Sociology

Sociological Perspectives

Sociologists adopt difference perspectives in order to understand and describe human society and social issues. These perspectives are also known as theories. In sociology, a theory is a prediction, description, or broad explanation about why events, behaviors, or situations are happening.

The building blocks of a theory are:

· Concepts

· Constructs

· Propositions

Concepts are concrete or observable. They are names or words that are assigned to behaviors, things, or events (e.g., shouting, tree, table, computer, war, pandemic). They are widely accepted within a given perspective and might be thought of as shared assumptions or terms, particularly when they are well-defined.

Constructs are abstractions that have no physical referent (e.g., freedom, anxiety, intelligence). They are built from the logical connections among several observable concepts.

Propositions express relationships among two or more concepts or constructs. The relationships between these factors form the theory. Sociologists use various theories as lenses to predict or explain why something occurs in society. They may also use them to construct their own proposals about how to address social problems. 

There are  three (3) major contemporary sociological  perspectives: (1) the functionalist perspective, (2) the conflict perspective, and (3) symbolic interactionist perspective. The (4) postmodern perspective has emerged more recently and is being adopted by more sociologists. It is important to note that not all sociologists fall neatly into one of the theoretical camps, but they are nevertheless helpful in understanding different sociological perspectives. 

The  functionalist perspective maintains that society is a structured, relatively fixed system made up of individuals who share the same basic values, norms, and beliefs. A functionalist sociologist’s perspective is that society is a series of interdependent institutions that persist when they positively contribute to human survival. For example, education, family, and the economy are believed to be powerful structures that shape our behavior and promote human flourishing. Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) laid the groundwork for this perspective, and it was later refined by Robert K. Merton (1910-2003), who initiated the distinction between  manifest functions and  latent functions. Manifest functions are those that are intentional and acknowledged by everyone in the society, whereas latent functions are both unintentional and concealed. A single institution may have both manifest and latent functions. Merton also noted that institutions can be dysfunctional at times. Consider the health care system, for example, which has the dysfunction of perpetuating economic, racial, and gender disparities. Because all institutions are related, serious dysfunctions can negatively impact a society’s ability to endure and progress. 

The  conflict perspective views society as made up of social groups engaged in an ongoing battle over limited resources. These struggles can be larger political or legal battles or take milder form as negotiations or discussions. This perspective assists researchers in focusing on inequalities in society. Race, class, and gender inequalities often generate conflict as well as social change. Most sociologists credit Karl Marx (1818-1883) as the founder of this approach, insofar as his work focused on the exploitation of the working class as the foundation of social inequality and society’s ills. This perspective was later refined by Max Weber (1864-1920) to include power and prestige as sources of privilege and contributors to exploitation. C. Wright Mills (1916-1962) agreed, arguing that most of the big decisions in the United States are made by a handful of powerful people in corporate, political, and military institutions. There are three (3) branches of the conflict perspective: (1) Neo-Marxism, which views class struggles as both a fundamental part of social life and a primary source of social change, (2) a branch that emphasizes racial and ethnic inequalities, and (3) the feminist perspective that is mainly concerned with gender inequality. We will look at class, race, ethnicity, and gender inequalities later in the course when we discuss social stratification. 

The third perspective is to consider the processes through which individuals construct their own reality. This is called the  symbolic-interactionperspective. Unlike the functionalist and conflict perspectives, which focus on society as a whole, this perspective looks at human behaviors in specific situations. The focus is on social interaction and the role of symbols in how we communicate. This approach does not assume that we all view reality the same way; for example, people may react in different ways to the wink of an eye or the logo on a ballcap depending upon their subjective perspective. George H. Mead (1863–1931) and Harold Blumer (1900-1986) are credited with this theory. 

Finally, the  postmodern perspective posits that in a postindustrial era of globalization and mass consumerism, the previous three theories are no longer sufficient to interpret human social behavior. Theories within this perspective maintain that individuals are now more focused on personal freedom and consumerism, leading to decreased connection to social institutions like religion, education, and the family. Postmodern theorists note that there is no overarching "truth" and that large generalizations cannot explain individuals’ behavior. Society is made up of people who either provide/apply information or work as professionals (doctors, nurses, lawyers, engineers, etc.) or in the service industry. Most individuals define themselves less in terms of what they do for work and more by what they are able to purchase with their earnings. Jean Baudrillard (1929–2007) is often credited as one of the key founders of the postmodern perspective.

Sociological Research Methods

Because sociology is the scientific study of society, sociologists use many tools to conduct their research and to answer questions. First, sociologists choose a social problem that interests them. Often these stem from observations around them and a curiosity to discover why or how. For example, a sociologist might be interested in the disproportionate number of African Americans who are incarcerated. Another might be curious about the relationship between violent media and school shootings. Another might wonder why domestic abuse rates increased during a global pandemic.

Often, a researcher will pose a  hypothesis for his/her study. A  hypothesis is a causal statement that links two variables together. An independent variable is one that causes an effect on another, called a dependent variable. For example, using one of the social problems above, a researcher could propose that high rates of incarceration are due to the war on drugs. The war on drugs policy would be the independent variable and the rate of incarceration would be the dependent variable.

Importantly, these variables should be measurable and be both scientifically valid and reliable. An effective sociologist will be able to show that there is a relationship between his/her chosen variables. The concept of reliability is related to the quality of measurement. If you think about how you use the term “reliable” in everyday language, you might get a hint of how reliability is related to research studies. For example, you often refer to a machine as reliable: “I have a reliable car.”

There are many different research methods available to sociologists. There are  four (4) that are the most commonly used.  Experiments are conducted in laboratory conditions that are controlled. Sociologists use experimental methods to examine cause and effect relationships between two or more variables. A classic example of this is Zimbardo's prison experiment which explored what happens when people become prisoners or prison guards. Another research method involves conducting  interviews or  surveys using questionnaires designed by the sociologist. The US Census uses surveys to learn a great deal about American citizens and sociologists, including the demographers who use it to help understand social policies and needs. Another effective method used by sociologists is to conduct  participant observation. This qualitative method of research calls for the sociologist to join a social group for an extended period and to record his or her observations of that group systemically. Some researchers choose to use established research called  secondary  sources and data to support their conclusions. This method of research is usually associated with research projects that do not have the funding available for other forms of data gathering.

Note: Whenever you use humans as a part of your research study, you have to worry about whether the results you get are reliable or consistent. People are notorious for their inconsistency or error; they are easily distractible, they get tired of doing repetitive tasks, they daydream, they misinterpret, and they might have biases.

Sociology and Information Literacy

As we learned in the last lecture, one way of conducting sociological research is to use secondary sources and data. The internet can be a good source of data, but it is necessary to develop our information literacy and use critical thinking skills in order to distinguish reliable information from misinformation. 

When doing internet research to gather data and information for your assignments in this class, the first thing to consider is the qualifications of the person or persons responsible for the content. You wouldn’t turn to a veterinarian with no experience as a mechanic for advice on how to fix your car, and you should not rely upon a layperson to provide you with the information you will need to develop your sociological hypothesis. To be a reliable source of information, the content must be written/gathered by an expert in that field and subject to a peer review/editorial process. It must be presented in context and not exclude unfavorable data.  

If the content is written/curated by an expert, the next consideration is the motivation (including financial and other interests) behind the article. Use commercial (.com) websites with caution. There is a lot of data out there, and when conducting research, you want to ensure you are getting the full picture. Is the data provided in context? Does it seem to be used in the service of a political or ideological interest that might be influencing which data is included? Be wary of articles and websites that suggest that all of the data or other evidence supports a given ideological position. Good social scientists include all data, even that which does not seem to support their own views. The more objectively the data is presented, the more likely it is to be reliable. To be on the safe side, do not rely on a single article for your information. Try and explore articles that take a different position/offer another perspective. Beware of articles that seem designed to arouse fear or other strong emotions without factual/logical evidence. Is there evidence presented in the article that appeals to reason, or does it seem aimed at riling up the reader/audience? 

Government websites can be a great source of data, as well as some news outlets and academic websites. The South University library also has articles that are written by experts in the field of sociology and are peer-reviewed. Your instructor is an expert in the field of sociology and, thus, is a great resource for help in identifying relevant sources of information and data for sociological projects.