.

CITING IN AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION STYLE

1) Formatting

a) All text (including footnotes & references) must be doubled spaced and in a 12 point, standard font such as Times New Roman.

b) Margins must be at least 1¼ inches on all four sides.

c) Attach a separate title page including title of paper, name(s) & institution(s) of authors

d) If required, on a separate page provide a short (150-200 word) abstract headed with the title.

e) Begin the text of the paper on a separate page headed with the title of the paper.

2) Citations in Text

a) If author’s name is in the text, follow it with the publication year in parentheses:

When Chu (1977) studied…

b) If the author’s name is not in the text, enclose the last name and year in parentheses:

When the study was completed… (Jones 1994).

c) If the page number is to be included, it follows the year of publication after a colon, with no space between the colon and the page number:

…as reported by Chavez (1966:16).

d) For three authors, give all last names in the first citation in the text. Afterwards use the first name and “et al.” For more than three names, use the first author’s last name plus “et al.” Examples as follow:

Three authors, first in-text citation = (Smith, Garcia and Lee 1954)

Three authors, later in-text citations = (Smith et al. 1954)

More than three authors = (Snow et al. 1999)

e) Quotations in the text must begin and end with quotation marks. The citation follows the end-quote mark and precedes the period, as follows:

“In the late 1990s, data showed that technologically oriented jobs were higher paying” (Hildenbrand 1999:47).

3) Reference List

a) References follow the text and endnotes in a separate section headed "References."

b) All references cited in the text must be listed and vice-versa.

c) Remember: Like all other parts of the manuscript, references should be

double-spaced.

d) List references in alphabetical order by authors’ last names.

e) Use hanging indention (see examples below).

f) Invert the author’s name (type the last name first). If there are two or more authors, invert only the first author’s name.

g) Arrange multiple items by the same author in order by year of publication, earliest year first.

h) Distinguish works by the same author in the same year by adding letters (e.g. 1993a, 1993b, 1993c).

i) Use italics for book and periodical titles (underline if italics are not available).

j) If no date is available use "N.d." in place of the date.

k) Include the state abbreviation only if the city of publication is not well known (i.e. New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles do not need a state abbreviation). For foreign cities provide the name of the country.

4) Examples of Formatted References

a) Books:

I) The basic form for a book entry includes…

1. Author’s last name, followed by a comma and author’s first name and middle initial, ending with a period.

2. Year of publication followed by a period.

3. Title of book italicized ending with a period. Follow with edition number if 2nd ed. or later.

4. City of publication (with state abbreviation if it’s not a well-known city), followed by a colon and name of publisher, ending with a period.

b) Journal Articles

II) The basic form for a journal article includes…

1. Author’s last name, followed by a comma and the first name and middle initial ending with a period.

2. Year of publication followed by a period.

3. Title of article in “quotations,” ending with a period inside the closing quotation mark.

4. Title of journal in italics, no period following.

5. Volume number followed by issue number in parentheses, followed by a colon, page number(s) and period.

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