Sports Science(Quality work, no plagarism, A+)

Journal of Sport Management. 1993, 7, 194-198 © 1993 Human KineUcs Publishers, Inc.

Sport Management and the Interdependence With Sport Sociology:

Sport as a Social Product

James E. Bryant San Jose State University

This perspective suggests that sport management is interdependent with .sport sociology as specialization areas, and that in order for researchers in .sport management to understand the social product of sport it is critical that they recognize a positive theoretical relationship between sport management and sport sociology. This paper outlines examples of sport management interde- pendence with sport sociology through brief discussions including deviance and ethics, economics, social stratification, patriarchy, race and ethnicity, and marketing and research. Through these examples it is suggested that sport sociology provides a base for those in sport management to achieve an understanding of the social product of sport.

It would seem that sport sociology and sport management have much in common. As specializations they both function in a society that is influenced by the institutions of family, religion, politics, education, media, and economics. Sports organiz^ations and management are generic social phenomena that require a sociological analysis, and that analysis enables organizations and management to understand and address service related to the community and economic devel- opment (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1989). This commonality bridges into many sport sociology topics including deviance and ethics in sport, sociability, and a connec- tion between labor and economic situations. Social stratification of population and dominant control through patriarchy and racial/ethnic groups are also topics that are part of a symbiotic content relationship between sport sociology and sfKjrt management.

Hatfield (1992), when describing the goal of management, defines sport as a product, with that product considered to be the feature that leads to consumer satisfaction. When analyzing the preparation of sport managers. Slack (1991) indicates that those who have acquired a degree often leave their university with little or no understanding of sport as a social product that is related to social organization and the larger social process.

James E. Brv'ant is with the Department of Human Performance, San Jose State University, San Jose, CA 95192.

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Sport as Social Product 195

To not understand sport as a social product establishes the potential for limited success on the part of the sport manager and projects failure that contri- butes to long-range negative economic impact on the corporation or agency that a sport manager represents. It basically represents a lack of caring, which ultimately produces a consumer rejection of an otherwise marketable product.

It is my purpose in this perspective to suggest that sport sociology and sport management are bedfellows, and that sport management as a profession has, and will continue to have, an interdependence with sport sociology; sport managers must understand this interdependence in order to truly understand the social product of sport that is the specific focus in the sport business world. I am suggesting that for present and future sport managers to disregard the necessity for sport sociology as a theoretical base is to ignore the tools of research, literature, and the instruments designed to provide solutions and understanding associated with the marketing of the social product of sport. In short, if there is no interdepen- dence of sport management with sport sociology, there is no sport management.

Topics of Commonality Deviance and Ethics Ethical issues and deviant behavior are prominent in the business world and the connecting sport industry. A proposed ethics creed already exists in sport management from an academic preparation standpoint that includes reference to a "high level of professional practice and service" and professional conduct ' "based on application of sound management theory developed through a scientific body of knowledge about developmental physical activity's role in the lives of all people" (Zeigler, 1989, p. 4). These aspects of an ethics creed are of particular importance when one is considering what sport sociology has to contribute to the development and growth of sport management.

Impacting ethical issues in sport-related business that are clearly associated with deviance include price fixing, collusion, political corruption, and fraudulent business practices (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1989). Even the analysis of the impact and assessment of stadium advertising is reflective of ethics and deviance. Stotlar and Johnson (1989), although not focusing directly on ethics, addressed this issue when they explored the effectiveness of stadium advertising on spectators in Division 1 football and basketball programs. The ethical question related to alcohol and tobacco advertising in order to reinforce a brand image is significant when one is dealing with signage in intercollegiate athletics. NCAA rules ban most advertising related to tobacco and alcohol, but the issue for the sport manager is this: Since these two commodities are counterindicated in stadium advertising in intercollegiate sport, should sport managers accept the NCAA restrictions and assume social responsibility, or should they yield and seek an increase in profit at the expense of the ethical issue? Sport sociologists discuss, investigate, and analyze these ethical issues from a cultural perspective. Without this perspective from sport sociology, it is easy to rationalize and make excuses for business decisions that are good profit decisions but are not ethically acceptable, thus theoretically not good business decisions.

SociabiUty Sociability generally refers to social interaction that is freely engaged in by participants with no agendized commitments. Melnick (1993) conducted a study

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on sociabiUty of sp)ectators and related his findings to potential problems for sport managers. He pointed out that attendance at sprorting events is often due to a desire for casual sociability that enables the sp»ectator to engage in unhampered verbal expression and pjermits a venue for social integration without commitment. From this premise he discussed the various restrictions that surface at spirting events that have the potential to slow or stop sociability, which in the long haul will imjjede or significantly reduce attendance at sports contests. These restrictions include such items as banning spjectators' banners, escalation of ticket prices, and reduction of player-fan interaction.

This study of a phenomenon like spectator sociability is just another form of assisting the sport manager in understanding and acting to meet needs of clients while generating revenue for profit. It is a way of provicUng insight from a spon sociology perspective on how to fill a stadium while also generating income for sport-related business.

Economics

Labor and economics are obvious aspects of sport management. Sp>on sociolo- gists, in their role, investigate and analyze the impact of labor/management conflict and the economics of that conflict connected to sport. Extensive research, from an ideological, theoretical, and applied perspective, occurs in sport sociology regarding salaries of professional athletes and regarding the relationships between municipalities and professional sp)ort franchises, and through countless additional studies devoted to economics and spwrt.

The process of establishing player salaries is interwoven with collective bargaining, reserve clause, arbitration, free agency, and owner collusion (Had- ley & Gustafson, 1991). Player personnel costs represent a significant portion of professional team sport franchise total expenditures, and analysis fî om a sociological p)ersp)ective when coupled with economic reality provides insight into the occupational marketplace of a player. These results from research are important to the spwrt industry, and an increa.se in spwrt managers' understanding of the sociological imphcations of economics and spon enhances an understanding of how to cope with and adjust to economic situations a.ssoci^ed with spwrt.

Municipality and sport relationships are also obviously impacted by political considerations. Successful sport managers need to be able to comprehend the political environment that their sport organization operates under in a municipality (Johnson, 1993). It is imperative that spon managers see municipality govem- ments from a sociological perspective that includes the ftinction of the institution of politics. For a sport enterprise to ignore major factors that influence municipal management and the grassroots citizens, who by vote have at the very least subliminal control, is a major error.

Sport Stratificati<m

SpK)rt sociologists understand stratification, social class mobility., and status sym- bols. The spon business relationship is dependent on an understanding of who participates in selected spwrt experiences. To have an in-depth understanding of the relationship of economic wealth and class stratification with ^on participation and spectator interest provides a distinct advantage in managing a spwrt business. Country club sports of tennis and golf meet a different client need than do

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proletariat (prole) sports like motor cross and stock car racing. Pseudosports including professional wrestling and roller derby provide a unique client base that is totally different from that of either of the legitimate sport areas of country club or prole sports.

When sport stratification and subsequent social mobility are explored from a cultural and societal setting an understanding of the stratification within sports and between sports begins to emerge, and that understanding directly contributes to successful business practice. Of particular importance is that this understanding of stratification can be enlarged to provide a wider base of understanding related to gender, racism, ethnicity, ageism, and people who are disabled as stratification objects within sport.

Patriarchy, Race, and Ethnicity

It is critical for a business to understand how patriarchal control within society dominates decision making within the sport world and controls what sport oppor- tunities exist for males and females, and how the manipulation of sport experiences for females impacts the total sport economy.

It is also imperative to understand, from a cultural perspective, how various racial and ethnic populations engaged in sport experiences contribute to a univer- sally better business strategy. As an example, "Air Jordan" basketball shoes are marketed for a specific segment of society. That segment includes lower socioeconomic African-American youngsters who identify with Michael Jordan as a player, but because Jordan's race is secondary to his physical skills other segments of society also identify with him and are vulnerable to marketing efforts that emphasize his talents.

Marketing and Research

A sport sociology interdependence places sport management scholars in a position to identify potential areas for market exploration, improvement, and development (Yiannakis, 1989). Marketing research survey techniques are a necessary part of a sport business and are associated directly with sport sociology survey techniques that include demographic and lifestyle characteristics.

The emphasis on demographics research in sport marketing suggests a recognition of the importance of research and the survey instmment pioneered in sociology as a tool for better understanding of the marketplace. The new Sport Marketing Quarterly in its first issue in 1992 published two demographic studies that are examples of sport sociology survey techniques. Hofacre and Burman (1992) produced an article on demographic changes into the 21st century and their impact on sport marketing, and Graham (1992) presented a study of demo- graphic and economic characteristics of spectators attending tennis clay court championships.

Stanmary

Sport sociology is vital to the understanding of sociocultural forces that sport managers must deal with on a regular basis: consequently, it has a major role to play with the provision of information that will establish a systematic marketing information base (Yiannakis, 1989). From my perspective it seems obvious that

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the relationship between sport sociology and sport management exists and is practiced. For sp)ort managers to ignore or deny a sport sociology interrelationship or interdependence is unacceptable. Spon management literature presently ac- knowledges a sport sociology interdependence, and it is my guess that this acknowledgment not only will continue but will increase.

Sport sociology is, in fact, the base from which spon managers can achieve an understanding of the marketing of the social product of spwrt, and thus is an interdependence need of spon management.

References Graham, P.J.(1992). A study of the demographic and economic characteristics of spectators

attending the U.S. men's clay court championships. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 1(1), 25-28.

Hadley, L., & Gustafson. E. (1991). Major league baseball salaries: The impacts of arbitration and free agency. Journal of Sport Management, S. 111-127.

Hatfield, B.D. (1992, .April). The role of sport science in sport management: An integrative perspective. Paper presented at the Sport Management Theory- Conference, New Orleans, L.A.

Hofacrc, S.. & Burman, T.K. (1992). Demographic changes in the U.S. into the twenty- first century': Their impact on sport marketing. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 1(1). 31-36.

Johnson, A.T. (1993). Rethinking the sport-city relationship: In search of partnership. Journal of Sport Management. 7, 61-70.

Melnick, M.J. (1993). Searching for sociability in the stands: A theory of sports spectating. Journal of .Sport Management, 7. 44-60.

Slack, T. (1991). Sport management: Some thoughts on future directions. Journal of Sport Management. 5, 95-99.

Snyder, E.E., & Spreitzer, E.A. (1989). Social aspects of sport. Englewood Chffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Stotlar, D.K., & Johnson, D.A. (1989). .Assessing the impact and effectiveness of stadium advertising on sport spectators at Division I institutions. Journal of Sport Manage- ment, 3, 90-102.

Yiannakis, A. (1989). Some contributions of spon sociology to the marketing of spon and leisure organizations. Journal of Sport Management, 3, 103-115.

Zeigler. E.F. (1989). Proposed creed and code of professional ethics for the Nonh American Society for Sport Management. Journal of Sport Management, 3, 2-4.